introduction to the study of grammar
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Introduction to the Study of Grammar. BA, engelsk 1. Lexicon and Morphology tt. The components of language. Meaning. A language is a system of cognitive procedures for Assigning a Meaning to a sequence of Sounds - Producing a sequence of Sounds to express a Meaning. Sound. - PowerPoint PPT PresentationTRANSCRIPT
Introduction to the Study of Grammar
BA, engelsk
1. Lexicon and Morphology
tt
The components of language
Sound
Meaning
A language is a system of cognitive procedures for- Assigning a Meaning to a sequence of Sounds- Producing a sequence of Sounds to express a Meaning
The components of language study
Sound
Meaning
PhoneticsPhonology
Semantics
Pragmatics
Grammar
Lexicon
Syntax
Morphology
The Lexicon and Morphology
• The notion of a word
• Words and sentences
• Morphology: the study of the structure of words
• Classification of words: Parts of Speech, or Wordclasses
Words
books
bookmakers’
the
writers
nowadays
reading
on
write
English
high
lists
rank abou
t
royalty
that
Words and Wordforms
aboutbooksbookmakers’Englishhighlistsnowadays
onrankreadingroyaltythatthewrite writers
Words make sentences…
books
bookmakers’
the
writers nowadays
reading
on
write
English high
lists
rankabout royalty
that
Words make sentences…
books
bookmakers’
the
writers nowadays
readingon
write
English high
lists
rank
about
royalty that
Word make sentences….
booksbookmakers’
the
writers
nowadays
reading
on
write
English high
lists
rank
about
royalty
that
Words make sentences…
books
bookmakers’
the
writersnowadays
reading
on
write
English
high
lists
rank
about
royalty
that
… and sometimes Non-sentences
booksbookmakers’
the
writers
nowadays
reading
on
write
English high
lists
rankabout
royalty
that
Rules
Syntax describes the rules by which words combine intosentences
Morphology describes the rulesby which morphemes combineinto words
Lexicon
The
words
of
English
Words and word classes
• Proper Name (PN)
• Noun (N)
• Verb (V)
• Adjective (A)
(Adverb)
• Pronoun (Pro)
• Determiner (Det)
• Particle (Prt)
– Preposition (P)
– Conjunction (Conj)
– (Adverb (Adv))
• Auxiliary (Aux)
Open Closed
the
books that writers nowadays write
about English royalty rank high on
bookmakers’ reading lists
N V A Adv
DetPro
P
the
the
books
books
that
that
writers
writers
nowadays
nowadays
write
write
about
about
English
English
royalty
royalty
rank
rank
high
high
on
on
bookmakers’
bookmakers’
reading
reading
lists
lists
high
reading
books
lists
the
on
bookmakers’
about
write thatwriters
English
royalty
the
books
that
writersnowadays
write about
Englishroyalty
rank
high
onbookmakers’ reading
lists
nowadays
nowadays
nowadays
high
high
high
royalty
royalty
lists
lists lists
English
English
writers
writers
that
that
write
write
about
about
bookmakers’
bookmakers’
reading
reading
reading
on
on
the
the
books
books
books
rank
N V A Adv
DetPro
P
rank
rank
rank
Criteria for classifying words
• Formal: e.g. English adverbs end in -ly
- but not vice versa: manly, kindly and cowardly are adjectives
• Semantic (meaning): e.g. Nouns refer to things
- but not always: love, kindness and air do not
• Distribution (syntactic use in sentences):
- the best, but sometimes odd, e.g. to classify books as anadjective in books rank
Base: root, stem
Affix: prefix, suffix
Word: Lexeme, word-form, grammatical word
Morphology, terms
- The shooter’s shots shot out like shooting stars
- The upshot of the shooting was upsetting
Lexemes Word-forms Grammatical words
SHOOT (V) shoot shoot (inf)shoot (pres)
shoots shoots (pres)shot shot (past)
shot (prf.ptc)shooting shooting (pres. ptc.)
shooting (gerund)SHOT (N) shot shot (sg)
shots shots (pl)shot’s (gen. sg.)shots’ (gen. pl)
SHOOTER (N) shooter shooter (sg)shooters shooters (pl)
shooter’s (gen. sg)shooters’ (gen. pl)
Affixes: prefix and suffix
Prefix
un s
Suffix
Suffix
abletouch
Base
Root = irreducible kernel of a word-form
Base = kernel of a word-form to which any affix may be added
Stem = base when added affixes are inflectional
Root, stem, base
touch able
Root/base
un
Base
s
Stem/base
Inflectional: turns a lexeme into a grammatical word
Derivational: turns a lexeme into another lexeme
Class-maintaining: -dom: king (N) + dom = kingdom (N)
Class-changing: -ly: king (N) + -ly = kingly (A)
Conversion: love (N) - love (V)
Morphology, types
Inflection & Derivation
write {writ} + {Ø} (= nil)
writes {writ} + {-s}
written {writ} + {-en}
wrote {writ} + {past}
writing {writ} + {-ing}
writs {writ} + {-s}
InflectionalMorphemes
writ {writ} + {-Ø}
writer {writ} + {-er}
Base MorphemeWordform
DerivationalMorphemes
Inflectional morphology, overview
Nouns: {-Ø | -s}
{-Ø | -s}
the category of Number
the category of Case
the category of Tense{{-Ø | -s} | -ed}
{-Ø | be + -en} the category of Voice
Verbs: {-Ø | -s} the category of Number
the category of Person
{-Ø | have + -en}
{-Ø | be + -ing}
the category of Aspect
Adjectives: {-Ø | -er | -est} the category of Comparison
The Inflection of NounsNumber
Irregulars
foot – feetgoose – geese
man – menwoman – women
knife – kniveswife – wives…
mouse – mice
child – childrenox – oxen
Regulars
N - N+{-s}
/hæt/ – /hæts/
/bɔɪ/ – /bɔɪz/
/bʌs/ – /bʌsɪz/
One plural morpheme {-s}, butthree regular variants:
The Inflection of Verbs
Several types of irregular verbs (see any textbook)
Verbs have three main forms: Base (V), Past Tense (V-ed), Perfect Participle (V-en)
NB. The V-ed form is the past tense form of any regular VThe V-en form is the Perfect Participle form from the type of irregular V represented by break
V
break
work
V-ed
broke
work-ed
V-en
brok-en
work-ed
In addition, any V may take the endings -s and -ing
The Inflection of Verbs
Regulars
Forms:
Functions:
V
work
InfinitiveImperativePresent Tense1st & 2nd P sgPresent Tense1st, 2nd, & 3rd P pl
V-ed/-en
work-ed
Past Tense(-ed)PerfectParticiple(-en)
V-s
work-s
Present3rd P sg
V-ing
work-ing
Present ParticipleGerund
The Inflection of AdjectivesIrregulars
good – better – best bad – worse – worst far – further – furthest (also regular)….
Regulars (only ’short’ adjectives; see any textbook)
Forms:
Functions:
A-est
great-est
Superlative
A-er
great-er
Comparative
A
great
Positive
- A lexeme that contains more than one root
Endocentric: beehive (a kind of hive), armchair (a kind of chair)
Appositional: maidservant (both a maid and a servant)
Exocentric: redskin (not a kind of skin), highbrow (not a kind of brow)
Compounds
There are three main types, depending on their meaning: