Paper to be presented at the conference Rhythm and Micro-rhythm: Investigating musical and

cultural aspects of groove-oriented music 2005, hosted by the project Rhythm in the Age of

Digital Reproduction, September 22-24, University of Oslo, Norway

Interpreting micro-rhythmic structures in Norwegian

traditional fiddle music

Mats Johansson

Department of Musicology

University of Oslo

P.b. 1017 Blindern

N-0315 Oslo, Norway

Phone: 22854768

E-mail: mats.johansson@imv.uio.no

This paper sets out to explore some questions regarding the interpretation of micro rhythmic

structures in Norwegian traditional fiddle music. It is sort of a report from work in progress where

I am trying to develop some analytic tools and models for interpretation that can capture the

rhythmic flexibility in the performance of the older dance tunes in triple meter.1 My work with

these questions is based on the work of Ingemar Bengtson, Tellef Kvifte, Jan-Petter Blom and

others who in one way or the other have tried to account for the rhythmic structure in this music.

What could be said about this style is, first of all, that the distribution of beats within the

measure often is not even. In other words, the basic rhythmic structure is asymmetric, usually with

a short-long-medium or long-medium-short division. These patterns are also manifested in dance

movements and should not be considered accidental. In addition, there is elasticity in the treatment

of the rhythmical units, which means that one beat can be stretched or contracted from its average

position so to speak. Even at the measure level there can be variations, and regularity may not

1 These tunes are named pols, springar, springleik and other local terms, and correspond with a set of dances with different but related movement patterns.

occur until on a higher level. So, even if the basic patterns mentioned seem to be intact in most

performances, it is problematic to define a static or normative meter. This phenomenon can be

interpreted in different ways. My approach here is to investigate the connection between the

variable asymmetry and different kinds of melodic-rhythmic phrases, the placement of these

phrases within a melodic-rhythmic context, and the variation and improvisation mechanisms

inherent in the style.

The historical construction of this performance practice can to a certain degree be understood

by giving attention to the fact that the music usually were performed by a solo fiddler and that it

should function as dance music. This meant that the melody alone should be able to carry all the

rhythmical information necessary for the music – dance interaction. In theory, this could indicate a

musical practice were a predictable rhythmic scheme would be favored. In practice, however, there

is a great freedom in shaping the melodic phrases, also in relation to the time aspect.2 This seems

reasonable if one looks at the rhythmic variability as an expressive potential constituted by the fact

that the need of synchronization with other instruments is absent. But if dance is the point of

departure, it is more complicated to understand or explain the connection. Here one has to

recognize that the relationship between music and dance is constantly changing and that the

consolidation and highlighting of certain style features is related to performance contexts where

this music is treated almost exclusively as concert music. At the same time it is necessary to point

out that the variability does not necessarily mean that the rhythm loses its predictability. It rather

calls attention to the relatively large tolerance for what melodic-rhythmic qualities that could

constitute the beats as different time-value categories. Following this line of thought the rhythmic

scheme, or meter, could be seen as representing a periodic continuity in the sense of recognition of

a general pattern and information about structurally relevant attack points or accents. In other

words; this scheme does not define exactly where or how these accents are to be articulated, it only

tell us where to focus our attention. This echoes a point made by Anne Danielsen (2001:93) when

2 The feature that distinguishes this style is rather the high density of sound events, i.e. the large amount of rhythmical information within a short period of time achieved through “fill-ins”, ornaments and accentuations with the bow, and a corresponding lack of long “dead” notes. To what extent this principle is a central aspect of the performance is one of several possible criterions when discussing distinctions between similar styles. In the related, but clearly different style “gammeldans”, rhythmic accentuation usually also is carried out by a backing section whose primary function is to provide the basic groove (for example the typical ohm-pa-pa rhythm in waltz). In this case, long notes, not perceptually divided by accentuation in the melodic voice, is both common and stylistically acceptable. This would be explained partly by the fact that in contrast to the older solo tradition, where the dense melodic-rhythmic pattern is necessary as information to the dance floor, structurally important rhythmic information is provided elsewhere.

discussing the funk grooves of James Brown. She argues that the correct location or core of a beat

could be seen as a center of gravity rather than as a specific point in time. In relation to my

material, this is not just about tolerance in the sense that the physical representation could be

articulated within a rather large area. As I will comment on later on, it is also a question of the

potential for higher resolution, where this center of gravity could be narrowed in accordance with a

higher degree of attention and knowledge.

Given a certain degree of improvised variation in the beat lengths, perfect synchronization

between musicians, or between musician and dancer, seems impossible. But even if it is to be

regarded as a utopia as an actual achievement, it very well may be an ideal and as such

demonstrating an almost limitless scale of potential virtuosity or mastery in the musical

interaction. Here I would like to posit that even if there are no possible objective measurements of

musically meaningful rhythmic accents in dance or music, or in the correspondence between the

two, there certainly is a perfectly real subjective experience of synchronization and non-

synchronization.3 And regardless of what kind of relationships that constitutes this experience, the

fact stands that both different degrees of variation in the beat lengths and different degrees of in-

synch-ness between musicians and between music and dance movements, are possible and

stylistically acceptable outcomes of this form of music making. In other words; the point of

departure for further analysis and interpretation is that the musical norms of the style include a

certain amount of rhythmic variability.4

3 Tellef Kvifte (1999) is addressing the problem with dancers experienced rhythm in relation to vertical movement and muscle tension, and how it may be possible to observe and theorize the correlation between music and dance. He posits that the observable up and down movements does not provide reliable clues to experienced rhythm and that it would be desirable with measurements of the muscle use synchronized with the dance music. He also problematizes the relationship between physical contrasts in the music and experienced beat, and seems to conclude that it can be no exact and definitive connection that can be measured. Here I would like to add that there are several possible synchronization-points between music (physical contrasts), movement and experienced beat, and that these points could suggest potentially different levels of resolution. As an example, one could mention the difference between putting the foot down on a beat and moving down on a beat. As an expression of perceived important sound contrast the foot against the floor immediately seem to be more distinct and definite than some phase in the up-down movement. Considering the body movements required, one could also hypothesize that the foot has a shorter reaction time and therefore could respond more in synchrony with an unpredictable rhythmic structure. This remains to be investigated further, but it certainly seems reasonable to consider how dancers actually might be able to use different synchronization-points simultaneously, thus representing or expressing different layers in their conception of rhythm (for example by synchronizing the foot-floor impact with a perceived attack point and a general feeling of heaviness by how the following vertical movement of the body is articulated). 4 This kind of reasoning presupposes that there are some correspondence between physical contrast in the music, and structural units such as beats and measures. On the other hand, it would be hard to argue that there is no such correspondence.

The melody as rhythm carrier – methods and interpretations

I think some music examples will be a good starting point for exploring these problems further. I

am going to use two tunes here. The first one is a so called springleik performed by the fiddler

Leif-Inge Schjølberg from Vågå in Gudbrandsdalen. The second one is a similar kind of tune (a

springar) played on hardanger fiddle by Bjarne Herrefoss. Both examples are traditional dance

tunes in triple meter with a clear asymmetric character. We will start by listening to a part of the

hardanger fiddle tune and then look at my analysis of the distribution of rhythmical units.

Sound: “Igletveiten”, springar from Telemark played by Bjarne Herrefoss, hardanger fiddle

(long-medium-short asymmetry)5

I have been using a sound editing program where I start by listening and looking at longer

melodic sequences, represented by parts of a sound graph, to get a feeling of where the division

should be musically. Then I try to hear where the unit seems to end and where the following

seems to begin. I move the marker back and forth and listen, and eventually the area representing

the unit is saved as a sound file. In this case the analysis is concentrated to measure and beat

lengths and to some extent to subdivision of the beats.

Show document Bjarne Herrefoss – Igletveiten – measure and beat lengths.doc6

This kind of analysis is of course highly problematic and it is safe to say that there are no exact

methods. It is more a process of interpretation with the basis in style knowledge then anything

else. Moreover, the analysis presented in this way does not really tell you much about this music.

Some kind of interpretation is necessary. One conclusion is obvious though; there are some

considerable variations in beat and measure lengths. How one is supposed to move on from there

is far from obvious and I will return to this problem later on. However, I will argue that there is a

need of this kind of data for future discussions. Some measurements are available on both

Swedish and Norwegian fiddle music, but no systematic and extensive analysis has been made.

5 Bjarne Herrefoss – Igletveiten.mp3 6 The original version of this document is supplemented with sound files represented by an icon behind every number indicating the measure and beat lengths. The reason for removing the sounds is that I find the original document far too large for online publishing.

One alternative method could be to take the position of the dancer or listener, and to let my

interpretation of the rhythm expressed by for example foot tapping, be represented on a time axis.

But to rely on experienced beat from this kind of position can be problematic. First of all I

believe that preconceived ideas about a certain pattern in the distribution of the beats set up for a

great flexibility in terms of which melodic-rhythmic articulations that can account for that

pattern. This is of course a very important phenomenon in itself that deserves further

investigation, and it points to an earlier statement that the beats seem to be flexible when looked

at as different time-value categories. Without this flexibility it would be rather difficult, if not

impossible, to learn how to dance to this music. However, my choice of method is based on the

assumption that a great fiddler operates with a much higher resolution than most listeners, who is

situated in a more observing position. The musician has a direct contact with the instrument and

sound producing gestures, there is a more or less conscious anticipating of passed, present and

potential future melodic-rhythmic developments, and so on. The same could to some extent be

said about the interaction between a dancer and a musician who have worked together for many

years and developed an almost intuitive way of communicating with each other. In this case the

level of resolution represented by an average asymmetry does not at all account for the

experienced rhythm. Again this points to different degrees of mastery and the potential for

expression that is constituted by the rhythmic variability. To even start to consider micro

rhythmic relationships in this music would therefore automatically place focus on the master

fiddler and dancer rather than the average listener. If that was not the case it would be easy to

dismiss some of these intriguing questions by referring to the equal value of all interpretations,

even the ones insisting on a even and systematic distribution of rhythmical units. Another, related

argument is that measurements and analysis conducted with the aim of establishing a kind of

average asymmetry could be seen as problematic in light of the fact that the very variability seem

to be an important characteristic in this style. Moreover, conceived in relation to the constantly

ongoing interaction between theory and praxis it has fundamentally different implications than

investigating the very variability and the potential for variation. This is a very relevant argument

when considering “theory” as the strategies by which contemporary folk musicians are making

sense of their musical sources, for example when interpreting and selecting prominent style

characteristics in old recordings and transcriptions.7

7 This is a process of construction as well as of interpretation and an interesting problem that requires further study is

Moving back to my material, I should mention that I also have been using another method in the

analysis below measure level. In this case, I used a notation program where I adjusted the score until the

accents within the measure matched with the played version. The playback was set at very low speed

and it was possible to get a high degree of synchronization, unfortunately with a corresponding lack of

practical use for a musician, as you can see in the following example:

Example 1:

Beat division (64th): 10 16 10 12,5 14 9,5

One possible way into a more musically relevant approach to the kind of data earlier presented is to

focus on the variation of similar melodic phrases, and how this variation possibly is affecting the

relative distribution of the beats within the measure. In this connection it is important to note that even

if the measure usually is conceived as a musical unit, it can be more or less compatible with how

different parts of the melodic-rhythmic flow is divided conceptually. On the other hand, I believe that

the use of the measure as reference point can be an effective method for demonstrating this very

problem. To have a sounding reference to the following discussion, we will now listen to the second

tune.

Sound: Springleik from Vågå played by Leif-Inge Schjølberg, fiddle (short-long-medium

asymmetry)8

Variation in general is a central means for expression in this style and different kind of rhythmical

transformations of similar phrases seem to be one of the most common techniques. If we accept this

somewhat generalized picture, there are two main types of variations. First of all we have plain

related to the strong assumption that this process consist of a transition from a high degree of ambiguity and uncertainty in older recordings and other sources, to a corresponding degree of clarity and well defined patterns in some of the musical praxis of today. 8 Leif-Inge Schjølberg – Springleik.mp3

rhythmic variations, as in example 2, where the rhythmic figure on the second beat is reversed in the

second measure.

Example 2 (Springleik/fiddle, simple notation):

* *

This kind of variation in itself can not be directly related to time stretching of the beat. However, at the

same time the pattern of articulations can include different kind of delays that could be interpreted as an

expressive potential by itself. Often this kind of small time variations in similar or identical motifs is

related to phrasing and legato-/staccato patterns. The following two examples are quite illustrating, and

they also demonstrate a great variability in the subdivision of the beats.

Example 3 (Springar/hardanger fiddle, 3/4 notation):

Phrase 1: Beat division (%): 43 30 27 41 30 29 Subdivision (%): 35+65 58+42 67+33 41+59 64+36 72+28

Phrase 2:

Beat division (%): 40 35 25 38 39 23 Subdivision (%): 30+70 75+25 64+36 35+65 39+61 58+42

The other category is melodic-rhythmic variations, often through different kinds of ornaments. If we

follow the phrase earlier referred to in the springleik this will be demonstrated very clearly. These

phrases are equivalent and are appearing in the same melodic context, but are constantly varied

throughout the tune.

Example 4 (Springleik/fiddle, beat division in 64th note values)9:

10 16 10 11 15 10 10 16 10

10 15 11 12,5 14 9,5

11 15 10 10 12 14 12,5 14 9,5

10 15 11 12 14 10 10 16 10

11 14 11 12 14 10

14 12,5 9,5

A similar example from the springar/hardanger fiddle tune is also illustrating both the variability in

general and the correlation between melodic movement (that is mostly ornaments), and time stretching: 9 The common interpretation of the short-long-medium asymmetry would be represented by the numbers 10-14-12 in this system.

Example 5 (Springar/hardanger fiddle, beat division in %):

39 36 25 39 37 24 50 30 20

38+62 34+66 72+28 30+70 74+26 30+70 73+27

One simple interpretation is that a more complex figure tends to occupy more time space than a

simple one with few notes. It is also quite natural to interpret for example the last of the fourteen

variations above (example 4) as a matter of compensation, where the second and third beats are

shortened to compensate the stretched first beat. However, there is a complicating matter in the

fact that three beat units with a lot of ornaments often tend to be more accelerated (in other words

shorter) than comparable measures with simpler figures. This is an aspect necessary to take into

account; the analysis above is only showing relative variations in the distribution of the beats

within the measure, but there are also significant variations in the measure lengths. At the same

time the tempo is constant in both these recordings if one compares longer phrases.

My analysis and reflections around this is far from completed, but one idea I intend to

explore is the potential variation in the reference units used more or less consciously as time

controlling orientation points. There do not seem to be any particular reason to give the measure a

special status in this connection. In the springleik, the four measure phrases in the first part of the

tune could maybe fill that role. The phrase is played eight times and the duration is almost the

same every time. There is also a tendency toward a pattern in the lengths of the measures

involved, almost like an acceleration–retardation cycle. The first and last measure is extended

while the ones in the middle are ”compensating” by being accelerated:

Example 6 (Springleik/fiddle tune):

Measure: Time (sec.) Time, four measure

phrase:

Sound:

1 1.749

2 1.365

3 1.396

4 1.460 5.970

5 1.656

6 1.390

7 1.319

8 1.456 5.821

Musically, this line of thought makes sense; I think it feels quite natural to grasp the melodic-rhythmic

flow in longer sequences with a kind of start and landing point as the frame of orientation, rather than a

measure by measure based meter in a strict sense. The start-/landing point metaphor can also be useful

in the interpretation of what is going on at a micro level. A central task in my analysis has been to

determine if one of the beats seem to have a greater rhythmical tolerance. In the springleik, this is quite

obvious; the most significant time deviations are located between the first and the second beat. It seems

reasonable to interpret this in relation to the fact that the fiddler, in accordance with the Vågå tradition,

is tapping his foot on the first and third beat indicating structurally important attack points. Also the

dance Vågå-springleik is constituted by this pattern. Then what is happening between the first and third

beat accent is of relatively little importance in terms of predictability, which is the same as saying that

there is a freedom in how the phrase is shaped that does not compromise the music-dance interaction.

There is of course no room for following up all of these ideas in this context. The aim has

been to give some examples of the variable asymmetry phenomena and to demonstrate some

possible methods for analysis and interpretation. One preliminary conclusion is that we are

dealing with variations within what could be called an open parameter, that is, a musical

parameter that can be varied within certain limits without compromising the stylistic identity of

the performance. It should be noted that rhythm is not the only open parameter in this style. In the

examples used here there are for example a great variation in intonation, especially on the third

and fourth. As with the rhythmic figures discussed, it strikes me that the variations is about

different ways of “saying the same thing”, where the articulation points in the melodic-rhythmic

flow is related as complimentary parts of a larger shape, rather than as different positions in

relation to measures, beats or scales. That is, a kind of model for performance and anticipation of

rhythmic patterns with a basis in the recognition of identity and flexibility in complete gestures

(phrases/motifs with different lengths). This in contrast to a model where the focus is on the

location of single events in a predefined matrix (meter), thus initializing discussions about

deviations from…

Even if it is a complex task to make up a coherent alternative frame of interpretation, one

can conclude that it seems quite impossible to comprehend this music if the reference points are

limited to conventional meter and scales. This work in progress could therefore be seen as a step

in the direction of a more sophisticated set of tools for understanding this music. It should also be

noted that this perspective obviously is in conflict with a theoretical perspective where a

metronomic rhythm is conceived as an underlying structure, which in performed music is

transformed into more or less systematic deviations from this structure.10 In the styles referred to

in this paper it seems far more reasonable to look at the asymmetric structure as the fundamental

pattern that musical and bodily movements are related to. In this connection I have conducted

some simple experiments where I have manipulated phrases in symmetric triple meter into

asymmetrical structures representing different styles, that is, different patterns of asymmetry.

Most reactions from musicians and dancers who have heard these examples have been that this is

not stylistically acceptable representations. Why is that? My interpretation is that the melodic-

rhythmic articulations always are formulated, so to speak, in accordance with the basic rhythmic

structure, which happens to be asymmetric in this case. This is for example evident in the

subdivision of the beats, which tend to have a quite different character in symmetric triple meter.

In other words, there are no reasons to consider a metronomic triple meter as a reference with any

kind of meaning in the interpretation of these asymmetric styles. At the same time a static

asymmetry (for example 38-33-29 throughout in the springar/hardanger fiddle tune), which

would coincide with the argument that phrases are “formulated” in accordance with the

asymmetric pattern, would not be compatible with the freedom to shape and reshape the phrases

in ways that extends or contracts them beyond the limits set up by the meter. When looking at

some of the strongly ornamented phrases from the recordings under consideration there is no way

that they would “fit” within the limits set up by a hypothetic static asymmetry. This actually

points out the same critical argument as relevant both regarding the expressive timing model and 10 Cf. Waadeland (2000), who by adopting the concept of expressive timing (Clarke 1999) suggests a relevance in this way of viewing the process of giving life to the (metronomic) rhythm in live performances.

the static asymmetry model. The rhythmic structure can not be separated from the melodic

structure, that is, the melodic structure is the rhythmic structure since there is no abstract meter

that would correspond with any tune as performed.11 Rather than as realizations of a

preconceived pattern (like the ohm-pa-pa rhythm corresponding with the realization of waltz

melodies), these tunes could be conceived as a combination of a set of melodic-rhythmic phrases

with a recognizable identity within a certain specter of variation. The typical ways of performing

these phrases may contain bodily and aural sensations which are both an important condition for

the stability in tempo in spite of large variations on the beat and measure levels, and a central part

of the mechanisms of variation that creates these “deviations”. Understood this way, the reference

is not hypothetical points in time represented by some kind of metronomic structure, but the

intuitive recognition of the melodic-rhythmic gestures as performed within certain limits of

variability.

The lack of extensive empirical research and definitive answers leaves room for

speculations, and my contribution draws primarily on my own experience as a performer. With

this point of departure I am convinced that these complex unsolved questions calls for a deeper

understanding of how the melodic phrases work as rhythm carriers and time controlling

mechanisms, and the recognition of the inseparability of rhythm, meter and melody in this style.

References

Clarke, Eric F.: ”Rhythm and Timing in Music”.

I Deutsch, Diana (red.): The Psychology of Music.

Academic Press. San Diego 1999.

Danielsen, Anne: Presence and Pleasure – a study in the funk grooves of James Brown and

Parliament.

Doctor dissertation. Faculty of Arts. University of Oslo. Unipub 2001.

Kvifte, Tellef: "Fenomenet "asymmetrisk takt" i norsk og svensk folkemusikk". I: Vollsnes, Arvid

O. (ed.): Studia Musicologica Norvegica.

11 I am not talking about small deviations in micro timing here, but the potential for completely different timing patterns in different parts of a tune, and the corresponding complete collapse of any metrical system that insists on being static or predictable.

Scandinavian University Press. Oslo 1999.

Waadeland, Carl Haakon: Rhythmic Movements and Movable Rhythms. Syntheses of Expressive

Timing by Means of Rhythmic Frequency Modulation.

Doctor dissertation. Department of Musicology. Norwegian University of Science and Technology.

Trondheim 2000.