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INDEX

Absolute truth, as goal, 165 Abstraction, degree of, 179; increase in,

95 f.; increasing, 168; increasing in science, 213; method of, 59 f.

Abstractions, scientific, 141 f. Adams, 181, 227 Adoption of hypotheses, 111 f. Agricola, J., 219 Agriculture, scientific, 204 Ampere, 184, 204 Analog computers, 137 Anderson, Carl D., 93, 124, 132, 200 Anti-matter, 94 Application of mathematics, 173 ff. Applications, Cross-Field, 23 ff. Applied science, 12 Appollonius of Perga, 14 Aristotle, 68, 70, 116, 141 Artificial classes, 63 f. Avenarius, 33 Avogadro's Law, 157, 187 Avogadro's number, 148 Bacon, F., 50, 110, 119, 1'47 Balmer's Law, 168 Basic research, 12 Bayesian view of probability, 162 Becquerel, 79 Berger, 148 Berzelius, J. J., 180, 219 Big bang theory, 159 Bini,17 Blackett, 200 Blood, circulation of, 101 Bohm, D., 158, 190, 191, 193, 225, 233 Bohr model, 186; model of atom, 177 Bohr, N., 158, 187, 212, 224 Bohr's atom, 184 Bolyai, J. and W., 105 Bondi, H., 159

Boolean algebra, 205 Born, M., 187 Bose, S. N., 102 Boyle, R., 218, 219 Boyle's Law, 96, 187, 213 Bragg, Sir W., 219 Breuer, J., 218 Calibration of instruments, 135 Cannizzaro, 157 Carlyle, 130 Carnap, R., 110 Carnot, S., 183 Carnot's theory, 203 Carrel's perfusion pump, 146 Castle, 121 Causal laws, 191 f., 223 ff. Causal lines, 193 Causality, and integrative levels, 193 f.;

and probability, 189 ff.; as consistency, 223; as limited, 191; as parameter, 190 f.; attacks on, 224; limits of, 225; not coercive, 225; validity of, 224

Causes, plurality of, 193 Cavendish, H., 9, 150 Cerletti, 17 Cezanne, P., 36 Chance discovery, 150; probabilities of,

103 Charcot, J. M., 218 Chemistry, techniques of, 142 Chwistek, L., 198, 206 Circulation of blood, 121 Classes, derivation of, 57 ff.; trans-finite,

df.223 Classification, 61 f.; as bad, 65; as good,

65 Clausius, 183 Clifford, 33 Clocks, choice of, 140 f.

INDEX

Color, properties of, 177 f. Complementarity, principle of, 158 Conceivable verifiability, 98 f. Conceptualized particulars, 55,76 Conservation laws, 199 Consistency, of mathematics, 182; test of,

167 Construction, second-order, 169; techni­

que of, 58 ff. Control, df. 203; 203 ff.; as confirmation,

205; as usefulness, 205 Control groups, 149 Controlled experiment, 149 Controlled imagination, 109 Copernican astronomy, 186 Copernicus, 102, 188 Cordus, Valerius, 14 Coulomb's Law, 109, 233 Couper, 105 Cournot, A. A., 193, 225 Cournot's theory, 193 Crick, Sir F., 143, 227 Crick-Watson model, 207 Crookes, Sir W., 135 Crucial experiment, 119, 125 Crystallography, 219 f.; origin of, 102 Curie, M., 79, 100, 104, 150, 219 Dalton, J., 49, 109, 150, 180 Darwin, C., 101, 105, 202 Data, agreement with, 171 f.; evaluation

of, 125; interpretations of, 153 ff.; scientific, 50 ff.; varieties of, 46

Data and hypotheses, 125 f. Datum, width of, 227 Davisson, 21, 60, 102, 130, 196 De Broglie, L., 118, 158, 193, 196, 229 Debye, P., 199 Dedekind cut, 178 Deductive discovery, 181, 201 f. Deductive structures, aim of, 187 f. Definition, 67 f.; 67 ff. Deoxyriboneuc1aic acid, 227 Descartes, R., 14, 205 Description, 66 f.; kinds of, 66 Detachment, empirical, 234 Dirac, P. A. M., 49, 72, 93, 94, 200 Discoveries, types of, 214 ff. Discovery, deductive, 181; limits of, 232

ff.; of discovery, 214; simultaneous, 105 Double-blind technique, 142 f. Drake, E., 18 Dreyer's star catalogue, 138 Duhem,119 Dulong, 157

Eddington, Sir A., 144, 161, 187 Edgeworth, 80 Edison, T. A., 16 Eidetic images, 76 Einstein, A., 11, 14, 15, 16,77,84,91, 102,

150, 158, 168, 170, 183, 184, 212 Einstein's prediction, 145 Einstein's theory of relativity, 167, 173 Electrolytes, 157 Electron mass experiment, 131 Emerson, R. W., 15 Empirical, limits of, 174 Empirical areas, 218 ff. Empirical consistency, limits of, 182 Empirical contents, 176 ff. Empirical detachment, 234 Empirical discovery, aim of, 232 Empirical ideals, 73 Empirical laws, 221 f. Empirical probability, 160 ff.; df. 162 Empirical system, df. 216 Empirical systems, 216 ff.; value of, 216 f. Empiricism, combined with mathematics,

170; direction of, 168 Empiricism, lowering of, 185; 226 Energy-levels, hypothesis of, 118 Engineering, 19 Entities, df. 226; 226 f. Entities and processes, 152 Entity, as analytic element, 227; as pro-

cess, 228; ideal, 228 Entropy, 225 Errors, statistical, 163 Events, mesocosmic, 130 Evidence, vs. proof, 154; weighing of,

161; weight of, 155 Evolution, as predictive, 201 Experience, planned, 114; repeatable, 35 f. Experiment, and probability, 123; as ana-

lysis, 167; as comparison, 120; as single event, 123 f.; as syllogism, 122; as con­trolled observation, 114; conditions for, 119; controlled, 149; crucial, 119; meaning of 113 ff.; df. 113; problem of, 114; theory of, 117

Experimental criteria, 126 ff. Experimental data, use of, 125 Experimenting, 144 ff. Experiments, analytic, 127 f.; aspects of,

122; crucial, 129 f.; design of, 117 ff.; heuristic, 130; inductive and deductive, 124; isolated, 127; logic of, 121 ff.; re­peatable, 128 f.; results of, 151 f.; types of, 147 ff.

INDEX 243

Explanation, 77 ff.; and prediction 199 Expression, 80 ff. Extensive abstraction, 60 Extenuating circumstance, 158 Fact and theory, 64, 187 Facts, as provocative, 64; heuristic, 71 Facts and hypotheses, 109 Failure, of prediction, 197 Fallibility, principle of, 233 False hypotheses, value of, 107 f. Falsifiability, 98 Falsification, not aim of science, 116 Faraday, M., 114, 169, 184, 199, 204 Fermi, E., 16 Fields and forces, 152 Findings of science, 214 ff. Fisher, R. A., 152, 162 Fitzgerald, 77, 150 Fleming, Sir A., 76, 150 Force, 141 Forces and fields, 152 Formalization, of concrete, 82 Formalization and completeness, 182 Formulas, df. 230 Formulation, difficulties of, 185 f. Fresnel, 187,202 Freud, S., 49, 84, 218 Freud's theory, 173 Functions, 152 Fundamental research, 19 Galen, 116 Galileo, G., 11, 22, 43, 55, 112, 148 Galle, I. G., 181, 227 Galton's Law, 171 Galvani, 31, 102, 204 Gardner, E., 124 Gauss, C. F., 105 Gay-Lussac's Law, 187 Generality, as extension, 96; requirement

of,173 Generalization, 216 f. Germer, 21, 60, 102, 130, 196 Gibbs, I. W., 14, 180 Gibbs' phase rule, 199,204,230 Gilbert, W., 95, 112 Godel, K., 232 GOdel's theorem, 185 Gold T., 159 Good hypothesis, criteria for, 97 ff. Goudsmit, 95 Graham's Law, 198, 229 Gravitational waves, 120 Grosseteste, R., 116 Hahn, 16

Hale, G. E., 14 Halley's Comet, 53, 202 Hamilton, Sir W. R., 184 Harvey, W., 101 Haiiy, Abbe, 102 Heisenberg, W., 102, 158, 181, 183, 188,

224 Helmholtz, H. von, 139 Hempel, C., 108 Herschel, Sir W., 50, 60, 115, 122, 156,

202, 219, 221 Hertz, H., 201, 203 Heuristic entities, 94 Heuristic processes, 95 Heuristic properties, 95 Hicks, W. M., 208 Hilbert, D., 87, 88, 168, 169, 170, 171 Hlavaty, Vaclav, 102 Hoyle, F., 159 Hume, David, 75, 224 Hutten, E. H., 192 Huyghens, C., 117, 187 Hypotheses, and data, 125 f.; and induc­

tion, 104; as abstract, 99; as compelling inquiry, 99; as directive, 107; as ideals, 95; as implicit, 107; as indispensable, 108 ff.; discovered by chance, 102; dis­covery of, 104 ff.; experimentally test­ed, 114 f.; function of, 106 ff.; profu­sion of, 96, 107; unobserved, 110

Hypothesis, df. 90; as explanation, 90; as ad hoc, 100; as generalization, 94; as heuristic, 93 ff.; as proposition, 91; directions of, 92; weak and strong, 93; on probation, 93

Hypothetical entities, 72, 227 Inconsistent facts, 186 Ideal entity, 228 Ideal experimentation, 150 Ideals, use of, 95 Indeterminacy, principle of, 224 Ignorance, new areas of, 214 f. Imagination, controlled, 109 Individual vs type, 106 f. Induction, df. 74; justification for, 86 f.;

justification of, 87; logical, 83 f. Induction and deduction, compared, 85;

abduction, 85 Induction and probability, 84 f. Induction to hypotheses, 87 f. Inductions, formulations of, 73 ff.; repe-

tition of, 88 Inductive evidence, 160 Indurect observation, 132

244 INDEX

Inheritance, law of, 171 Inquisition, 75 f. Instrument, choice of, 119 Instruments, advances in, 132, 148; com­

bined, 133 f.; extended uses of, 134; importance of, 116 f.; limitations of, 137; use of, 130 ff.

Interpretation of data, 115 Interpretations of data, 153 ff. Inverse probability, fallacy of, 120 Isolation of the experiment, 145 Janet, P., 218 Jansky, C., 21, 148 Jenner, 79 Jevons,80 Joos, 129 Kant, I., 9, 224 Kant's Shaving Bowl, 97 Kelkule, 105 Kepler, J., 22, 112, 184, 188 Krenke, N. P., 93 Kretschmer, 65 Language, of science, 80; mathematical,

80 f. Laplace, P. S., 130, 190,225 Lattes, C. M. G., 124 Lavoisier, A., 129, 150, 157,201,227,228 Law, as description, 221; as expectation,

200; as standing prediction, 198; certifi­cation of, 211; discovery of, 209

Laws, and space, 207; and time, 206; dis­covery of, 220 ff.; kinds of, 220; the ideals of science, 233; on semi-proba­tion, 211 f.; partially unconfirmed, 211

Laws of nature, 192 Leavitt, H. S., 42, 157 Leeuwenhoek, A., 218 Leibniz, G. W., 105 Lemaitre, 159 Levi-Civita, 179 Leverrier, U., 181, 227 liebig, J., 204 Limitations, as standards, 228 Lobatchewsky, N. I., 105 Logic and fact, decisions of, 186 Logic and facts, 174 Logical positivism, 81 f. Lorentz, H. A., 77, 150, 155, 181, 199 Lorentz transformations, 167 Lowering of empiricism, 226 MacDougal, D. T., 201 Mach, E., 33 Macrocosm, 8 ff. Magnitudes, 139

Magoun, H. W., 220 Malpighi, M., 218 Malus, 31 Manual dexterity, 142 Mapping empiricism, 170 f. Marconi, 202 Mass, standard of, 141 Master-theory, 183 Materials of instruments, 135 Mathematical systems, 176 ff. Mathematical verification, 166 ff. Mathematics, application of, 173 ff.; ap-

plied, 175; as synthesis, 167; as tool of discovery, 181; in science, 180; lan­guage of, 179; services of, 179; use of, 180

Matter, df. 141 Maxwell, J. C., 16,72, 100, 169, 181, 183,

184, 201 Maxwell's equations, 167, 182, 199, 203 Measurement, 137 ff.; 210; as compari-

son, 138; types of, 138 f. Measurement of space, 140 Measurement of time, 140 f. Measure system, isolation of, 139 Mechanism, as ideal of causality, 223 Meitner, L., 16 Mendeleef, 65, 105, 167 Mesocosm, 8 ff. Meson, discovery of, 124 Metaphysical assumptions, 99 Metaphysics, exclusion of, 109 Meyer, L., 105 Meyerson, E., 190, 209 Michelson, 36 Michelson-Morley, 181, 212; experiment

of, 128 Michelson-Morley experiment, 115, 158 Michelson-Morley experiments, 167, 208 Microcosm, 8 ff. Microscope, use of, 219 Mill, J. S., 59, 75, 79, 87, 126, 193, 210,

224 Miller, D. C., 36, 129, 161, 190, 208 Millikan, R. A., 131 Mill's method, 126 Mitosis, 76, 137 Model, 177; as control, 207 f.; mechani-

cal,207 Models, abstract, 143 f.; concrete, 143 Morley, 36, 129 Naming, 68 f. Natural classes, 63 f. Nature, density of, 215

INDEX 245

Neddermeyer, 124 Neptune, discovery of, 100 Neutron, discovery of, 121 Newton, Sir Isaac, 11,22,79,97, 105, 110,

112, 168, 183, 184, 187, 188,205 Neyman-Pearson, view of probability,

162 N icetas, 102 Nicholson, 130 Objectivity, peak of, 116 Observation, and instruments, 133; as in­

terpretation, 38; controlled., 40 ff.; di­rect, 133; indirect, 45 f.; 132 f.; scien­tific, 51; simple, 28 ff.

Observations, kinds of, 131 Observed fact, as abstraction, 47; sense

perception, 47; simple, 48 Observed facts, 46 ff. Observer, training of, 34 f. Occam's Razor, 97 Occhialini, 200 Oparin's theory, 173 Order, direction toward, 182 Origin of life, 173 Ostensive definitions, 68 f. Over-precision, 136 Pasteur, L., 15, 219 Pauli, W., 211 Pauli's principle, 197 Peirce, C. S., 59, 150, 188, 190 Period-luminosity relationship, 157 Petit, 157 Photo-electric effect, 91, 181 Physical types, 65 Physics, systems in, 183 Planck, Max, 11, 16, 130, 168, 183, 187,

198,219 Planetary motion, laws of, 184 Poincare, R., 33, 110, 207 Poisson's statistical model, 228 Polyani, M., 36 Popper, Sir K. R., 98, 108, 116, 219 Positivism, 108 f. Positron, hypothesis of, 118 Practicality, as control, 203; as occasion

for pure science, 103 Practice, theory of, 12 ff. Precision of instruments, 135 Prediction, df. 196; and explanation, 199;

as verification, 197; as weak deduction, 197 f.; of laws, 196 ff.

Predictions, from relativity, 200; success­ful, 199

Preparation of the instrument, 145; of the specimen, 1'44

Priestley, I., 150 Probabilities, 161 Probability, and induction, 84 f.; empiri­

cal, 160 ff.; not absolute, 190; types of, 189

Probability and causality, 189 ff. Probability and experiment, 123 Procedural principles, 231 f. Procedures, self-corrective, 107 Process, df. 229; as active entity, 229 Processes, 229 f; Processes and entities, 152 Proof, not absolute, 124; vs. evidence,

154 Proton, discovery of, 150 Prout's hypothesis, 159 Provocative fact, 64 Provocative facts, 64 Provocativeness of hypothesis, 118 Prowazek, 68 Psychoanalysis, 173; origin of, 130 Ptolemaic theory, 157 "Pure" science, 12; and practicality,204; as applicable, 203 Qualities, analysis of, 178 Quality, df. 177 Quality and quantity, 116 Quantity and quality, 116 Quantity and structure, 177 Quantum mechanics, 219 Radical empiricism, 108 f. Random search, 73 Rayleigh, Lord, 150 Rayleigh's Law, 219 "Red shift", 132 Regener, 135 Regnault, 157 Relativity, special theory of, 141; theory

of,212 Repeatable occurrences, 67 Residual phenomena, 156 Ricketts, 68 Roentgen, 79 Roozeboom's experiments, 180 Rule, df. 230 Running of the experiment, 145 f. Russell, B., 193 Rutherford, Sir E., 79, 150, 184, 212 Salk, I., 15 Sampling, 163 "Saving the phenomena," 175 Scheele, K. W., 228 Schleiden, 41 Schrodinger, E., 120, 184

INDEX

Schwann,41 Science, df. 4 f.; aim of, 63; as activity,

215; as cumulative, 212 f.; as multi­stage process, 7 ff.; divisions of,S f.; findings of, 214 ff.; ideal of, 188; inse­cure foundations of, 81; rhythm of, 212

Scientific agriculture, 204 Scientific language, 82 f. Scientific laws, described, 211 Scientific method, as self-corrective, 129,

186 Scientific systems, open, 186 Scientific theory, requirements of, 171 ff. Sears, 199 Self-consistency, requirement of, 172 Self-correction, 208 Shannon, C., 21 Simplicity, requirement of, 172 Simultaneous discovery, 105 Skills, 142 Sommerfeld, A., 185 Space, measurement of, 140 Stahl, G. E., 129,228 Standards, as arbitrary, 138 Stanley, W. M., 66 Starling's Law, 222 Statistical design, 164 Statistical laws, 164, 222 f. Statistical method, 160 Statistical probabilities, 152 Steady-state theory, 159 Stefan-Boltzmann Law, 139 Strassmann, 16 Surd element, 158 Swammerdam, 218 Syllogism of experiment, 122 Symbiosis, 72 System, as ideal of science, 104 Systems and data, 174 Systems as games, 88 Taxonomy, 65 Techniques, use of, 142 Technology, 17 ff.; aids science, 130 Theories, conflicting, 187; conflict of,

102; unification of, 185 Theory, df. 160; 110, described, 166; dif­

ficulties of, 186; from practice, 20 ff.

Theory and fact, 64, 187 Theory and instrument, 132 Theory of relativity, 156, 161 Thomson, I., 203 "Thought experiment", 143, 150 Time, measurement of, 140 f. Tinbergen, N., 145 Toynbee, A. I., 201 Trans-finite classes, df. 223 Truth, and workability, 205 Truth-conditions, 184 Turing theory of automata, 177 Uhlenbeck, 95 Unified field theory, 129 "Uniformity of nature," 87 Universal, and general, 87 Universals, in science, 217 Unknown, as problem, 77 Urbantschitsch, 76 Urey, H., 190 Verifiability, 98 Verification, by mathematics, 166 ff.;

168; mathematical, 184 Vigier, I.-P., 158 Volta, 130, 204 von Mises, L., 190 von Weizsacker, C. F., 233 von Wright, G. H., 162 Waddington, C. H., 187 Wallace, A. R., 105 Watson, I. D., 143, 227 Wave-corpuscle duality, 158 Went, F. W., 43 Wheatstone bridge, 141 Whitehead, A. N., 16, 59, 187, 193 Wien's Law, 211 Wittgenstein, L., 58, 74, 87, 88, 168, 169,

170, 171 Workability, and truth, 205 "Working hypothesis," 93 Yukawa, H., 94, 124, 196 Yukawa's prediction, 200 f. Zeeman, 68 "Zeeman effect", 155, 167, 199 Zwicky, F., 43