linguistics: morphology - universität des saarlandes · 2011. 10. 5. · singer, songster “one...
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Palmer, CoLi, UdS MSc Bridge Course, October 2011
Preliminaries
What is linguistics?
✦ systematic study of the principles governing the use of language
✦ theoretical lxcs: attempt to formalize the rules and structures behind language use
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Palmer, CoLi, UdS MSc Bridge Course, October 2011
Preliminaries
What is linguistics?
✦ systematic study of the principles governing the use of language
✦ theoretical lxcs: attempt to formalize the rules and structures behind language use
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When we talk about language:
• descriptive vs. prescriptive approaches• diachronic vs. synchronic study• competence vs. performance
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Palmer, CoLi, UdS MSc Bridge Course, October 2011
Human language
What makes something human (natural) language?
✦ creativity
✦ recursion
✦ arbitrary relationship between sound & meaning
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Palmer, CoLi, UdS MSc Bridge Course, October 2011
Human language
What makes something human (natural) language?
✦ creativity
✦ recursion
✦ arbitrary relationship between sound & meaning
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More than 6000 languages spoken in the world:
• 1M+ speakers: ̃200 • primarily (or only) spoken: more than 50%
• total # of lgs. rapidly decreasing
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Palmer, CoLi, UdS MSc Bridge Course, October 2011
What does it mean to know a language?
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Palmer, CoLi, UdS MSc Bridge Course, October 2011
What does it mean to know a language?
✦ sound system: possible sounds in the lg, how they can and cannot combine
✦ lexicon: associations of sounds with meanings, morphology
✦ grammar: structures and meaning
✦ social/pragmatic customs: personal and social strategies for language use
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Palmer, CoLi, UdS MSc Bridge Course, October 2011
What does it mean to know a language?
✦ sound system
✦ lexicon
✦ grammar
✦ social/pragmatic customs
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Our topic for today is morphology
• words & how they’re formed
• internal structure of word forms
• performing morphological analysis
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Palmer, CoLi, UdS MSc Bridge Course, October 2011
On Morphology
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Fundamentals:Word classes IMorphemes, affixation, terminology
Inflectional morphology:Morphological paradigmsRegular and irregular forms
Derivational morphology:Internal structure of wordsProductivity, compounds, etc.
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Palmer, CoLi, UdS MSc Bridge Course, October 2011
What does it mean to know a WORD?
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Palmer, CoLi, UdS MSc Bridge Course, October 2011
What does it mean to know a WORD?
✦ sound
✦ meaning
✦ syntactic category / POS
✦ orthography (maybe)
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Palmer, CoLi, UdS MSc Bridge Course, October 2011
What does it mean to know a WORD?
✦ sound
✦ meaning
✦ syntactic category / POS
✦ orthography (maybe)
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Mental lexical representation:
• associates sound with meaning
• includes information about grammatical status
• includes irregular forms
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Palmer, CoLi, UdS MSc Bridge Course, October 2011
On Morphology
13
Fundamentals:Word classes IMorphemes, affixation, terminology
Inflectional morphology:Morphological paradigmsRegular and irregular forms
Derivational morphology:Internal structure of wordsProductivity, compounds, etc.
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Palmer, CoLi, UdS MSc Bridge Course, October 2011
Word classes I
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Content words
Function words
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Palmer, CoLi, UdS MSc Bridge Course, October 2011
Word classes I
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Content words
Function words
• play different roles in language• open vs. closed classes• function words in CoLi: stop words, author ID, etc.• POS categories (e.g. N, V, Prep, Adverb)• Q: are POS categories universal?
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Palmer, CoLi, UdS MSc Bridge Course, October 2011
Morphemes
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Morphology is the study of
• Internal structure of words
• Processes by which words are formed morphe = Greek “form”
-ology = “science of/branch of knowledge concerning”[Morphology is not etymology, lexicography, historical linguistics]
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Palmer, CoLi, UdS MSc Bridge Course, October 2011
Morphemes
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Internal structure of words is rule-governed
uneaten *eatenun
unintentional *intentionalun
Morphology is the study of
• Internal structure of words
• Processes by which words are formed morphe = Greek “form”
-ology = “science of/branch of knowledge concerning”[Morphology is not etymology, lexicography, historical linguistics]
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Palmer, CoLi, UdS MSc Bridge Course, October 2011
Morphemes
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Same form, different meanings
happier, darker, fancier
walker, rider, opener
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Palmer, CoLi, UdS MSc Bridge Course, October 2011
Morphemes
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Same form, different meanings
comparative -er e.g. happier, darker, fancier
agentive -er e.g. walker, rider, opener
cf. finger (not fing + -er!)
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Palmer, CoLi, UdS MSc Bridge Course, October 2011
Morphemes
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Same form, different meanings
comparative -er e.g. happier, darker, fancier
agentive -er e.g. walker, rider, opener
cf. finger (not fing + -er!)
note changes in spelling
allomorphy: same morpheme, different forms (e.g. actor)
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Palmer, CoLi, UdS MSc Bridge Course, October 2011
Morphemes
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Same form, different meanings
comparative -er e.g. happier, darker, fancier
agentive -er e.g. walker, rider, opener
cf. finger (not fing + -er!)
note changes in spelling
allomorphy: same morpheme, different forms (e.g. actor)
Same meaning, different forms
singer, songster “one who sings”
cf. monster (not monst + -er!)
** mental lexicon contains morphemes as well as words **
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Palmer, CoLi, UdS MSc Bridge Course, October 2011
Morphemes
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Morpheme = minimal unit of linguistic meaning
• arbitrary union of sound and meaning, or of sound and grammatical function
• cannot be further analyzed
• morphological knowledge has two components: individual morphemes & rules for their combination
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Palmer, CoLi, UdS MSc Bridge Course, October 2011
Morphemes
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Free vs. bound morphemes
free = able to stand alone
bound = unable to stand alone, mostly affixes
Morpheme = minimal unit of linguistic meaning
• arbitrary union of sound and meaning, or of sound and grammatical function
• cannot be further analyzed
• morphological knowledge has two components: individual morphemes & rules for their combination
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Palmer, CoLi, UdS MSc Bridge Course, October 2011
Affixation
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Morphologically complex words = root plus 1+ affix• roots do not always stand alone as words
painter, reread, conceive, linguist
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Palmer, CoLi, UdS MSc Bridge Course, October 2011
Affixation
25
Morphologically complex words = root plus 1+ affix• roots do not always stand alone as words
painter, reread, conceive, linguist
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Palmer, CoLi, UdS MSc Bridge Course, October 2011
Affixation
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Morphologically complex words = root plus 1+ affix• roots do not always stand alone as words
painter, reread, conceive, linguist
• bound roots cannot occur in isolation ungainly/*gainly, downhearted/*hearted
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Palmer, CoLi, UdS MSc Bridge Course, October 2011
Affixation
27
Morphologically complex words = root plus 1+ affix• roots do not always stand alone as words
• bound roots cannot occur in isolation
• root + affix = stem/base/word
• affixes precede, follow, interrupt, or envelope the roots, stems/bases they attach to
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Palmer, CoLi, UdS MSc Bridge Course, October 2011
Affixation
28
Morphologically complex word = root plus 1+ affixes• roots do not always stand alone as words
• bound roots cannot occur in isolation
• root + affix = stem/base/word
• affixes precede, follow, interrupt, or envelope the roots, stems/bases they attach to
Types of affix (by position)• prefix
• suffix
• infix
• circumfix (aka discontinuous morpheme)
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Palmer, CoLi, UdS MSc Bridge Course, October 2011
Affixation
29
Morphologically complex word = root plus 1+ affixes• roots do not always stand alone as words
• bound roots cannot occur in isolation
• root + affix = stem/base/word
• affixes precede, follow, interrupt, or envelope the roots, stems/bases they attach to
Types of affix (by position)• prefix premeditated,prejudice;bipolar,bisexual
• suffix sleeping,eating,running,climbing;typist,pianist,novelist;manly,sickly
• infix abso‐freakin‐lutely,Kalama‐freakin‐zoo
• circumfix (aka discontinuous morpheme) geliebt[German]
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Palmer, CoLi, UdS MSc Bridge Course, October 2011
Types of morphology
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Languages differ in type & extent of morphology
analytic
inflectional/fusional
agglutinating
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Palmer, CoLi, UdS MSc Bridge Course, October 2011
Types of morphology
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Ojibwe example
(6a) ininiw ogi:ba∫kizwa:an ininiw o- gi:- baa∫kizw -aa -an man 3p PST shoot 3p th-dir OBV ‘The man shot him/her.’
Languages differ in type & extent of morphology
analytic Chinese
inflectional/fusional
Latin, German, Mayan lgs, Semitic lgs
agglutinating Turkish, Ojibwe, many Native American lgs
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Palmer, CoLi, UdS MSc Bridge Course, October 2011
Types of morphology
32
Languages differ in type & extent of morphology
analytic Chinese
inflectional/fusional
Latin, German, Mayan lgs, Semitic lgs
agglutinating Turkish, Ojibwe, many Native American lgs
Nearly all lgs have two types of affixes (by function) inflectional change words wrt grammatical status
derivational form new words
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Palmer, CoLi, UdS MSc Bridge Course, October 2011
On Morphology
33
Fundamentals:Word classes IMorphemes, affixation, terminology
Inflectional morphology:Morphological paradigmsRegular and irregular forms
Derivational morphology:Internal structure of wordsProductivity, compounds, etc.
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Palmer, CoLi, UdS MSc Bridge Course, October 2011
Inflectional morphology
34
Inflectional morphemes• bound morphemes, strictly grammatical function!
• add no lexical meaning
• never change POS (grammatical category) of stems
• are highly productive
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Palmer, CoLi, UdS MSc Bridge Course, October 2011
Inflectional morphology
35
Inflectional morphemes• bound morphemes, strictly grammatical function!
• add no lexical meaning
• never change POS (grammatical category) of stems
• are highly productive
Morphological paradigm• set of related inflectional morphemes
• relevant for single grammatical category case paradigm [der, den, dem, des +s] verb agreement paradigm [walk, walks] verb tense paradigm [walk, walked, has walked]
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Palmer, CoLi, UdS MSc Bridge Course, October 2011
English inflectional morphology
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Relatively impoverished wrt inflectional morphology
-s 3rd person singular present Verb
-ed past tense Verb
-ing progressive (aspect) Verb
-s plural Noun
-’s possessive Noun
-er comparative Adjective
-est superlative Adjective
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Palmer, CoLi, UdS MSc Bridge Course, October 2011
Regularity, exceptions, and suppletion
37
Inflection is quite regular in English• with regularity, rules rather than forms stored in lexicon
•
Some irregular forms• plurals: goose-geese, moose-moose, mouse-mice
• past tense verb forms: go-went, think-thought, bring-brought, sing-sang, is-was
• ** also variation ** : thin-thinner, right-more right
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Palmer, CoLi, UdS MSc Bridge Course, October 2011
Regularity, exceptions, and suppletion
38
Inflection is quite regular in English• with regularity, rules rather than forms stored in lexicon
• children go through overgeneralization stage
• irregular/suppletive forms require individual learning and “storage” CoLi: lookup or rule writing?
•
Some irregular forms• plurals: goose-geese, moose-moose, mouse-mice
• past tense verb forms: go-went, think-thought, bring-brought, sing-sang, is-was
• ** also variation ** : thin-thinner, right-more right
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Palmer, CoLi, UdS MSc Bridge Course, October 2011
Regularity, exceptions, and suppletion
39
Inflection is quite regular in English• with regularity, rules rather than forms stored in lexicon
• children go through overgeneralization stage
• irregular/suppletive forms require individual learning and “storage” CoLi: lookup or rule writing?
• new words entering lg generally inflect regularly
Some irregular forms• plurals: goose-geese, moose-moose, mouse-mice
• past tense verb forms: go-went, think-thought, bring-brought, sing-sang, is-was
• ** also variation ** : thin-thinner, right-more right
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Palmer, CoLi, UdS MSc Bridge Course, October 2011
On Morphology
40
Fundamentals:Word classes IMorphemes, affixation, terminology
Inflectional morphology:Morphological paradigmsRegular and irregular forms
Derivational morphology:Internal structure of wordsProductivity, compounds, etc.
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Palmer, CoLi, UdS MSc Bridge Course, October 2011
Derivational morphology
41
Derivational morphemes• adding to base derives new word w/ new meaning
• clear semantic content
• often change POS (grammatical category) of stems
• vary in their productivity
• may trigger phonological changes (specific/specificity)
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Palmer, CoLi, UdS MSc Bridge Course, October 2011
Derivational morphology
42
Derivational morphemes• adding to base derives new word w/ new meaning
• clear semantic content
• often change POS (grammatical category) of stems
• vary in their productivity
• may trigger phonological changes (specific/specificity)
• in Eng, derivational processes apply before inflectional
Examples in English?• noun --> verb; noun --> adjective; noun --> noun
• verb --> noun; verb --> adjective; verb --> verb
• adjective --> noun; adjective --> adverb, adj --> adj
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Palmer, CoLi, UdS MSc Bridge Course, October 2011
Recap: types of English morphemes
43
!"
#$%&'()*+!
,-./*0,0)
1-2%3 4.00
-/0%!5'6))!#5-%70%7!-.
'08(56'+
5'-)03!5'6))#42%57(-%!-.
&.6,,67(56'+!
30.(967(-%6' (%4'057(-%6'
/.04(8 )244(8 )244(8
%-2%):!63;057(90):!
90.1):!6390.1)
5-%;2%57(-%):/.0/-)(7(-%):
6.7(5'0):!/.-%-2%):628('(6.(0)
!!"#$"!%&$"!'("
!'$"!%')$"!*'(
!%"(""!%+
",-$"!!')$"!.%")/&%!$"0"!$"12"!
[Image credit: Tania Augustinova]
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Palmer, CoLi, UdS MSc Bridge Course, October 2011
Hierarchical structure of words
44
Derivational morphemes• morphemes are added in a fixed order
• order reflects hierarchical structure of the word
• structure to some extent determines meaning
44
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Palmer, CoLi, UdS MSc Bridge Course, October 2011
Hierarchical structure of words
45
Derivational morphemes• morphemes are added in a fixed order
• order reflects hierarchical structure of the word
• structure to some extent determines meaning
Derivational process• derive ‘unsystematically’
• derive ‘re-finalizes’
45
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Palmer, CoLi, UdS MSc Bridge Course, October 2011
Structural ambiguity in morphology
46
!"
#$%&'$&%()!(*+,-&,$.
/0!
!"#$%&'(#)
123$!(+)4!$3!+4!)3'5467
!0!
!"#$%&'(#)
1(+)4!$3!+4!&2)3'5467
(684'$,94
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94%+
!"
#$%&
'(#)
94%+
94%+
(684'$,94
!"
'(#)
#$%&
[Image credit: Tania Augustinova]
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Palmer, CoLi, UdS MSc Bridge Course, October 2011
Productivity & lexical gaps
47
Rule productivity• fully productive rules “can be used freely to form new
words from the list of free and bound morphemes”
• usually can predict meaning of morphologically complex words; exceptions need individual entries in the mental lexicon (e.g. unnerve, unearth)
• back-formations are cute too! (e.g. monokini)
47
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Palmer, CoLi, UdS MSc Bridge Course, October 2011
Productivity & lexical gaps
48
Rule productivity• fully productive rules “can be used freely to form new
words from the list of free and bound morphemes”
• usually can predict meaning of morphologically complex words; exceptions need individual entries in the mental lexicon (e.g. unnerve, unearth)
• back-formations are cute too! (e.g. monokini)
Lexical gaps• no language exhausts all logical possibilities for words
in its lexicon
• some have phonological grounds (*inpossible, *imdestructible)
• others are seemingly accidental
48
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Palmer, CoLi, UdS MSc Bridge Course, October 2011
Compounds
49
Compounding robust process in most lgs • two or more words combined to form new word
• head of compound influences meaning & POS
• English compounds headed by rightmost word
• meaning is often non-compositional, even idiomatic (e.g. blackboard, looking glass, turncoat)
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Palmer, CoLi, UdS MSc Bridge Course, October 2011
Compounds
50
Compounding robust process in most lgs • two or more words combined to form new word
• head of compound influences meaning & POS
• English compounds headed by rightmost word
• meaning is often non-compositional, even idiomatic (e.g. blackboard, looking glass, turncoat)
Examples in English?• noun-noun compound
• adj-adj compound
• verb-noun compound
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Palmer, CoLi, UdS MSc Bridge Course, October 2011
Structural ambiguity in compounds
51
[Image credit: Tania Augustinova]
!!
"#$%#&'()!!
*+,-!(-.+/-(!0#.()1!2#$%#&'()!34/-!+'5-.'46!)5.&25&.-7
2#')+(-.!53-!4$8+9&+5:!#;!4!2#$%#&'(!6+,-!!"#!$%!!&%'(
<53-!3+93-)5!345!.42,=
/)>!
<4!.42,!;#.!5#%!345)=
'#&'
'#&'
'#&'
!"# $%! &%'(
'#&'
4(?-25+/-
'#&'
'#&'
'#&'
!"# $%! &%'(
'#&'
4(?-25+/-
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Morphological Analysis
52
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Palmer, CoLi, UdS MSc Bridge Course, October 2011
Morphological analysis
53
Computationally, often refers to: • morphological segmentation
• morpheme glossing/tagging/labeling
In linguistics:• understanding morphology of new language
• identifying morphemes and their meanings
• identifying underlying morphological processes
• morphology problems!
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Palmer, CoLi, UdS MSc Bridge Course, October 2011
Zulu morphology problem
54
umfazi “married woman” abafazi “married women”umfani “boy” abafani “boys”umzali “parent” abazali “parents”umfundisi “teacher” abafundisi “teachers”umbazi “carver” ababazi “carvers”umlimi “farmer” abalimi “farmers”umfundi “reader” abafundi “readers”
fundisa “to teach” funda “to read”lima “to cultivate” baza “to carve”
• what is the singular morpheme in Zulu?
• what is the plural morpheme?
• what is the process for deriving a verb from a noun?
• what is the stem meaning ‘read’? ‘carve’?
54