investigation of biogenic amines in fermented fish and fish products

AMINES IN FERMENTED FISH INVESTIGATION OF BIOGENIC

AND FISH PRODUCTS

Carole den Brinker, Carl Rayner, and Maurice Kerr State Chemistry Laboratory, Werribee July 1996

Commissioned byFood Safety Unit

INVESTIGATION OF BIOGENIC AMINES IN FERMENTED FISH AND FISH PRODUCTS

© 2002 Copyright State of Victoria.

Published by:

Public Health Division

Victorian Government Department of Human Services.

Edition 1

25102002

This publication is available at the Internet address:

www.foodsafety.vic.gov.au

Contents

INTRODUCTION .................................................................................................................. 5

SAMPLE PREPARATION AND PROCEDURE ................................................................. 8

RESULTS AND DISCUSSION .............................................................................................. 8

CONCLUSION ..................................................................................................................... 12

TABLES..................................................................................................................................... 13

APPENDIX 1 .......................................................................................................................... 19

REFERENCES ......................................................................................................................... 20

Investigation of Biogenic Amines in Fermented Fish and Fish Products

INTRODUCTIONBiogenic amines are a group of biologically active organic compounds normally produced by

decarboxylation of free amino acids (Table 1.1, p3). Histamine, which is the most important biogenic amine, can cause poisoning as a result of the ingestion of food containing high levels of this amine. Biogenic amines are present in a variety of foods and have been widely documented as occurring in fish and fish products, meat, wine, cheese and fermented foods.The presence of biogenic amines in these foods is an indication of food spoilage which is dependent upon the availability of free amino

acids, the presence of decarboxylase positive microorganisms (bacteria containing enzymes which can decarboxylate free amino acids) and conditions favouring bacterial growth (Halasz et al, 1994).

Ingestion of food containing small amounts of histamine has little effect on humans, but in large doses histamine can be toxic. The intestinal tract of humans contain the enzymes diamine oxidase (DAO) and histamine-N-methyl transferase (HMT) which convert histamine to harmless degradation products. For large doses of histamine, the capacity of DAO and HMT to detoxify histamine is limited, resulting in toxic effects as histamine enters the bloodstream (Taylor, 1986). Putrescine and cadaverine can inhibit these enzymic reactions and therefore potentiate the toxicity of histamine (Eitenmiller et al, 1980). Effects

of the toxicity include vomiting, diarrhoea, abdominal cramps, perspiration, flushing, headaches and burning sensations in the mouth (Taylor and Bush, 1988).

The Australian Food Standards Code (1995) states that “ the level of histamine in a composite sample of fish or fish products, other than crustaceans or molluscs, when examined according to the method in section 977.13 of the A.O.A.C.,.15th Edition (1990), must not exceed 100 mg/kg. Levels of 100 mg/kg or above indicate that fish have been mishandled during storage and processing.” There is no standard for putrescine or cadaverine.

A study conducted by the State Chemistry Laboratory (Den Brinker et al, 1995) found high levels of histamine which exceeded the Australian Food Standards Code of 100 mg/kg in fish sauces, fish pastes and

pickled fish collected from Asian retail outlets.The levels ranged from 180-320 mg/kg histamine. Only one sample of canned fish (herring) from a general supermarket outlet of twenty one samples collected was found to have a high level of histamine. When the same product, but different batch number was purchased and analysed, it was found to be low in histamine.

In South East Asia, the preservation of fish has been practised for centuries due to the extensive ocean resource. Generally, the preservation technique is as follows:- Fish and salt (3:1) are packed together in layers. The salt dehydrates the fish and if the proteolytic enzymes of the fish are active enough, a pickle starts to form. As time proceeds, a fish sauce is obtained. This process takes approximately six months for an acceptable yield and the

5 Investigation of Biogenic Amines in Fermented Fish and Fish Products


sauce can contain up to 20% salt. If prior to this six months, the liquid is drawn off at regular intervals a fish paste can be obtained. By using less quantities of salt or a reduced contact time, softened fish is obtained (Beddows, 1985 and Sikorski et a1,1995). Annual production rates of fish sauce in South East Asia are approximately 250,000 tonnes (Sikorski et al,1995 ). Fish sauce is used to enhance the flavour and aroma of rice (Beddows, 1985).

Production of fish sauces varies from country to country. In Vietnam, the fish and salt are packed in earthenware jars from 6-18 months depending on the size of the fish. In Thailand fermentation is allowed to take place for 6-12 months and the sauce is then decanted and exposed to the sun for 1-3 months. In Malaysia, fermentation takes place for 36 months. A study by Uyenco et al (1953) cited by Beddows (1985) found that during the fermentation process, the content of free amino acids increased. This indicates that the fermentation process has the potential to produce biogenic amines.

In order for biogenic amines to be produced, free amino acids and bacteria containing decarboxylase

enzymes need to be present together with suitable temperatures and pH. The enzyme involved in the production of histamine, histidine decarboxylase , requires temperatures greater than 15°C to operate with an optimum temperature of30°C. In tropical areas of the world, such as South East Asia, fish are caught at temperatures exceeding 20°C. If the fish are not chilled immediately conditions may be favourable for biogenic amine formation. Bacterial growth will cease once the temperature conditions are 0-5°C (Ahmed, 1991).

Depending on the quality of the salt used in packing, bacteria can be introduced (Sikorski et al, 1995 ) especially by solar salt (Beddows, 1985). Solar salt is prepared by the natural evaporation of sea water. Poor handling of the fish may also introduce bacteria containing decarboxylating enzymes or they may already be present in the fish (Blood, 1975).

Validation of the biogenic amine method undertaken by den Brinker et al (1995) using methanoi as the extractant found satisfactory histamine recoveries ranging from 75100% for a number offish and fish products. However,

recoveries for putrescine and cadaverine varied markedly from 30-100%.

These results indicated that further investigation into different extraction solvents was required to accurately measure putrescine and cadaverine in fish and fish products. As putrescine and cadaverine have been associated with potentiating the toxicity ofhistamine (Eitenmiller, 1980), it is important that they are determined by a quantitative method.

Information in scientific literature indicates that many extractants including methanol, 75% methanol, hydrochloric acid (HCI), perchloric acid and trichloracetic acid (TCA) are often used to determine biogenic amines in fish and fish products, cheese, meat and meat products (Hurst, 1990). The recovery results have indicated low to high percentages for putrescine, cadaverine and histamine depending upon the sample matrix and extractant (Gou Chin Yen and Chiu Luan Hsien, 1990, Van Boekel and Arensten-Stasse,1987, Joosten and Olieman, 1986, Gill and Thompson, 1984, and Hui and Taylor,1983).

The current prescribed

Effect of Storage Conditions on Histamine Formation in Fresh and Canned Tuna 6

method in the Australian Food Standards Code is the A.O.A.C. (1990) spectrophotometric method. This method uses methanol as the extractant and was developed for the determination of histamine only. A report resulting from a collaborative study conducted by Rogers and Staruszkiewicz (1995), recommended that 75% methanoi be substituted for methanoi as the extracting solvent in the official A.O.A.C. method for histamine (977.13, 15fhh Ed, 1990,Vol 2, p876) and that first action be adopted for analysis of putrescine and

Table l.l

cadaverine using 75% methanol as the extracting solvent. Recover y results for putrescine, cadaverine and histamine ranged from 77-102, 77-112 and 84-125% respectively. The modification to the official A.O.A.C method for histamine 977.13 and adopted first action for putrescine and cadaverine were approved at the Official Methods Board meeting, May 2, 1996.They will appear in the third supplement (1997) to the 16th Edition (1995) of the Official Methods of Analysis (Referee, June 1996).

The major objective of this project was to investigate the levels of the biogenic amines, putrescine, cadaverine and histamine in preserved, pickled and salted fish samples, fish sauces and pastes collected from Asian retail outlets in Footscray and Springvale. In addition a study was undertaken of four different extractants that have been used for biogenic amine analysis in scientific literature namely, methanol, 75% methanol, 0.1N hydrochloric acid and 5% trichloracetic acid.

BIOGENIC AMINES AND THEIR PRECURSORS IN DECARBOXYLATION REACTIONS (Paterson et al, 1990)

AMINO ACID BIOGENIC AMINE Histidine Histamine Ornithine Putrescine → Spermidine Lysine Cadaverine Arginine Agmatine → Putrescine


SAMPLE PREPARATION AND PROCEDURE

Thirty seven samples of fermented fish and fish products (Appendix l, p15) were purchased from various retail outlets in Footscray and Springvale.

Whole fish samples were homogenised in a food processor. Sauces were shaken thoroughly and pastes were thoroughly mixed using a spatula. Representative sub samples were taken for analysis of the three biogenic amines, putrescine, cadaverine and histamine. Each sample was analysed using the two extractants, methanol and 75% methanol. Samples 7, 13 and 23 were analysed in duplicate. Samples 2 and 20 were extracted separately six times with methanol, 75% methanol, 0.1N HCl and 5% TCA to determine the efficiency of different extractants. The amines were derivatised using dansyl chloride and purified using a liquid -liquid extraction. The amines were determined by High Performance Liquid Chromatography (HPLC) using a C 18 reverse phase column and a UV detector.

RESULTS ANDDISCUSSION

Results of the samples analysed are displayed in graphical form for putrescine (Fig 1.1, p12 ), cadaverine (Fig 1.2, p 13), and histamine (Fig 1.3, p 14).The absolute values are shown in Table 1.2, p9. Twenty three of the samples were fermented pickled products. The remaining fourteen samples were sauces or pastes. The samples were products of Vietnam,Thailand, Philippines, Malaysia and Hong Kong.

Of the thirty seven samples analysed, nineteen samples did not comply with the Australian Foods Standards Code. The same nineteen samples did not comply when extracted with 75% methanol. These samples are unfit for human consumption and could have serious health effects if eaten in large enough quantities.

Using methanol as the extractant, levels of putrescine, cadaverine and histamine ranging from 223935 mg/kg, 117754 mg/kg and ND-830 mg/ kg were obtained respectively (Table 1.2, p9).The results show that 51 % of the samples, ranging from 123-830 mg/kg histamine did not comply with

the Australian Food Standards Code limit of 100 mg/kg histamine. Eleven percent of samples had no histamine detected and 38% of the samples, ranging from 14-89 mg/kg had less than 100 mg/kg histamine.

Samples extracted with 75% methanol had levels of putrescine, cadaverine and histamine ranging from 253788 mg/kg, 18-7519 mg/kg and ND-893 mg/kg respectively. The results (Table 1.2, p9) also show that 51 % of the samples, ranging from 112-893 mg/kg histamine did not comply with the Australian Foods Standards Code limit of 100 mg/kg histamine. Five percent of samples had no histamine detected and 44% of the samples, ranging from 16-98 mg/kg had less than 100 mg/kg histamine. Sample 5 had a level of 98 mg/kg histamine which is on the borderline of non compliance when analytical error is taken into account.

Although the histamine levels in samples 5, 17, 24, 25, 30 and 37 were below the maximum permitted level of 100 mg/kg, the levels of putrescine and cadaverine found in these samples were high. This may increase the toxic effects of histamine as both these biogenic amines have been shown to potentiate



histamine toxicity (Eitenmiller, 1980). Currently, no safe levels have been set for putrescine and cadaverine for human consumption.

High levels of histamine were obtained in the majority of samples analysed.These high levels may have developed before processing, during processing or during subsequent storage of the end product. When fresh fish is chilled immediately the decarboxylase enzymes are unable to function at low temperatures and are therefore unable to convert free amino acids to biogenic amines. Hansen et al (1985) found that storage of fish at ambient temperatures for 24 hours before processing with salt caused a five fold increase in histamine levels. During the pickling of fish when high levels of salt is present, there is conflicting evidence regarding the increase of histamine levels. Although salt does have an inhibitory effect on the growth of nonhalophilic bacteria such as Enterobacterioceae which contain decarboxylase enzymes (Sarnianto et al, 1985), large increases of histamine have beenobtained during the salting process (Hansen et al, 1985). This may be due to localised areas of fish flesh where salt penetration is

relatively slow or that bacteria decarboxylase enzymes are active even when bacterial growth has been suppressed (Hansen et al, 1985). The fermentation process to produce pickled fish, sauces or pastes may proceed for at least three months and can continue for as long as eighteen months. During this time, decarboxylating enzymes are present together with free amino acids and decarboxylation of the free amino acids to produce high levels of biogenic amines can occur. The mechanism of production of histamine during the fermentation process needs to be investigated further so that methods to prevent or minimise histamine production may be developed.

Salt is added to the fish primarily to prevent the fish from microbiological spoilage. The marination of raw herring in vinegar and salt is one of many processes developed to inhibit putrefactive spoilage (Blood, 1975). A study conducted by Meyer (1961) cited by Blood (1975) followed the appearance of amino acids and their degradation products in the first pickle in the presence of the bacteria L. buchneri.The quantity of amino acids formed increased with increasing time and

temperature. As soon as the bacterial count reached 10~ / ml, Meyer detected products of d e c a r b o x y l a t i o n (yaminobutyric acid from glutamic acid, cadaverine from lysine, tyramine from tyrosine, histamine from histidine and ornithine from arginine) and observed that the quantities of the corresponding amino acids had decreased or disappeared. Further understanding into the techniques used in the preservation of fish and fish products is required to identify the critical stages in handling and processing.

Fish sauce is used often to give rice flavour and aroma. Up to SOmI may be consumed over two meals (Beddows, 1985). Often sauces are diluted with water and flavour such as chilli or sugar. The addition of these ingredients reduce the concentration of biogenic amines in sauce products that could be consumed. Together with the small volumes used in the diet, the toxic effect is reduced. Sample 33, however had a concentration almost six times greater than the allowable Australian Food Standards limit for histamine and therefore could be a public health concern.

Fish pastes are widely used as condiments (Beddows, 1985) and are usually diluted

9 Effect of Storage Conditions on Histamine For


with water and spread on fruit. Therefore only small quantities of the concentrated pastes are consumed each day. Sample 20 however, had six times the allowable limit for histamine and therefore could be a public health concern.

Many of the pickled fish samples contained large amounts of salt and therefore only small quantities would be consumed at each meal. However, eight of these samples contained very high histamine levels greater than 200 mg/kg and therefore consumption of these products is a public health concern.

Two samples, pickled fish papaya (33) and pickled shrimp (34) had high levels of histamine (>200mglkg) but contained lower salt content according to the label and would most likely be used as appetisers. Since these products contain low salt levels, larger quantities may be consumed, therefore potentially these products could be a greater public health risk.

These results indicate that an investigation of the nortnal consumption rates of these products is required to determine the risk to public safety.Although many of these products do not comply with

the Australian Food Standards Code, it is difficult to describe the public health risk without accurate knowledge of consumption rates.

Since these products are readily consumed in many Asian countries, it is possible that tolerance to high histamine levels has evolved in the Asian population (Wahlqvist, 1996). If these groups possess higher levels of DAO and HMT in their digestive tract, they would have the ability to detoxify higher levels of histamine. In Indonesia however, incidence of food poisoning due to the consumption of fish and fishery products which has been attributed to histamine has been fairly high. Official data on the occurrence of outbreaks however, are scarce (Sarnianto, 1985).

Precision studies were undertaken on a sample of preserved salted barb (2) and a sample of crab paste (20). Samples 2 and 20 were extracted separately six times using the four extractants, methanol, 75% methanol, 0.1N HCl and 5% TCA (Tables 1.3a, 1.3b and 1.3c, p10). Satisfactory coefficients of variation for each data set were obtained. 75% methanol was the most efficient extractant for putrescine and cadaverine in

sample 2. It was also a better extractant than methanol for histamine, however 0.1N HCl and 5% TCA were slightly better extractants for histamine than 75% methanol. Sample 20 showed that methanol was a slightly better extractant for putrescine and cadaverine than 75% methanol and 0.1N HCI, but not better than 5% TCA. 75% methanol was a better extractant for histamine than methanol but not better than 0.1N HCl and 5% TCA.Although these results have shown that 75% methanol extracted marginally more biogenic amines than methanol, the difference was not significant.TCA appears to be a better extractant, however further method development and validation would need to be carried out to confirm this result.

Duplicate results were obtained for samples 7, 13 and 23 (Tables 1.4, pl l). Sample 7 with low levels of histamine had high variation of results with both methanol and 75% methanol. Sample 13 had excellent duplicate results for histamine with methanol and satisfactory results with 75% methanol. There was no apparent difference between using methanol and 75% methanol as extractants for



these three samples.

Satisfactory recovery data were obtained for samples 6, 20 and 32 (Tables 1.5, pl 1).The recovery results for all three amines using methanol and 75% methanol extractants ranged from 40-131% and 40103% respectively The recovery results for histamine ranged from 66-78% and 5862% for methanol and 75% methanol extractants respectively.

For the thirty seven samples analysed, the 75% methanol extractant produced higher biogenic amine results than the methanol extractant for 81 % of the samples for cadaverine and histamine and 86% of the samples for putrescine. Also the 75% methanol extracts contained levels of 16 and l7mg/kg respectively in samples 10 and 27 whereas histamine was not detected in the methanol extract for these samples. Although results from this investigation have shown that the 75% methanol extract has extracted marginally higher levels of biogenic amines than methanol in fermented fish product samples, further study on other sample types is required before a recommendation to change the Food Standards Code can be made.

Only six of the samples analysed had expiry dates on the label.The label information indicated that sample 4 and 18 were packed in 1991 and expired in 1993. Sample four did not comply with the regulation of 1 OOmg/kg histamine, however sample 18 did. Most samples analysed had containers that were dusty and, in some cases, there was evidence that the contents had been spilt, indicating that the contents had been exposed to air.

11 Effect of Storage Conditions on Histamine For


CONCLUSIONThirty seven fish samples

that had been fermented to form pickled fish, sauces, or pastes were analysed for the biogenic amines, putrescine, cadaverine and histamine. Analysis of the samples showed that 51 % of the samples did not comply with the maximum permitted level of histamine of 100 mg/kg as stated in the Australian Food Standards Code.

Many products contained excessive levels of histamine with up to eight times the Australian Food Standards Code limit. Values for putrescine and cadaverine were substantially higher for many products.Although many of these products are used as dips, sauces and condiments, the high levels of biogenic amines found is a food poisoning hazard, especially when coupled with the additional risk factors such as ingestion of amine oxidase inhibiting drugs and other food amines. In order to provide an estimate of the risk to public health an investigation of the maximum consumption rates of these products is required together with studies to determine if side effects attributable to histamine toxicity are experienced when these fish products are consumed.

The processes involved in the preservation of the fish samples analysed can provide an environment of suitable temperatures, pH and high levels of free amino acids over an extended period of time for the production of biogenic amines. In order to prevent biogenic amine poisoning and introduce improved handling practices, further study is required to identify the critical stages in handling and processing of Asian seafood products which lead to elevated levels of biogenic amines (Wooten et al, 1989).

Results obtained from the analysis of fish products comparing the extractants methanol and 75% methanol, showed that the 75% methanol extractant has extracted marginally higher levels of biogenic amines than methanol. Further study of other fish products, including fresh fish is required before a recommendation to change the Australian Food Standards Code to prescribe 75% methanol as the extractant for histamine analysis can be made. An additional investigation is required with other fish products with a range of biogenic amine levels to compare the extraction capability of 0.1N HCl and 5% TCA to methanol and 75%

methanol in order to obtain complete extraction of biogenic amines.

No limits have been set in the Australian Foods Standards Code for putrescine and cadaverine. These amines may also be toxic in addition to their DAO and HMT enzyme inhibiting effects which potentiate the toxicity of histamine. However, further research is required to determine the toxicity of all biogenic amines to set safe levels in food for human consumption.

Acknowledgement

We would like to thank the Department of Human Resources for the funding of this project.


Investigation of Biogenic Amines in Fermented Fish and Fish Products 13

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4

5

6

7

APPENDIX 1 Sample Identification and Location of Retail Outlet

Sample Sample Description Place of Purchase

1 Preserved sour shrimp. Product of Vietnam. Tan Quay, 130 Hopkins St, Footscray

2 Preserved salted barb. Product of Vietnam. Tan Quay, 130 Hopkins St, Footscray

3 Pickled fish papaya. Product of Vietnam. Tan Quay, 130 Hopkins St, Footscray

4 Pickled prawn. Packed 6/91 Use by 6/93. Product of Vietnam. Dai Phat, 40 Leeds St, Footscray

5 Papaya, fish, salt, garlic, pimento. Product of Thailand. Dai Phat, 40 Leeds St, Footscray

6 Ground fish sauce. Special product of Vietnam. Dai Phat, 40 Leeds St, Footscray

7 Shrimp paste. Product of Vietnam. 250 Springvale Rd, Springvale

8 Fried fish paste. Packed 1995.09.25. Expiry 1998.09.25 Product of Thailand 250 Springvale Rd, Springvale

9 Pickled mud fish. Product of Thailand. 250 Springvale Rd, Springvale

10 Shrimp paste with soya bean oil. Product of Thailand 250 Springvale Rd, Springvale

11 Pickled gournay fish. Product of Thailand 250 Springvale Rd, Springvale

12 Preserved salted tench fish. Product of Vietnam. Phuoc-Thanh, 144 Hopkins St, Footscray

13 Fish sauce. Product of Vietnam. Phuoc-Thanh, 144 Hopkins St, Footscray

14 Pickled fish (catren). Product of Vietnam. Phuoc-Thanh, 144 Hopkins St, Footscray

15 Pickled spotted feather bach fish. Product of Vietnam. Phuoc-Thanh, 144 Hopkins St, Footscray

16 Pure pickled gourany fish. Product of Thailand. International Groceries, 134 Hopkins St, Footscray

17 Pickled cat fish. Product of Thailand. International Groceries, 134 Hopkins St, Footscray

18 Pickled filleted snake fish. Packed 1/8/91 Use by 1/8/93. Product of Vietnam International Groceries, 134 Hopkins St, Footscray

19 Crab paste with soya bean oil. Product of Thailand. International Groceries, 134 Hopkins St, Footscray

20 Crab paste. Product of Thailand. Exp. 31/5/97. New Achievement Grocery, 3 Winsor Ave, Springvale

21 Chilli paste (shrimp). Product of Thailand. Exp.3l/5/97. NewAchievement Grocery, 3 Winsor Ave, Springvale

22 Shrimp paste. Product of Thailand. NewAchievement Grocery, 3 Winsor Ave, Springvale

23 Sauteed shrimp fry. Product of Philippines. NewAchievement Grocery, 3 Winsor Ave, Springvale

24 Salted shrimp fry. Product of Philippines. New Achievement Grocery, 3 Winsor Ave, Springvale

25 Shrimp paste. Fishermans Brand. Product of Malaysia. New Achievement Grocery, 3 Winsor Ave, Springvale

26 Preserved salted seatfish. Product of Vietnam. Asia Grocery Centre, 290 Springvale Rd, Springvale

27 Pickled fish. Made in Vietnam. Asia Grocery Centre, 290 Springvale Rd, Springvale

28 Pickled gourany fish. Product of Vietnam. Asia Grocery Centre, 290 Springvale Rd, Springvale

29 Shrimp sauce. Product of Malaysia. Asia Grocery Centre, 290 Springvale Rd, Springvale

30 Pickled mud fish. Product of Thailand. Asia Grocery Centre, 290 Springvale Rd, Springvale

3 Fried fish paste. Packed 1995.09.25. Expiry 1998.09.25 Product of Thailand Asia Grocery Centre, 290 Springvale Rd, Springvale

3 Salted shrimp fry. 200m1. Product of Philippines. Hopkins Asian Groceries, 118A Hopkins St,Footscray

3 Fish sauce. Product of Thailand. Hopkins Asian Groceries, 118A Hopkins St,Footscray

3 Pickled shrimp. Product of Vietnam. Hopkins Asian Groceries, 118A Hopkins St,Footscray

3 Pickled fish. Made in Vietnam. Hopkins Asian Groceries, 118A Hopkins St,Footscray

3 Pickled fish (catren). Product of Vietnam. Hopkins Asian Groceries, 118A Hopkins St,Footscray

3 Fine shrimp sauce. Product of Hong Kong. Hopkins Asian Groceries, 118A Hopkins St,Footscray


REFERENCES

Ahmed, F.(1991) Scombroid (histamine) fish poisoning. Committee on evaluation of the safety of fishery products. National Academy Press.Washington DC. Seafood Safety pp 93-96.

A.O.A.C. Official Methods of Analysis (1990).(l5th Edition) Method Number 977.13 p877

Beddows, C. (1985). Fermented fish and fish products in “Microbiology of fermented food”,Vol. 2, edited by B.Wood, Elsevier Applied Science Publishers, New York.

Blood, R. (1975). Lactic acid bacteria in marinated herring in “ Lactic Acid bacteria in beverages and food”, edited by J.Carr, C. Cutting and G.Whiting,Academic Press Inc, London.

Den Brinker, C. Kerr, M. and Rayner, C. Investigation of Biogenic Amines in fish and fish products. Internal report to the Department of Health and Community Services, July 1995.

Eitenmiller, R. Orr, J. and Wallis,W. (1980). Histamine formation in fish: Microbiological and biochemical conditions in “Chemistry and Biochemistry of Marine food products,” Publisher - AVI, Connecticut, edited by R: Martin, pp 39-50.

Gill,T. and Thompson, J. (1984). Rapid automated analysis of amines in seafood by ion moderated partition HPLC. J. Food Sci, 4~; 603-606.

Gou Chin Yen. and Chiu-Luan Hsien. (1991). Simultaneous analysis of biogenic amines in canned fish by HPLC. J. Food Sci, 5,~, 158-160.

Halasz,A. Barath,A. Simon-Sarkadi,L. and Holzapel,W. (1994) Biogenic amines and their production by micro-organisms in food - Review.Trends in Food Sci and Tech, ~ 42-49.

Hansen, S.W. Knowles, M.J. and Al-Kasadi,A.S. (1985) Histamine in Southeast Asian cured fish and changes in Histamine levels during salting and drying. Spoilage of tropical fish and product development. Proceedings of Sixth session of the Indo-Pacific Commission Working Party on-Fish Technology and Institute, London.

Hui, J. and Taylor, S. (1983). High pressure liquid chromatographic determination of putrefactive amines in food. J.AOAC; ~, 853-857.

Hurst,W.J (1990).A review of HPLC methods for the determination of selected biogenic amines in foods. J. Liq. Chrom, ~(1), 1-23.

Joosten, H. and Olieman, C.(1986). Determination of biogenic amines in cheese and some other food products by High Performance Liquid Chromatography in combination with thermo sensitised reaction detection. J. Chrom 3~5 , 311-319.

Paterson, G.V. Madie, P. and Blackmore, D.K. (1990).Veterinary aspects of meat quality. Publication No. 135.Veterinary continuing education, Massey University, Palmerston North, New Zealand, pp 219-232.

Referee. A.O.A.C. International. June 1996, p16.

Rogers, P. and Staruszkiewicz,W. (1995). Gas chromatographic method for putrescine and cadaverine and fluorometric method for histamine: Collaborative Study. U.S. Food and Drug Administration, Office of Seafood,Washington, DC.

Sarnianto, P. Irianto, H.E. and Putro, S.(1985) Studies of the Histamine Contents of Fermented Fishery Products. Spoilage of tropical fish and product development. Proceedings of Sixth session of the Indo-Pacific Commission Working Party on Fish Technology and Marketing. RMIT, Melbourne,


Australia, 1984. Edited by A. Reilly,Tropical Development and Research Institute, London.

Sikorski, Z.E. Gildberg, A. and Ruiter, A. (1995). Fish Products: Fish and Fishery Products. CAB International,Wallingford, United Kingdom, edited by A. Ruiter, pp 315-346.

Taylor, S.(1986). Histamine food poisoning: toxicity and clinical aspects - a review CRC. Critical Rev. in Tox, ~, 91-128.

Taylor,S. and Bush, R.(1988).Allergy by ingestion of seafood in Handbook of Natural toxins.Vol 3. Marine Toxins and Venoms, edited by Anthony Tu pp 149-183.

Van Boekel, M. and Arensten-Stasse, A. (1987). Determination of aromatic biogenic amines and their presurses in cheese by high performance liquid chromatography. J. Chrom. ~Q, 267-272.

Wahlqvist, M (1996).Personal communication between Professor Mark Wahlqvist (Monash Medical centre, Monash University) and Mr Carl Rayner (State Chemistry Laboratory).

Wooten, M. Silalahi, J. and Wills, R. (1989).Amine levels in some Asian seafood products. J. Sci. Food Agric.,~Q 503-506


investigation of biogenic amines in fermented fish and fish products

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