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Inter‐War World:| Independence of India From Nationalisms to Partition: India and Pakistan (1917-1948)

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Page 1: Inter‐War World:| Independence of India · However, in the course of time the superstitions will die out and India will be moulded into a single nation." . . .These fundamental

Inter‐War World:|Independence of India

From Nationalismsto Partition: India and Pakistan(1917-1948)

Page 2: Inter‐War World:| Independence of India · However, in the course of time the superstitions will die out and India will be moulded into a single nation." . . .These fundamental

India: the turn to resistancePost Amritsar India:

‐post‐war disillusionment articulated in Amritsar Massacre of 1919  [see ‘Local Impact – Post War World lecture]

‐ “India stood on the verge of more violence and repression and, sooner or later, terrorism and guerrilla war. That India took a different path to national liberation was due largely to Mohandas K Gandhi (1869‐1948), the most influential Indian leader of modern times” [textbook p.899]

Page 3: Inter‐War World:| Independence of India · However, in the course of time the superstitions will die out and India will be moulded into a single nation." . . .These fundamental

India: the turn to resistanceGandhi:

‐British trained lawyer: gained ‘fame’ for work in South Africa defending Indian rights to decent work, right to vote

‐Developed philosophy that combined Hindu and Christian teachings, focused on social justice

‐Returned to India in 1915, received as man of wisdom, humanity [listen to comment by colleague, Video ‘Story of India’]

Page 4: Inter‐War World:| Independence of India · However, in the course of time the superstitions will die out and India will be moulded into a single nation." . . .These fundamental

Mohandas Gandhi (1869‐1948)

In Britain#10 Downing St(1931)

Page 5: Inter‐War World:| Independence of India · However, in the course of time the superstitions will die out and India will be moulded into a single nation." . . .These fundamental

India: the turn to resistanceNon‐Violent Resistance:

‐ 1920: launched campaign of non‐violent resistance to British Rule

‐ boycott British jobs, titles, goods – especially cloth, liquour

‐Refuse to pay taxes

‐Aimed beyond urban, western‐educated elite into countryside among illiterate peasants

Page 6: Inter‐War World:| Independence of India · However, in the course of time the superstitions will die out and India will be moulded into a single nation." . . .These fundamental

India: the turn to resistance‐ appealed to Hindus who did not believe in war, ‘passive’lower classes – welcomed into Congress 

‐1920‐22: ‘resistance campaign’ turned violent –policemen killed, brutal riots erupted

‐ Gandhi took blame ‘people not ready for civil disobedience’: jailed for two years fomenting rebellion 

‐Resentment against British growing: Congress Party splintered – radical nationalist faction emerged under Jawaharlal Nehru

Page 7: Inter‐War World:| Independence of India · However, in the course of time the superstitions will die out and India will be moulded into a single nation." . . .These fundamental

Jawaharlal Nehru (1889‐1964)

In 1947

Page 8: Inter‐War World:| Independence of India · However, in the course of time the superstitions will die out and India will be moulded into a single nation." . . .These fundamental

India: the turn to resistanceTurn from non‐violence to violence:

‐1929 Nehru and Congress called for ‘independence within a year’

‐ exacerbated situation: British refusal to consider, threats of bloodshed by radicals

‐Gandhi’s famous ‘march to the sea’: British taxed salt excessively  ‐‐ Gandhi’s resistance lay in leading 50,000 people to make their own salt

‐Protests, illegal salt‐making continued: Gandhi jailed again

Page 9: Inter‐War World:| Independence of India · However, in the course of time the superstitions will die out and India will be moulded into a single nation." . . .These fundamental

India: India Act 1935Government of India Act 1935:

‐British compromise: strengthened parliamentary institutions, increased Indian voice in what remained British administration

‐Act not enough to satisfy radicals but…

‐More than enough to fuel flames of the ‘other’ major source of dispute, conflict in India: the Hindu‐Muslim divide

Page 10: Inter‐War World:| Independence of India · However, in the course of time the superstitions will die out and India will be moulded into a single nation." . . .These fundamental

India: Hindu‐Muslim divideThe All‐India Muslim League: founded 1906

‐Intent to protect Muslim civil rights, protect interests of upper classes

‐Worked to limited extent with Congress in early years

‐ gradually concluded that interests could not be jointly met if ‘democracy’ was political goal

‐Congress seen more and more as ‘Hindu Party’: worrying Muslims

Page 11: Inter‐War World:| Independence of India · However, in the course of time the superstitions will die out and India will be moulded into a single nation." . . .These fundamental

India: Hindu‐Muslim DivideMohammad Ali Jinnah:

‐Also British‐trained lawyer – member of Congress, also Leader of Muslim League from1913

‐Helped broker 1916 Lucknow Agreement [Textbook 898,9]

‐Resigned from  Congress 1920 in disagreement over ‘non‐violence campaign’

‐Strong reaction against 1935 India Act which included ‘Central Federation’

Page 12: Inter‐War World:| Independence of India · However, in the course of time the superstitions will die out and India will be moulded into a single nation." . . .These fundamental

Mohammed Ali Jinnah (1876‐1948)

As Governor-Generalnew state ofPakistan (1947-8)

Page 13: Inter‐War World:| Independence of India · However, in the course of time the superstitions will die out and India will be moulded into a single nation." . . .These fundamental

India: Hindu‐Muslim Divide1935‐1940:

‐Jinnah worked to persuade British that Central Federation was not feasible

‐Helped by British need for Muslim support as WWII approached 

‐By 1940: convinced of need for ‘two nation’ solution –1935 Act ‘must go once [and] for all’[see ‘Lahore Address’ #7, Add’l. Rdgs.]

Page 14: Inter‐War World:| Independence of India · However, in the course of time the superstitions will die out and India will be moulded into a single nation." . . .These fundamental

India: Hindu‐Muslim DivideJinnah’s 1940 Presidential Address to Muslim League: 

[[21]] ‘A leading journal like the London Times, commenting on the Government of India Act of 1935, wrote that "Undoubtedly the difference between the Hindus and Muslims is not of religion in the strict sense of the word but also of law and culture, that they may be said indeed to represent two entirely distinct and separate civilisations. However, in the course of time the superstitions will die out and India will be moulded into a single nation." . . .These fundamental and deep‐rooted differences, spiritual, economic, cultural, social, and political have been euphemised as mere "superstitions." But surely it is a flagrant disregard of the past history of the sub‐continent of India, as well as the fundamental Islamic conception of society vis‐a‐vis that of Hinduism, to characterise them as mere "superstitions."

Page 15: Inter‐War World:| Independence of India · However, in the course of time the superstitions will die out and India will be moulded into a single nation." . . .These fundamental

India: Hindu‐Muslim DivideNotwithstanding [a] thousand years of close contact, nationalities which are as divergent today as ever, cannot at any time be expected to transform themselves into one nation merely by means of subjecting them to a democratic constitution and holding them forcibly together by unnatural and artificial methods of British Parliamentary statutes. What the unitary government of India for one hundred fifty years had failed to achieve cannot be realised by the imposition of a central federal government. . .

[22] The problem in India is not of an inter‐communal character, but manifestly of an international one, and it must be treated as such. So long as this basic and fundamental truth is not realised, any constitution that may be built will result in disaster and will prove destructive and harmful not only to the Mussalmans, but to the British and Hindus also. 

Page 16: Inter‐War World:| Independence of India · However, in the course of time the superstitions will die out and India will be moulded into a single nation." . . .These fundamental

India: Hindu‐Muslim Divide

If the British Government are really in earnest and sincere to secure [the] peace and happiness of the people of this sub‐continent, the only course open to us all is to allow the major nations separate homelands by dividing India into "autonomous national states."

[from ‘Lahore Address’, Add’l Rdg]

Page 17: Inter‐War World:| Independence of India · However, in the course of time the superstitions will die out and India will be moulded into a single nation." . . .These fundamental

India: Road to PartitionPost –War India:

‐Britain agreed to Independence following end WWII

‐ 1946 bloody Hindu‐Muslim conflicts convinced British that Jinnah’s position had to be accepted

‐ a partition allowing for ‘predominantly’ Hindu and Muslim nations – India and Pakistan, respectively –negotiated

August 14, 1947: ‘Independence’ from Britain achieved but for two, not one nations

Page 18: Inter‐War World:| Independence of India · However, in the course of time the superstitions will die out and India will be moulded into a single nation." . . .These fundamental

India: Creation of Pakistan

Page 19: Inter‐War World:| Independence of India · However, in the course of time the superstitions will die out and India will be moulded into a single nation." . . .These fundamental

India: Creation of PakistanPartition:

‐Immediately mass expulsions, mass exoduses began as Hindus left/were forced to leave Pakistan and Muslims left/were forced to leave India

‐Called ‘greatest migration in human history’: some 5 million people on the move, effectively ‘refugees’

‐Among them, another minority, the Sikhs equally became targets of Muslim violence, joined Hindus in fleeing

‐ [Video ‘Story of India’ ends with story of one Sikh family, village]

Page 20: Inter‐War World:| Independence of India · However, in the course of time the superstitions will die out and India will be moulded into a single nation." . . .These fundamental

India: Creation of PakistanMassacres:

‐ No one protected those who fled from attack: possibly 100,000 killed as trains  were held up, passengers slaughtered; roads vulnerable to attack; villages targeted by vigilantly groups

‐estimated: 75,000 women raped, disfigured 

‐ Gandhi: “what is there to celebrate? I see nothing but rivers of blood”

[see also “Partition”, Resources; full‐length feature film – not sure about the acting ‐‐ issues are well explored through personal stories]

Page 21: Inter‐War World:| Independence of India · However, in the course of time the superstitions will die out and India will be moulded into a single nation." . . .These fundamental

India: Creation of Pakistan

Muslims Fleeing India 1947

Page 22: Inter‐War World:| Independence of India · However, in the course of time the superstitions will die out and India will be moulded into a single nation." . . .These fundamental

India: Creation of PakistanPartition:

‐ Can be argued that British ‘handling’ of Indian Independence was one of its most disastrous colonial acts[worth noting that even as the bloodbath following Partition occurred, Britain was also abandoning Palestine to Partition and war]

‐ Some saw Jinnah as ‘saviour’ of Muslims – others as responsible for pushing a partition that destroyed India

Page 23: Inter‐War World:| Independence of India · However, in the course of time the superstitions will die out and India will be moulded into a single nation." . . .These fundamental

India: Creation of Pakistan

‐ Some saw Nehru as responsible for accepting to let Pakistan ‘leave’ (West and East – latter became Bangladesh)

‐ And some blamed Gandhi for that ‘betrayal’: he was assassinated by a Hindu gunman (January 1948) as part of the violence that continued into 1948

Page 24: Inter‐War World:| Independence of India · However, in the course of time the superstitions will die out and India will be moulded into a single nation." . . .These fundamental

India: Creation of Pakistan

Ayesha Jalal [Pakistani Historian]:

“[Partition was] the central historical event in twentieth century South Asia. . . . A defining moment that is neither beginning nor end, partition continues to influence how the peoples and states of postcolonial South Asia envisage their past, present and future.”