internationalisation revisited carem 2012 beelen de witt

INTERNATIONALISATION REVISITED: NEW DIMENSIONS IN ThE INTERNATIONALISATION OF hIghER EDUCATION

JOS BEELEN & hANS DE WIT (EDS.)

CREATINg TOMORROW

9 789081 712200

ISBN 978-90-817122-0-0

INTERNATIONALISATIONREVISITED:NEWDIMENSIONSINTHEINTERNATIONALISATIONOFHIGHEREDUCATION

CENTREFORAPPLIEDRESEARCHONECONOMICSANDMANAGEMENTCAREM

JOSBEELENANDHANSDEWIT(EDS.),INTERNATIONALISATIONREVISITED:NEWDIMENSIONSINTHEINTERNATIONALISATIONOFHIGHEREDUCATION

2012CENTREFORAPPLIEDRESEARCHONECONOMICSANDMANAGEMENT(CAREM)



INTERNATIONALISATIONREVISITED:NEWDIMENSIONSINTHEINTERNATIONALISATIONOFHIGHEREDUCATIONJOSBEELENANDHANSDEWIT(EDS.)AMSTERDAM20122012,CENTREFORAPPLIEDRESEARCHONECONOMICS&MANAGEMENT,SCHOOLOFECONOMICSANDMANAGEMENTOFTHEHOGESCHOOLVANAMSTERDAM,ANDJOSBEELENANDHANSDEWITALLRIGHTSRESERVED.NOPARTOFTHISWORKMAYBEREPRODUCED,STOREDINARETRIEVALSYSTEM,ORTRANSMITTEDINANYOTHERFORMORBYANYMEANS,ELECTRONIC,MECHANICAL,PHOTOCOPYING,MICROFILMING,RECORDINGOROTHERWISE,WITHOUTWRITTENPERMISSIONFROMTHEPUBLISHER,WITHTHEEXCEPTIONOFANYMATERIALSUPPLIEDSPECIFICALLYFORTHEPURPOSEOFBEINGENTEREDANDEXECUTEDONACOMPUTERSYSTEM,FOREXCLUSIVEUSEBYTHEPURCHASEROFTHEWORK.PERMISSIONFORPUBLISHINGTHEARTICLESWASGRANTEDBYCOURTESYOFTHEPUBLISHERS.ISBN/EAN9789081712200



CONTENTS

JOSBEELENHANSDEWIT


1

EFFECTINGANDMONITORINGCHANGE

HANSDEWIT INTERNATIONALISATIONOFHIGHEREDUCATION:NINEMISCONCEPTIONS

5

JOSBEELEN

THELONGWAIT:RESEARCHINGTHEIMPLEMENTATIONOFINTERNATIONALISATIONATHOME

9

JEANINEGREGERSENHERMANS

TOASKORNOTTOASK;THATISTHEQUESTIONA FRAMEWORK TO UNDERSTAND THE PROCESSES CHANGE INHIGHER EDUCATION INSTITUTIONS TO INCLUDE INTERCULTURALCOMPETENCE IN ITS LEARNING OUTCOMES AND ACADEMICENVIRONMENT

21

ELSPETHJONES

CHALLENGINGRECEIVEDWISDOM

35

DARLADEARDORFF

IDENTIFICATIONANDASSESSMENTOFINTERCULTURALCOMPETENCEASASTUDENTOUTCOMEOFINTERNATIONALIZATION

47

BETTYLEASK

TAKINGAHOLISTICAPPROACHTOINTERNATIONALISATIONCONNECTINGINSTITUTIONALPOLICYWITHTHEEVERYDAYREALITYOFSTUDENTLIFE

71

INVOLVINGACADEMICSTAFF

LAURALEMKE SENSEMAKINGANDINTERNATIONALISATIONHOWDOLECTURERSMAKESENSEOFINTERNATIONALISATIONATTHESCHOOLOFECONOMICSANDMANAGEMENT?

87

ELSVANDERWERF

INTERNATIONALISATIONSTRATEGIESANDTHEDEVELOPMENTOFCOMPETENTTEACHINGSTAFF

97



POLICYANDSTRATEGY

HELGERESTAD LEARNINGTOMANAGESYSTEMATICEFFECTSINTHEIMPLEMENTATIONOFINTERNATIONALSTRATEGIESINHIGHEREDUCATION

105

FIONAHUNTER

EUROPEANUNIVERSITIES:VICTIMSORAGENTSOFCHANGE?

113

MOBILITY

LAURARUMBLEY SOMANYDATA,SOLITTLECLARITYTHEONGOINGCHALLENGESOFMAKINGSENSEOFACADEMICMOBILITYINEUROPE

125

BERNHARDSTREITWIESER

ERASMUSMOBILITYSTUDENTSANDCONCEPTIONSOFNATIONAL,REGIONALANDGLOBALCITIZENSHIPIDENTITY

135



1


EDITORIALInternationalisationisundergoingconstantchange,influencedbyexternalandinternalsocial,economic,politicalandacademicfactors.Overthepast25years,theinternationaldimensionofhighereducationhasrisen on the agendas of international organisations and national governments, institutions of highereducationandtheirrepresentativebodies,studentorganisationsandaccreditationagencies.Thisprocessisalsodescribedasmainstreamingofinternationalisation.Overtheyears,internationalisationhasmovedfromareactivetoaproactivestrategicissue,fromaddedvaluetomainstream,andalsohasseenitsfocus,scope and content evolve substantially. Increasing competition in higher education and thecommercialisationandcrossborderdeliveryofhighereducationhavechallengedthevaluetraditionallyattached to cooperation: exchanges and partnerships. Brandenburg and DeWit 2011, p. 2728 haveaddressedthisincreasingtensionbetweenthetraditionalconceptofcooperativeinternationalisationandthecurrentmorecommercialfocusininternationalisation.

Atthesametime,internationalisationofthecurriculumandtheteachingandlearningprocessalsoreferred toas InternationalisationatHomehasbecomeasrelevantasmobilitybothdegreemobilityand mobility as part of a home degree. Conceptual ideas on Internationalisation at Home orinternationalisationofthecurriculumhavemadetheirwayintothestrategicplansofagrowingnumberof universities in Europe and beyond Beelen, 2011a; Beelen& Leask, 2011. This does notmean thatthese ideas have been implemented. There aremany known and unknown obstacles that obstruct theimplementation process. One of those is the lack of involvement of academic staff. Another is lack ofexpertise to implement a meaningful intercultural and international dimension into higher educationcurricula.Beelen,2011b,c.

International educators have focused toomuch on activities such asmobility, study abroad andinternationalclassrooms,asgoalsinthemselves.Butashiftfromactivitiestocompetencesisevolvinginthepolicieswithrespecttotheinternationalisationofhighereducation.Wehaveassumedforalongtime



2

that these activities or instruments were good in themselves and that by undertaking them, studentswould automaticallydevelop competences related to these activities,without anyproof that theyhave.Forthatreason,ashiftinfocusfromthehowinstrumentstothewhyobjectivesisrequired.Inafirstpublication:Trends,IssuesandChallengesinInternationalisationofHigherEducationDeWit,2011b,bytheCentreforAppliedResearchonEconomicsandManagementCAREMoftheSchoolofEconomicsandManagement at the Amsterdam University of Applied Sciences HvA, De Wit addressed themisconceptions and challenges related to current views on internationalisation 2011b, pp. 723. Asummary article on these misconceptions, Internationalization of Higher Education: NineMisconceptions,firstpublishedinInternationalHigherEducation2011c,pp.67ispartofthepresentvolume,thesecondoneonthethemeofinternationalisationofhighereducationbyCAREM.

Internationalisationrevisited:NewdimensionsintheinternationalisationofhighereducationistheproductofaseriesofseminarsorganisedbytheResearchGrouponInternationalisationofCAREMinthecourseof2010and2011withguestspeakersfromaroundtheworldAustralia,Belgium,Germany,Italy,TheNetherlands,Norway,UnitedStatesofAmerica,UnitedKingdom,andfromtheresearchgroupitself.Itwasfeltthattheexpertisedisplayedanddiscussedduringtheseseminarsshouldbebroughttogetherina book that can guide teaching staff, curriculum developers, international officers and programmemanagers in developing internationalisation strategies in their institutions. The book is composed oftwelvearticlesinfivesections:

1. EFFECTINGANDMONITORINGCHANGE2. INVOLVINGACADEMICSTAFF3. POLICYANDSTRATEGY4. MOBILITY5. CURRICULUM

Together theyprovidean interestingoverviewof current themes thatwill guide internationalisation inthecomingyears.Wethanktheauthorsfortheirwillingnesstocontributetheirpaperstothispublication.JOSBEELENANDHANSDEWITEDITORSAMSTERDAM,AUGUST2012REFERENCESBeelen,J.2011a.Firststepsininternationalizationathome.EducacinGlobal,Vol15,5967.Beelen,J.2011b.Internationalisationathomeinaglobalperspective:Acriticalsurveyofthe3rdGlobal

Survey Report of IAU. Globalisation and internationalisation of higher education onlinemonograph. Revista de Universidad y Sociedad del Conocimiento, 8 2. Retrieved fromhttp://rusc.uoc.edu/ojs/index.php/rusc/article/view/v8n2beelen/v8n2beeleneng

Beelen,J.2011c.Overcomingobstaclestointernationalisationathome:Apleatojoinforces.Gjallerhorn,Vol.13,812.



3

Beelen,J.,&Leask,B.2011.Internationalisationathomeonthemove.InHandbookInternationalisation.Retrievedfrom:http://www.raabe.de.

Brandenburg,U.&DeWit,H. 2011. The end of internationalisation. InH. deWit, Trends, Issues andChallengesinInternationalisationofHigherEducation,pp.2728.Amsterdam:CAREM.

DeWit,H.2011a.Lawofthestimulativearrears?Internationalisationofuniversitiesofappliedsciences,misconceptionsandchallenges.InH.deWit,Trends,issuesandchallengesininternationalisationofhighereducation.Amsterdam:CAREM.

DeWit,H.2011b.Trends,issuesandchallengesininternationalisationofhighereducation.Amsterdam:CAREM.

DeWit,H. 2011c. Internationalizationofhighereducation:Ninemisconceptions. InternationalHigherEducation,64,67.



4



5

INTERNATIONALISATIONOFHIGHEREDUCATION:

NINEMISCONCEPTIONS

HANSDEWITCENTREFORAPPLIEDRESEARCHONECONOMICSANDMANAGEMENT(CAREM)

AMSTERDAMUNIVERSITYOFAPPLIEDSCIENCESTHENETHERLANDS

Thisisasummarisedversionofhisinaugurallecture,publishedasLawofthestimulativearrears,inDeWit,H.(2011).Trends,issuesandchallengesininternationalisationofhighereducation,pp.723.Amsterdam:CAREM.

InternationalisationinEuropeanhighereducationhasdevelopedoverthelast20years,fromamarginalpoint of interest to a central factor also called a mainstreaming of internationalisation.Indisputably,globalizationofoursocietiesandeconomieshasexpandedtheinfluenceofcompetitionandmarket processes on the manner in which internationalisation is implemented. Internationalisationdistinguishesmanymotivesandapproaches.Themainstreamingofinternationalisationassumesamoreintegralprocessbasedapproach,aimedatabetterqualityofhighereducationandcompetenciesofstaffand students. Reality is less promising, however, although the international dimension takes anincreasingly central role in higher education. Still, there is a predominantly activityoriented or eveninstrumental approach toward internationalisation, which leads to major misconceptions about thenatureofthisdevelopment.

NinemisconceptionswillbedescribedtwoofthemcoincidingwithamythasdescribedinIHEbyJane Knight in Five Myths About Internationalisation IHE, 62, winter 2011, wherebyinternationalisationisregardedassynonymouswithaspecificprogrammaticororganizationalstrategytopromoteinternationalisationinotherwords,wherethemeansappeartohavebecomethegoal.

EDUCATIONINTHEENGLISHLANGUAGETheinfluenceoftheEnglishlanguageasamediumofcommunicationinresearchhasbeendominantforalongperiodof time.Also,over thepast20years the tendency inhighereducationhasbeen to teach inEnglish, as an alternative for teaching in ones mother tongue. There are several unintended negative



6

effects. Increasingly, education offered in the English language is regarded as the equivalent ofinternationalisation, which results in a decreasing focus on other foreign languages; in an insufficientfocusonthequalityoftheEnglishspokenbystudentsandteachersforwhomEnglishisnottheirnativelanguage;andthusleadingtoadeclineinthequalityofeducation.STUDYINGORSTAYINGABROADA study or internship abroad as part of your home studies is often regarded as the equivalent ofinternationalisation.Inparticular,theEuropeanCommissionspolicytostimulatethismannerofmobilityhascontributedtothatinstrumentalapproachoverthelast25years.Itisquestionable,however,whetherthe imbalancedandoversimplifiedapproach tomobilitymatches internationalisation.Aswell, it canbesaid that mobility is merely an instrument for promoting internationalisation and not a goal in itself.Mobility needs to be finely embedded in the internationalisationof education. It shouldbedeterminedwhethertheseaddedvaluesaredevelopedamongstudents;andmoreinnovativereflectionisrequiredonalternativewaysofachievingtheseaddedvalues,forinstancebytheuseofdistanceeducationandvirtualmobility.ANINTERNATIONALSUBJECTA thirdmisconception that continues to surface persistently is that internationalisation is synonymouswith providing training based on international content or connotation: European studies, internationalbusiness, or universal music. Within the institutions and schools offering these programmes, theprevailingopinionseemstoimplythat,inthisway,internationalisationhasbeenproperlyimplemented.Withoutmeaningto ignorethevaluablecontributionofsuchprogrammes,again, it istoosimplisticandinstrumentalanargumenttodeclareregionalstudiesassynonymouswithinternationalisation.HAVINGMANYINTERNATIONALSTUDENTSAfourthmisconceptionofinternationalisationistheassumptionthathavingmanyinternationalstudentsequalsthattrend.Withoutdenyingthatthecombinationoflocalandinternationalstudentsinthelectureroomcanmakeasignificantcontributiontointernationalisation,simplyhavinginternationalstudentsisnotsufficient.Unfortunately,countlessexamplescanbegivenofprogrammesthatareorientedexclusivelytowardinternationalstudentsorwhereinternationalstudentsarebeingaddedasanisolatedgroup.FEWINTERNATIONALSTUDENTSGUARANTEESSUCCESSThe other side of the preceding misconception occurs as well. In particular, many internationalprogrammes have developed a distorted proportion between the number of local and internationalstudents. Partly as a result of the increasing national and international competition for internationalstudents,theproportionbetweenlocalandinternationalstudentsbecomesmoreandmoreunequal.Thus,onecanhardlyspeakofaninternationalclassroomsetting.Conversely,thisdevelopmenthasanegativeeffectontheinternationalisationofmainstream,nonEnglishlanguageprogrammes.Localstudentswithacertain, whether or not motivated, international interest preferably enroll in the internationalprogrammeswhichmeanstheinterestofmainstreameducationinthelocallanguagedwindles.Also,in



7

theseprogrammesthepresenceofasmallnumberofinternationalstudentscreatestensions.ShouldthecoursesbetaughtinEnglishifthereareonlyoneortwointernationalstudentsinthelectureroom?Howcantheintegrationofinternationalstudentsberealizedinsuchdistortedproportions?NONEEDTOTESTINTERCULTURALANDINTERNATIONALCOMPETENCIESA sixth misconception assumes that students normally acquire intercultural and internationalcompetencies if they studyor serve their internship abroador takepart in an international class. Thismisconception is closely related to the previous ones about mobility, education in English, and thepresence of international students. If these kinds of activities and instruments are consideredsynonymouswith internationalisation, then it is obvious to assume that intercultural and internationalcompetenceswillthereforealsobeacquired.Onceagain,realityismorecomplicated.Itisnotguaranteedfrom the outset that these activitieswill actually lead to that result. After all, students can completelysecludethemselvesfromsharingexperienceswithotherstudentsandothersectionsofthepopulationinthecountriestheyvisit.THEMOREPARTNERSHIPS,THEMOREINTERNATIONALAseventhmisconceptiononinternationalisationisthefocusonpartnerships:themorepartnerships,themore success of internationalisation. Globalization, competition, andmarket processes have reinforcedthe development toward strategic partnerships. This tendency toward strategic partnerships oftenimplicatesintentions,however.Themajorityofpartnershipsremainbilateral,andinseveralinstitutionsandschoolsthenumberfarexceedsthenumberofstudentsandteachersbeingexchanged.HIGHEREDUCATIONINTERNATIONALBYNATUREAt universities and among their researchers, the general opinion identified a truly internationalcharacteristic,andthusthereisnoneedtostimulateandguideinternationalisation.Thereby,referencesaremadetotheRenaissance,thetimeofthephilosopherErasmusca.14671536,whomtheEuropeanexchange program is named after. This historic reference ignores the fact that universities, mostlyoriginatedinthe18thand19thcentury,hadaclearnationalorientationandfunction.Internationalisationdoes not arrive naturally in general universities and universities of applied sciences, but needs to beintroduced.ThatiswhytheratherwidelyaccepteddefinitionofinternationalisationbyJaneKnightreferstoanintegrationprocess.INTERNATIONALISATIONASAPRECISEGOALMost of the mentioned misconceptions conceive an activity or instrument as synonymous withinternationalisation.Thelast,alsofairlyprevailing,misconceptionregardsinternationalisationasamaingoal, and therefore it is in line with the misconceptions mentioned earlier. Internationalisation is aprocess to introduce intercultural, international,andglobaldimensions inhighereducation; to improvethegoals, functions,anddeliveryofhighereducation;andthus toupgradethequalityofeducationandresearch.Ifinternationalisationisregardedasaspecificgoal,thenitremainsadhocandmarginal.



8

To comprehend the challenges and opportunities for the internationalisation of higher education it iscompellingtorecognizethatthesemisconceptionsarestillfairlycommon.

ABOUTTHEAUTHORHans de Wit is Professor (lector) of Internationalization of Higher Education at the School ofEconomics and Management of the Amsterdam University of Applied Sciences and Senior PolicyAdvisor International at that university. As of 2012 he is also visiting professor at the UniversitCattolicadelSacroCuore (UCSC) inMilan (Italy)wherehe isAcademicDirectorof theCentre forInternationalisationofHigherEducation.HeistheCoEditoroftheJournalofStudiesinInternationalEducation(AssociationforStudiesinInternationalEducation/SAGEpublishers).Since2010HansisvisitingprofessorattheCAPRI,theCentreforAcademicPracticeandResearchinInternationalisationofLeedsMetropolitanUniversity,UnitedKingdom.In20052006,hewasaNewCenturyScholaroftheFulbrightProgramHigherEducationinthe21stCentury,andin1995and2006avisitingscholarintheUSAandin2002inAustralia.Hehasbeeninvolvedinseveralprojectsrelatedtoqualityandinternationalisation,amongothersforIMHE/OECDandforNVAO.Healsopublishedonthisissue.He has (co)written several other books and articles on international education and is activelyinvolved in assessment and consultancy in international education for organisations like theEuropeanCommission,UNESCO,WorldBank,IMHE/OECD,NVAOandESMU.Hislatestbook isHansde Wit (2011), Trends, Issues and Challenges in Internationalisation of Higher Education, Amsterdam:CAREM.HansdeWit isfoundingmemberandpastpresidentoftheEuropeanAssociation for InternationalEducation(EAIE).Currentlyheis,amongotherpositions,MemberoftheBoardofTrusteesofWorldEducationServices(NewYork),MemberoftheESLTOEFLBoard(asof2011),CoChairoftheSpecialInterestGroupResearchinInternationalEducationofEAIE,andMemberoftheConsellAssessordelInstitutInternacionaldePostgraudelaUniversitatObertadeCatalunya.



9

THELONGWAIT:

RESEARCHINGTHEIMPLEMENTATIONOFINTERNATIONALISATIONATHOME

JOSBEELEN

CENTREFORAPPLIEDRESEARCHONECONOMICSANDMANAGEMENT(CAREM)AMSTERDAMUNIVERSITYOFAPPLIEDSCIENCES

THENETHERLANDSABSTRACTThischapteraimstosketchthelinesalongwhichfutureresearchintotheimplementationofInternationalisationatHomeorinternationalisationofthecurriculumcouldorshouldbeconducted. First, a brief overview of the relevant concepts and their definitions will bepresented.Thisdemonstratesthattheimplementationprocessinvolvesmanystakeholdersin the university and affects numerous processes. Implementation of an internationalisedcurriculum is therefore a complicated issue that involves a structural and systematicapproach.

The next section focuses on the progress made with the implementation ofinternationalisation of the curriculum in a global perspective. This is followed by anoverviewoftheprocessesaffectedbyimplementationofcurriculuminternationalisation,theissuesthatariseandtheresearchthathasbeendoneintotheseissues.Thefinalsectionofthepaperoutlinestheaspectsoftheimplementationprocessthatfutureresearchcouldandshouldaddress.

InternationalisationatHome:Abrilliant ideaawaiting implementation is the titleof a2007paperbyJoseph Mestenhauser. Almost five years later, IaH has progressed beyond a mere idea and has beenacknowledgedasafullcomplementtointernationalisationabroadKnight2006,2008.Itisnowtimetoask what progress has been made. What ideas have been developed on the implementation ofinternationalisationofthecurriculum?Afterall,asMichaelFullanremarked:Goodideaswithnoideasonhowtoimplementthemarewastedideas.FullanquotedbyScott,2003.



10

Whataretheexperiencesmadeandwhichobstacleshavebeenencountered?Howdoideashelptoovercomeobstacles?Whatresearch informs ideason internationalisationof thecurriculum?Andwhicharethelinesalongwhichfutureresearchcouldandshouldbeconducted?CONCEPTSANDDEFINITIONSTheconceptofInternationalisationatHomewasintroducedin1999.Thedevelopmentofthisconceptinrelation to Internationalisation of the Curriculum in Australia and Campus Internationalisation/ComprehensiveInternationalisationintheUSAhasbeendiscussedrecentlybyBeelenandLeask2011.Leasksdefinitionunderlinesthefactthatinternationalisationofthecurriculumisacomplicatedprocessthatinvolvesmanystakeholders:

Internationalisation of the Curriculum is the incorporation of an intercultural andinternationaldimension into the contentof the curriculumaswell as the teachingandlearningprocessesandsupportservicesofaprogrammeofstudy.An internationalisedcurriculumwillengagestudentswithinternationallyinformedresearchandculturalandlinguistic diversity. It will purposefully develop their international and interculturalperspectivesasglobalprofessionalsandcitizens.Leask2009,p.209.

Hudzik2011stressesthesameaspectswhenhewrites:

Comprehensive internationalization is a commitment, confirmed through action, toinfuse international and comparative perspectives throughout the teaching, research,and servicemissions of higher education. It shapes institutional ethos and values andtouches the entire higher education enterprise. It is essential that it be embraced byinstitutional leadership, governance, faculty, students, and all academic service andsupportunits. It isan institutional imperative,not justadesirablepossibility.Hudzik2011,p.1.

InternationalisationatHomeoriginatedinthecontextofNorthWesternEurope.Thefollowingpointsarecharacteristicsinthatcontext:

InternationalisationatHomeisaimedatallstudentsandisthereforepartofthecompulsoryprogramme.

Internationalisation atHome is a set of instruments and activities at home that focus ondevelopinginternationalandinterculturalcompetencesinallstudents.

InternationalisationatHomeisbasedontheassumptionthat,whilestudentswilltravelforpersonalreasons,themajoritywillnottravelforstudyrelatedpurposes,althoughthelatteroptionisnotentirelyexcluded.

Mayincludeshorttermoutgoingmobilityintheformofstudyvisitsorresearchassignmentsthatareacomponentofthecompulsorycurriculum.



11

Onlyincludestheindividualexperiencesofstudentsundertakenduringstudyandplacementabroadiftheseareintegratedintothehomeinstitutionsstandardassessmenttoolssuchastheportfolioforallstudents.Beelen&Leask,2011.

Thedefinitions abovedemonstrate that implementationof an internationaldimension is a complicatedprocess that involvesmany stakeholders and touches the core of teaching and learning. In the sectionbelow,wewilllookathowfartheimplementationprocesshasprogressedacrosstheworld.

STATEOFTHEUNION:HOWFARHAVEWEPROGRESSED?There have been several attempts to give a global overview of how far internationalisation of thecurriculumhaspenetratedregions,countriesanduniversities,notablybyBeelen2011andBeelenandLeask2011.Althoughsuchoverviewsinevitablyleadtogeneralisation,apicturedoesemerge.

InAsia,afocusoninternationalisationofthecurriculumisalmostentirelylacking.InAfrica,mostuniversitiesinonesinglecountryi.e.SouthAfricahaveembracedtheconceptofinternationalisationofthecurriculumbutthisistotheexclusionoftherestofthecontinent.InLatinAmerica,thefocusislimitedto single universities across the region.Europe showsmarkeddifferences between sub regions,with astrong focus in thesmaller countriesofNorthWesternEuropeandamuchweakerdevelopment in thebiggerEuropeancountries,theGIPScountriesandEasternEurope.GermanyistheonlymajorEuropeancountrywhere,activitieshavebeendevelopedunderthe flagofInternationalisierungzuHause.NorthAmerica andAustralia show a strong focus across thewhole region, based on the concepts of CampusInternationalisation/Comprehensive Internationalisation and Internationalisation of the Curriculumrespectively.

ONEFORALLANDALLFORONEAfocusoninternationalisationofthecurriculumorisolatedactivitiesinthefielddonotsaymuchaboutthe extent towhich students feel the impact of an internationalised curriculum. The key issue here iswhether universities have chosen to develop student activities around internationalisation of thecurriculum as electives or that they havemade the choice to connect internationalisation to graduateattributes,forallstudents.

In the former situation, it is usually the champions of internationalisation that developinternationalcurriculumelementsathome forselectedgroupsof students. Issueswith implementationareusuallylimited.Thepersonaldriveofthechampionswillensurethattheirideaswillbeimplemented.Otheracademicstaffdonotneedtobecomeinvolvedandthefactthatnomajorchangestothecurriculumneedtobe implemented,willnotantagonise theopponentsforterminologyonstaff involvementseeChildress,2010.

IntheDutchcontext,theintroductionofthemajorminorstructureinUASillustratesthisprocess.The champions developed a range of international minors which give students the opportunity todevelopaninternationalorientationathome.Thisopportunityisavailabletoallstudents,butinpracticeonly a small minority of students chooses an international minor. Indeed, some UAS developedinternationalminors that consisted entirelyof studyabroad.Thisunderlines the fact that international



12

curriculum elements at home, when offered as electives, are basically no different from traditionalinternationalisationabroadinthesensethattheyreachonlyasmallminorityofstudentsandthattheydonothaveimpactonmajorprogrammesoracademicstaffinabroadersense.

Itisonlywhenaninternationaldimensionofthecurriculumisconnectedwithgraduateattributesforallstudents,thatadifferentsetofimplementationissuesarises.Internationalisationofthecurriculumfor all students affects the whole university and therefore also sceptics and opponents of theinternationalisationprocess.

The case study of two American universities by Childress 2010 has demonstrated that theinternationalisationof auniversity requires considerable resourcesandextensiveefforts,which shouldmoreoverbesustainedoveralongperiodoftime.

Hogeschool van Amsterdam, in its strategic plan for internationalisation adopted in 2010 hasmade this choice.Thismeans thatall studentswill acquire internationaland intercultural competencestroughatleast30ECinternationallyorientededucationaspartoftheircompulsoryprogrammes.

Theprocessofimplementinganinternationalisedhomecurriculumbringsarangeofissuestotheforefront.Thesewillbediscussedbelow,inconjunctionwiththeresearchthathasbeendoneonthem.

PROCESSES,ISSUESANDRESEARCHSomeof the issuesandreasonsthathavepreventedorsloweddownprogressof internationalisationofthecurriculumarewellknown.Thefirst isthefactthat internationalisationin itsbroadestsenseisstilldominatedbytraditionalnotionsofoutgoingmobilityDeWit,2011.This isconfirmedbythefindingsfrom the 3rd global Survey of IAU EgronPolak & Hudson, 2010. The survey report lists additionalobstaclestointernationalisation.Lackoffinancialresourcescomesoutasthemainobstaclesworldwide,followedbylackofinvolvementofacademicstaffaswellastheirlackofexpertiseininternationalisationand issues around foreign language proficiency. These items do not specifically addressinternationalisationofthecurriculum,butitcanbearguedthattheseobstaclesareparticularlyrelevantinthat respect Beelen,2011.Amoreextensive listofobstaclesasperceivedbyacademicstaffhasbeendrawnupbyBeelenandLeask2011.

Conceptual notions of internationalisation of the curriculum and their impact have been fairlywidelyresearchedandatarelativelyearlystage.Mestenhauser1998,2004,2006,2007wroteaseriesof articles on the impact of Internationalisation at Home. In Australia, internationalisation of thecurriculumhasbeenanongoingareaofresearchsincethemid1990s.EarlyworkundertakenbyPatrick1997andRizviandWalsh1998soughttodefinemeaningandprovideatheoreticalframingwithintheAustralian context. Theways institutions or national educational systems or traditions dealwith theconcept provide relevant backgrounds to any study of the implementation process. Mestenhauser hasdemonstratedthattheimplementationisafarreachingprocessthat,inordertobesuccessful,shouldandwill address and challenge many existing notions within the teaching and learning processes.Mestenhauser therefore argues that the implementation of Internationalisation requires a systemicapproach inorder tobe successful e.g.Mestenhauser,2006.This applies toboth implementationandgovernance.ThedefinitionsbyLeaskandHudzikaboveunderlinethefarreachingaspectsoftheprocessofinternationalisingthecurriculum.



13

How academic staff deal with these conceptual notions has only recently become a focus ofattention. Lemke 2011 has conducted a series of interviews with academic staff at the School ofEconomics and Management of Hogeschool van Amsterdam, to establish sensemaking processes inrelationtointernationalisation,bothatacollectiveandatanindividuallevel.

Thereisaconsiderablebodyofresearchonpolicybuildingforinternationalisationingeneral,butmuch less so for policies on curriculum internationalisation. Some of the early work onInternationalisationatHomeCrowtheretal.,2001;Nilsson,2003;Nilsson&Otten,2003;Beelen,2007addresses policy issues specifically for IaH. There is as yet no comparative study in which thedevelopment of a dedicated policy for internationalisation of the curriculum has been addressed.Moreover, the extant research tended to focus on institutional policies, whereas it now emerges thatimplementation of internationalisation of the curriculum requires appropriate policies at faculty andprogramme levels as well. This may require other types of leadership for and management of theinternationalisationprocess.

Strategies for increasing the involvement of academic staff in the process of internationalisationhaverecentlyreceivedsomeattentione.g.Childress,2010,butthereisnotmuchextantresearchintheinvolvement of academics in the specific process of internationalisation of the curriculum Leask &Beelen,2010.

To what extent universities, faculties and individual programmes have articulated graduateattributes and to what extent these have been established in relation to professional practice and inconjunction with the world of work, is a fundamental question that determines the scope of theinternational dimension of programmes. Universities of Applied Sciences or Professional Educationapparentlytaketheleadhere,sincetheirgraduateshaveamoreclearlydefinedprofessionalprofilethanthose from research universities. In this respect, many research universities are still crippled by thepresumptionthatresearchis,byandinitself, international.Theirgraduateswillthereforeautomaticallyacquire the international skillsnecessary for their futureprofession.Thisassumption leads toresearchuniversities lookingawayfromthecircumstancethatby farthegreatermajorityof theirgraduateswillnotbecomeresearchersinuniversities.

SinceUniversitiesofAppliedSciencesareinabetterpositiontolinktheirinternationaldimensiontoprofessionalpracticeand toassess if thisconforms to therequirementsof theworldofwork, futureresearchshouldaddresstheseuniversitiesfirstandforemost.Thefocusongraduateattributesrequiresfuture research to take into account the differences between individual programmes, since graduateattributesdifferconsiderablyacrossthefieldsofstudy,withmaybeteachersandinternationalmanagersattheextremeendsoftherange.

In the Australian context, recent research has started to focus on clarifying meaning withindifferentdisciplinesandinparticularonthelinksbetweenprofessionalpractice,graduateoutcomesandinternationalisationof the curriculumand the implicationsof internationalisationof the curriculum foracademic staff see for example Leask, 1999, 2009; McTaggart & Curro, 2009; Sanderson, 2008. TheQuestionnaireonInternationalisationoftheCurriculum,developedbyLeaskfortheAustraliansituationisanoutcomeofthismorecontextalisedapproachLeask,2011.



14

Arelated issue is thesupport that isgiven to theseprocesses throughprofessionaldevelopment.Thefact that internationalisationofthecurriculumis foremostan issueof teachingand learningmakesprofessionaldevelopmentofacademicstaffanissuethatrequiresattentionEgronPolak&Hudson,2010,pp. 7778. Professional development of academic staff does not seem particularly effective whenapproached traditionally, from a specific university wide approach Caruana & Hanstock, 2008.Experiences made in the Netherlands and in Australia suggest that a contextualised approach tointernationalisation of the curriculum may have better results De Wit & Beelen, 2011; Leask,forthcoming. Professional development should be based on the needs of academic staff. Finally, theseissuesarealsorelatedtotheextentinwhichinternationalisationofthecurriculumissupportedthroughhuman resource policies and incentives. Van der Werf has, over a number of years, developed acompetencematrixforlecturersinvolvedininternationalisationseeVanderWerf,2012.

The issue of foreign language proficiency is one that should be addressed through systematicprofessionaldevelopment.ThisisparticularlyrelevantinsettingswhereEnglishisnotthefirstlanguageof staff and students. The School of Economics and Management at Hogeschool van Amsterdam hasmonitored the implementation of international, English medium semesters De Wit & Beelen,forthcoming.Thishasshownthatlanguageissuesdominatethe implementationprocess.First, it isstillassumed by many that education with an international dimension should be in English but also thereverse: that education inEnglish is international. Studentsand staff point to the artificial characterofeducationinEnglishbyDutchteachingstaffforDutchstudents.TheyfurthermoreseeproblemswiththelevelofproficiencyinEnglishofstaffandstudentsalike,whichmayleadtoaperceivedlossofquality.

The international dimension is an integral part of teaching and learning as part of the formalcurriculum,butisnotalwaysexplicit.Beelen2007distinguishesfourtypesofinternationalclassrooms,oneofwhichistheclassicalinternationalclassroomwithstudentsfromdifferentcountries.Theotheristhe virtual international classroom, in which students do not meet physically. Teaching and learningprocesses in international classrooms have been fairly well researched see e.g. Bond, 2003a, 2003b;Bond,Qian,&Huang,2003.

Foreignlanguageaspectsplayanimportantroleheretoo.Studentstendtostayintheir languagecomfortzones,which leads toaseparationbetweenhomeand internationalstudentsLeask,2010.Sofar,theseprocesseshavebeenresearchedonlyinsituationswhereEnglishisthefirstlanguage.Itremainstobe seen if the sameprocessesoccur in continentalEuropeansettings.The roleof the lecturer in theinternationalclassroomhasbeendescribedbyTeekens2001,2003.

The way that learning experiences from the informal curriculum contribute to overall studentlearninghaveresearchedanddescribedextensivelyfortheAustraliancontextbyLeask2005,2009.

Shorttermmobilityasanelementofthecompulsoryprogrammeisoneoftheinstrumentsthatcanbe deployed as part as a strategy for internationalisation of the curriculum. The impact of this type ofmobility can be quite strong when consciously structured and evaluated. The effects of longer versusshorter termmobilityhave received someattention seee.g. Jones,2010.Lesswell researched ishowlearningthroughcompulsory,shorttermmobilityisassessed.

How assessment of learning is approached and organised and to what extent it is linked to adeliberate and conscious international dimension, in turn connected to graduate attributes has been



15

researched Deardorff, 2009; Deardorff, Thorndike Pysarchik, & Yun, 2009. The former includesexamples of assessment contextualised to certain disciplines, but the extent to which assessmentprinciples could and should be transferred across regions and countries remains a matter for furtherresearch.Thestrengthofassessmentproceduresisalsolinkedtoqualityoftheinternationaleducation.Much researchhasbeendoneonquality assurance for internationalisation seeVanGaalen, 2010butthis is seldom specifically aimed at internationalised curricula.Many institutions seem to be strugglingwith the consistency of assessment procedures. Malm University is the institution with the longestconscioushistory of Internationalisation atHome.Theoretically, studies on its impact should thereforeclarifysomeoftheeffectsbuttheoutcomesseemratherelusiveBergknut,2006,2007.

Finallythereistheextenttowhichserviceshavebeenadaptedtofacilitateinternationalisationofthecurriculum,forexampletoenableincomingmobilityofstaffandstudents.SomepreliminaryresearchontheinvolvementoftheInternationalOfficeintheprocessofinternationalisationofthecurriculumhasbeendoneBeelen,2007.

CONCLUSIONIn conclusion, it is clear that the research on IaH/IoC is now moving beyond the stage of discussingconceptual notions and implications for higher education in general. Thenew trend is towards amorecontextualisedresearchapproach,inwhichdifferentlevelsaredistinguished:region,country,institution,facultyandprogramme.Thisapproachclarifiestheissuesaroundimplementationthatareparticulartoagiven context. As yet, there has beenno comparative research inwhich the implementation process iscomparedacrossdifferentregionsbutforthesamedisciplines.

FUTURERESEARCH:ANOUTLINEThe overview of progressmade in curriculum internationalisation and list of known issues and extantresearchinthetwosectionsaboveprovideuswiththepossibilitytodraftanoutlineforfutureresearch.

HogeschoolvanAmsterdam,andparticularlytheSchoolofEconomicsandManagement,seemswelladvanced in the global field of internationalisation of the curriculum. This is as far as its policy isconcerned.BoththeUniversityandtheSchoolstrugglewithissuesofimplementationDeWit&Beelen,forthcoming.Theywouldbenefitfromresearchintoimplementationprocessesatotherinstitutions.Suchresearchcouldbelaidoutalongthefollowinglines:

Aglobal, comparative approachwhichwould include institutions in regions and countries

where there is a strong focus on Internationalisation at Home: North Western Europenotably The Netherlands, Flanders, Denmark and Sweden South Africa, the USA andAustralia.

The comparison would primarily include Universities of Applied Sciences or ProfessionalEducation and research universities that have evolved from such institutions, or researchuniversitieswithstronglydevelopedgraduateattributes

Comparative researchwould be focused on implementation issues at institutional, facultyandprogrammelevels



16

The comparison would include programmes with a variety of graduate attributes, e.g.teacher education, engineering and business. The represents an assumed increasingpresence of international orientationwithin the graduate attributes of thoseprogrammes,ranging fromanational focus for teachers,whowillonlybe licensed to teach ina specificcountry,alesserorgreaterdegreeofinternationalorientationforengineers,dependingonwhethertheyareeducatedtoworkininternationalsettings,eitherathomeorabroad.Theinternational orientationmay be presumedmost clearly present in business programmesbecauseoftheirfocusoninternationaldevelopmentsandabodyofknowledgethatcanbeconsideredinternational.

Theresearchshouldaddresstheissueofhowandtowhichextentinstitutions,facultiesandprogrammes have constructed their graduate attributes in conjunction with the world ofworkandonthebasisofexperiencesofalumni.

It should focus on comparing the development of dedicated policies for IaH at theinstitutionsselected.HogeschoolvanAmsterdammadea fundamentalchoice for IaH in itsinternationalisationpolicy.Thiscouldbecomparedtootherinstitutionalpoliciesinsimilaranddifferentcontexts.Institutionalpoliciesshouldinallcasesberesearchedintheirrelationtopoliciesatfacultyandprogrammelevelsinordertodeterminewhattheirimpactis.

Research should clarify towhat extent and how institutions have developed a systematicapproachto internationalisation ingeneralandto internationalisationofthecurriculuminparticular. This includes the question how they have incorporated existing notions oneffectingandmanagingchangeineducationalinstitutions.

Research should demonstrate how institutions provide professional development andsupport to academic and other staff involved in development and governance forinternationalisationofthecurriculum.

TheaspectofEnglishasafirstorasecondlanguagebothintermsofpoliciesandhowthisisdealt with in relation to professional development should be part of the research. TheinstitutionsselectedwouldbebothwithinandoutsidetheEnglishspeakingworld

Research should shed light on if and how institutions, faculties and programmes provideincentivesforandrecognitionofactivitiesthatareparticularlyaimedatinternationalisationofthecurriculum.

The comparison should showhow the institutions involvedhave shaped the internationaldimension in their formalcurriculaandwhich instrumentsand learningenvironment theyuse.

Research should provide an overview of how institutions, faculties and individualprogrammesdealwiththeinformalcurriculum,whichlearningexperiencestheyexpectfromthatandhowconsciouslytheyconnectthesetothoseintheformalcurriculum.

Procedures used to assess the specific intercultural and international aspects of thecurriculume.g.throughportfolios,mentoringandreflectionshouldalsoberesearchedaswellasthereasonsforthechoiceoftheseprocedures.



17

There should also be a focus on how and to what extent services, administrativedepartments and the International Office have been geared to contribute to and supportinternationalisationofthecurriculum.

An additional aspect of researchwould be the success factorswhich institutions, facultiesand programmes themselves identify both for past and future development of theinternationaldimension.

FutureresearchshouldbedoneincooperationwithresearchersfromAustralia,andshouldincorporate knowledge and insights from relevant networks, such as the Special InterestGroup on Internationalisation at Home of the European Association for InternationalEducation EAIE and that on Internationalisation of the Curriculum of the InternationalEducationAssociationofAustraliaIEAA.

CONCLUSIONResearchintotheimplementationofInternationalisationatHomehassofarbeenlimited.Mostresearchhasfocusedonconceptualnotionsandtheirmeaninganddatesbacktomiddletolateninetiesofthe20thcentury.Thatthereis,sofar,littleextantresearchonimplementationissuesisunderstandablefromthepointofviewofdifferencesbetweencountries,universities, facultieswithinthoseuniversitiesandevenindividual programmes within those faculties. Research on implementation should therefore also becontextualisedandshouldhaveaglobalandcomparativecharacter.

HogeschoolvanAmsterdamseemstobeagoodbasisforsuchresearch,whichshouldtakeplaceincooperationwithresearchersfromareaswhereviewsoninternationalisationofthecurriculumiswelladvanced,particularlyfromAustralia.

ABOUTTHEAUTHORJOS BEELEN is researcher and consultant at the Centre for Applied Research on Economics andManagementat theAmsterdamUniversityofAppliedSciences.He is chairof theSpecial InterestGroup InternationalisationatHomeof theEuropeanAssociation for InternationalEducation (EAIE)andvisitingfellowattheCentreforAcademicPracticeandResearchinInternationalisationofHigherEducation(CAPRI)atLeedsMetropolitanUniversity.His research focuses on the implementation of an international dimension in higher education.curricula.Hehas facilitatedmanyworkshops and training courseson this topic andhas acted asconsultant to universities in TheNetherlands and a rangeofother European countries. Jos alsochairsthesteeringcommitteeoftheCentreforInternationalisationofTeacherEducation(CILO)oftheEuropeanPlatform.

REFERENCESBeelen, J. Ed.. 2007. Implementing Internationalisation at Home. EAIE Professional Development

SeriesforInternationalEducators,Vol.2.Amsterdam:EAIE.



18

Beelen,J.2011.InternationalisationatHomeinaGlobalPerspective:ACriticalSurveyofthe3rdGlobalSurvey Report of IAU. In Globalisation and Internationalisation of Higher Education onlinemonograph. Revista de Universidad y Sociedad del Conocimiento, 8, 2. Retrieved from:http://rusc.uoc.edu/ojs/index.php/rusc/article/view/v8n2beelen/v8n2beeleneng.

Beelen,J.2012.Lainternacionalizacinencasaenelmundo,Unacomparacionregional.In L. D. Prieto Martnez, &C. H. Jimnez de Pena Eds., La internacionalizacin de laeducacionsuperior en amrica latina y europa: Retos y compromisos pp. 162183.Bogota:PontificiaUniversidadJaveriana.

Beelen, J., & Leask, B. 2011. Internationalisation at home on the move. Retrieved from:http://www.raabe.de.

Bergknut,K.2006.InternationalisationathomeatMalmUniversity;Structuresandworkareas2006.Retrievedfromwww.mah.se

Bergknut, K. 2007. Case study: Malm University, Sweden. In J. Beelen Ed., Implementinginternationalisationathomepp.8086. EAIEprofessionaldevelopmentseries for internationaleducators,Vol.2.Amsterdam:EAIE.

Bond,S.L.2003a.Untappedresources,internationalizationofthecurriculumandclassroomexperience:A selected literature review CBIE Research Millennium Series, Research Paper No. 7. Ottawa:CanadianBureauforInternationalEducationCBIE.

Bond,S.L. 2003b.Engagingeducators:Bringing theworld into theclassroom,guidelines forpractice.Ottawa:CanadianBureauforInternationalEducationCBIE.

Bond, S. L., Qian, J., & Huang, J. 2003. The role of faculty in internationalizing the undergraduatecurriculumandclassroomexperienceCBIEResearchMillenniumSeries,ResearchPaperNo.8ed..Ottawa:CanadianBureauforInternationalEducationCBIE.

Brandenburg, U., & Federkeil, G. 2007. How to measure internationality and internationalisation ofhighereducationinstitutions.Gtersloh:CentrumfrHochschulentwicklungGmbH.

Caruana, V., & Hanstock, J. 2008. Internationalising the curriculum at the University of Salford: fromrhetoric to reality. In C. Shiel & A. McKenzie Eds., The global university; the role of seniormanagerspp.3135.London:DEA.

Childress, L. K. 2010. The twentyfirst century university; developing faculty engagement ininternationalization.NewYork:PeterLangPublishingGroup.

Crowther, P., Joris,M., Otten,M., Nilsson, B., Teekens, H., &Wchter, B. 2001. Internationalisation athome;Apositionpaper.Amsterdam:EAIE.

Deardorff,D.2009.Implementinginterculturalcompetenceassessment.InD.Deardorff,Ed..TheSAGEhandbookofinterculturalcompetencepp.477491.ThousandOaks:Sage.

Deardorff, D.,Thorndike Pysarchik, D., & Yun, Z.S. 2009. Towards effective international learningassessments:principles,designand implementation. InH.deWit Ed.,Measuringsuccess in theinternationalisation of higher education. EAIE Occasional Paper, 22, pp. 2337. Amsterdam:EAIE.

De Wit, H. Ed.. 2009. Measuring success in the internationalisation of higher education. EAIEOccasionalPaper,22.Amsterdam:EAIE.



19

DeWit,H.2011.Lawofstimulatingarrears?Internationalisationoftheuniversitiesofappliedsciences,misconceptionsandchallenges.InH.deWit,Trends,issuesandchallengesininternationalisationofhighereducation,pp.723.Amsterdam:CAREM.

DeWit,H.,&Beelen,J.inpress.Socratesinthelowcountries:Designing,implementingandfacilitatinginternationalisationofthecurriculumatHogeschoolvanAmsterdam.

EgronPolak, E., & Hudson, R. 2010. Internationalization of higher education: Global trends, regionalperspectivesIAU3rdGlobalSurveyReport.Paris:IAU.

Hudzik, J. 2011. Comprehensive internationalisation: From concept to action, executive summary.Washington,D.C.:NAFSA.Retrievedfromwww.nafsa.org.cizn

Jones,E.2010.Ed.,Internationalisationandthestudentvoice.NewYork:Routledge.Knight, J. 2006. Internationalization of higher education: New directions, new challenges 2005 IAU

GlobalSurveyReport.Paris:IAU.Knight, J. 2008. Higher education in turmoil; the changing world of internationalization. Rotterdam:

SensePublishers.Leask, B. 2001. Bridging the gap: Internationalizing university curricula. Journal of Studies in

InternationalEducation,52,100115.Leask, B. 2005. Internationalisation of the curriculum: Teaching and learning. In J. Carroll, & J. Ryan

Eds.,Teachinginternationalstudents:Enhancinglearningforallstudentspp.119129.London:RoutledgePalmer.

Leask, B. 2008. Internationalisation of the curriculum in an interconnected world. In G. Crosling, L.Thomas&M.HeagneyEds.,Improvingstudentretentioninhighereducationtheroleofteachingandlearningpp.95101,London:Routledge.

Leask, B. 2009. Using formal and informal curricula to improve interactions between home andinternationalstudents.JournalofStudiesinInternationalEducation,132,205221.

Leask,B.2010.Besidemeisanemptychair,Thestudentexperienceofinternationalisation.InE.Jones,Ed.,Internationalisationandthestudentvoice.NewYork:Routledge.

Leask, B. 2011. Questionnaire on internationalisation of the curriculum QIC. Retrieved fromwww.ioc.net.au

Leask,B.,&Beelen,J.2010.Enhancingtheengagementofacademicstaffininternational education. InProceedings of a Joint IEAAEAIE Symposium pp. 2840. Melbourne: International EducationAssociationofAustralia.

Lemke, L. 2011. Sensemaking and Internationalization: How do lecturers make sense ofInternationalizationattheSchoolofEconomicsandManagement?MasterthesisVrijeUniversiteit,Amsterdam,TheNetherlands.

McTaggart,R.,&Curro,G.2009.Actionresearchforcurriculuminternationalisation:Educationversuscommercialisation. In S. Jordan and D. Kapoor Eds., International Perspectives on Education,ParticipatoryActionResearchandSocialChangepp.89106.NewYork:PalgraveMacMillan.

Mestenhauser, J. 1998. Portraits of an international curriculum: An uncommon multidimensionalperspective.InJ.Mestenhauser,&B.EllingboeEds.,Reformingthehighereducationcurriculum:Internationalizingthecampus.Phoenix,AZ:AmericanCouncilonEducationandOryxPress.



20

Mestenhauser, J. 2004. Internationalization at home; A new paradigm in international education?EducacionGlobal,8,2532.

Mestenhauser, J. 2006. Internationalization at home; Systems challenge to a fragmented field. In H.TeekensEd.,Internationalizationathome:Aglobalperspectivepp.6777.TheHague:Nuffic.

Mestenhauser, J. 2007. Internationalisation at Home: A brilliant idea awaiting implementation. In H.TeekensEd.. Internationalisationathome: Ideasand idealspp.1322.EAIEOccasionalPaper,20.Amsterdam:EAIE.

Nilsson,B.2003.InternationalisationathomefromaSwedishperspective:ThecaseofMalm.JournalofStudiesinInternationalEducation,71,2740.

Nilsson,B.,&Otten,M. Eds. 2003. InternationalisationathomeSpecial Issue. JournalofStudies inInternationalEducation,71.

Patrick,K.1997Internationalisingcurriculum.PaperdeliveredattheHERDSAconference,Melbourne.Rizvi, F., & Walsh, L. 1998. Difference, globalisation and the internationalisation of curriculum.

AustralianUniversities'Review,412,711.Sanderson,G.2008.Afoundationfortheinternationalizationoftheacademicself.JournalofStudiesin

InternationalEducation123,276307.Scott,G.2003.Effectivechangemanagementinhighereducation.EDUCAUSEReview,386,6480.Teekens,H.2001.Theinternationalclassroom;Teachingandlearningathomeandabroad.TheHague:

Nuffic.Teekens, H. 2003. The requirement to develop specific skills for teaching in an intercultural setting.

JournalofStudiesinInternationalEducation71,108119.VanGaalen,A.Ed..2010.Internationalisationandqualityassurance.ProfessionalDevelopmentSeries

forInternationalEducators,Vol.4.Amsterdam:EAIE.Van der Wende, M. 1996. Internationalizing the curriculum in higher education, An international

comparativeperspective.DoctoraldissertationUtrechtUniversity,TheNetherlands.VanderWende,M.1997.InternationalisingthecurriculuminDutchhighereducation,Aninternational

comparativeperspective.JournalofStudiesinInternationalEducation,12,5372.VanderWerf,E.2012.Internationalisationstrategiesandthedevelopmentofcompetentteachingstaff.

In J. Beelen & H. de Wit Eds., Internationalisation Revisited: New Dimensions in theInternationalisationofHigherEducation,pp.99106.Amsterdam:CAREM

Wchter, B. 2003. An introduction: Internationalisation at home in context. Journal of Studies inInternationalEducation,71,511.



21

TOASKORNOTTOASK;THATISTHEQUESTIONAFRAMEWORKTOUNDERSTANDTHEPROCESSESCHANGEINHIGHEREDUCATION

INSTITUTIONSTOINCLUDEINTERCULTURALCOMPETENCEINITSLEARNINGOUTCOMESANDACADEMICENVIRONMENT.

JEANINEGREGERSENHERMANSMAASTRICHTUNIVERSITY/EAIE

THENETHERLANDSWehaveprovidedforeignstudentsandstaffwithalltheinformationtheycouldpossiblyneedinletters,brochuresandon the internet. If it isnotbecauseof insufficient languagecapabilities,whydo theystillask?

AMISCONCEPTION:TOBEUNDERSTOODSPEAKMORE,FASTERANDLOUDERInthemanyworkshopsandtrainingprogrammesIconductedoverthepast25yearstheissueofadequateprovisionofinformationmentionedintheexampleabovehascomeupnumeroustimesandinallkindsofvariations.Foreignstudentsorstaffmemberswhoshopfromoneofficetotheothertogettheirquestionssolved; Contracts between partners that spell out the cooperation in detail and nevertheless lead tomisunderstanding;Teachers,whofeelconfrontedwithunexpectedresponsesfromsomeoftheirforeignstudents;orreversestudents,whoareconfusedaboutwhattheirforeignteacherexpects.Atfirstglancethe misconception or challenge mentioned above is about information provision. It is the implicitassumption ofmany international educators thatmore and better explained information that faster isprovidedautomaticallywillresolvemisunderstandingsandbridgevaluedifferenceswithforeignstudentsorstaffmembers.However,whenapersonhasnoearsitdoesntmatterwhetheryouwhisperorshout.Heorshewillnothearyouanyway.Otherwayswillhavetobecreatedtoeffectivelycommunicate.Tohelpthispersontounderstandyou,youwillhavetounderstandthisperson.

Inmanyoftheirdailypracticeshighereducationinstitutionsstillassumethatculturaldifferencescanberesolvedbygivingmoredetailed information, faster; informationthat ismoreexplicitandwhennecessary repeatedover time.Thisdailypractice canbe comparedwitha traditional sender receiver



22

modelofcommunicationinwhichthecommunicationimpactistheresidueofthemessageintothegraycellsofthereceiver.Whenthemessageseeminglyisnotunderstood,yourepeatitmaybeinotherwords,by talking more slowly or louder. The underlying position in this research project is thatinternationalisation,inordertoreachitsgoalofeducatinggraduatesforaglobalisedmulticulturalworld,requireshighereducationinstitutionstolookfordifferentmoreculturalsensitivewaystocommunicateintheirteaching,learningandmanagement.Acollaborativeapproachtotheprocessofcommunicationintheuniversityisneeded,inwhichastandardpracticehasdevelopedofactivelysearchingandexchanginginformationandofjointlyconstructingdailyrealityintheuniversity.Inthisapproachcommunicationisnotseenasanisolatedevent.Ittakesplaceinaseriesofsocialinteractionsinspecificculturalandcrossculturalcontextsandnetworks,andwhichmaybeintentionalorunintentional.Thesenderisnottheonlysource of information. Various cultural contexts serve as communication sources and may enhance,changeordiminishamessage1.

In the international environment that higher education institutions strive to be, a collaborativeapproach that includes diversity demands high levels of intercultural competence of all participantsinvolved; students, staff, administrators and the leadership. The above described misconception is anexampleofmyexperiencesandobservationsoverthepastyears that leadtothe initialquestion for thecurrentresearchproject:Howdouniversitiesdevelopinterculturalcompetenceinitsconstituents?

INTRODUCTION:INTERCULTURALCOMPETENCEASALEARNINGOUTCOMEThe objective of this paper is to discuss a framework that has been developed as a first part of theresearch project that aims to understand how in the process of internationalisation higher educationinstitutionshavechangedtoincludeinterculturalcompetenceinitslearningoutcomesandinitsacademicenvironment.

MostEuropeanuniversitiesonewayortheotherhaveadoptedaninternationaldimensionintheirstrategies, responding to the European and global development of our economies and labourmarkets.Evenwhenuniversitiescontinuetoservenationaleconomiesandlabourmarketsthistakesplacewithinan international contextwhere local events and developmentsmore than ever directly affect societies,communitiesandfirmsworldwideandwithinanevershorter timespan.Globalization is thegiventhatrequires universities to rethink what type of new knowledge and what type of graduates our futuresocietiesneed.Ishighereducationdesignedinsuchawaythatitenhancesdevelopmentofinterculturalcompetenceinandoutsidetheclassroom,thatdeliversgraduatestofunctioninaglobalisedworld?Whatdoesglobalizationimplyfortheexpectedlearningoutcomesofourcurricula?

When reviewing the strategies on internationalization of European universities we found thatdevelopinginterculturalcompetenceinstudentsisoneofthelearningoutcomesthatoftenismentioned.OneoftheearlyandmostcommonstrategiesimplementedbyHEIstodevelopinterculturalcompetenceinitsstudentsisstudyabroadorstudentmobility.Relatedtothelimitednumberofstudentsandstaffthatcan be reached throughmobility the focuswithin the higher education institutions HEIs has shiftedfrom offering courses in English and stimulating student and staff mobility to including

1Adaptedfrom:VanWoerkom,C.&vanMeegeren,P.(Ed).BasisboekCommunicatieenVerandering,BoomAmsterdam,1999.



23

internationalisation at home Mestenhauser & Ellingboe, 1998; Teichler, 1999. By developing aninternationaldimensioninthecurriculaanddiversifyingstudentandstaffpopulationsoncampusthenewadagio internationalisationathomehasquicklygainedgroundsincetheni.e.Nilsson&Otten,2003;Teekens,2007.Studyabroadgivesmobilestudentstheexposuretoaculturallydifferentenvironment,whileatthesametimehomestudentsmaybenefitfromtheinternationalclassroom.

However,studiesontheimpactofstudyabroadandstudentmobilitymainlyfocusonthemobilestudents,ontheclassroomlevel,ontheexperienceofindividualstudentsorontheimpactoncareersofgraduates.Althoughsomefactorsseemtoinfluencethedevelopmentofinterculturalcompetencesuchaslengthofstay,previousexperienceabroadandlanguageabilityi.e.Graff,2004;Littrell&Eduardo,2005;Paige, Fry, Stallman, Jon, & Josic, 2009; Vande Berg, ConnorLinton & Paige, 2009 the literature isinconclusive as to which strategies and activities actually lead to the development of interculturalcompetenceinstudentsHammer,2008.Inrecentyearsconcernhasbeenraisedabouttheintegrationofforeignandhomestudentsoncampus.Outsidetheclassroomtheinteractionbetweenthevariousgroupsofstudentsseems limited;studentsseemto interactprimarilywithstudents fromtheirowncountryoforiginorincaseofforeignstudentswithotherforeigners.Akeyquestionseemsunresolved.Whatisthelearningenvironmentneededtohelptransformaninternationalcampusintoalearningenvironmentthatallowsfordevelopmentofinterculturalcompetenceforallandhowcanwecreatethatenvironment?Inthisresearchprojectwetrytoexplorewhichchangeshaveevolvedandareevolvingoncampus, inandoutsidetheclassroom,toallowdevelopmentof interculturalcompetenceforall.Dataaregatheredwiththehelpofonsiteuniversityvisits.TheonsitevisitsfocusonEuropeanuniversitiesinnonAnglophonecountries,whoatanearlystageadoptedthestructuralreformsproposedbytheBolognaAgreement

Forthedefinitionof interculturalcompetenceanditsdevelopmentthispaper followsDeardorffs2006pyramidmodelofinterculturalcompetenceinconjunctionwiththereviseddevelopmentalmodelofinterculturalcompetenceofHammer2008.TheproposedframeworkisgroundedinthetheoryandresearchonorganisationalchangeofTrompenaarsandWoolliams2003.Theframeworkconsistoftwoparts;alearningmodelforthedevelopmentofinterculturalcompetence;andamechanismthatdescribesthe process of change that universities have gone through to include intercultural competence in itslearningoutcomesandinitsacademicenvironment.ItsfunctionistohelporganiseandanalyzethedatagatheredatthevisitedEuropeanuniversities.ALEARNINGMODELFORINTERCULTURALCOMPETENCEInterculturalcompetenceisapsychologicalconstruct,whichcannotbemeasureddirectly.Itrepresentsanindividualscognitiveorganisation,motivation,attitudesandbehaviourrelatedtodealingwithdiversityin the construction ofmeaning in daily life. Deardorff 2006 formalised the definition of interculturalcompetenceintothepyramidmodelforinterculturalcompetence,whichhasfoundworldwidescholarlyacceptance. According to this model intercultural competence refers to behaving and communicatingeffectively and appropriately in crosscultural situations, based onones intercultural knowledge, skillsandattitudes,toachieveonesgoalstosomedegree.Themodeldescribesinterculturalcompetenceasaprocess inwhichattitudes like respect fordifferentculturesandvalues,opennessandcuriosity lead tocultural selfawareness, emphatic understanding of other cultures, and the ability and willingness to



24

behaveaccordingly.InterculturalcompetenceisdevelopmentalinnatureBennett,1993.Histheoreticalmodel is referred toas theDevelopmentalModelof InterculturalSensitivity DMISanddescribeshowindividuals or organisationsmay progress frommore ethnocentric worldviews towards amore globalmindset, inwhich cultural selfawareness and the in depth understanding of value differences lead tomindfulandeffective changes inbehaviourandcommunication stylesappropriate toa specific culturaldifferent context. The DMIS formed the basis of the Intercultural Development Inventory Bennett &Hammer, 1997, revised byHammer 2008 a crossculturally validated selfassessment instrument thatempiricallymeasuresorientationstowardculturaldifference.

Oneof thequestions in theresearchproject focusesonhowuniversities inEuropehavechangedtheirlearningmodeltoenhanceinterculturalcompetenceinitsstudents.Alearningmodelreferstosetsof implicit or explicit assumptions, values and beliefs related to developing intercultural competenceuniversity leaders andmanagers use in their policymaking and professors and teachers in their dailyeducation practices. In this study we intend to find out how intercultural competence is defined atuniversityandcurriculumlevelandwhich implicitand/orexplicit learningmodelsuniversitiesuse todevelop intercultural competence. In this study the learning model for intercultural competence isdescribedaccordingtothelabelsintable1.

TABLE 1: LABELS DESCRIBING THE LEARNING MODEL FOR INTERCULTURAL COMPETENCE

Three variables are identified that are expected to be of influence on the learningmodel and explaindifferencesinhowuniversitiesdevelopinterculturalcompetenceinitsstudents:thedominantworldviewondiversityintheinstitution;assumptionsonthenatureofthescientificdiscipline;assumptionsontheprocess of teaching and learning. Figure 1 describes the relationship between the three explainingvariables,thelearningmodelandthelearningoutcomeofinterculturalcompetence.Cultureisseenasthecontextwithinwhichtheserelationshipstakeform.Cultureinfluencesthewayinwhichindividualsinanorganisationinteractwitheachotherandwiththeorganisation.Dependingonthelevelofanalysisculturecanrefertovariouslevelsofculture,i.e.organisationalculturalornationalculture.Atthisstageitsufficestostatethattheorganisationalcultureisembeddedinthemacrocontextofthenationalculture.Howeveruniversitiesasprofessionalorganisationsmayhaveimportantcharacteristicsincommonacrossnationalcultures.

Labels describing the learning model for intercultural competence

Definition of intercultural competence Focus for developing intercultural competence Target group Learning outcomes Learning activities Assessment of learning outcomes Quality control



25

Thedominantworldviewintheinstitutionsdeterminesthefocusofthelearningactivitieswhatthetargetgroupsforwhomandhowforinstanceassessmentandqualitycontrolaretailored.Itreferstotheextentaninstitutionincludesdiversity in itsdailyreality. Intheanalysisofthedatawewillusethecategories as defined in the revised model of intercultural sensitivity Hammer, 2008. In table 2 wedevelopedahypotheticalprojectionof the impactofethnocentricandaglobalmindset in the learningmodelfordevelopinginterculturalcompetence.

FIGURE 1: THE RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN THE LEARNING MODEL, THE LEARNING OUTCOME OF

INTERCULTURAL COMPETENCE AND THE THREE EXPLAINING VARIABLES IN THE

CONTEXT OF CULTURE.



26

Thenatureofthescientificdisciplineincludesassumptionsontherelevanceofinterculturalcompetencefortheacademicdisciplineandtheprofessionalfunctioninginthelabourmarketwhy.Additionallythisvariable isexpectedto impacttheorganizationfordeveloping interculturalcompetencehow.Teichler2007arguesthatrelatedtothedimensionofuniversalismdifferentobjectivesforinternationalizationamongwhichdevelopinginterculturalcompetencemaybeformulated.Theextenttowhichthecoreofascientificdiscipline SubstanzdesWissens ismoreor lessuniversal is expected to explaindifferenceswith regard to learning objectives for developing intercultural competence and the organizationof thelearning activities in relation to the core of the curriculum. In this research projectwe identified fourcategories of scientific disciplines: universal disciplines; disciplines with universal theories includingnationalregionalvariationsinapplication;disciplineswithcultureaspartofthecoreofthediscipline;anddisciplinesinwhichcomparingculturesformthecoreofthediscipline.Atthispointintheprojectwedonotconsiderthesecategoriesfixedormutuallyexclusive.

The variable of assumptions on teaching and learning refers to the values and beliefs on howstudentsbestlearnandconsequentlyneedtobetaughtorviceversahowtheyneedtobetaughttoensurethemaximumlearningoutcome.Keyelementsareassumptionsandbeliefsregardingthelearningprocess.How to address the learning styles, the need for structure and perceptual modalities? What are the

TABLE 2: PROJECTION FOR THE IMPACT OF WORLD VIEW ON THE LEARNING MODEL FOR DEVELOPING INTERCULTURAL COMPETENCE



27

implicationsforthelearningprocessoftheassumptionsandbeliefsofthestudentsmotivationtolearn?How do the assumptions and beliefs regarding the roles of the teacher and the students influence thelearningmodel? A formalizedmodel for learning process is the learning cycle, first developed byKolb1984andrevisedbyKrathwohl2008.Effectivelearningtakesplacewhenstudentsgothroughthefulllearning cycle from experience, reflection, conceptualization to experimentation. Depending on thevariousassumptionsregardingteachingandlearningthelearningprocessforexamplecanbeapproachedfrom abstract theories in contrast to concrete examples; from intuitive knowing in contrast to factualknowledge; in a sequential order in contrast to associative learning; or from logic argumentation andanalysisincontrasttodevelopingintegrativeideasandseeingthebigpicture.

Where somebelieve that studentsare intrinsicallymotivated; others assume that incentives andcontrolareessential.Someteachersstatethatstudentsareresponsiblefortheirownlearningoutcomesand perceive the role of a teacher in terms of guidance or counseling Hermans & Pusch, 2004. Incontrastothersassumethatateacherastheexpertinthefieldisresponsiblefordirectingthelearningofastudent.Additionallytherearedifferencesinbeliefsregardingindividualorteamapproachestolearning.Differencesinassumptionsonteachingandlearningprimarilyinfluencehowinterculturalcompetenceisdeveloped. This refers to the type learning activities that are offered, like for instance theoretical selfstudy,lectures,discussionsandexchangeofideas;casestudiesorexperiments;tothesequencingofthelearningactivitiesandtohowlearningisassessed.Cultureplaysamajorrolewithregardtothevalueandbeliefs on teaching and learning Hofstede & Hofstede, 2004.We expect to find that assumptions onteachingandlearninginterculturalcompetenceintheuniversitiesthatparticipateinthesitevisitreflectthenationalculturalvalueswithregardtoeducation.PROPOSEDFRAMEWORKFORTHEPROCESSOFCHANGEInthe literature internationalisationhasalsobeenreferredtoasaprocessofchangeKnight,2004. Inthis researchprojectwespecificallyaddress thequestionsofwhyandhowuniversitiesparticipating inthestudyhavechangedtheirlearningmodeltoincludeinterculturalcompetenceinitslearningoutcomes.Duringtheonsitevisitsweintendtofindoutwhichimplicitorexplicitmodelsfordevelopinginterculturalcompetenceareevolvinginuniversitiesandwhicharetherelatedprocessesofchange.Whichare/werethe obstacles or dilemmas the institutions or the related scientific disciplines are /were confrontedwith in the change process and how are / have been these dilemmas resolved? We are specificallyinterestedinthemechanismsdrivingthisprocessofchangeandtowhatextenttheyareeffectiveintermsofdevelopinginterculturaldevelopment.

Themechanismmodelled in figure2explains theprocessofchange in the learningmodel in thecontext of Trompenaars and Woolliams 2003 model for organisational change. According toTrompenaars and Woolliams ibid culture influences the way in which individuals in organisationsinteractwitheachotherandwiththatorganisation.Intheirtheoryofchangecultureisnotjustoneoftheelementsinachangeprocess.Anorganisationisdefinedasaculturalentitywhichprovidesthecontextinwhichorganisationalchangeevolves.AscultureinfluencestheWhy,WhatandHowquestionsthatare commonlyused todealwithorganisationaldesign andchange, they seek to integrate culture in allstepsoforganisationaldesignandchange.Basicassumption in their theory is thatculture is inherently



28

conservative and functions to preserve what worked well in the past. Therefore, successful changeprocesses according to Trompenaars and Woolliams ibid are more incremental and take place inlearning loops than synoptic in which the old organization includes the new and desired values andpracticesinsteadofreplacingtheoldorganizationalvaluesandpractices.Howeverthisdoesnotexcludethatchangemayalsobesuddenandradical.

In termsof theprocessof change resulting from internationalisation themechanismdepicted infigure2thewhychangereferstointernalorexternalpressureontheuniversitytochangeitslearningmodeltoincludeinterculturalcompetenceasalearningoutcome.Thewhoandwhattochangerefertothe learning model, its specific university environment, the curriculum, the staffing, and the resourceallocation.Howtochangereferstotheassumptionsofuniversityleadersandmanagersonhowchangebestcanbeaccomplished.ThisprocessofchangeisexpectedtoleadtotensionsbetweenexistingvaluesasexpressedbylearningmodelAandthedesirednewonesasexpressedinlearningmodelAasaresultof seemingly conflicting or opposing values. Such an observed tension is called a dilemma when theconflict refers to two desirable opposites andwhen there is an ongoing interdependency between theopposites.

Thefollowingexampleservestoclarifythisdefinitionofadilemma.Traditionallyuniversitiesareorganisedinseparatefacultieswithanoverarchingleadershiporgovernancestructure,beitanexecutiveboard,a rectorshiporavicechancellorship. Inmanyuniversities tensioncanbeobservedaboutwherethefocusforstrategydevelopmentanddecisionmakingshouldlie;atfacultylevelorattheoverarchinglevel?Therearepositiveandnegativeaspectsconnectedtobothendsofthiscentraldecentralaxis.Thedebate is ongoing as there is interdependencybetween the faculties and the leadershipwith regard tostrategic development and decision making. The one cannot survive without the other. A dilemma isconsideredreconciledwhensolutionsarecreatedthatincludethepositiveelementsofbothoppositesofthe axis central and decentral , while at the same time mitigating the negatives ones. Reconciledsolutions build on an accurate and complete picture of the two extremes of the axis. Johnson 1996referredtothiscompletepictureapolaritymap.Thesesolutionsarenotstatic;theyareongoingasrealityin a university daily is constructed by its constituents at the central and the decentral levels of theuniversity.



29

FIGURE 2: PROCESS OF CHANGE IN THE LEARNING MODEL IN THE CONTEXT OF TROMPENAARS AND WOOLIAMS



30

Inthisresearchprojectwewillstudytheprocessoforganisationalchange,andhowuniversitiesresolvesets of dilemmas that arise between the existing and desired sets of values to include interculturalcompetence as a learning outcome. Higher education institutions that seek to develop interculturalcompetence in their students are expected to develop from amonocultural orientation to a culturallyinclusive orientation Hermans, 2007. Universities that perceive diversity as an asset and to gainmaximally from thisdiversity are considered inclusive in their orientation towards cultural differencesi.e. OHaraDevereaux & Johansen, 1994; Hofner Saphiere, 1996; TingToomey & Oetzel, 2001;Trompenaars&HamptonTurner,1993.Moreconcretelythisimplies:

A general awareness can be observed in the institution of the need for diversity to driveinnovationandtoeducategraduatesforaglobalisedlabourmarket.Culturaldifferencesareseenasfundamentalresourcestothefunctioningoftheuniversity.

There is a general awareness of the interdependency between culturally differentconstituentsinandoutsidetheorganisationandamutualwillingnesstocontributetoandtoadvancetheuniversitysgoals.

In the inclusive university an attitude can be observed of interest in different ways ofthinkingandbehaving.Differencesareusedasopportunitiesforlearning,alsoaboutoneself.Dilemmas between conflicting values are addressed and resolved in ways that allow allparticipants to reach their goals to some degree. This attitude results in change toaccommodateculturaldifference.

Provision of information is sensitive to cultural differences and accessible for all. Thisimplies that time is invested in contextualizing information and information flows for thevarious culturally different constituents in the university. Clarity and relevance ofinformation are checked or developed jointly with constituents. Constructing accessibleinformation results in the university learning about itself and its constituents therebystrengtheningajointsenseofstrategicdirectionoftheuniversity.

Power is shared.Within the legal context of a specific university andwith respect for thevariousrolesandresponsibilityoftheleadershipintheuniversity influenceisgiveninthegovernance and further strategic advancement of theuniversity. Sharingpower iswhat ismeantwithtoallowconstituentstoreachtheirgoalstosomedegree.Itwillresultinasenseofbelonging,communityandcommitmenttotheuniversityorganisationgivinganimpulsetoqualityandproductivity.

There is an investment in human relationships. There are opportunities for interculturalcommunicationtrainingforallandthesearepartofthecurriculumortheHRMpolicy.Socialactivities are jointly organised outside the working environment giving constituents theopportunitytomeetondifferentterms.Thisresultsinsocialcohesionandstrengthenstrustamonguniversityconstituents.

We expect to observe the reconciliation of dilemmas and the related communication processes thatfacilitatereconciliationofdilemmasinuniversitiesthattendtobeculturallyinclusiveincontrasttomono



31

culturaluniversityorganisations.Inmonoculturaluniversitiesweexpecttoobservesolutionsaimingatassimilation and adaptation, cultural parallel solutions or compromises. In these latter institutionsreconciliation of dilemmas does not yet take place. The related communication processes are notorganisedinsuchawaytoeffectivelydealwiththedilemmasthatarisefromthechangesthataredesiredtoincludeinterculturalcompetenceasalearningoutcome.

CONCLUDINGREMARKSTheobjectiveofthispaperhasbeentopresentaframeworkthatisdevelopedtounderstandhowintheprocess of internationalisation higher education institutions have changed to include interculturalcompetence in its learning outcomes and in its academic environment. The framework serves as atheoreticalbasisfortheinterviewsthatarebeingheldattheuniversitiesparticipatinginthisstudyandasaframeworkforanalysisofthedatacollectedattheonsitevisits.WehavefounduniversitiesinAustria,Spain and Denmark willing to participate in this research project. In each country a comprehensiveuniversity, a university for professional education and a life sciences university are included. Next tointerviews with university leadership and policymakers in the area of internationalization, programcoordinatorsfromabroadrangeofdisciplinesandhomeandforeignstudentsareinterviewed.Inthiswaywe hope to capture a complete and information rich picture of the changes that are developing inEuropean higher education to include intercultural competence as a learning outcome and to gainunderstandingofthemechanismsthatdrivethesechanges.

ABOUTTHEAUTHORJEANINE GREGERSENHERMANS (MPsych) is currently employed as the director of Marketing andCommunicationsandSpokespersonoftheExecutiveBoardatMaastrichtUniversity,Netherlands.Inthiscapacityshe isalsoappointedasadirectorofMaastrichtEducationandResearchcenterpvt.Ltd.Bangalore,India.JeaninestudiedPsychologyatRadboudUniversity,Nijmegen,andworkedasdeanforinternationalstudentsatWageningenUniversity,TheNetherlandsuntil1997.AfteraperiodassecretarygeneraloftheUNICAuniversitynetworkinBrussels,shereturnedin2000totheNetherlandstotakeupthepositionof headof educationalmarketing atWageningen. Since 2006 Jeanine ismemberof theeditorial advisoryboardof the Journalof Studies in InternationalEducation (JSIE). She taught atvariousuniversitiesinEuropeandpresentedatconferencesandseminarsworldwide.In2008JeaninereceivedtheBoGregersenAwardforBestPracticeforaninnovativecontributiontointernationaleducationoftheEuropeanAssociationofInternationalEducation.CurrentlysheservesasamemberoftheGeneralCounciloftheEAIE.JeaninehasbeenawardedtheofficialstatusofEAIEseniortrainerandisamemberoftheprofessionaldevelopmentcommitteeoftheEAIE.InJune2011JeaninehasbeenappointedHonoraryMemberoftheIROICAnetwork,thestandingcommitteeforinternationalisationofICA,theEuropeanAssociationofLifeScienceuniversities.



32

REFERENCESBennett, M. 1993. Towards a developmental model of intercultural sensitivity. In M. Paige Ed.,

Educationfortheinterculturalexperience.Yarmouth,ME:InterculturalPress.Deardorff,D.2006.Identificationandassessmentofinterculturalcompetenceasastudentoutcomeof

internationalization.JournalofStudiesinInternationalEducation,103,241266.Deardorff,D.Ed..2009.TheSagehandbookofinterculturalcompetence.ThousandOaks,CA:Sage.Graff, A. 2004. Assessing Intercultural Training Designs. Journal of European Industrial Training, 28

2/3/4,199.Hammer, M.R. 2008. The intercultural development inventory IDI: An approach for assessing and

building intercultural competence. In Contemporary leadership and intercultural competence:Understandingandutilizingculturaldiversitytobuildsuccessfulorganizations.ThousandOaks,CA:Sage.

Hermans, J.,&Pusch,M.D.2004.Culturematters.An internationaleducationperspective.Amsterdam:EAIE.

Hermans,J.2007.TheXfactor,Internationalisationwithasmallc.Amsterdam:EAIE.Hofner,S.D.1996.Productivebehaviorsofglobalbusinessteams.InternationalJournalofIntercultural

Relations,202.Hofstede,G.,&Hofstede,G.2004.Culturesandorganizations:Softwareofthemind.NewYork:McGraw

Hill.Johnson,B.1996.Polaritymanagement. Identifyingandmanagingunsolvableproblems.Amherst,MA,

HRDPress,Inc.Khem,B.,&DeWit,H.Eds.. InternationalisationinhighereducationEuropeanresponsesintheglobal

perspective.Amsterdam:EAIE/EAIR.Knight, J. 2004. Internationalization remodeled: Definition, approaches, and rationales. Journal of

StudiesinInternationalEducation,8,531,Kolb, D. A. 1984. Experiential learning: Experience as the source of learning and development.

EnglewoodCliffs,NJ:PrenticeHall.Krathwohl,D.2002.ArevisionofBloomstaxonomy:Anoverview.TheoryintoPractice,414,212218.Littrell, L. N., & Eduardo, S. 2005. A review of crosscultural training: Best practices, guidelines, and

researchneeds.HumanResourceDevelopmentReview,4,305.Mestenhauser, J.A., & Ellingboe, B. Eds.. 1998. Reforming the higher education curriculum:

Internationalizingthecampus.Phoenix,AZ:AmericanCouncilonEducationandOryxPress.Nilsson,B.,&Otten,M.Eds..2003.JournalofStudiesinInternationalEducation,71.OHaraDevereaux,M.,&Johansen,R.1994.Globalwork.SanFrancisco:JosseyBass.Paige,R.M.,Fry,G.W.,Stallman,E.,Jon,J.,&Josic,J.2009.Studyabroadforglobalengagement:Thelong

termimpactofmobilityexperiences.InterculturalEducation,2012,2944.Teichler,U1999.InternationalisationasachallengeforhighereducationinEurope.TertiaryEducation

andManagement,51,522.Teichler, U. 2007. Higher education systems. Conceptual frameworks, comparative perspectives,

empiricalfindings.Rotterdam:Sense.



33

Teekens,H.Ed..2007.InternationalisationatHome:ideasandideals.EAIEOccasionalPaper,20.TingToomey,S.,&.Oetzel,G.2001.Managinginterculturalconflicteffectively.ThousandOaks,CA:Sage.Trompenaars, F., & HamptonTurner, C 1993. Riding the waves of culture, Understanding cultural

diversityinbusiness.NewYork:McGrawHill.Trompenaars,F.,&Woolliams,P.2003.Anewframeworkformanagingchangeacrosscultures.Journal

ofChangeManagement,34,361375.VandeBerg,M.,ConnorLinton,J.,&Paige,R.M.2009.TheGeorgetownConsortiumProject:Intervening

instudentlearningabroad.Frontiers:TheInterdisciplinaryJournalofStudyAbroad,18,175.VanWoerkom,C.,&vanMeegeren,P.Eds.1999.Basisboekcommunicatieenverandering.Amsterdam:Boom.



34



35

CHALLENGINGRECEIVEDWISDOM:PERSONALTRANSFORMATIONTHROUGHSHORTTERMINTERNATIONALPROGRAMMES

ELSPETHJONESLEEDSMETROPOLITANUNIVERSITY

UNITEDKINGDOM

Presentations in this symposium and the subsequent inaugural lecture De Wit, 2011 challengeassumptions about internationalisation. This chapter questions traditional assumptions about theineffectiveness of shortterm mobility programmes, specifically considering international volunteeringprogrammesrunbyauniversityinthenorthofEngland.

Increasing and diverse pressures on institutions to internationalise mean that the concept ofinternationalisationhasmoved fromthe fringeof institutional interest to theverycoreBrandenburgandDeWit,2010:31anditisnowaninstitutionalimperative,notjustadesirablepossibilityHudzik,2011,p.7.Yet,accordingtoCaruana2010,thereislittlecommonunderstandingoftheterm.Differentconceptualisations of internationalisation have emerged according to university mission, aims andstrategiesforachievingthese.

An overarching framework for an institutionwide approach has been described as holistic andvaluesdriven internationalisation Jones, 2004, while the term commonly used in the USA iscomprehensive internationalisation see forexampleOlsenet al.,2005.Hudzik 2011offersabroaddefinitionof this as, A commitment, confirmed throughaction, to infuse internationalandcomparativeperspectives throughout the teaching, research and service missions of higher education. It shapesinstitutionalethosandvaluesandtouchestheentireHEenterprise.Itisessentialthatitbeembracedbyinstitutional leadership, governance, faculty, students, and all academic service and support units.Hudzik,2011,p.6.

A broad conceptualisation of internationalisation which goes beyond economicallydriveninternational student recruitment and transnational programmes offers the kind of internationaleducation envisagedby a range of proponents such asAlred et al. 2003,Byram eg2006, Ellingboe1998andMestenhausereg.1998.Ithasbeenarguedthattheultimatepurposeofinternationalisation



36

is toenhancethemulticulturalexperienceofeducationandthroughthistheemployabilityofgraduatesAr

internationalisation revisited carem 2012 beelen de witt

Documents