it, organization and management - world...

IT, Organization and Management

Nick Bloom, Stanford, CEP & NBER

building on joint work with:Raffaella Sadun (LSE & CEP)John Van Reenen (LSE, CEP & NBER)

World-Bank, March 22nd 2007

I will focus on two results and their implications

Empirical results:1. The productivity of IT varies heavily, and this appears to depend on the organization & management of firms

2. These organizational & management practices vary strongly (and systematically) across firms and countries

Policy implications:(A) Increasing IT productivity involves firms optimally picking managerial/organizational practices – deregulated labor-markets (and weaker unions)

(B) IT subsides alone are unlikely to be effective in a regulated environment – fix the environment before possible IT subsidies

The role of management & organisation in IT productivity

Evidence on management & organization across countries

European productivity had been catching up with the US for 50 years…

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3040

50O

utpu

t per

hou

r wor

ked,

$10

00's

(200

5 P

PP)

1960 1970 1980 1990 2000 2010year

USA EU 15

Source: GGDC Dataset

Labor Productivity Levels

…but since 1995 US productivity accelerated away from Europe.

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Out

put p

er h

our w

orke

d, $

1000

's (2

005

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Source: GGDC Dataset

Labor Productivity Levels

-

Change in annual growth in output per hour from 1990 –95 to 1995 –2001%

3.5

1.9

-0.5

U.S.

-0.1

1.6

-1.1

EU

This productivity miracle appears linked to the use of IT..…but only occurred in the US

IT using sectors*

IT producing sectors

Non- IT sectors

* IT using sectors defined as above median ratio (IT capital/Non-IT capital)

The US also had an IT investment boom which Europe did not match

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46

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Cap

ital S

tock

per

Hou

rs W

orke

d, 2

000

Euro

s

1980 1985 1990 1995 2000 2005year

USA EU 15

Source: GGDC

IT Capital Stock per Hours Worked

So why did the US have an IT productivity miracle and not Europe?

Two types of arguments proposed (not mutually exclusive):

1) Standard: US advantage lies in geographic/business environment

2) Alternative: US advantage lies in their firm organizational or management practices

We try to test between these by comparing US and non-US multinationals in the same country – the UK1

–Build 12,000 establishment data set from 1995-2003 in UK–Contains data on IT & productivity in manufacturing & services

1 “Americans do I.T. better. US multinationals and the productivity miracle”, Bloom, Sadun and Van Reenen (2007, Centre for Economic Performance mimeo & forthcoming NBER WP)

We find US firms in the UK appear to have had the same productivity miracle as their US parents

• US multinationals (in the UK) have higher returns from IT than non-US multinationals, driving their higher productivity growth

• US multinationals advantage particularly in IT using sectors

• US multinationals are also more IT intensive than non-US multinationals

• Appears to be robust, and not driven by industry differences, measurement errors, transfer pricing, skills, software etc..

So what does drive this? One story is US firms differentlyorganized, and this enables them to more effectively use IT

European Firms 4.13

4.93US Firms

Domestic Firms in Europe

4.87

3.67

4.11

Non-US MNEs in Europe

US MNEsin Europe

Organizational devolvement

Source: Data from Bloom and Van Reenen (2007, forthcomming QJE) survey of 732 firms in the US, UK, France and Germany. Differences between “US-multinational” and “Domestic” firms significant at 1% level in all panels except bottom left which is significant at the 10% level. Uses the identical organisational questions as Bresnahan, Brynjolfsson and Hitt (2002, QJE).

Organizational devolvement(firms located in Europe)

US firms do appear to be organized differently

0.40

0.42

0.52 0.75

0.65

0.42Domestic Firms

Non-US MNEs

US MNEs

Source: WIRS data (1984 and 1990) plots the proportion of establishments experiencing organizational change in previous 3 years (all establishments in the UK). US MNEs (N=190), Non-US MNEs (N=147), Domestic (N=2848). Senior manager is asked “whether there has been any change in work organization not involving new plant/equipment in the past three years” CIS data: we plot the proportion of establishments experiencing organizational or managerial change in previous 3 years. The firm is asked “Did your enterprise make major changes in the following areas of business structure and practices during the three year period 1998-2001?” with answers to either “Advanced Management techniques” or “Major changes in organizational structure” recorded as an organizational change.

Domestic Firms

Non-US MNEs

US MNEs

Organizational change(UK establishments, 1981-1990)

US firms also appear to change their organizational structure more frequently

Organizational change(UK establishments, 1998-2000)

Effective IT use also does appear to be associated with different (newer) organizational practices

1. Econometric firm level evidence, i.e.• Complementarity of IT and organizational practices in

production functions (Bresnahan, Brynjolfsson & Hitt (QJE, 2002), Caroli and Van Reenen (QJE, 2002))

2. Case study evidence, i.e.• Introduction of ATMs & PCs in banking (Hunter, 2002)

– Teller positions reduced due to ATM’s– “Personal bankers” introduced to sell loans &

insurance on the bank-floor with PCs & CRM software– Bank managers reduce – sell less financial products,

and regional managers can remotely manage with IT– Central check processing factories (not in branches)

• European banks did this much slower than US banks

The paper models this macro, micro and survey data based on four simple elements

1. IT is complementary with different organizational structures

2. IT prices are falling rapidly (especially since mid-1990s)

3. US “re-organizes” more quickly because it is more flexible• Less labor market regulation and weaker unions

4. Multinationals prefer similar global organisational structures• They take their home-country practices abroad with them

This is consistent with another piece of evidence –the IT characteristics of multinationals in the UK are linked with their home country labor regulation

Multinationals in the UK from highly labor regulated countries obtain lower returns on IT (in the UK)

– Controlling for this explains the US premium

Multinationals in the UK from highly labor regulated countries also significantly investment less in IT (in the UK)

– Again, controlling for this explains the US premium

Note that all these results include the standard set of controls for SIC-4 industry, year, establishment size, age, location etc…

Does this matter for IT policy?

Yes, if organisational/managerial practices vary across countries then returns from IT policies could vary a lot

But do org/management practices vary much?

Yes, I’ll show summary evidence suggesting they do

The role of management & organisation in IT productivity

Evidence on management & organization across countries

Large LSE-Stanford project to collect firm-level management and organisation data

Surveyed about 5,000 firms over 3 years. I will skip survey detailsand the data validation, and just show a summary of results

But, if anyone is interested this is all contained in painful detail in:

• “Measuring and explaining management practices across firms and countries”, Bloom and Van Reenen (2007, forthcoming QJE)

• “Measuring and explaining organizational practices across firms and countries”, Bloom, Sadun and Van Reenen (2007, CEP mimeo)

• Plus, questions, software, training guides, timetables and anonymized data on http://www.stanford.edu/~nbloom/index_files/Page371.htm

MAIN STEPS IN THE SURVEY PROCESS1) Target plant managers in medium manufacturing firms• Management coded on monitoring, targets and incentives• Organization coded in terms of decentralization and structure

2) Used a “double blind” survey to try to avoid bias• Managers are not informed (in advance) they are ‘scored’• Interviewers do not know company performance

3) Endorsements & design helped get 63% response rate• Letters from Central Banks, Ministries & Employers Groups• Never discussed financials in survey (just practices)• Framed as “Lean-manufacturing interview”

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MANAGEMENT PRACTICES VARY SIGNIFICANTLY ACROSS COUNTRIES, BOTH BY TOTAL “SCORE”.....

Statistically similar groups

Average score across the 18 individual questions (1 to 5 scale)

Scores average over the 18 individual questions. Each question scored on a 1 to 5 basis, where 1 is defined as “worst-practice” and 5 “best-practice”. All the questions and 54 examples scores contained in Bloom and Van Reenen (2007). Questions are highly significantly correlated across firms with the independently collected performance measures including productivity, growth, survival, profitability and (for the quoted firms) Tobin’s Q. This does not imply causality, but does show that the management scores contain information linked to firm performance.

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Raw averageEmployment weighted average

WEIGHTING BY FIRM SIZE INCREASES THE CROSS COUNTRY MANAGEMENT SPREADAverage management scores by country

The US economy reallocates employees from badly managed to well managed firms more effectively then European economies, which in turn are better at reallocation than the Chinese, Greek and Indian economies

0.5

11

.50

.51

1.5

0.5

11

.5

1 2 3 4 5 1 2 3 4 5 1 2 3 4 5 1 2 3 4 5

China France Germany Greece

India Italy Japan Poland

Portugal Sweden UK US

y

91% of variation in management scores within countries

Distribution of firm level average management scoresTHE AVERAGE HIDES MUCH FIRM-LEVEL VARIATION

0 1 2 3

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THE EXTENT OF “DECENTRALIZATION” ALSO VARIES SIGNIFICANTLY ACROSS COUNTRIES

Cou

ntry

Plant manager autonomy“Decentralization” is defined as the average score across four questions on hiring, investment, new-products and sales & marketing. In each question a score of 5 denotes all decisions being taken at the plant level while a score of 1 denotes all decisions being taken at the corporate HQ, with scores gradiated in between. See Bloom, Sadun and Van Reenen (2007) for details and all individual questions.

SUMMARY:• Productivity of IT appears strongly linked with organisational

and managerial practices

• These practices vary heavily across firms and countries

POLICY IMPLICATIONS:• Raise IT productivity by enabling firms to get their practices

right - deregulation, competition, non-distortive taxes etc.

• Avoid general IT subsidies – inefficient as many firms can not effectively use IT (also no obvious market failure)

BACK-UP

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…..AND ALSO BY RELATIVE “SCORE” ACROSS PRACTICES “People” management

“Operations” management

“People management” is the average of the 6 questions on human-capital management (incentives, rewards, hiring, firing policies etc.). “Operations management” is the average of the 6 questions on physical-capital management (monitoring, Lean, continuous improvement etc.). The relative scoring on these (HC-PC) is strongly correlated with both firm and industry level measures of human capital (+) and physical capital (-) intensity.

WHAT WE THINK IMPROVES MANAGEMENT

Results from the 2004 survey:

Competition – truncates tail of badly managed firms

Meritocracy – primo geniture succession in families problematic

Work in progress:

Globalisation (multinationals)

De-Regulation (of labor markets)

Education (of managers and worker)

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Greece Domestic firmsMultinationals

MULTINATIONALS ARE WELL RUN EVERYWHERE

Multinational presence also appears to be linked even with better management of domestic firms

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….BUT, LABOUR MARKET REGULATION IS NOT LINKED WITH OPERATIONS MANAGEMENT

Thus, labor regulations appear to be associated with worse average management scores, but also a shift from “human-capital”to “physical-capital”management

MANAGEMENT IS LINKED WITH EDUCATION, PARTICULARLY IN NON-MANAGERS

0 5 10 15 20 25f d

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Bottom 50% Top 50%Management score

Sales Growth, (% pa)


Survival Rates, (%)


Stock Market Value


Profit Rate, (%)


EXTERNAL VALIDATION ALSO SUGGESTED THE MANAGEMENT DATA WAS INFORMATIVEMatched to independently collected firm accounts data

Not causal estimation only shows management data informative

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Greece, Portugal & Italy France, Germany, Sweden & Poland

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LINKED TO PERFORMANCE IN ALL THE COUNTRIES (NOT JUST ANGLO-SAXON ONES)

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ivity

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duct

ivity

Management Management

MANAGEMENT STYLES EVEN CORRELATE WITH INTERVIEW PUNCTUALITY….

Average operations management score

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Japan

.2.4

.6.8

11

.2

2.5 3 3.5

0 1 2 3 4

US

Germany

Sweden

Japan

Italy

France

UK

Poland

Portugal

Greece

China

India

Firms with < 275 employeesFirms with ≥ 275 employees

CONTROLLING FOR FIRM SIZE

Average management scores by country

0 1 2 3

US

Germany

Japan

Sweden

UK

Italy

France

Poland

Portugal

India

Greece

China

With and without industry controls

Without industry controlsWith SIC3 controls

CONTROLLING FOR BROAD INDUSTRY COMPOSITIONAverage management scores by country

0 1 2 3 4

US Multinational

Other Multinational

Dispersed Shareholders

Private Equity or Venture Capital

EU Multinational

Managers

Family owned, external CEO

Private Individuals

Family CEO,

Founder

Family CEO, Primo Geniture

Government

OWNERSHIP IS CORRELATED WITH MANAGEMENTAverage management score, by type of ownership

“Professional”Management

“Big Firm / Multinational”Management

WE ALSO COLLECTED ORGANISATIONAL DATA (1)

Collected information on decentralization.

For example:

“To hire a FULL-TIME PERMANENT SHOPFLOOR worker what agreement would you need from Corporate HQ?”

(1) “No authority – even for replacement hire”

(3) “Requires sign-off from CHQ based on the business case. Typically agreed (i.e. about 80% or 90% of the time)”

(5) “Complete authority – it is my decision“

Asked similar questions about investment, new-products and sales & marketing

THEIR APPEARS TO BE NO LINEAR RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN ORGANISATION AND PRODUCTIVITY

There is no “one-size-fits-all” best organizational structure.

24

68

1 2 3 4 5 6

Plant manager autonomy

Labo

r pro

duct

ivity

Correlation=0.035Correlation=0.035

0 1 2 3

Sweden

US

UK

Germany

Poland

Italy

Portugal

France

India

Greece

Japan

China

THE EXTENT OF “DECENTRALIZATION” ALSO VARIES SIGNIFICANTLY ACROSS COUNTRY

Cou

ntry


0 1 2 3

Sweden

US

UK

Germany

Poland

Italy

Portugal

France

India

Greece

Japan

China

(( ))

MAYBE LINKED TO HISTORICAL RELIGIOUS DIFFERENCES?


Cou

ntry

(of l

ocat

ion)

ConfucianConfucian

Catholic*Catholic*

Catholic & Catholic & ProtestantProtestant

ProtestantProtestant

* Greek Orthodox is close to Catholicism. Obviously India is excluded hereNote: Our view in not that religion matters now, but that it shaped the formation of national cultures in earlier centuries, with corporate organizational structures were developing.

MULTINATIONALS APPEAR TO TAKE THEIR DOMESTIC ORGANISATIONAL PRACTICES ABROAD


Cou

ntry

of o

wne

rshi

p (m

ultin

atio

nals

onl

y)

0 1 2 3

Finland

Sweden

UK

US

Belgium

France

Holland

Denmark

Germany

Switzerland

Japan

WE ALSO COLLECTED ORGANISATIONAL DATA (2)

Collected information on span-of control, for example:

“How many people directly report to the Plant Manager?”

Plant ManagerPlant Manager

SupervisorSupervisor



SalesSales

EngineeringEngineering

Average Span of Control0 2 4 6 8

Germany

Sweden

US

Italy

Poland

China

UK

Fra nce

Portugal

India

Greece

Japan

Cou

ntry

(of l

ocat

ion)

ASIAN & SOUTHERN EUROPEAN COUNTRIES ARE ALSO MORE HIERACHICAL, AND ANGLO-SAXON AND SCANDINAVIAN COUNTRIES FLATTER

it, organization and management - world...

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