Introduction to Applied Introduction to Applied LinguisticsLinguistics

2-year College, Senior students2-year College, Senior students

2 hours, 18 weeks2 hours, 18 weeks

Spring semesterSpring semester

LEXICON OF THE ENGLISH LANGUAGE:LEXICON OF THE ENGLISH LANGUAGE:

Productive Ways of Word-formation in Modern Productive Ways of Word-formation in Modern EnglishEnglish

Professor: Lydmila KudrevatykhProfessor: Lydmila Kudrevatykh

Learning ActivitiesLearning Activities

• Preview material of a chapter at Preview material of a chapter at homehome

• Learn linguistic terminologyLearn linguistic terminology

• Listen to the teacher’s explanationsListen to the teacher’s explanations

• Do practical in classDo practical in class

• Correct mistakes under the Correct mistakes under the supervision of the teachersupervision of the teacher

1. Preview next week 1. Preview next week materialmaterial

2. Discuss definitions 2. Discuss definitions

and classifications and classifications

3. Do practical 3. Do practical

• Individual home workIndividual home work

• Teacher’s explanations Teacher’s explanations and presentationsand presentations

• Classroom activity:Classroom activity:Individual, pair- or group-Individual, pair- or group-work work

Course MethodsCourse Methods

Lesson plan Lesson plan in weeksin weeks

Ways of Word-Building in Modern EnglishWays of Word-Building in Modern English

1.1. Morphemic structure of a word;Morphemic structure of a word;2.2. Productive ways of word-building in Modern Productive ways of word-building in Modern

English: word-derivation;English: word-derivation;3.3. Word-derivation (cont);Word-derivation (cont);4.4. Word-composition;Word-composition;5.5. Word-composition (cont);Word-composition (cont);6.6. Conversion;Conversion;7.7. ShorteningShortening;;

8.8. Review;Review;9.9. Midterm.Midterm.

Lesson plan Lesson plan (continued) (continued)

Lexico-Semantic Groupings of Words;Lexico-Semantic Groupings of Words;Semantic Nature of a Word Semantic Nature of a Word

1.1. Synonyms;Synonyms;2.2. Antonyms; Antonyms; 3.3. HomonymsHomonyms;;

4.4. Hyponyms; ParonymsHyponyms; Paronyms;;

5.5. Metaphor;Metaphor;6.6. Metonymy;Metonymy;7.7. Idioms;Idioms;8.8. Review;Review;9.9. Final Test.Final Test.

Lexicon of the English languageLexicon of the English languageWhat is Lexicology? What is Lexicology?

LexiconLexicon of a language is its vocabulary including of a language is its vocabulary including its words and expressions. Linguistics studies the its words and expressions. Linguistics studies the lexicon in the course of Lexicology.lexicon in the course of Lexicology.Lexicology is a branch of Linguistics that studies Lexicology is a branch of Linguistics that studies the meaning the meaning and and the use of wordsthe use of words..

2 basic subdivisions of Lexicology: 2 basic subdivisions of Lexicology:

Morphology and SemanticsMorphology and Semantics

• Morphology studies Morphology studies forms of words.forms of words. • Semantics studies Semantics studies meanings of wordsmeanings of words..

What kind of words does Lexicology What kind of words does Lexicology study?study?

Lexicology mostly studies Lexicology mostly studies

lexical wordslexical words than than grammatical wordsgrammatical words

e.g.: e.g.: We are coming tonightWe are coming tonight by a 10 o’clock busby a 10 o’clock bus

Lexical words carry Lexical words carry the main meaning of a sentencethe main meaning of a sentence: : Coming , tonight, ten, o’clock, busComing , tonight, ten, o’clock, bus

Grammatical words make the sentence Grammatical words make the sentence grammatically grammatically completecomplete: : we, are, by, awe, are, by, a

Morphemic structure of a wordMorphemic structure of a word

Morphemes Morphemes are units smaller than a word each are units smaller than a word each having its sound form and a meaning: having its sound form and a meaning: tteacheach--er er (2), (2), helphelp-l-lessess--nessness (3), (3), sportssports--manman (2) (2)..

• Like a word Like a word - a morpheme is a - a morpheme is a two-sided two-sided unit that has unit that has a certain a certain sound-patternsound-pattern and and a meaninga meaning. .

• Unlike a word Unlike a word - a morpheme is - a morpheme is not an independent unit, not an independent unit, it isit is a constituent part of a worda constituent part of a word. .

Morphemes cannot be divided into smaller units Morphemes cannot be divided into smaller units without losing their meanings. without losing their meanings.

Types of Morphemes: Types of Morphemes: Free Lexical Morphemes Free Lexical Morphemes

Morphemes may be Morphemes may be freefree and and boundbound..

Free morphemes are used Free morphemes are used independentlyindependently..

Free lexical morphemes Free lexical morphemes are are rootsroots of words.of words.

They fulfill 2 functions:They fulfill 2 functions:• express lexical meaning of a word express lexical meaning of a word ((playplay, , playplays, s,

playiplaying)ng)• build up words by themselves (build up words by themselves (tteacheach, , househouse, , worldworld))

Types of Morphemes: Types of Morphemes: Bound Lexical Morphemes Bound Lexical Morphemes (p. 121)(p. 121)

Bound morphemes are Bound morphemes are dependent,dependent, constituent parts of constituent parts of wordswords

Bound lexical Bound lexical morphemes are mostly morphemes are mostly affixes affixes added to a added to a root.root.

Affixes include Affixes include prefixes prefixes andand suffixes: suffixes: • prefixesprefixes are used are used beforebefore the root ( the root (ununpleasantpleasant))• suffixes – suffixes – afterafter the root morpheme ( the root morpheme (helplhelplessess) )

Bound lexical morphemes build up new lexical meanings of wordsBound lexical morphemes build up new lexical meanings of words

Review QuestionsReview QuestionsMorphemic structure of a wordMorphemic structure of a word

1.1. What is a morpheme?What is a morpheme?

2.2. What is a root morpheme?What is a root morpheme?

3.3. What is an affixal morpheme?What is an affixal morpheme?

4.4. What is meant by “a suffix”?What is meant by “a suffix”?

5.5. What is meant by “a prefix”?What is meant by “a prefix”?

Practical 1Practical 1Analyze morphemic structures of the following Analyze morphemic structures of the following words:words:

Childhood, speaker, homeward, Childhood, speaker, homeward, unpredictable, booklet, debus, unpredictable, booklet, debus, misunderstanding, include, misunderstanding, include, enlarge, engine, disorganized, enlarge, engine, disorganized, deliver, detail, affectionateness, deliver, detail, affectionateness, underfed, water, discuss, underfed, water, discuss, realize, experience, daily, realize, experience, daily, evaluate,, estimation, elderly, evaluate,, estimation, elderly, infatuate, study, somber, infatuate, study, somber, surprise, assessment, destroy, surprise, assessment, destroy, divide, ex-wife, demoralization, divide, ex-wife, demoralization, undersigned, inaccessible, undersigned, inaccessible, impassable, remember, impassable, remember, frustratingly frustratingly

Examples:Examples:

table –table –• It consists of a root It consists of a root

morpheme: “table”;morpheme: “table”;

disappointment disappointment – – • It consists of 3 morphemes: It consists of 3 morphemes:

“dis-“, “appoint” and “-“dis-“, “appoint” and “-ment”;ment”;

• ““dis-” is a prefix,dis-” is a prefix,

• ““appoint” is a root appoint” is a root morpheme,morpheme,

• ““-ment” is a suffix;-ment” is a suffix;

Ways of Word-Building in Modern Ways of Word-Building in Modern EnglishEnglish

Word-buildingWord-building is a process of creating new words is a process of creating new words from the material available in the language from the material available in the language after certain structural and semantic patterns.after certain structural and semantic patterns.

2 ways of word formation:2 ways of word formation:• productiveproductive ways are widely used to form a lot of new ways are widely used to form a lot of new

words in Modern English words in Modern English ((word-derivation, word-composition, conversion, shorteningword-derivation, word-composition, conversion, shortening); );

• non-productivenon-productive ways are not frequently used for the ways are not frequently used for the production of new words in Modern English production of new words in Modern English ((blending, back-formation, sound-and-stress interchange, blending, back-formation, sound-and-stress interchange, sound imitationsound imitation))

Productive Ways of Word Formation:Productive Ways of Word Formation: Word-DerivationWord-Derivation

Word-derivation Word-derivation or or affixation affixation is the formation is the formation of new words by adding derivational affixes to of new words by adding derivational affixes to different types of stems – either different types of stems – either prefixesprefixes or or suffixessuffixes, or both , or both

As a result of word-derivation, As a result of word-derivation, a derivativea derivative (word) is built (word) is built upup

2 different ways of word-derivation:2 different ways of word-derivation:• prefixationprefixation and and

• suffixationsuffixation

Word-Derivation: Word-Derivation: Degrees of DerivationDegrees of Derivation

Degrees of word-derivation: Degrees of word-derivation:

• zero degree of derivation: lack of affixeszero degree of derivation: lack of affixese.g., e.g., to support, to maketo support, to make

• the first degree of derivation: only one affix is added the first degree of derivation: only one affix is added (either suffix or prefix)(either suffix or prefix)e.g., e.g., ununlock, kindllock, kindlyy

• the second degree of derivation: two affixes are the second degree of derivation: two affixes are added (either 2 suffixes or a suffix and a prefix, etc.) added (either 2 suffixes or a suffix and a prefix, etc.) e.g., e.g., helplhelplessnessessness, , disdishonesthonestyy , cf.: , cf.: ssesquiesquipedalpedalianistianist (3)(3)

Word-Derivation:Word-Derivation:PrefixationPrefixation

Prefixation is the formation of new words Prefixation is the formation of new words by adding prefixes to a word stemby adding prefixes to a word stem

Any prefixAny prefix has the following features in English: has the following features in English:

1.1. A meaning A meaning 2.2. A functionA function

In Modern English prefixes are used mainly to In Modern English prefixes are used mainly to build up new lexical meanings of words of the build up new lexical meanings of words of the same word-class.same word-class.

Prefixation: Prefixation: Meanings of PrefixesMeanings of Prefixes (1)(1)

Prefixes may be of different meanings.Prefixes may be of different meanings. They are:They are:• 1.1. negative prefixes: negative prefixes: ununemployed, employed, inincorrect, correct, aamoralmoral;;

• 2.2. reversative prefixes: reversative prefixes: ununfasten, fasten, dedeform, form, disdisconnect;connect;

• 3.3. prefixes of time and order: prefixes of time and order: prepre-war, -war, exex-president, -president, foreforetelltell;;

• 4.4. prefixes of repetition: prefixes of repetition: rerewrite, write, reremake;make;

• 5.5. locative prefixes: locative prefixes: subsubway, way, interintercontinental, continental, transtransoceanic, oceanic, overovercoatcoat;;

• 6. 6. pejorative prefixes: pejorative prefixes: pseudopseudoscientific, scientific, malmaltreattreat..(for more examples see handouts)(for more examples see handouts)

Prefixation: Prefixation: Functional UseFunctional Use (2)(2)

Functionally, English prefixes are used Functionally, English prefixes are used to create a new to create a new lexical meaninglexical meaning of a derivative word: of a derivative word:

an order – a an order – a disdisorderorder (noun – noun) (noun – noun)

pleasant – pleasant – ununpleasant pleasant (adjective – adjective)(adjective – adjective)

to read – to read – toto reread reread (verb – verb)(verb – verb)

Prefixation: Prefixation: Parts of speech formedParts of speech formed (3)(3)

In Modern English prefixes are not used to form a In Modern English prefixes are not used to form a derivative of a different word-classderivative of a different word-class

Only some prefixes may change a word-class of a Only some prefixes may change a word-class of a derivative. derivative.

They are: They are: bebe-, -, dede-, -, enen-:-: bebelittle, little, dedebus, bus, enentrain. train.

They are used to form Verbs from AdjectivesThey are used to form Verbs from Adjectives

Review QuestionsReview QuestionsWord-Derivation: Word-Derivation: PrefixesPrefixes

• What is word-formation?What is word-formation?

• What is meant by productive ways of word-formation?What is meant by productive ways of word-formation?

• What is word-derivation?What is word-derivation?

• How many degrees of derivation do you know?How many degrees of derivation do you know?

• What is prefixation?What is prefixation?

• What features do prefixes have in English?What features do prefixes have in English?

• What are the main groups of meanings that prefixes might What are the main groups of meanings that prefixes might possess?possess?

• What is the main function performed by prefixes?What is the main function performed by prefixes?

• What are the three prefixes that might change a word-class What are the three prefixes that might change a word-class of a derivative?of a derivative?

Prefixation: Prefixation: Practical 1Practical 1Give a full morphological analysis of prefixes in the following words

Disappointment, belittle, Disappointment, belittle, unbelievable, reread, unbelievable, reread, subtropical, enrich, ex-subtropical, enrich, ex-boss, indistinguishable, boss, indistinguishable, immoral, overestimate, immoral, overestimate, antinational, antinational, nonproductive, asocial, nonproductive, asocial, transcontinental, illegal, transcontinental, illegal, extraordinary, outgoing, extraordinary, outgoing, counterattack, abnormal, counterattack, abnormal, unsophisticated, impose, unsophisticated, impose, stepdaughter, retroactive, stepdaughter, retroactive, pseudovector, co-producer, pseudovector, co-producer, underestimating, derail underestimating, derail

Example:Example:

disrespect –disrespect –

• It’s a derivative. It’s a derivative.

• It consists of 2 morphemes It consists of 2 morphemes ““disdis-” and “-” and “respectrespect””

• ““disdis-” is a prefix -” is a prefix

• ““respect”respect” is a root is a root

• Prefix “Prefix “disdis-“ has the -“ has the meaning of a reversative meaning of a reversative actionaction

Word-derivation:Word-derivation: SuffixationSuffixation

SuffixationSuffixation is the formation of new words by is the formation of new words by adding suffixes to a word stem, adding suffixes to a word stem,

e.g., e.g., to play –to play –›› a play a playerer, an interest –, an interest –›› interestiinterestingng

English suffixes fulfill 2 main functions:English suffixes fulfill 2 main functions:

1)1) Build-up new lexical meaning of a derivative;Build-up new lexical meaning of a derivative;

2)2) Transfer a derivative into a new word-classTransfer a derivative into a new word-classe.ge.g., ., clear – clearclear – clearlyly (adjective –› adverb) (adjective –› adverb)

a wonder – wondera wonder – wonderfulful (noun –› adjective) (noun –› adjective)

to meet – a meetingto meet – a meeting (verb –› noun) (verb –› noun)

Suffixation: Suffixation: Functional UseFunctional Use (p. 126)(p. 126)

Suffixes derive a word into a Suffixes derive a word into a different word-classdifferent word-class: : • Verb Verb Noun: Noun: to form – formato form – formationtion• Verb Verb Adjective: Adjective: to invent – inventto invent – inventiveive • Adjective Adjective Verb: Verb: active – to activactive – to activate ate • Noun Noun Adjective: Adjective: a sister – sisterly, a sister – sisterly, etc. etc.

Only some suffixes Only some suffixes do not changedo not change the part of the part of speech of a derived word but transfer it speech of a derived word but transfer it into into another semantic groupanother semantic group: :

• cf., the suffix cf., the suffix –ship–ship changes changes concreteconcrete nouns to nouns to abstract abstract nouns, as in nouns, as in a champion - championa champion - championshipship, ,

a chairman - chairmana chairman - chairmanshipship; ; see also: see also: a piano – a piania piano – a pianistst, a dance – danci, a dance – dancingng, etc. , etc.

Suffixation:Suffixation: Functional UseFunctional Use (cont)(cont)

According to the part of speech formed, suffixes According to the part of speech formed, suffixes may be classified into the following groups:may be classified into the following groups:

• Noun-forming suffixesNoun-forming suffixes: -: -dom, -ness, -ist, -ism, -dom, -ness, -ist, -ism, -ment, -age, -ess;ment, -age, -ess;

• Adjective-forming suffixesAdjective-forming suffixes: : -able, -less, -ful, --able, -less, -ful, -ous, -ish, -ative;ous, -ish, -ative;

• Verb-forming suffixesVerb-forming suffixes: : -en, -fy, -ize, -ate;-en, -fy, -ize, -ate;

• Adverb-forming suffixesAdverb-forming suffixes: : -ly, -ward-ly, -ward

(for examples, please, see handouts)(for examples, please, see handouts)

Suffixation: Suffixation: Meaning of DerivativesMeaning of Derivatives (p. 126)(p. 126)

Suffixes express various meanings in frames Suffixes express various meanings in frames of certain parts of of certain parts of speech.speech.

Noun-forming suffixes Noun-forming suffixes may express the following meanings:may express the following meanings:• agent, profession or occupation: agent, profession or occupation: -er, -eer, -ant, -ist-er, -eer, -ant, -ist;;• appurtenanceappurtenance: -an: -an ((GermanGerman)), , -ian-ian ((Russian), Russian), -ese-ese ((JapaneseJapanese););• collectivity: collectivity: --age, -dom, -hood, -shipage, -dom, -hood, -ship;;• abstract idea: abstract idea: -age, -ence, ancy, -dom, -hood, -ment, -ism, --age, -ence, ancy, -dom, -hood, -ment, -ism, -

tion, -th, -ty.tion, -th, -ty.

Adjective-forming suffixes Adjective-forming suffixes may express: may express: • presence of quality (presence of quality (--ous, -ful, -ableous, -ful, -able); ); • absence of quality absence of quality (-less(-less););

Verb-forming suffixes Verb-forming suffixes have meanings of:have meanings of:• to cause, to become to cause, to become (-en, -ize, -fy(-en, -ize, -fy))• To act in a specific way To act in a specific way (-ate(-ate))

Suffixation:Suffixation: SplintersSplinters

SplintersSplinters are parts of words which appeared as are parts of words which appeared as a result of a result of clipping clipping the end or the beginning of a word: the end or the beginning of a word:

minimini- (from: - (from: miniminiature) ature) miniminicar, car, minirminiradioadio; ; maxi-maxi- (from: (from: maximaximum) mum) maximaxi-house, -house, maximaxi-sculpture-sculpture; ; Euro-Euro- (from: (from: EuroEuropean) pean) EuroEuromarket, market, EuroEurotunnel, tunnel, EuroEurocardcard,,

--nappernapper (from: kid (from: kidnappernapper) ) busbusnappernapper, dog, dognappernapper; ; --omatomat (from: aut (from: automatomat) ) cashcashomatomat, laundr, laundromatomat; ; --eteriaeteria (from: caf (from: cafeteriaeteria) ) bookbooketeriaeteria, groc, groceteriaeteria; ; --quakequake (from: earth (from: earthquakequake) ) MoonMoonquakequake, youth, youthquakequake; ; --tel tel (from: ho(from: hoteltel) ) motel, boamotel, boateltel, airt, airtelel; ; --burgerburger (from: ham (from: hamburgerburger) ) fishfishburgerburger, beef, beefburgerburger;;; ; --scapescape (from: land (from: landscapescape) ) seaseascapescape, town, townscapescape; ; etc. etc.

Review QuestionsReview QuestionsWord-Derivation: Word-Derivation: SuffixesSuffixes

1.1. What is meant by suffixation?What is meant by suffixation?

2.2. What are the main functions performed by What are the main functions performed by suffixes?suffixes?

3.3. Name 5 noun-forming suffixes. Give examples.Name 5 noun-forming suffixes. Give examples.

4.4. Name 5 adjective-forming suffixes. Give Name 5 adjective-forming suffixes. Give examples.examples.

5.5. Name verb-forming suffixes. Give examples.Name verb-forming suffixes. Give examples.

6.6. Name adverb-forming suffixes. Give examples.Name adverb-forming suffixes. Give examples.

7.7.   What is understood by splinters?What is understood by splinters?

Suffixation: Suffixation: Practical 1Practical 1Give a full morphological analysis of the Give a full morphological analysis of the following wordsfollowing words

Government, unpredictable, Government, unpredictable, winner, fruitfulness, winner, fruitfulness, businesslike, desperate, businesslike, desperate, international, buddy, lioness, international, buddy, lioness, illiterate, leadership, illiterate, leadership, companionship, glorious, companionship, glorious, interviewee, hopeless, piglet, interviewee, hopeless, piglet, cookery, inaccessible, cookery, inaccessible, glorious, martyrdom, ex-glorious, martyrdom, ex-builder, immediate, actor, builder, immediate, actor, addressee, easily, addressee, easily, description, subdivision, description, subdivision, summarize, sharpen, summarize, sharpen, interesting, careful, reddish, interesting, careful, reddish, designate, considerate, designate, considerate, designative, designatory, designative, designatory, graduator, obstinateness, graduator, obstinateness, soldiery, nominee, armful soldiery, nominee, armful

Example:Example:

friendship –friendship –

• It’s a derivative. It’s a derivative. • It consists of 2 morphemes It consists of 2 morphemes

“friend” and “-ship”.“friend” and “-ship”.• ““friend” is a root,friend” is a root,• ““-ship” is a suffix. -ship” is a suffix.

Suffix “-ship“ has a meaning Suffix “-ship“ has a meaning of “a condition of being of “a condition of being a a friendfriend”; ”;

• It doesn’t change the part of It doesn’t change the part of speech of a derivative;speech of a derivative;

• It is a Noun-forming suffix.It is a Noun-forming suffix.• ..

Suffixation:Suffixation: Practical 2Practical 2Define meanings of suffixes in the following wordsDefine meanings of suffixes in the following words

1.1. Define meanings of Noun-forming suffixes:Define meanings of Noun-forming suffixes:Anticipation, novelette, employee, examiner, Anticipation, novelette, employee, examiner, lioness, birdie, nestling, booklet, boredom, lioness, birdie, nestling, booklet, boredom, performance, temperature, partnership, performance, temperature, partnership, similarity, easiness, reality, tourism, humanistsimilarity, easiness, reality, tourism, humanist

2.2. Define meanings of Adjective-forming suffixes:Define meanings of Adjective-forming suffixes:Hopeless, doable, brownish, governmental, Hopeless, doable, brownish, governmental, useful, suitable, funny, jealous, notional, useful, suitable, funny, jealous, notional, businesslike, informative, watered, kind-businesslike, informative, watered, kind-hearted, capitalist, desperate, starry, starred, hearted, capitalist, desperate, starry, starred, woolen, illiteratewoolen, illiterate

Suffixation:Suffixation: Practical 2 Practical 2 (cont)(cont)

Define meanings of suffixes in the following wordsDefine meanings of suffixes in the following words

3. 3. Define meanings of Verb-forming suffixes:Define meanings of Verb-forming suffixes:Generalize, demonstrate, purify, shorten, Generalize, demonstrate, purify, shorten, identify, illustrate, deliberate, circulate, identify, illustrate, deliberate, circulate, activate, dictate, illustrate, analyze, widen, activate, dictate, illustrate, analyze, widen, simplify, strengthen, enumerate, deafen simplify, strengthen, enumerate, deafen

4. Define meanings of Adverb-forming suffixes:4. Define meanings of Adverb-forming suffixes:Clearly, wonderfully, downtown-ward, inward, Clearly, wonderfully, downtown-ward, inward, affectionately, frustratinglyaffectionately, frustratingly

Productive Ways of Word-Formation:Productive Ways of Word-Formation: CompoundingCompounding (p.122 – 124)(p.122 – 124)

• CompoundingCompounding is combining of 2 or more stems is combining of 2 or more stems of words in order to form a third word with a new of words in order to form a third word with a new meaning: meaning: e.g.,e.g., a handbag, duty-free, clip-claps, wait-and-seea handbag, duty-free, clip-claps, wait-and-see

• The second word usually The second word usually identifiesidentifies an object while an object while

the first word the first word specifies specifies what kind of object it is: what kind of object it is: water water tanktank/ tank / tank waterwater, ,

washing washing machinemachine/ machine / machine washingwashing, ,

table table gamegame/ game / game tabletable

Compounding:Compounding:Structural classification Structural classification (1)(1) (p. 122)(p. 122)

Structurally, compounds are characterized by a Structurally, compounds are characterized by a specific order and arrangement of stems. specific order and arrangement of stems.

• It is usually It is usually the second stemthe second stem that is that is a structural a structural and and a semantic center a semantic center of a compound: of a compound:

a matcha matchboxbox, free, freehandedhanded, well , well knownknown..

The second component is often called “The second component is often called “the headthe head” ” of a compound word, and the first component – its of a compound word, and the first component – its ““modifiermodifier”.”.

Compounding:Compounding: Structural classificationStructural classification (cont)(cont) Degree of semantic independence ofDegree of semantic independence of stemsstems (p.122)(p.122)

According to the degree of semantic independence According to the degree of semantic independence of stems compounds might be of 2 different types: of stems compounds might be of 2 different types: subordinatesubordinate and and coordinatecoordinate compounds. compounds.

Subordinate compoundsSubordinate compounds are words the components are words the components of which are neither structurally nor semantically of which are neither structurally nor semantically equal in importance. equal in importance. It is the second component that forms the It is the second component that forms the semantic and structural center of a compound semantic and structural center of a compound word: word: e.g., e.g., aa texttextbookbook, a share, a shareholderholder..

　　　　

Compounding: Compounding: Structural classificationStructural classification (cont) (cont)

Coordinate additive compoundsCoordinate additive compounds (p.122)(p.122)

In In coordinate compoundscoordinate compounds both stems are semantically equal in both stems are semantically equal in importance. importance.

Coordinate compounds fall into two subgroups: Coordinate compounds fall into two subgroups: • additive compounds and additive compounds and • reduplicative compounds. reduplicative compounds.

• Additive compounds Additive compounds are formed from stems of are formed from stems of independently functioning words of the same part of independently functioning words of the same part of speech. speech.

• They denote an object that is two things at the same time: They denote an object that is two things at the same time: e.g.,e.g., Chinese-Canadian, director-manager, parent-teacher Chinese-Canadian, director-manager, parent-teacher (association)(association). .

Compounding:Compounding: Structural Structural classificationclassification (cont)(cont)

Coordinate reduplicative compounds Coordinate reduplicative compounds (p.122)(p.122)

• ReduplicativeReduplicative compoundscompounds are made up by repetition of are made up by repetition of the first stem; as a result duplicates are made: the first stem; as a result duplicates are made: fifty-fifty, fifty-fifty, tick-tocktick-tock, etc., etc.

Reduplicative compounds may be of 3 kinds:Reduplicative compounds may be of 3 kinds:1.1. an an exact repetition exact repetition of the first stem in a word: of the first stem in a word: hushhush-hush, -hush,

goodygoody-goody, -goody, byebye-bye-bye;;2.2. variation of variation of consonantsconsonants in the root: in the root: cl clap-ap-trtrap, ap, wwilly-illy-nnillyilly3.3. variation of variation of vowelsvowels in the root: in the root: ch chiitchtchaat, zt, ziigzgzaag, pg, piing-ng-

ppoong.ng.

Sometimes such words are called “Sometimes such words are called “ricochet wordsricochet words”.”.

Compounding: Compounding: Structural Structural classification classification (cont)(cont)

Neo-classical compounds Neo-classical compounds (p. 124)(p. 124)

Some compound words contain parts which are not Some compound words contain parts which are not themselves independent words. themselves independent words.

They are mostly compounds formed They are mostly compounds formed from Latin and from Latin and Greek loanwordsGreek loanwords, for example, in a word like , for example, in a word like bibliographybibliography neither neither biblio-biblio-, nor, nor - -graphygraphy are words in are words in Modern English. Modern English.

Such compounds are treated as Such compounds are treated as neo-classical neo-classical compoundscompounds and their parts are defined as “ and their parts are defined as “combining combining formsforms”:”: bio-, electro-, tele-, -ology, -phile, -scopebio-, electro-, tele-, -ology, -phile, -scope e.g.,e.g., biography, telescope, Philology biography, telescope, Philology

Compounding: Compounding: Practical 1Practical 1Define types of the following compounds according Define types of the following compounds according to the degree of their structural and semantic to the degree of their structural and semantic indepenindependence:dence:

1. subordinate 1. subordinate 2. coordinate: additive, 2. coordinate: additive, reduplicative: reduplicative:

(complete repetition, variation of consonants/vowels)(complete repetition, variation of consonants/vowels)

One-sided, way-laid, onrush, hotchpotch, two-party (system), saw dust, shipshape, tricolor, freshman, tear-gas, hustle-bustle, goody-goody, take-home, week-end, week-ender, go-between, lipstick, fellow-lodger, willy-nilly, athlete-gymnast, triennial, eye-lid, Anglo-American, tick-tacks, hoity-toity, bye-bye, round-faced, star-chart, tit-bit, woman-hater, hotchpotch, helter-skelter, finger-print, director-manager, hurdy-gurdy, a blow-ball, hobnob, dairymaid, Afro-Asian, eyelevel, standpoint, hush-hush, director-producer, quake-stricken, slink-pink, shake-shack, mother-daughter (relationships), detective-policeman, flip-flop, Chinese-Canadian

Compounding: Compounding: Morphological ClassificationMorphological Classification (2)(2)

Types of stems joined togetherTypes of stems joined together (p. 124)(p. 124)

According to the morphological types of stems joined According to the morphological types of stems joined together, compounds are subdivided into 2 groups: together, compounds are subdivided into 2 groups: neutralneutral and and syntacticsyntactic..

Neutral compoundsNeutral compounds may be of 3 types: may be of 3 types:1.1. compounds proper compounds proper that are formed by simple stems: that are formed by simple stems: ice-cold,ice-cold, bedroom, tallboybedroom, tallboy;;2.2. derivational compounds derivational compounds one of the stems of which is one of the stems of which is derived: derived: kind-heartkind-hearted,ed, music-lovmusic-loverer, absent-mind, absent-mindednessedness, , grass-hoppgrass-hopperer;;3.3. compounds with a shortened stemcompounds with a shortened stem:: TT-shirt, -shirt, TVTV-set, -set, phonephone call. call.

Compounding:Compounding: Morphological Morphological

ClassificationClassification (2)(2) longest words in Englishlongest words in English

otorhinolaryngological (22 letters), immunoelectrophoretically (25 letters), psychophysicotherapeutics (25 letters), thyroparathyroidectomized (25 letters), pneumoencephalographically (26 letters), radioimmunoelectrophoresis (26 letters), psychoneuroendocrinological (27 letters) hepaticocholangiogastrostomy (28 letters), spectrophotofluorometrically (28 letters), pseudopseudohypoparathyroidism (30 letters).

Compounding:Compounding: Morphological Morphological ClassificationClassification Types of stems joined together Types of stems joined together (p. 124)(p. 124)

Syntactic compoundsSyntactic compounds consist of elements consist of elements typical typical of a phrase of a phrase or or a sentence a sentence (articles, prepositions, (articles, prepositions, particles, adverbs, etc.): particles, adverbs, etc.): e.g.,e.g., Jack-of-all-trades; Jack-of-all-trades;

a go-between, a go-between,

a mother-in-law, a mother-in-law,

a sit-in, a sit-in,

a forget-me-not, a forget-me-not,

a man-of-war, a man-of-war,

up-to-date, up-to-date, etc etc

Compounding: Compounding: Practical 2Practical 2Define types of the following compounds according Define types of the following compounds according to the morphological types of stems joined to the morphological types of stems joined together:together:

1. neutral1. neutral (proper, derivational, with shortened stem)(proper, derivational, with shortened stem)

2. 2. syntacticsyntactic

Heart-felt (talk), eye-witness (video), difficult-to-Heart-felt (talk), eye-witness (video), difficult-to-understand (proposal), shoe-maker, first-time understand (proposal), shoe-maker, first-time (voter), Jack-o’-lantern, drive-in (restaurant), hanky-(voter), Jack-o’-lantern, drive-in (restaurant), hanky-panky, e-mail, walk-in (closet), four-volume (piece), panky, e-mail, walk-in (closet), four-volume (piece), week-ender, sit-in (demonstration), larger-than-life week-ender, sit-in (demonstration), larger-than-life (character), merry-go-round, T-shirt, icebound (character), merry-go-round, T-shirt, icebound (waters), shilly-shally, coin-box, actor-manager, (waters), shilly-shally, coin-box, actor-manager, stand-up (meal), puffed-up, short-sighted, shooting-stand-up (meal), puffed-up, short-sighted, shooting-star, sitter-in, paper-money, panic-stricken, star, sitter-in, paper-money, panic-stricken, detective-manager, stay-at-home (moms), a feel-detective-manager, stay-at-home (moms), a feel-good (factor)good (factor)

Compounding:Compounding: Semantic ClassificationSemantic Classification (3)(3)

Degree of motivationDegree of motivation (p. 124)(p. 124)

Semantically, compounds are treated as Semantically, compounds are treated as idiomaticidiomatic or or non-idiomaticnon-idiomatic compounds compounds

of different degrees of motivationof different degrees of motivation

• The meaning of a The meaning of a non-idiomaticnon-idiomatic compound word can compound word can be deduced from the meanings of its components: be deduced from the meanings of its components: a reading-room, an evening gowna reading-room, an evening gown. .

• The meaning of an The meaning of an idiomaticidiomatic compound cannot be compound cannot be defined from the meanings of their stems and the defined from the meanings of their stems and the degree of semantic cohesion of their constituent degree of semantic cohesion of their constituent parts is very different, cf.: parts is very different, cf.: bull-in-a-china-shopbull-in-a-china-shop (politics).(politics).

Compounding:Compounding: Semantic ClassificationSemantic Classification (3)(3)

Motivated compoundsMotivated compounds (p. 123)(p. 123)

According to the degree of their motivation, According to the degree of their motivation, compounds may be of 3 types:compounds may be of 3 types:

• completely motivated, completely motivated, • partially motivated, and partially motivated, and

• completely non-motivated. completely non-motivated.

Non-idiomaticNon-idiomatic compounds are compounds are motivatedmotivated units. units.

In In completely motivated compoundscompletely motivated compounds both components are used in both components are used in their direct meanings: their direct meanings: shoemaker, headache, street lampshoemaker, headache, street lamp. .

In In partially motivated compoundspartially motivated compounds one component is used in its one component is used in its direct meaning, while the other is used in its indirect meaning: direct meaning, while the other is used in its indirect meaning: e.g.,e.g., a a flowerbed, a castle-builder, hotdogflowerbed, a castle-builder, hotdog..

Compounding:Compounding: Semantic ClassificationSemantic Classification (3)(3)

Non-mNon-motivated compounds otivated compounds (p. 123)(p. 123)

IdiomaticIdiomatic compounds are compounds are non-motivatednon-motivated units. units.

Completely non-motivated compoundsCompletely non-motivated compounds lack any lack any motivation, i.e. there is no connection between the motivation, i.e. there is no connection between the meaning of a compound and the meanings of its meaning of a compound and the meanings of its components components

e.g.,e.g., fiddlesticks fiddlesticks means “nonsense”, means “nonsense”, eye-washeye-wash -“something that is said or done to deceive a -“something that is said or done to deceive a

person”person” red tapered tape – “bureaucracy”. – “bureaucracy”.

Compounding:Compounding: Practical 3Practical 3Define the degree of motivation in the following Define the degree of motivation in the following compounds:compounds:

(completely motivated, partially motivated, non-motivated)(completely motivated, partially motivated, non-motivated)

a cold duck, a grasshopper, hoodwink, a tricycle, a a cold duck, a grasshopper, hoodwink, a tricycle, a chatterbox, a cool beggar, a loudspeaker, horse-chatterbox, a cool beggar, a loudspeaker, horse-collar, earphones, huntsman, a bus-driver, hot-collar, earphones, huntsman, a bus-driver, hot-house, fireproof, higgledy-piggledy, hotheaded, a house, fireproof, higgledy-piggledy, hotheaded, a bookworm, hopscotch, star-dust, man-of-war, happy-bookworm, hopscotch, star-dust, man-of-war, happy-go-lucky, red tape, will-o’-the-wisp, kith-and-kin, go-lucky, red tape, will-o’-the-wisp, kith-and-kin, devil-may-care, hide-and-seek, hand-to-hand devil-may-care, hide-and-seek, hand-to-hand (fighting), hang-dog, hen-hearted, herring-bone, (fighting), hang-dog, hen-hearted, herring-bone, highwayman, heyday, highball, holystone, hugger-highwayman, heyday, highball, holystone, hugger-mugger, hush-money, tableland, onlooker, out-and-mugger, hush-money, tableland, onlooker, out-and-out, bolster savings, hot dog, hot-headed, humbug, out, bolster savings, hot dog, hot-headed, humbug, scandalmonger, shorthand, singsong, wool-scandalmonger, shorthand, singsong, wool-gathering, runoff, walkie-talkiegathering, runoff, walkie-talkie

Compounding:Compounding: Functional ClassificationFunctional Classification (p.123)(p.123)

Functionally, compounds are viewed as words of different Functionally, compounds are viewed as words of different parts of speech: parts of speech: their word-class is often indicated by the second stem their word-class is often indicated by the second stem

Compound words may belong to different word-classes:Compound words may belong to different word-classes:1.1. nounsnouns: : aa birthday, a weekend, a single motherbirthday, a weekend, a single mother;;2.2. adjectivesadjectives: : long-legged, peace-loving, easy-goinglong-legged, peace-loving, easy-going;;3.3. adverbsadverbs: : everywhere, outdoors, insideeverywhere, outdoors, inside;;4.4. pronounspronouns: : someone, nothingsomeone, nothing;;5.5. connectivesconnectives: : within, withoutwithin, without;;6.6. verbs formed by means of conversionverbs formed by means of conversion: : to blacklist, to to blacklist, to

blackmail;blackmail;7.7. verbs with verbal and adverbial stemsverbs with verbal and adverbial stems: : to bypass, to offsetto bypass, to offset..

Compounding: Compounding: Functional ClassificationFunctional Classification Word-class patterns of compound words Word-class patterns of compound words (pp. 123 – (pp. 123 – 124)124)

• N + N: N + N: railway, summerhouse, cigar-ash;railway, summerhouse, cigar-ash;• Adj + N: Adj + N: short-term, blackberry, bluestocking;short-term, blackberry, bluestocking;• N + Part I: N + Part I: soul-baring, fence-building, law-making,soul-baring, fence-building, law-making,• N + Part II: N + Part II: horror-struck, smoke-blackened, horror-struck, smoke-blackened,

technology-rejected;technology-rejected;• Adj + Part II: Adj + Part II: short-lived, ill-prepared;short-lived, ill-prepared;• Adv + Part II: Adv + Part II: well known, badly-injured, half-seen;well known, badly-injured, half-seen; • Adj + Part I: Adj + Part I: freethinking, aggressive-sounding, freethinking, aggressive-sounding,

slow-burning;slow-burning;• N + Adj: N + Adj: air tight, tobacco-mad;air tight, tobacco-mad;• Num + N: Num + N: four-volume, one-vote, first-time; four-volume, one-vote, first-time; etc.etc.

Compounding: Compounding: Practical 4Practical 4Identify functional patterns according to which the Identify functional patterns according to which the following compound words are built following compound words are built

a newly-created (concept), walkie-talkie, a child-a newly-created (concept), walkie-talkie, a child-lover, a one-earner (household), a wipe-clean lover, a one-earner (household), a wipe-clean (carpet), fee-paying (school), well-meant, face-to-(carpet), fee-paying (school), well-meant, face-to-face, small-minded, man-of-the-people face, small-minded, man-of-the-people (impression), job-for-life (security), single-(impression), job-for-life (security), single-mothers, something-must-be-doner, Charles-and-mothers, something-must-be-doner, Charles-and-Di (case), Pepsi Generation, a gap year, a theatre-Di (case), Pepsi Generation, a gap year, a theatre-goer, feel-good (factor), money-making goer, feel-good (factor), money-making (business), short-lived (plan)(business), short-lived (plan)

Compounding: Compounding: Syntactic ClassificationSyntactic Classification (5)(5)Functions in a Sentence Functions in a Sentence (for details see: pp. 100 – (for details see: pp. 100 – 105)105)

In a sentence, compound words fulfill different functions. In a sentence, compound words fulfill different functions. They may be used as the following members of a sentence:They may be used as the following members of a sentence:

• Subject Subject - - Japan’s old Japan’s old job-for-life securityjob-for-life security has has vanishedvanished……

• Object Object – – I forced my I forced my manservantmanservant to help me to help me……• PredicatePredicate – – My mentor was a great My mentor was a great watermanwaterman. .

Langdon backpedaledLangdon backpedaled;;• Attribute Attribute – – A definite A definite end-of-the-holidayend-of-the-holiday gloom was gloom was

in the air;in the air;• Adverbial modifierAdverbial modifier of manner, time and order – of manner, time and order –

… … beautifully written in a neat beautifully written in a neat penmanshippenmanship……… … He sat white knuckled in a He sat white knuckled in a passenger seatpassenger seat……

Compounding: Practical 5Compounding: Practical 5Identify syntactic functions of the following Identify syntactic functions of the following compounds in a sentence: compounds in a sentence:

((subject, object, predicate, attribute, adverbial modifiersubject, object, predicate, attribute, adverbial modifier, etc.), etc.)

1.1. He He was a little, white-faced, clean-shaven, grizzly-haired was a little, white-faced, clean-shaven, grizzly-haired fellow…fellow…

2.2. I made a rash decision forcing my manservant to help me bring I made a rash decision forcing my manservant to help me bring him to England.him to England.

3.3. … … if she has to cook a crab, or anything else still alive, she if she has to cook a crab, or anything else still alive, she grows teary-eyed and sings to them (Geisha).grows teary-eyed and sings to them (Geisha).

4.4. … … moving to the portentous stuff – like why-oh-why does he moving to the portentous stuff – like why-oh-why does he keep saying… keep saying…

5.5. ……it amounts to a keep-your-nerve-and-keep-your-chin-up it amounts to a keep-your-nerve-and-keep-your-chin-up appeal to Tory troops…appeal to Tory troops…

6.6. They shared an uninhibited, girl-behaving-badly attitude.They shared an uninhibited, girl-behaving-badly attitude.7.7. They had swallowed all his dim-witted lies (J.K. Rowling).They had swallowed all his dim-witted lies (J.K. Rowling).8.8. Sauniere was a no-brainer.Sauniere was a no-brainer.9.9. Langdon sat white-knuckled in passenger seat, twisted Langdon sat white-knuckled in passenger seat, twisted

backwardbackward 10.10.The team conducted its review on-site. The team conducted its review on-site. 11.11.The runoff from farmland can carry dirty water into the river.The runoff from farmland can carry dirty water into the river.

Compounding: Compounding: Phonetic Classification Phonetic Classification (p. 123)(p. 123)

Phonetically, a compound word gets Phonetically, a compound word gets a new stress patterna new stress pattern. .

Compounds may be built according to the following stress Compounds may be built according to the following stress patterns:patterns:

1.1. primary stressprimary stress on the first component (┴ ─): on the first component (┴ ─): doorway, blackboard.doorway, blackboard.

2.2. double stressdouble stress, i.e. primary stress on the first component , i.e. primary stress on the first component and secondary stress on the second component (┴ ┬): and secondary stress on the second component (┴ ┬):

blood-vessel, washing-machine.blood-vessel, washing-machine.3.3. level stresslevel stress – both stems possess individual stresses(┴ ┴): – both stems possess individual stresses(┴ ┴):

open-minded, grass-green.open-minded, grass-green.

Primary stress is traditionally typical of Primary stress is traditionally typical of nouns,nouns, Secondary and level stress – of Secondary and level stress – of adjectivesadjectives and and adjectival groupsadjectival groups. .

Compounding: Compounding: Graphical Classification Graphical Classification (p. 123)(p. 123)

Compounds could be written in various ways. According to Compounds could be written in various ways. According to the means of connection, compounds are divided into four the means of connection, compounds are divided into four groups:groups:

1. compounds formed by 1. compounds formed by simple placingsimple placing one stem after one stem after another without any linking element: another without any linking element: headache, warpath, flowerpot;headache, warpath, flowerpot;

2. compounds stems of which are coined with the help of 2. compounds stems of which are coined with the help of linking letterslinking letters such as such as --oo-, --, -ii-, --, -ss-:-: AfrAfroo-Asian, hand-Asian, handiicraft, statecraft, statessman, neurman, neurooscience; science;

3. compounds written with 3. compounds written with a hyphena hyphen: : third-rate, best-seller, well-being; third-rate, best-seller, well-being;

4. compounds written as 4. compounds written as separate wordsseparate words: : a writing table, a dining room, a school bus, single a writing table, a dining room, a school bus, single mothers.mothers.

Compounding: Compounding: Practical 6Practical 6Define graphical types of connections in the Define graphical types of connections in the following compounds:following compounds:

(simple placing, linking letters, a hyphen, separate writing)(simple placing, linking letters, a hyphen, separate writing)

Handicraft, quick-witted, hustle-bustle, snowman, Handicraft, quick-witted, hustle-bustle, snowman, Austro-Asian, buttercup, saw dust, speedometer, Austro-Asian, buttercup, saw dust, speedometer, hue and cry, bumble-bee, hump-backed, hurdy-hue and cry, bumble-bee, hump-backed, hurdy-gurdy, sportsman, handiwork, hit-or-miss, gurdy, sportsman, handiwork, hit-or-miss, Morphosyntax, borderline, anthropologist, Morphosyntax, borderline, anthropologist, statesman statesman

Compounding: Compounding: Practical 7Practical 7 Give a full morphological analysis of the following Give a full morphological analysis of the following compound words:compound words:

Buttonhole, fifty-fifty, father-in-Buttonhole, fifty-fifty, father-in-law, make-up, hush-hush, wait-law, make-up, hush-hush, wait-and-see, peace-fighter, pell-and-see, peace-fighter, pell-mell, bookmaker, tiptoe, mell, bookmaker, tiptoe, progressive-minded (people), progressive-minded (people), nuclear-powder (submarines), nuclear-powder (submarines), bye-bye, a paper-littered table, bye-bye, a paper-littered table, actor-producer, riff-raff, evil-actor-producer, riff-raff, evil-hearted (people), put-it-hearted (people), put-it-together toy set, sit-on-the-together toy set, sit-on-the-fence (policy), hand-washable fence (policy), hand-washable (clothes), clip-clap, color-(clothes), clip-clap, color-blinded (people), duty-free blinded (people), duty-free (goods), a short-staffed (goods), a short-staffed (office), middle-of-the-roader, (office), middle-of-the-roader, higgledy-piggledy, looker-on, higgledy-piggledy, looker-on, (the) not-always-appropriate (the) not-always-appropriate (methods), teacher-made (methods), teacher-made (tests), coach-manager, flip-(tests), coach-manager, flip-flop, Morphosemantics, flop, Morphosemantics, detective-managerdetective-manager

He grew a real He grew a real woman-haterwoman-hater

• It is a neutral derivational It is a neutral derivational compound word; compound word;

• It’s formed by the pattern It’s formed by the pattern N + V-er= N; N + V-er= N;

• It is a compound noun; It is a compound noun; • It is a compound of the It is a compound of the

subordinate type; subordinate type; • It is a completely motivated It is a completely motivated

compound;compound;• The two stems are joined The two stems are joined

together by a hyphen; together by a hyphen;

CompoundingQuiz: Sample questions 1

1. What is word-composition (compounding)?2. Which word is a structural center of a compound word: the first or

the second?3. Which word is a semantic center of a compound word: the first or

the second?4. How are compounds classified according to the degree of

semantic independence of stems?5. Characterize subordinate compounds. Give definitions and

examples.6. Characterize coordinate compounds. Give definitions and

examples.7. Name groups of the coordinate compounds.8. Characterize additive compounds. Give definitions and examples.9. Characterize reduplicative compounds. Give definitions and

examples.10. What is meant by neoclassical compounds? Give definitions and

examples.

CompoundingQuiz: Sample questions 2

1. How are compounds classified according to the types of stems joined together? Give definitions and examples.

2. What is meant by neutral compounds? Give definitions and examples.

3. What is meant by syntactic compounds? Give definitions and examples.

4. How are compounds classified according to the degree of their motivation? Give definitions and examples.

5. What functions can compounds fulfill in a sentence? Give definitions and examples.

6. Give 5 patterns of compounding and illustrate them with examples.

7. How are compounds characterized from phonetic point of view?

8. Name ways of writing of compound words.

Productive Ways of Word-Formation:Productive Ways of Word-Formation: ConversionConversion (p. 126)(p. 126)

ConversionConversion is a process of word formation when a word is a process of word formation when a word is converted from one word-class to another without is converted from one word-class to another without any changes of a form, but any changes of a form, but only through the changes only through the changes in its paradigm:in its paradigm: to cut – a cut, to swim – a swim, a to cut – a cut, to swim – a swim, a shoulder – to shoulder.shoulder – to shoulder.ParadigmParadigm is an ordered is an ordered set of grammatical forms set of grammatical forms of a of a certain part of speech – certain part of speech – noun, verb, adjective, adverb (p. 73): noun, verb, adjective, adverb (p. 73): nouns: nouns: a girl – girls, a girl – girl’s; a girl – girls, a girl – girl’s; verbs:verbs: to write – wrote – written – writing – have written – will to write – wrote – written – writing – have written – will write, write, etc.etc.

Conversion occurred as a result of historical processes – Conversion occurred as a result of historical processes – • leveling of endings, leveling of endings, • reduction of unstressed vowels, reduction of unstressed vowels, • simplification of stems, etc. simplification of stems, etc.

Conversion:Conversion: Historical background Historical background (p. 126)(p. 126)

In the history of the English language words like In the history of the English language words like love – to love, love – to love, work – to work, smoke – to smoke, answer – to answer, drink – to work – to work, smoke – to smoke, answer – to answer, drink – to drinkdrink had different morphological features and possessed their had different morphological features and possessed their own special paradigms: own special paradigms: OE OE lufulufu (love) – (love) – lufianlufian (to love), (to love), answaruanswaru (an answer) – (an answer) – andswarian andswarian (to answer), (to answer), drinkudrinku (a drink) - (a drink) - drinkandrinkan (to drink), (to drink), smockasmocka (a smoke) – (a smoke) – smockiansmockian (to smoke). (to smoke).

Complicated morphological changes caused by the analytical Complicated morphological changes caused by the analytical tendencies in the development of the grammatical structure of the tendencies in the development of the grammatical structure of the English language resulted in English language resulted in accidental identity of verbal and accidental identity of verbal and nominal formsnominal forms..

Cases of conversion in the XIV-th century Cases of conversion in the XIV-th century imitatedimitated such pairs of such pairs of words in analogy for they were: words in analogy for they were:

• numerous in the vocabulary and numerous in the vocabulary and • subconsciously accepted as word-building patterns.subconsciously accepted as word-building patterns.

Conversion:Conversion: Structural PatternsStructural Patterns (p. 127)(p. 127)

Conversion in Modern English is extremely productive and Conversion in Modern English is extremely productive and influences almost every part of speech. influences almost every part of speech.

Traditionally, conversion regards verbs and nouns Traditionally, conversion regards verbs and nouns transformations.transformations.

Verbs made from nouns Verbs made from nouns ((Noun Noun Verb Verb)) are the most numerousare the most numerous: : • to hand, to face, to eye, to room, to monkey, to honeymoon, to can, to to hand, to face, to eye, to room, to monkey, to honeymoon, to can, to

chin, to fist, chin, to fist, etc., cf., etc., cf., My mother clothed and shoed meMy mother clothed and shoed me. .

Verbs can also be made from adjectives (Verbs can also be made from adjectives (Adjective Adjective Verb Verb):): • to pale, to yellow, to coolto pale, to yellow, to cool, etc., cf., , etc., cf., He narrowed his eyes. He narrowed his eyes.

Nouns are made from verbs (Nouns are made from verbs (Verb Verb Noun Noun): ): • a do, a go, a make, a run, a find, a catch, a walk, a move, a show, a do, a go, a make, a run, a find, a catch, a walk, a move, a show, etc.,etc.,• cf., cf., She gave a little shiver.She gave a little shiver.

Conversion:Conversion: Structural PatternsStructural Patterns (cont)(cont)

Adjectives are made from nouns (Adjectives are made from nouns (Noun Noun Adjective Adjective): ): • a rich, a blind, a mute,a rich, a blind, a mute, etc., etc., • cf., cf., He is an absolute imbecile in his profession.He is an absolute imbecile in his profession.

Other parts of speech are not entirely unsusceptible to Other parts of speech are not entirely unsusceptible to conversion: conversion:

• to but, to down, to out, the ups and downs, the ins and outs, to but, to down, to out, the ups and downs, the ins and outs, etc., etc.,

• cf., cf., I was speculating with various whys, and whats and whos. I was speculating with various whys, and whats and whos.

• the process of the formation of verbs is called “verbalization”; the process of the formation of verbs is called “verbalization”; • the formation of nouns is called “substantivization”; the formation of nouns is called “substantivization”; • the formation of adjectives - adjectivalization”.the formation of adjectives - adjectivalization”.

Conversion: Conversion: Semantic correlationsSemantic correlations (p. 127)(p. 127)

Semantic associations of converted verbs may be traced in:Semantic associations of converted verbs may be traced in:• 1.1. action characteristic of the object: a action characteristic of the object: a witness – to witness, a witness – to witness, a

dog – to dog;dog – to dog;• 2.2. instrumental use of the object: an instrumental use of the object: an elbow – to elbow, a elbow – to elbow, a

hammer – to hammer – to hammer;hammer;• 3.3. acquisition or addition of the object: acquisition or addition of the object: to fish, to tail, to grass, to fish, to tail, to grass, to to

dustdust;;• 4.4. derivation of an object: derivation of an object: to skin, to skin, to dustto dust, to bone;, to bone;• 5.5. location: location: to bag, to pocket, to house;to bag, to pocket, to house;• 6.6. temporal relations: temporal relations: to winter, to week-end.to winter, to week-end.• 　　　　

Nouns converted from verbs may denote:Nouns converted from verbs may denote:• 1.1. moment of an actionmoment of an action: to jump – a jump, a swim, a step, a : to jump – a jump, a swim, a step, a

laughlaugh;;• 2.2. agent or doer of an action: agent or doer of an action: a help, a cheat, a borea help, a cheat, a bore;;• 3.3. place of an action: place of an action: a drive, a walk, a standa drive, a walk, a stand;;• 4.4. result of an action: result of an action: a cut, a peel, a find, a makea cut, a peel, a find, a make..

Conversion:Conversion: Practical 1Practical 1 Define semantic correlations within the following Define semantic correlations within the following pairs of converted wordspairs of converted words

a pocket – to pocket, to jump – a jump, supper – a pocket – to pocket, to jump – a jump, supper – to supper, grass – to grass, a winter – to winter, to to supper, grass – to grass, a winter – to winter, to shave – a shave, to make – a make, a face – to shave – a shave, to make – a make, a face – to face, to cut – a cut, to smoke – a smoke, to swim face, to cut – a cut, to smoke – a smoke, to swim – a swim, milk – to milk, to come down – a come – a swim, milk – to milk, to come down – a come down, pale – to pale, in / out – ins and outs, down, pale – to pale, in / out – ins and outs, wounded – the wounded, a nose – to nose, a wounded – the wounded, a nose – to nose, a shoulder – to shoulder, an elbow - to elbow, a shoulder – to shoulder, an elbow - to elbow, a suspect – to suspect suspect – to suspect

Conversion:Conversion: Functional correlations Functional correlations (pp. 100 – (pp. 100 – 105)105)

Functionally, in a sentence converted words may Functionally, in a sentence converted words may be:be:

• SubjectSubject: : The silverThe silver had been taken by the murderer; had been taken by the murderer;

• ObjectObject: : I suggested I suggested a blinda blind;;

• AttributeAttribute: : I bought a new I bought a new put-togetherput-together toy set toy set;;

• PredicatePredicate: : My mother My mother clothed clothed and and shoedshoed me me;;

• PredicativePredicative: : She is still She is still an evilan evil;;

• Adverbial modifierAdverbial modifier: : He paused a moment longer, He paused a moment longer, eyeingeyeing

the metal threshold,the metal threshold, etc. etc.

Conversion:Conversion: Practical 2Practical 2Define patterns of conversion in the following Define patterns of conversion in the following pairs of wordspairs of words

a worry – to worry, love – to love, a cut – to cut, a a worry – to worry, love – to love, a cut – to cut, a room – to room, gray – to gray, a can – to can, room – to room, gray – to gray, a can – to can, poor – the poor, a find – to find, a comb – to poor – the poor, a find – to find, a comb – to comb, red – to red, up/ down – ups and downs, a comb, red – to red, up/ down – ups and downs, a work – to work, a drink – to drink, a go – to go, work – to work, a drink – to drink, a go – to go, rich – the rich, Russian – the Russian, a stand – to rich – the rich, Russian – the Russian, a stand – to stand, a nurse – to nurse, a whistle – to whistle, to stand, a nurse – to nurse, a whistle – to whistle, to trim – a trim – trim, right (4)trim – a trim – trim, right (4)

Conversion:Conversion: Practical 3Practical 3Give a full morphological analysis of converted Give a full morphological analysis of converted words in the following sentences words in the following sentences

1.1. Sometimes nothings mean Sometimes nothings mean more than many somethings.more than many somethings.

2.2. Good has come out of evil.Good has come out of evil.3.3. She gave a little shiver.She gave a little shiver.4.4. The English exercised a The English exercised a

surprisingly tolerant hand-off surprisingly tolerant hand-off policy… policy…

5.5. My wife was dogged by ill My wife was dogged by ill health for twelve years (M health for twelve years (M Spark)Spark)

6.6. I narrowed my eyes…I narrowed my eyes…7.7. Her face blushed – then paled Her face blushed – then paled

(A. Christie)(A. Christie)8.8. What would happen to our What would happen to our

father who was khakied like father who was khakied like every other man? every other man? (L. Lee)(L. Lee)

9.9. I was speculating with various I was speculating with various whys and whats and whoswhys and whats and whos … …

Example: Example: I saw no I saw no blindsblinds on the window. on the window.

Blind(s) Blind(s) – – 1. It is a Noun converted from 1. It is a Noun converted from

an Adjectivean Adjective

2. It has a grammatical 2. It has a grammatical inflection inflection –s–s of the plural of the plural form of a nounform of a noun

3. It denotes “an object that 3. It denotes “an object that possesses a certain possesses a certain quality”quality”

4. It functions as an Object in 4. It functions as an Object in the sentencethe sentence

Conversion:Quiz

1. What is meant by conversion?2. What is understood by paradigm?3. Why is conversion so popular in Modern English?4. What word-classes are frequently converted in

English?5. What structural patterns of conversion are known

to you?6. Give semantic associations of converted verbs.7. Give semantic correlations of converted nouns.8. What functions do converted words fulfill in a

sentence?

Productive Ways of Word-Formation:Productive Ways of Word-Formation: ShorteningShortening (p. 127)(p. 127)

Shortening Shortening or or abbreviation abbreviation of words is a way of of words is a way of formation of new words by means of substituting formation of new words by means of substituting a part of the word for a whole. a part of the word for a whole.

2 different types of abbreviations: 2 different types of abbreviations:

• graphical abbreviations and graphical abbreviations and

• lexical abbreviations lexical abbreviations

Shortening:Shortening: Graphical abbreviationsGraphical abbreviations (p. 128)(p. 128)

Graphical abbreviationsGraphical abbreviations are shortened substitutes of are shortened substitutes of words used for writing purposes words used for writing purposes in written speechin written speech: : scientific books, advertisements, letters, articles, etc.scientific books, advertisements, letters, articles, etc.

According to According to the way of formationthe way of formation, , graphical abbreviations are subdivided into the following types:graphical abbreviations are subdivided into the following types:

• initial shorteningsinitial shortenings – – shortened words that keep the initial shortened words that keep the initial letter only; the shortened variant is read as its letter only; the shortened variant is read as its full English full English equivalentequivalent n (N) n (N) – “– “nnoun”, oun”, vv (V)(V) – “verb”, – “verb”, e.g. e.g. ((eexempli xempli ggratia) – “for ratia) – “for example”,example”,

• syllable shorteningssyllable shortenings – – shortened words that keep syllables; shortened words that keep syllables; the remaining part is read as the remaining part is read as a full worda full word Oct Oct - “October” - “October”, Dr., Dr.- “Doctor”, - “Doctor”, adjadj – “adjective” – “adjective”

Shortening:Shortening: Lexical abbreviationsLexical abbreviations (p. 128)(p. 128)

Lexical abbreviations represent shortened words used Lexical abbreviations represent shortened words used in oral in oral speech.speech.

They might be made up of the following components:They might be made up of the following components:– initial sounds:initial sounds: ITIT - - ““iinformational nformational ttechnology” echnology” I + T = ITI + T = IT;;

V-dayV-day – – ““VVictory day”, UNESCO –ictory day”, UNESCO – ““UUnited nited NNations ations EEconomic conomic SScientific and cientific and CCultural ultural OOrganization”rganization”

– syllablessyllables of the components of a word-group: of the components of a word-group: poppop – “popular” – “popular”

Lexical abbreviations fall into 2 groups:Lexical abbreviations fall into 2 groups:• lexical abbreviations proper and lexical abbreviations proper and

• clippings. clippings.

Shortening:Shortening:

Lexical abbreviationsLexical abbreviations proper proper

Lexical abbreviations properLexical abbreviations proper are formed by a simultaneous operation are formed by a simultaneous operation of of shortening shortening and and compoundingcompounding. .

They are made up of the They are made up of the initial sounds initial sounds of compound words of compound words or word combinations, e.g.,or word combinations, e.g.,UNESCOUNESCO – – ““UUnited nited NNations ations EEconomical conomical SScientific and cientific and CCultural ultural OOrganization”,rganization”,EU EU – “– “EEuropean Union”uropean Union”

There are 2 types of lexical abbreviations proper: There are 2 types of lexical abbreviations proper: • alphabetisms and alphabetisms and

• acronymsacronyms

Shortening: Shortening: Lexical abbreviations proper Lexical abbreviations proper (cont)(cont)

The difference between them lies The difference between them lies on the ways of their on the ways of their reading.reading.

Alphabetisms Alphabetisms are formed and read as a succession of are formed and read as a succession of alphabetical readingalphabetical reading of the constituent letters: e.g., of the constituent letters: e.g.,V.I.P.V.I.P. - “a - “a vvery ery iimportant mportant pperson”; erson”; EUEU – “ – “EEuropean uropean UUnion”, nion”, EEC -EEC - “ “EEuropean uropean EEconomic conomic CCommunity”, ommunity”, ojoj - “orange juice”; - “orange juice”;

AcronymsAcronyms are formed and read as are formed and read as a succession of syllablesa succession of syllables denoted by the constituent letters (names of denoted by the constituent letters (names of organizations): e.g.,organizations): e.g.,UNOUNO – “ – “UUnited nited NNations ations OOrganization”, rganization”, SARSSARS – “ – “SSevere evere AAcute cute RRespiratory espiratory SSyndrome”, yndrome”, SWAKSWAK – “ – “ssealed ealed wwith ith aa kkiss” (at the end of a letter). iss” (at the end of a letter).

ShorteningShortening: : ClippingClipping (p. 128)(p. 128)

Words may be built by the process of Words may be built by the process of clippingclipping – the – the process of cutting off one or several syllables of process of cutting off one or several syllables of a a wordword..

In some cases it is the In some cases it is the stressed syllablestressed syllable that is left that is left after cutting off: e.g.,after cutting off: e.g.,a fridgea fridge from “re from “refrigfrigerator”, erator”, an exam an exam fromfrom ““examexamination”ination”..

Sometimes, however, the Sometimes, however, the unstressed syllableunstressed syllable remains: remains: a phone a phone fromfrom “tele“telephonephone”, ”, a plane a plane fromfrom “air“airplaneplane”,”, Bess Bess from “Elizafrom “Elizabethbeth”.”.

ShorteningShortening:: ClippingClipping (cont)(cont)

There are 4 types of clipping: There are 4 types of clipping:

1.1.aphaeresis (initial clipping)aphaeresis (initial clipping)2.2.apocope (final clipping)apocope (final clipping)3.3.syncope (middle clipping) and syncope (middle clipping) and 4.4.a mixed type. a mixed type.

Shortening:Shortening: Clipping Clipping (cont)(cont)

• AphaeresisAphaeresis takes place when the first part of a word is takes place when the first part of a word is clipped: clipped: phonephone ( (teletelephone), phone), fencefence ( (dedefense), fense), spite spite ((dedespite),spite), cologne cologne ((au-deau-de-cologne)-cologne)

• ApocopeApocope occurs when the last part of a word is clipped: occurs when the last part of a word is clipped: demodemo (demo (demonstrationnstration), ), limolimo (limo (limousineusine). ). bachbach (bach (bachelorelor). ).

• SyncopeSyncope happens when the middle part of a word is happens when the middle part of a word is clipped: clipped: Maths Maths (math(mathematicematics), s), specsspecs (spec (spectacletacles). s).

• A mixed typeA mixed type involves clipping at the beginning and at involves clipping at the beginning and at the end of a word: the end of a word: tectec ( (dedetectectivetive), ), fluflu ( (ininflufluenzaenza).).

ShorteningShortening:: Ellipsis. Substantivation.Ellipsis. Substantivation.

Shortening may affects not only words but word-groups, Shortening may affects not only words but word-groups, as well. Shortened phrases may appear as well. Shortened phrases may appear as a result of as a result of ellipsis ellipsis and substantivation (substantivalisation)and substantivation (substantivalisation)

..

EllipsisEllipsis is the omission of a word or words is the omission of a word or words in a phrasein a phrase when the remaining part keeps the lexical meaning of a when the remaining part keeps the lexical meaning of a whole phrase, e.g., whole phrase, e.g.,

a sit-down a sit-down is “a sit-down is “a sit-down demonstrationdemonstration”, ”,

a taxia taxi “a taxi “a taxi cabcab””..

ShorteningShortening:: Substantivation.Substantivation.

SubstantivationSubstantivation is dropping of a final noun is dropping of a final noun in an in an attributive phraseattributive phrase when the remaining adjective keeps the when the remaining adjective keeps the meaning and all the syntactical functions of meaning and all the syntactical functions of the noun.the noun.

It is a type of conversion that involves ellipsis: It is a type of conversion that involves ellipsis: ellipsis + conversion (Adjective ellipsis + conversion (Adjective Noun), e.g., Noun), e.g., finals finals (n)(n) – “final – “final examinationsexaminations”.”.

Sometimes it is accompanied by clipping, as well: Sometimes it is accompanied by clipping, as well: ellipsis + clipping + conversion (Adjective ellipsis + clipping + conversion (Adjective Noun), e.g., Noun), e.g., a pub a pub (n)(n) – “a– “a pubpubliclic househouse””, , a hobby a hobby (n)(n) – “a hobby– “a hobbyhorsehorse” ” a bach – “a bach – “a bacha bachelorelor lunchlunch””

Shortening:Shortening: Practical 1Practical 1Define types of the following shortened words Define types of the following shortened words and methods of their formation:and methods of their formation:

(graphical abbreviations: initial and syllable shortenings;(graphical abbreviations: initial and syllable shortenings;lexical abbreviations proper: alphabetisms, acronyms; lexical abbreviations proper: alphabetisms, acronyms; clipping: aphaeresis, apocope, syncopeclipping: aphaeresis, apocope, syncope, , mixed type; mixed type; ellipsis;ellipsis; substantivation)substantivation)

UNO, doc, Dr, prep, GMP, GMO, H1N1, DOG-UNO, doc, Dr, prep, GMP, GMO, H1N1, DOG-phone, Aussie, e.g., A.D., B.C., P.T.O., ft, FBI, phone, Aussie, e.g., A.D., B.C., P.T.O., ft, FBI, gent, memo, maths, co-ed, M.P., fence, LA, U.K., gent, memo, maths, co-ed, M.P., fence, LA, U.K., sis, T-shirt, SARS, finals, taxi, EU, CNN, demo, sis, T-shirt, SARS, finals, taxi, EU, CNN, demo, exams, comfy, flu, Feb, USA, adj, Mrs, N.Y., info, exams, comfy, flu, Feb, USA, adj, Mrs, N.Y., info, e-mail, hol, 30℃, V-day, deco, cc, Joe, usu, in, a e-mail, hol, 30℃, V-day, deco, cc, Joe, usu, in, a foot, metrop, MRT, circs, veggy, H.L., H.C., i.e., foot, metrop, MRT, circs, veggy, H.L., H.C., i.e., op. cit., Jan, TV, Beth, p.m., a.m., flu, specs, spite, op. cit., Jan, TV, Beth, p.m., a.m., flu, specs, spite, comfy, a pub, WC, Mr.comfy, a pub, WC, Mr.

ShorteningShortening:: Functions in a sentenceFunctions in a sentence

Shortened words may fulfill various functions in a Shortened words may fulfill various functions in a sentence:sentence:

– SubjectSubject: : The BBCThe BBC announced the report… announced the report…

– ObjectObject: : I would like to have your I would like to have your e-maile-mail;;– AttributeAttribute: : The LCDThe LCD screen provided directions in screen provided directions in

several languages;several languages;

– PredicatePredicate: : He was repeatedly phoning with no answer, He was repeatedly phoning with no answer,

– PredicativePredicative: : They were the original They were the original ATMsATMs; etc.; etc.

Shortening:Shortening: Practical 2Practical 2Give a full morphological analysis of the Give a full morphological analysis of the shortened words in the following sentences:shortened words in the following sentences:

1.1. ……kids sleeping on backpacks and kids sleeping on backpacks and roving out to their portable MP3’s roving out to their portable MP3’s players…players…

2.2. In a military manoeuvre worthy of In a military manoeuvre worthy of the CIA…the CIA…

3.3. He managed to manoeuvre the He managed to manoeuvre the hijacked taxi to the far side of the hijacked taxi to the far side of the Bois de Bouloque Bois de Bouloque

4.4. The LCD screenThe LCD screen provided directions provided directions in seven languages (D. Brown).in seven languages (D. Brown).

5.5. ……a keypad similar to that of a bank a keypad similar to that of a bank ATM terminal (D. Brown).ATM terminal (D. Brown).

6.6. In the area without phone and e-In the area without phone and e-mail mail

7.7. The BBC producer loved Teabing’s The BBC producer loved Teabing’s hot premise.hot premise.

Example:Example: The student wrote The student wrote P.T.O.P.T.O. at the bottom of at the bottom of the pagethe page

1.1. ““Please Turn Over”Please Turn Over”2.2. It’s a three member It’s a three member

word-groupword-group3.3. It is a verbal groupIt is a verbal group4.4. It’s a graphical It’s a graphical

abbreviation: initial abbreviation: initial shorteningshortening

5.5. There are no There are no grammatical inflectionsgrammatical inflections

6.6. It functions as an It functions as an Object in the sentenceObject in the sentence

Shortening:Quiz

1. What is meant by shortening?2. What types of abbreviation are known to you?3. What is understood by graphical abbreviations?4. Where are graphical abbreviations used?5. What are the two types of graphical abbreviations?6. What is initial shortening?7. What is syllable shortening?8. What is meant by lexical abbreviations?9. Where are lexical abbreviations used?10. What are the two types of lexical abbreviations?11. What is meant by lexical abbreviations proper?12. Name the tree patterns of lexical abbreviations proper.

Shortening:Quiz (cont)

1. What are the two types of lexical abbreviations proper?2. What is meant by alphabetismas?3. What is meant by acronyms?4. What is meant by clipping?5. What are the 4 types of clipping?6. What is aphaeresis?7. What is apocope?8. What is syncope?9. What is meant by a mixed type of clipping?10. What is ellipsis?11. What is substantivation?

Minor Ways of Word-Formation Minor Ways of Word-Formation (p. 129 – (p. 129 – 130)130)

Minor ways of word-formation Minor ways of word-formation are not frequently are not frequently used in Modern English for the formation of new used in Modern English for the formation of new words. words.

They are:They are:

• BlendingBlending

• BackformationBackformation

• Sound-and-stress interchangeSound-and-stress interchange

• OnomatopoeiaOnomatopoeia

Minor Ways of Word-Formation:Minor Ways of Word-Formation:

BlendingBlending (p. 129)(p. 129)

BlendingBlending is compounding by means of clipped words, e.g.: is compounding by means of clipped words, e.g.:

• OxbridgeOxbridge = = OxOxford + Camford + Cambridgebridge• MedicareMedicare = = medimedical + cal + carecare• CashomatCashomat = = cashcash + auto + automatmat• FruiceFruice = = fruifruit + juit + juicece• PopcertPopcert = = poppopular + conular + concertcert• MidtermMidterm = = midmiddle + dle + termterm• YardenYarden = = yaryard + gard + gardenden• DollaratureDollarature = = dolladollar + liter + literaturerature• Cell-phoneCell-phone = = cellcellular + teleular + telephonephone• Wango Wango = = wwaltz + taaltz + tangongo • Toyotire Toyotire = = ToyoToyota + ta + tiretire• SenseyesSenseyes = = senssensitive + itive + eyeseyes• WikipediaWikipedia – ‘ – ‘wikiwikiwiki’ (quick )+ ‘encyclowiki’ (quick )+ ‘encyclopedia’pedia’

Minor Ways of Word-Formation:Minor Ways of Word-Formation: Backformation Backformation (p.130)(p.130)

Back-formationBack-formation,, or negative derivation is the formation of new or negative derivation is the formation of new words by means of cutting off an element that was mistakenly words by means of cutting off an element that was mistakenly taken for a suffix.taken for a suffix.

• the noun the noun editor editor was borrowed from French in the XVII-th century. was borrowed from French in the XVII-th century. Later, in the XVIII-th century the verb Later, in the XVIII-th century the verb to edit to edit was produced by means of back-was produced by means of back-formation - the formation of the noun formation - the formation of the noun greed greed from the adjective from the adjective greedy;greedy;

• production of the adjective production of the adjective difficult difficult from the noun from the noun difficulty;difficulty;• the verb the verb toto ice-skate – ice-skate – from the noun from the noun ice-skater, ice-skater, or, probably,or, probably, ice-skating ice-skating• the verb the verb to lazeto laze - from the noun - from the noun lazerlazer• the verb to the verb to window-shop –window-shop – from the noun from the noun window-shoppingwindow-shopping

e.g., e.g., to baby-sit - a baby-sitterto baby-sit - a baby-sitter to force-land – force-landing to force-land – force-landing to finger-print – finger-printing to finger-print – finger-printing to gloom – gloomyto gloom – gloomyto sculpt – a sculptor to sculpt – a sculptor to emote - - emotion to emote - - emotion to donate – donation to donate – donation to diagnose – diagnosisto diagnose – diagnosis

Minor Ways of Word-Formation:Minor Ways of Word-Formation:Sound-and-stress InterchangeSound-and-stress Interchange

Sound-and-stress-interchangeSound-and-stress-interchange is traced in the is traced in the formation of new words that differ in a root-forming vowel/ formation of new words that differ in a root-forming vowel/ consonant or stress patterns, e.gconsonant or stress patterns, e.g.,.,

- WWiide - wde - wiidthdth [ai – i][ai – i] a récord – to recórda récord – to recórd

- StrStroong - strng - streengthngth a prótest – to protésta prótest – to protést

- to invto inviite – invte – inviitation tation [ai – i][ai – i] a cóntrast – to contrásta cóntrast – to contrást

- to descrto describibe – descre – descripiptiontion a rébel, rébel – to rebéla rébel, rébel – to rebél

- to analto analyzyze – anale – analysysisis an álly – to allýan álly – to allý

- a houa housse – houe – houssing [ing [s – z]s – z] a súspect, súspect – to a súspect, súspect – to suspéctsuspéct

- to concluto concludde – conclue – conclussion ion [d – ǯ][d – ǯ] to rídicule - ridículousto rídicule - ridículous

Minor Ways of Word-Formation:Minor Ways of Word-Formation:Onomatopoeia Onomatopoeia (p. 129)(p. 129)

OnomatopoeiaOnomatopoeia is imitation of different kinds of sounds is imitation of different kinds of sounds produced by animals, birds, human beings, and inanimate produced by animals, birds, human beings, and inanimate objects, e.g.:objects, e.g.:

- Cocks cry “Cocks cry “cock-a-doodle-docock-a-doodle-do””- Ducks “Ducks “quackquack””- Frogs “Frogs “croakcroak””

In names of some animals, birds, and gamesIn names of some animals, birds, and games, , e.g.,e.g.,- a cucoo, a cucoo, - a crow, a crow, - a humming-bird, a humming-bird, - cricketcricket

Minor Ways of Word-formation:Quiz

1. What is meant by minor ways of word-formation in Modern English?

2. What minor ways of word-formation in Modern English are known to you?

3. What is blending?4. What is back-formation?5. What is sound-and-stress-interchange?6. What is onomatopoeia?