interaction strategies use

8/2/2019 Interaction Strategies Use

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PergamonP I I : S 0 3 4 6 - 2 5 1 X ( 9 7 ) 0 0 0 0 9 - 2

S . r s t em . V o l . 2 5 , N o . 2 , p p . 2 0 3 2 1 4 , 1 9 9 7~ i 1997 Elsevie r Sc ience LtdA l l r i g h t s re s e r v ed . P r i n t e d i n G r e a t B r i t a i n0 3 4 6 - 2 5 1 X / 9 7 $ 1 7 . 0 0 + 0 . 0 0

T H E S K I L L E D U S E O F IN T E R A C T I O N S T R A T E G I E S : C R E A T I N GA F R A M E W O R K F O R IM P R O V E D S M A L L - G R O U P

C O M M U N I C A T I V E I N T E R A C T I O N IN T H E L A N G U A G EC L A S S R O O M

Y A E L B E J A R A N O * , T A M A R L E V IN E * , E L IT E O L S H T A I N * a nd J U D Y S T E I N E R ++*T he Open Universi ty , EF L De par tm ent , 16 Klausner St . , Tel Aviv 61392, Israel

*School o f Educa t ion, Tel Aviv Universi ty , Tel Aviv 69978, Israel+Minis try o f Cul ture and Educat ion, Dvorah H a'N evia 1 St , Jerusalem, Israel

The study reported here focuses on the need to provide ESL and EFL learnerswith preparatory training in order to ensure more effective communicativeinteraction during group work carried out in the language classroom. Theunderlying assumption is that appropriate classroom organization and detailedtask definition, although imperative, are not always sufficient for achievingsuccessful non-native language interaction. One way to improve the quality ofcommunicative interaction in the classroom is to increase students' use ofM odi f i ed - I nt e r ac ti on an d S oc i a l - I n t e r ac ti on S t r a t e g ie s . The object of this paperis to show how training in such strategies improves interaction in small groups.Thirty-four students in two eleventh-grade classes in a comprehensive highschool in Israel participated in this study. The classes were randomly designa-ted as an experimental group and a control group. Both groups were involvedin similar cooperative group-work activities as part of their English instruc-tion, but the experimental group underwent special training in the Skilled U s eof M odi f i e d - I n t e r ac t i on and Soc i a l - I n t e r ac t i on S t r a t e g i e s . Each group wasvideo-taped before the six-week experiment and again at the end of this period.The findings, based on descriptive statistics, indicate that as a result of thetraining in the skilled use of interaction strategies the experimental group usedsignificantly more Modified-Interaction and Social-Interaction Strategies thanthe control group. The increased use of interaction strategies improved stu-dents' communicative interaction in small groups. ~"; 1997 Elsevier Science Ltd

INTRODUCTIONThe use of group work in language teaching has been advocated by methodologists whobelieve in the communicative approach to language learning. It has been further suppor-ted by classroom research (Allwright, 1984; Bejarano, 1987; Bialystock, 1978; Deen,1988; Pica and Doughty, 1985a,b; Long, 1981; Long and Porter, 1985; Seliger, 1977,i 983; Steiner, 1988) which highlights the linguistic and social benefits learners derive from

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conversing with one another within a well-designed group task. Group work in the lan-guage classroom seems to facilitate the development of two factors which, according toSeliger (1983), are important prerequisites for successful interaction: (a) a more amenablesocial environment within the classroom situation; and (b) a framework for the instru-mental use of the foreign language in communicative, well-structured language tasks.Such classroom interaction leads to the closest possible simulation of natural and instru-mental language use, which is conducive to language learning.Creating a framework for facilitating such improved small-group interaction in commu-nicative language tasks assigned in the EFL classroom was our major motivation for thisstudy.Doughty and Pica (1986) compared two-way information-gap language learning tasksrequiring information exchange (such as role play activities) with one-way information-gap tasks for which informat ion exchange is only optional (such as group discussions). Inone-way tasks there is no inherent motivation for all members of the group to contributeto the discussion or problem-solving task; therefore, one-way tasks cannot ensure activeparticipation by all members of the group. Furthermore, such participation dependslargely on personality traits and/or level of foreign language proficiency rather than on thetask itself. Two-way information-gap tasks, on the other hand, provide optimal condi-tions for active participation by all students and therefore generate conversational modi-fication. According to Long (1981), this is crucial for promoting language acquisition.Based on their findings, Doughty and Pica (1986) recommend the use of two-way ratherthan one-way tasks in the language classroom in order to ensure optimal participation.However, one-way tasks are the ones used prevalently in language classrooms as they areusually more readily available to language teachers. It would, therefore, be necessary toensure that learners develop effective interaction strategies which will enable them toparticipate interactively in one-way tasks as well as in two-way tasks. In this way, thecommonly used one-way tasks can also become fully interactive activities in which con-versational modification can be generated. For this purpose a special training program ininteraction strategies in the foreign language classroom was developed and its implemen-tation tested. The assumption was that such training would lead to improved interactionin both one-way and two-way tasks performed in small groups.The work of social psychologists dealing with cooperation in education sheds some lighton group processing skills. Johnson and Johnson (1987); Brubacher e t a l . (1990);Schmuck and Schmuck (1988), and Sharan and Hertz-Lazarowitz (1978) outline sets ofsocial and cognitive skills necessary for effective participation in small groups and claimthat such skills are a necessary prerequisite for carrying out learning tasks in the small-group setting. It is our assumption that even the most appropriate classroom organizationand task demands do not, in and of themselves, suffice to assure such language interactionin small groups, and that for this purpose the students have to be trained in using inter-action strategies skillfully. The present study assumes that in order to encourage effectiveinteraction when working in small groups in the FL classroom, in both two-way and one-way tasks, students need to learn (a) how to negotiate for message meaning and (b) howto engage in cohesive and coherent sequences of interaction.


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T H E S K I L L E D U S E O N I N T E R A C T I O N S T R A T E G I E S 2 05

S T R A T E G I E S W H I C H F A C I L I T A T E I M P R O V E D I N T E R A C T I O NB a s e d o n t h e o r e t i c a l p r i n c i p l e s c o n c e r n i n g i n t e r a c t i o n a l p r o c e s s e s e m e r g i n g f r o m r e s e a r c hi n th e f i el ds o f s e c o n d l a n g u a g e l e a r n i n g a n d s m a l l - g r o u p - c o o p e r a t i v e t e a c h i n g , i t isb e l ie v e d t h a t a n e f fe c t iv e i n t e r a c t i o n c a n b e i m p r o v e d b y t r a i n i n g s t u d e n t s in t h e S k i l le dU s e o f I n t e r a c t i o n S t r a t e g ie s ( S U I S ) . T h e s k il ls a n d s t ra t e g ie s n e e d e d f o r e f fe c t iv e i n t er -a c t i o n o r c o m m u n i c a t i o n a m o n g m e m b e r s i n t h e s m a l l g r o u p h a v e b e e n d i s c u s s e d e x t e n -s i ve l y ( J o h n s o n , 1 98 6; J o h n s o n a n d J o h n s o n , 1 98 7). I n o u r w o r k , w e h a v e d e f in e di n t e r a c t i o n s t r a t e g ie s a s c o m p r i s e d o f t w o s u b - t y p e s : M o d i f i e d - I n t e r a c t i o n S t r a te g i e s a n dS o c i a l - l n t e r a c t i o n S t r a t e g i e s . M o d i f i e d - I n t e r a c t i o n S t r a t e g i e s a r e p a r t i c u l a r l y r e l e v a n t t op a r t i c i p a n t s w h o n e e d a s s i s ta n c e i n th e a c t u a l u s e o f th e s p e c if ic l a n g u a g e i n q u e s t i o n i no r d e r t o a c h ie v e c o m m u n i c a t i v e g o a ls . A s su c h , th e s e s t ra t e g ie s a r e o f p a r a m o u n t i m p o r -t a n c e f o r i n t e r a c t i o n i n a n S L o r F L l a n g u a g e c o n t e x t . S o c i a l - I n t e r a c t i o n S t r a t e g i e s a r en o t l a n g u a g e s p e c if ic a n d a r e n e e d e d t o e n a b l e p a r t i c i p a n t s t o a c t a s b e t te r c o m m u n i c a t o r sin a n y c o m m u n i c a t i v e s e tt in g . T h e s e s t r a t e g ie s a r e v i ta l f o r a l l e f fe c t iv e i n t r a - g r o u p i n t e r-a c t i o n s .

M O D I F I E D - I N T E R A C T I O N S T R A T E G I E SR e s e a r c h h a s s h o w n t h a t n e g o t i a t io n f o r m e a n i n g m a k e s i n p u t m o r e c o m p r e h e n s i b l e tot h e n o n - n a t i v e s p e a k e r a n d t h a t c o n v e r s a t i o n a l m o d i f i c a t i o n is a n e f f ic i en t w a y t o b r i n ga b o u t s u c h n e g o t i a t i o n ( K r a s h e n , 1 98 0, 1 9 8 2; L o n g , 1 9 80 , 1 98 1, 1 98 3, 1 9 85 : G a s s a n dV a r o n i s , 1 98 5; V a r o n i s a n d G a s s , 1 98 5). I t c o n s i s t s o f a se t o f s t ra t e g i e s w h i c h e n a b l e b o t hl is t e n er a n d s p e a k e r t o a l t e r t h e i r in t e r a c t i o n s i n o r d e r t o f a c i l it a t e c o m p r e h e n s i o n o ft h e i n t e n d e d m e s s a g e . I n o u r s t u d y , f o u r t y p e s o f M o d i f i e d - I n t e r a c t i o n S t r a t e g ie s w e r ei n c l u d e d :(a ) Chec king Jbr comp rehension and clarification. T h i s c o n s is ts o f c o m p r e h e n s i o n q u e s -

t i o n s a s k e d b y t h e s p e a k e r in o r d e r t o c h e c k th e i n t e r l o c u t o r ' s u n d e r s t a n d i n g o f t h em e s s a g e ( e . g . D o y o u s e e w h a t I m e a n ? ) o r b y t h e l i s t e n e r i n o r d e r t o a s k f o r c l a r i -f i c a t io n o f t h e i n p u t ( e. g. D i d y o u s a y t h a t. .. ? ). T h u s , p a r t i c i p a n t s i n g r o u p a c t iv i ti e sc a n d e v e l o p w a y s i n w h i ch t o f i nd o u t w h e t h e r a s s p e a k e rs t h e y w e r e u n d e r s t o o d b yt h e o t h e r m e m b e r s o f th e g r o u p , o r a s l is te n e rs c a n a s k f o r e x p l a n a t i o n s o f w o r d s o re x p r e s si o n s th a t m a y n o t h a v e b e e n u n d e r s t o o d .

(b ) Ap pealing or assistance. T h i s e n a b l e s p a r t i c i p a n t s t o r e c r u i t h e l p f r o m o t h e r m e m -b e r s o f t h e g r o u p i n o r d e r t o e x p r e s s t h e m s e l v e s m o r e e f f e c ti v e ly i n t h e t a r g e t l a n -g u a g e ( e. g. H o w d o y o u s a y .. .? ) . T a r g e t l a n g u a g e d e f i c ie n c y u n d e r l ie s t h e n e e d f o rt h i s s t r a t e g y ; i t s u s e a l l o w s p a r t i c i p a n t s t o a s s i s t e a c h o t h e r i n e x p r e s s i n g t h e i r i d e a s .

(c) G ivin g assistance. T h i s e n a b l es i n t e r a c ta n t s t o h e lp o t h e r m e m b e r s o f th e g r o u pw h o h a v e d i f fi c u lt y e x p r e s s i n g t h e m s e l v e s in t h e t a r g e t l a n g u a g e a n d a p p e a l f o ra s s i s t a n c e .

S t u d e n t 1: t o s ee a n o t h e r . . . ?S t u d e n t 2 : l i feS t u d e n t 1: Y e s , . . . t o s ee a n o t h e r l if e.

(d ) Repair ing .T h i s e n a b l e s p a r t i c i p a n t s t o c o r r e c t g r a m m a t i c a l o r l e x ic a l e r r o r s i n t h et a r g e t l a n g u a g e t h a t w e r e m a d e b y o t h e r m e m b e r s o f th e g r o u p .


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S t u d e n t 1: I d o n ' t t h i n k t h a t t h e k i b b u t z i s n o t g o o d t o m e . . .S t u d e n t 2 : n o t t o m e , f o r m e . . .S t u d e n t 1: . . .n o t g o o d f o r m e a f t e r t h e a r m y .

From the above definitions of these four types of Modified-Interaction Strategies itbecomes clear that they are most useful in non-native interactions, where at least some ofthe participants experience language deficiency during the communicative interaction.SOCIAL-INTERACTION STRATEGIES

The use of Social-Interaction Strategies may improve any group interaction involving allmembers of a group. They enable the participants to acquire better attentive listening andparticipation skills (Johnson and Johnson, 1987; Sharan and Hertz-Lazarowitz, 1978).These are necessary for maintaining the flow of a cohesive and coherent group discussionin which students react to each other and relate to what other members in the group said,rather than deliver their own independent or unrelated short speeches which results innon-interaction participation. This set of strategies includes five types of sub-strategies:(a) Elaborating. A participant builds on a previous comment, enlarging on it by givingexamples and adding sentences in order to expand the discourse unit.

S t u d e n t 1: I c a n s a y t h a t o n o u r k i b b u t z . . . i t is a p r o b l e m o f n o t h i n g t o d o . . . th e r e i s n o t h i n g . . .S t u d e n t 2 : Y o u d o n ' t h a v e i n t e re s t i ng t hi n g s . Y o u d o n ' t h a v e s o m e t h i n g t o c h a n ge . ..(b) Faci l i ta t ing f low o f conversa t ion . A participant uses promoters that encourage con-

tinuation of the conversation.S t u d e n t 1: I t h i n k y o u a r e w r o n g b e c a u s e . . .S t u d e n t 2 : Y o u r e a l l y th i n k s o ? W h y d o y o u s a y t h a t ?

(c) Responding. A participant responds to a content-related question asked by a memberof the group. Such responses can include expressions of agreement or disagreement.

S t u d e n t 1: I h a v e a k i b b u t z w i t h a l o t o f m o n e y s o I s ta y . B u t i n t h e o t h e r k i b b u t z . ..S t u d e n t 2 : I n o t a g r e e w i t h y o u . I t h i n k . . .(d) See king in format ion or an op in ion . A participant asks for the speaker's opinion orseeks relevant or more detailed information.

S t u d e n t 1: I t h i n k t h a t . . . t h e r e a r e n o v a l u e s t o d a y . ..S t u d e n t 2 : W h a t d o y o u m e a n b y " v a l u e s " ?(e) Paraphrasing. A part icipant clarifies the previous speaker's contribution by restating

it in his own words.S t u d e n t 1: I c a n t a l k a b o u t m y k i b b u t z . I k n o w t h a t i n m y k i b b u t z t h e y d o e v e r y t h i n g t h a t. . .a l l t h is f ory o u n g p e op l e t o c o m e b a c k f r o m t h e a r m y . . .S t u d e n t 2 : D i d y o u s a y . . . y o u s a y . . . t h a t th e k i b b u t z d o e v e r y t h i n g t h a t t h e y o u n g p e o p le t h a t c o m eb a c k . . . ?From the examples given above it is obvious that even when non-native speakers have

difficulty with linguistic accuracy they can become quite effective interactants by usingSocial-Interaction Strategies.THE STUDY

The assumption of this study was that SL and FL learners need to be able to use variousinteraction strategies skillfully in order to interact effectively in communicative group


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THE SKILLED USE ON INTERACTION STRATEGIES 207

a c ti v it ie s , sp e c if ic a ll y t h o s e i n v o l v i n g o n e - w a y o p t i o n a l e x c h a n g e t a sk s . F o r t h is , t h e yh a v e t o u n d e r g o s p e c ia l tr a i n i n g i n t h e S k i ll e d U s e o f I n t e r a c t i o n S t r a te g i e s ( S U I S ) . T h ep u r p o s e o f t h e r e s e a r c h w a s t w o - f o l d : ( 1 ) t o e x a m i n e t o w h a t e x t e n t s u c h s t ra t e g ie s c a na c t u a l l y b e t a u g h t ; a n d ( 2 ) t o a s c e r t a i n t o w h a t e x t e n t s u c h t r a i n i n g w o u l d a l t e r t h e l e a r -n e r ' s i n t e r a c t i o n b e h a v i o r i n s m a l l - g r o u p w o r k i n a f o r e i g n l a n g u a g e c l a s s r o o m . A s p e c i a lt ra i n in g p r o g r a m i n th e S U I S t h e r e f o r e h a d t o b e d e v e lo p e d .T h e u n d e r l y i n g h y p o t h e s i s o f t h is s t u d y w a s t h a t s p e c i a l t r a i n i n g o f s t u d e n t s i n S U I Sw o u l d r e s u l t i n t h e ir i n c r e a se d o v e r a l l p a r t i c i p a t i o n i n o n e - w a y t a s k s, a l o n g w i t h a ni n c r e a se d u s e o f M o d i f i e d - I n t e r a c t i o n a n d S o c i a l - I n t e r a c t i o n S tr a te g i e s. F u r t h e r m o r e , itw a s h y p o t h e s i z e d t h a t n o n - i n t e r a c t i v e p a r t i c i p a t i o n w o u l d d e c r e a s e a s a re s u l t o f th et r a in i n g . I n o r d e r t o t e st th e s e h y p o t h e s e s , a n e x p e r i m e n t a l r e s e a r c h d e s ig n w a s d e v e l o p e din w h i c h t w o s i m i l ar g r o u p s o f s tu d e n t s w e r e c o m p a r e d a s t h e y c a r r ie d o u t i d e n t ic a l g r o u pa c t i v i t i e s . O n e g r o u p c o n s t i t u t e d t h e e x p e r i m e n t a l g r o u p w h i c h u n d e r w e n t t r a i n i n g i nS U I S a n d t h e o t h e r s e r v e d a s a c o n t r o l g r o u p w h i c h d i d n o t r e c e iv e s p e c ia l t ra i n i n g i nS U I S .

S U B JE C T S A N D R E S E A R C H D E S I G NT h i r t y - f o u r h ig h s c h o o l s t u d e n t s i n t w o E F L c l as s es i n a r e g i o n a l h i g h s c h o o l i n I s ra e lp a r t i c i p a t e d i n t h is e x p e r i m e n t w h i c h w a s c a r r i e d o u t o v e r a p e r i o d o f e i g h t w e e k s . T h et w o c l a s s e s w e r e r a n d o m l y d e s i g n a t e d a s ( a ) a n e x p e r i m e n t a l g r o u p w h i c h r e c e i v e d t r a i n -i n g i n S U I S a n d ( b ) a c o n t r o l g r o u p w h i c h d i d n o t g e t S U I S t r a i n i n g . T h e s t u d e n t s i n e a c hc la s s w e r e a s si g n e d a t r a n d o m t o g r o u p s o f f o u r t o f i ve s t u d e n t s e a c h f o r t h e ir g r o u pa c ti v it ie s . A ll g r o u p s w e r e v i d e o - t a p e d t w ic e : o n c e a t t h e o u t s e t o f t h e e x p e r i m e n t ( th e p r e -t e st ) a n d a g a i n e i g h t w e e k s la t e r , a f te r c o m p l e t i o n o f th e t r e a t m e n t i n t h e e x p e r i m e n t a lg r o u p ( t h e p o s t - t e s t ) . F o r b o t h p r e - a n d p o s t - t e s t , e a c h g r o u p h a d t o c a r r y o u t a d i s c u s -s io n t a s k , l im i t e d t o 1 0 m i n u t e s . T h e s t u d e n t s w e r e g iv e n a c a r d o n w h i c h a t o p i c a n ds e v e ra l s u b - to p i c s w e r e p r i n t e d . T h e s u b - t o p i c s p r o v i d e d o n l y o p t i o n a l g u i d e li n e s a n d t h es t u d e n ts c o u l d d e c id e w h e t h e r t o u s e t h e m o r n o t . T h e e x p e r i m e n t a l a n d c o n t r o l g r o u p sw e r e a s s ig n e d t h e s a m e t o p i c s , w h i c h w e r e d i f f e re n t f o r t h e p r e - a n d p o s t - t e s ts i n o r d e r t oa v o i d a r e h e a r s e d d i s c u ss i o n . T h e s e t o p i c s w e r e c h o s e n f r o m a li st o f 2 5 s u g g e s t io n s m a d eb y t h e s t u d e n t s t h e m s e l v e s p r i o r t o t h e e x p e r i m e n t . T h e t o p i c s w e r e f u r t h e r v a l i d a t e d f o ru s e i n g r o u p a c t i v i t i e s b y t w o E F L e x p e r t s .

T R A I N I N G P R O C E D U R E STraining studentsB o t h t h e e x p e r i m e n t a l a n d c o n t r o l c l as s es h a d t h r e e 6 0 - m i n u t e l e s s o n s p e r w e e k . O f t o t a lc l a s s t i m e , 3 0 % w a s d e v o t e d t o g r o u p w o r k a n d t h e r e s t t o c o n v e n t i o n a l t e a c h e r - f r o n t e di n s t r u c t i o n . T h e g r o u p - w o r k a c t i v i t i e s w e r e i d e n t i c a l i n t h e t w o g r o u p s . T h e e x p e r i m e n t a lg r o u p , h o w e v e r , r e c e iv e d th e e x t r a t r a i n i n g p r o g r a m i n th e S U I S ; a c t iv i ti e s sp e c if ic a ll yd e s i g n e d t o t r a i n s t u d e n t s i n th e u s e o f t h e i n t e r a c t i o n s t r a t e g ie s w e r e i n t e g r a t e d w i t h i n t h es m a l l - g r o u p t a s k s o f th i s cl a ss . T h e s e s t r a te g i e s , w h i c h h a d b e e n p i l o t e d p r i o r t o t h e


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2 08 Y A E L B E J A R A N O e t a l .

e x p e r i m e n t t o e n s u r e t h e i r p r o p e r i m p l e m e n t a t i o n , w e r e i n t r o d u c e d a t r a n d o m o v e rt h e e ig h t w e e k s o f t h e e x p e r i m e n t . T w o e x a m p l e s o f th e s e a c ti v i ti e s a r e d e s c r i b e d i nA p p e n d i x 1 .T r a i n i n g t h e s t u d e n t s i n S U I S w a s c a r r i e d o u t i n t w o p h a s e s . I n t h e f i r s t p h a s e , u s i n g t h es p e c ia l ly d e s ig n e d a c t iv i ti e s , th e s t u d e n t s w e r e t r a i n e d i n o n e a f t e r a n o t h e r o f th e s t ra t e -g i e s . A s e a c h s t r a t e g y w a s i n t r o d u c e d i t s d e s c r i p t i v e n a m e w a s p o s t e d o n t h e w a l l o n al a rg e p l a c a r d . T h e s e c o n d p h a s e f o c u s e d o n c o n s o l i d a t i o n o f a ll th e i n t e r a c t i o n s t r a te g i e st h e s tu d e n t s h a d l e a r n e d . T h e s t u d e n t s v i e w e d t o g e t h e r t h e v i d e o o f t h e p r e - te s t a n d d i s -c u s s e d w i th t h e t e a c h e r w h i c h s t ra t e g ie s h a d n o t b e e n u s e d a n d h o w t h e y c o u l d h a v e b e e ni n c o r p o r a t e d . T h e s t u d e n t s w e r e c o n s t a n t l y m a d e a w a r e o f t h e s tr a te g ie s t h e y n e e d e d t ou s e i n o r d e r t o m a k e t h e i n t e r a c t i o n m o r e e f f e c t i v e .

Training teachersT h e t w o t e a c h e r s w h o t a u g h t t h e c l a s s e s p a r t i c i p a t i n g i n t h i s s t u d y w e r e b o t h n a t i v es p e a k e rs o f E n gl is h w h o h a d b e e n t e a c h i n g a t t h e s c h o o l f o r th e s a m e n u m b e r o f y e ar s.T h e y w e r e o f s im i l ar a g e a n d h a d c o m p a r a b l e p r o f e s s io n a l b a c k g r o u n d s a n d e x p e ri e nc e .P r i o r t o t h e e x p e r i m e n t b o t h t e a c h e rs w e r e t r ai n e d i n t h e u s e o f g r o u p - w o r k in t h e F Lc l a s s r o o m . I n a d d i t i o n , t h e t e a c h e r o f t h e e x p e r i m e n t a l c la s s w a s s p e c if ic a ll y c o a c h e d i nh o w t o t ra i n s t u d e n t s i n S U I S . I t w a s d e c i d e d t o u s e t w o d i f f e r e n t t e a c h e r s , r a t h e r t h a n t h es a m e t e a c h e r , in o r d e r t o a v o i d a n y u n i n t e n t i o n a l o v e r f l o w o f S U I S i n t o t h e c o n t r o l c la s s.H o w e v e r , in o r d e r t o m i n i m i z e t e a c h e r e ff ec t, a g r o u p - w o r k e x p e r t c o a c h e d b o t h t e a c h er si n h o w t o a p p l y g r o u p - w o r k t e c h n i q u e s u si n g t h e s a m e m a t e r ia l s i n b o t h t h e ex p e r i m e n t a la n d t h e c o n t r o l c l a ss e s. I n o r d e r t o e n s u r e s i m i l a r a c t i v a t i o n o f b o t h c l a s se s , th e t e a c h e r sw e r e a s k e d t o s u b m i t d e t a i le d l e ss o n p la n s w h i c h h a d t o b e a p p r o v e d b y t h e g r o u p - w o r ke x p e r t p r i o r to t h e le s s o n a n d t o k e e p a lo g r e c o r d i n g w h a t a c t u a l l y h a p p e n e d d u r i n g t h el es s o ns . T o c o m p a r e a c t i v a t i o n o f t h e t w o c l a ss e s, 6 0 % o f t h e le s s o n s w e r e o b s e r v e d . T h eo b s e r v a t io n s o f th e e x p e r i m e n t a l c la ss i n c l u d ed d a t a - g a t h e r i n g o n i m p l e m e n t a t io n o fS U I S .

M E A S U R E M E N TT w o d e p e n d e n t v a r i a b le s w e r e m e a s u r e d i n t h is s t u d y :1 . P a r t i c i p a t i o n

( a) O v e r a ll P a r t i c i p a t i o n - - d e f i n e d b y t h e n u m b e r o f t u r n s t a k e n b y t h e m e m b e r so f th e g r o u p d u r i n g g r o u p d i sc u s si o n s.

( b ) N o n - i n t e r a c t i v e P a r t i c i p a t i o n - - d e f i n e d b y t h e n u m b e r o f p a r a t a c t i c p a r t ic i p a -t i o n t u r n s , w h e r e n o i n t e r a c t i o n s t r a t e g i e s w e r e u s e d .

2 . U s e o f I n t e r a c t i o n S t r a t e g i e s - - a s d e f in e d b y t h e n u m b e r o f M o d i f i e d - I n t e ra c t i o na n d S o c i a l - I n t e r a c t i o n S t r a t e g i e s u s e d .

A n o b s e r v a t i o n - t a l l y f o r m w a s d e v e l o p e d t o m e a s u r e t h e s e v a r i a b l es b e f o r e a n d a f t e r th et r e a t m e n t . T h i s i n s t r u m e n t w a s p i l o t e d u s i n g v i d e o - t a p e d d i s c u s s io n s o f th e t w o g r o u p sp a r t i c i p a t i n g i n t h e s t u d y , b u t o n a d i f f e r e n t t o p i c f r o m t h o s e u s e d i n t h e s t u d y . I n t h ee a r l y s t ag e s o f t h e p i l o t i n g t w o i n d e p e n d e n t r a t e r s v i e w e d th e v i d e o - t a p e s a n d u s e d t h e


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T H E S K I L L E D U S E O N I N T E R A C T I O N S T R A T E G I E S 2 09

o b s e r v a t i o n - t a l l y f o r m t o r a t e t h e m . T h e i r r a t i n g s w e r e c o m p a r e d a n d t h e d e f i n i t i o n s o ft h e c a t e g o r i e s w e r e a d j u s t e d u n t i l a n a g r e e m e n t o f a t le a s t 7 5 % w a s r e a c h e d f o r e a c hc a t e g o r y . T h e i n s t r u m e n t w a s v a l i d a t e d b y t w o e x p e r t s in t h e fi eld o f F o r e i g n L a n g u a g eA c q u i s it io n a n d R e s e a r c h M e t h o d o l o g y a n d a n e x p e r t in C o o p e r a t i v e T e a ch i n g . T w oi n d e p e n d e n t r a t e r s w e r e t r a i n e d t o u s e t h e i n s t r u m e n t . A n a v e r a g e i n t e r - r a t e r r e l i a b i l i t y o f0 . 9 8 w a s r e a c h e d f o r t h e M o d i f i e d - I n t e r a c t i o n S t r a t e g i e s , 0 . 8 6 f o r t h e S o c i a l - I n t e r a c t i o nS t r a te g i e s , a n d 0 . 9 6 f o r P a r t i c i p a t i o n .A n a t t i t u d e q u e s t i o n n a i r e w a s d e v e l o p e d t o d o c u m e n t t h e c h a n g e in s t u d e n t s ' a t ti t u d e st o w a r d s g r o u p - w o r k t h a t r e s u l te d f r o m t h e ir t ra i n in g in S U I S . A p p e n d i x I I p r o v i d e s a f ews a m p l e c o m m e n t s m a d e b y s tu d e n ts .D e s c r i p t i v e s ta t i st i c s w e r e u s e d t o a n a l y z e t h e r e s u lt s . S i n c e t h e n u m b e r o f p a r t i c i p a n t s i nt h e t w o g r o u p s w a s b o t h r e l a t i v e ly s m a l l a n d u n e q u a l ( 1 5 a n d 1 9), a n d s i nc e t h e d e p e n d e n tv a r i a b l e s m i g h t b e s e n si ti v e t o t h e n u m b e r o f p a r t i c i p a n t s , a c o r r e c t io n w a s d o n e o n t h eo b s e r v a t i o n s b y m u l t ip l y i n g e a c h o b s e r v a t i o n b y i ts w e i g h t fa c t o r. T h e w e i g h t f a c t o r w a sc a l c u l a te d b y d i v i d in g h a l f o f th e t o t a l p o p u l a t i o n ( N = 1 7) b y t h e n u m b e r o f s tu d e n t s ine a c h g r o u p . T h u s t h e w e i g h t fa c t o r f o r t h e e x p e r i m e n t a l g r o u p w a s 1 .1 3 ( 1 7 /1 5 ) a n d f o rt h e c o n t r o l g r o u p 0 .8 9 ( 1 7 /1 9 ) . T h i s i s a r t if ic i a ll y e q u i v a l e n t t o t h e u s e o f tw o g r o u p s o fe q u a l s i ze o f 1 7 s t u d e n t s , a l t h o u g h i n th e t a b l e s t h e o r i g in a l N i s i n d i c a t e d .

R E S U L T ST h e h y p o t h e s i s u n d e r l y in g t h i s s t u d y w a s t h a t t r a in i n g i n S U I S w o u l d y ie ld h i g h e r O v e r a llP a r t i c i p a t i o n i n g r o u p i n t e r a c t io n t h r o u g h t h e us e o f m o r e M o d i f i e d - I n t e r a c t i o n a n dS o c i a l - I n t e r a c t io n S t r a te g ie s . F u r t h e r m o r e , i t w a s h y p o t h e s i z e d t h a t N o n - i n t e r a c t i v e P a r -t i c i p a t io n w o u l d d e c r e a s e a s a re s u l t o f t h e t ra i n i n g . T a b l e 1 p r e s e n t s t h e d a t a f o r th e s ef o u r c a t e g o r i e s .A f i r s t g l a n c e a t t h e s e d a t a i n d i c a t e s a n i n c r e a s e i n O v e r a l l P a r t i c i p a t i o n a n d i n t h e u s e o fb o t h t y p e s o f In t e r a c t i o n S t ra t e g ie s b y t h e e x p e r i m e n t a l g r o u p , w h i le n o i n c r e a s e w a sr e g i s t e r e d i n t h e c o n t r o l g r o u p . F u r t h e r , N o n - i n t e r a c t i v e P a r t i c i p a t i o n d e c r e a s e d i n t h ee x p e r i m e n t a l g r o u p , b u t n o t i n t h e c o n t r o l g r o u p .

Table 1. Frequency of pa rticipation (ove rall and non-interactivel, and interaction strategies (mo dified andsocial)Catego ry Participation Interaction strategiesO v e r a l l N o n - i n t e r a c t i v e M o d i f ie d SocialG ro up ~ p a r t i c i p a t i o n p a r ti c ip a t io n

Experim ental Pre 331 107 45 179(N = 15) Pos t 390 14 88 288A 59 ~93 43 109Co ntrol Pre 319 76 16 227IN = 19) Po st 306 87 20 199A -1 3 I1 4 28


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210 YAEL BEJARAN O e t a l .

T - T e s t s w e r e p e r f o r m e d o n t h e s e d a t a t o d e t e r m i n e t h e s i g n i fi c a n ce o f t h e d if f e re n c e .A s t h e r e s u lt s in T a b l e 2 i n d i c a te , t h e d i ff e r e n c e b e t w e e n p r e - a n d p o s t - t r e a t m e n t b e h a v i o ri n t h e e x p e r i m e n t a l g r o u p w a s s i g n i f ic a n t in t h e u s e o f M o d i f i e d - I n t e r a c t i o n S t r a te g i e s , th eu s e o f S o c i a l - I n t e r a c t i o n S t r a t e g i e s a n d t h e d e c r e a s e i n N o n - i n t e r a c t i v e P a r t i c i p a t i o n .W i t h r e s p e c t to t h e s e t h r e e v a r ia b l e s t h e h y p o t h e s e s w e r e c o n f i rm e d . I n t e r e s t in g l y e n o u g h ,O v e r a l l P a r t i c i p a t i o n i n t h e g r o u p a c t i v it y d id n o t i n c r e a s e s i g n if i ca n t ly . I n t h e c o n t r o lg r o u p , o n t h e o t h e r h a n d , n o s ig n if ic a n t c h a n g e b e t w e e n p r e - a n d p o s t - t r e a t m e n t b e h a v i o rw a s n o t e d , a s w a s e x p e c t e d s i n c e t h e y r e c e i v e d n o t r a i n i n g i n t h e S U I S .F u r t h e r m o r e , i t i s i n t e r e s ti n g t o n o t e t h a t t h e i n c r e a se in t h e u s e o f M o d i f i e d - I n t e r a c t i o nS t r a t e g i e s w a s s i g n i f i c a n t a t P < 0 . 0 0 5 , w h i l e th e i n c r e a s e i n t h e u s e o f S o c i a l - I n t e r a c t i o nS t r a t e g i e s w a s s i g n i f i c a n t a t t h e P < 0 . 0 5 le v e l. I t se e m s t h a t t h e t r a i n i n g i n S U I S w a s m o r ee f fe c t iv e w i t h r e s p e c t t o M o d i f i e d - I n t e r a c t i o n S t r a t e g i e s t h a n w i t h r e s p e c t t o S o c i a l -I n t e r -a c t i o n S t r a t e g i e s .T h e f a c t t h a t t h e r e w e r e n o s i g n i f ic a n t d i f fe r e n c e s b e t w e e n p r e - a n d p o s t - t r e a t m e n t d a t a i nt h e c o n t r o l g r o u p i n d i c a te s t h a t w o r k i n g i n s m a l l g r o u p s w i l l n o t , o f it se lf , r e s u lt in a ni n c r e a s e i n t h e u s e o f i n t e r a c t i o n s t ra t e g ie s . I n o t h e r w o r d s , a l t h o u g h t h e c o n t r o l g r o u pw a s e n g a g e d i n i d e n t i ca l g r o u p a c t i v it i es a s t h e e x p e r i m e n t a l g r o u p , f o r t h e s a m e t i m ep e r i o d a n d b y c o m p a r a b l e t e a ch e r s , t h e s tu d e n t s i n th e c o n t r o l g r o u p w h o w e r e n o t m a d ea w a r e o f t h e e x i st e n c e o f in t e r a c t i o n s t r at e g i e s a n d o f t h e i m p o r t a n c e o f t h e i r us e d id n o tc h a n g e t h e i r o r ig i n a l b e h a v i o r i n th e s e a s p e ct s .A s e c o n d a n a l ys i s ( A N C O V A ) a l lo w e d u s t o t es t t h e d if fe r e nc e s i n p e r f o r m a n c e b e t w e e nt h e t w o g r o u p s , a f t e r c o n t r o l l i n g f o r i ni ti a l d if f er e n c e s. T h e d a t a f r o m t h is a n a l y s i s a r ep r e s e n t e d i n T a b l e 3 .T h e d a t a i n T a b l e 3 in d i c a t e , a s w a s e x p e c t e d , t h a t a f t e r c o n t r o l l i n g f o r in i ti a l d if f e re n c e st h e r e w e r e n o s i g n i f ic a n t d i f fe r e n c e s b e t w e e n t h e t w o g r o u p s i n t h e a m o u n t o f O v e r a l lP a r t i c i p a t i o n . H o w e v e r , s i g n i f ic a n t d i f fe r e n c e s w e r e o b s e r v e d i n t h e n u m b e r o f t im e sM o d i f i e d - I n t e r a c t i o n S t r a t e g i e s a n d S o c i a l - I n t e r a c t i o n S t r a t e g i e s w e r e u s e d i n t h ee x p e r i m e n t a l g r o u p a n d i n t h e c o n t r o l g r o u p . I n o t h e r w o r d s , t h e e ff e c t o f tr a i n i n g is

T a b l e 2 . M e a n s , S . D . a n d t - v a lu e s o f p a r t i c ip a t i o n , ( o v e r a l l a n d n o n - i n t e r a c t iv e ) , a n d i n t e r a c t i o n s t r a t e g ie s( m o d i f i e d a n d s o c i al ) f o r e x p e r i m e n t a l g r o u p a n d c o n t r o l g r o u p

~ e g o r y P a r t i c i p a t i o n I n t e r a c t i o n s t r a te g i e sO v e r a l l N o n - i n t e r a c t i v e M o d i f i e d S o c i alp a r t i c i p a t i o n p a r t c i p a t i o nG r o u p ~ X S D X S D X S D X S DEx per im en ta l P re 9 . 7 3 . 9 3 .1 1 .9 5 .3 2 . 8 1 .3 1 .3(N = 15) P o s t 11 .5 4 . 9 0 . 4 2 . 9 8 . 5 4 . 8 2 . 6 1 .7

t 1 .9 7 2 . 9 6 * - 3 . 4 9 * * - 2 . 6 3 *C on t ro l P re 9 . 4 5 . 4 2 . 2 2 . 3 0 . 5 0 . 2 6 . 7 5 .7(N = 19) Po s t 9 .3 6 .4 2.6 2.1 0.6 1.0 6.1 6.1t 0 . 10 7 . 50 0 . 22 0 . 50

* P < 0 . 05 , * * P < 0. 00 5 .


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THE S KILL ED US E ON INTERACTION S TRATEGIES 211

T a b l e 3 . A n a l y s i s o f c o v a r i a n c e : m e a n s a n d S . D . o f p a r t i c i p a t i o n , ( o v e r a l l a n d n o n - i n t e r a c t i v e ) , a n d i n t e r a c t i o ns t r a t e g ie s ( m o d i f i e d a n d s o c i al ) a n d t h e i r F v a l u e so r y P a r t i c i p a t i o n

O v e r a l l N o n - i n t e r a c t i v ep a r t c i p a t i o n p a r t i c i p a t i o nG r o u p ~ X S D X S D

I n t e r a c t i o n s t r a te g i e sM o d i f i e d S o c i a l

X S D X S DEx per im e nta l 11 .5 4 . 9 0 . 4 2 . 9 2 . 6 1 .8 8 . 5 4 . 5C on tro l 9 .3 6.4 2.6 2.1 0.6 1.0 6. I 6 .1F 1.8 6.15 " 12.7"* 5.06** P < 0 . 0 5 , * * P < 0 . 0 0 5.

significant with respect to these two variables. Furthermore, the control group rated sig-nificantly higher in Non-interactive Participation in the post-test than did the experi-mental group.

DISCUSSIONThe purpose of this study was to investigate the efficacy of training in the Skilled Use ofInteraction Strategies in improving interaction amongst foreign language learners work-ing together in small groups. Although the training did not yield a statistically significanteffect on overall participation, the change recorded for the experimental group was greaterthan that recorded for the control group (see Table 1). The fact that this change was notstatistically significant may be due to the small number of subjects participating in theexperiment. This subject requires further investigation. However, the significant resultobserved in the decrease of non-interactive participation is of great importance. It indi-cates a change in the quality of participation in the experimental group; even if theiroverall participation was not significantly greater after the experiment, it was significantlymore interactive as a result of the training. The meaning of this is that the students did notparticipate merely for the sake of participating, but did so in response to and in relation toissues raised by their peers in the group, and did so by using interaction strategies. Thisspecific kind of responsiveness turned the students into better interactants.The results were significant particularly in regard to the increased use of both Modified-Interaction and Social-Interaction Strategies by students in the experimental group. Thismay be an indication that students can be trained to use these two strategies, that suchtraining can result in the increased awareness of the benefits such strategies can provideand, hence, in enhancing their use.This study distinguishes clearly between Social-Interaction Strategies, which are not lan-guage specific and enable interactants to be better communicators in any language, andModified-Interaction Strategies where the interactants need to ask for assistance as well asto offer it to one another in the actual use of the target language. This distinction isimportant since both types of strategies are necessary for simulating natural conversationin the Second or Foreign Language classrooms, their use being particularly important forone-way tasks.


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212 YAEL BEJAR ANO e t a l .

I t i s i n t e r e s ti n g t o n o t e t h a t a l l o f t h e s t u d e n t s p a r t i c i p a t i n g i n th i s s tu d y , i n th e c o n t r o lg r o u p a s w e l l a s i n t h e e x p e r i m e n t a l g r o u p , u s e d S o c i a l - I n t e r a c t i o n S t r a t e g i e s m o r e t h a nt h e y u s e d M o d i f i e d - I n t e r a c t i o n S t r a te g i e s , b o t h b e f o r e a n d a f t e r t h e t r e a t m e n t . T h i s i sp r o b a b l y d u e t o th e f a c t t h a t S o c i a l - I n t e r a c t i o n S t r a te g i e s a r e n o t u n i q u e t o f o re i g n l an -g u a g e u s e b u t r a t h e r t o o v e r a l l c o m m u n i c a t i v e i n t e ra c t i o n , i n w h i ch t h e t e a ch e r s o f b o t hc l a s se s w e r e g i v e n s p e c i a li z e d i n s t r u c t i o n , f o r s m a l l g r o u p s i n a n y c a s e . H o w e v e r , i t is t h eu s e o f M o d i f i e d - I n t e r a c t i o n S t r at e g ie s t h a t c a n h e l p s tu d e n t s in t h e F L c l a s s r o o m s i tu a -t i o n o v e r c o m e li n g u is t ic s t u m b l i n g b l o c k s . T h e r e f o r e , a l t h o u g h t h e c h a n g e i n t h e f re -q u e n c y o f u s e o f b o t h t y p e s o f s t ra t e g i e s a s a r e s u l t o f t h e t r a i n i n g w a s s i g n if ic a n t , t h e f a c tt h a t t h e h i g h l y s ig n i f ic a n t c h a n g e o f P < 0 .0 0 5 o c c u r r e d i n t h e M o d i f i e d - I n t e r a c t i o n S t r a -t e g ie s is o f g r e a t i m p o r t a n c e f o r th e F L c l a s s r o o m s e t t in g . I t is e n c o u r a g i n g , t h e r e f o r e ,t h a t t h e t r a i n i n g p r o g r a m u s e d i n th i s s t u d y w a s p a r t i c u l a r l y e f fe c t iv e w i t h r e s p e c t t o t hi st y p e o f s t r a t e g ie s .S e v e r a l s t u d i e s b y L o n g ( 1 9 8 1 , 1 9 83 , 1 9 85 ) h a v e s h o w n t h a t m o d i f i e d - i n t e r a c t i o n p r o -m o t e s l a n g u a g e l e a r n i n g . T h e s t u d y p r e s e n t e d h e r e i n d i c a t e s t h a t M o d i f i e d - I n t e r a c t i o nS t r a t e g i e s n e e d t o b e l e a r n e d b e f o r e w o r k i n s m a l l g r o u p s c a n e n a b l e s t u d e n t s t o t r u l ym o d i f y t h e i r i n t e r a c t i o n , w h i c h w i l l t h e n e n a b l e t h e m t o p r o d u c e m o r e c o m p r e h e n s i b l ei n p u t a n d o u t p u t d u r i n g a n i n t e r a c t i o n t a s k ( K r a s h e n , 1 98 0, 1 98 2; L o n g , 1 98 0, 1 9 83 ;S w a i n , 1 9 85 ). T h u s s t u d e n t s n e e d t o a c q u i r e t h e S k i ll e d U s e o f M o d i f i e d - I n t e r a c t i o nS t r at e g ie s i n o r d e r t o t a k e o n s o m e o f th e r e s p o n s i b i li ty f o r m a k i n g t h e ir i n p u t m o r ec o m p r e h e n s i b l e . T h e i m p o r t a n c e o f t h is s t u d y l ie s i n i ts d e f i n i ti o n o f s e v e ra l i m p o r t a n ti n t e r a c t i o n s t r a te g i e s a n d s u b - s t r a t e g i e s a n d i n th e i n d i c a t i o n t h a t t h e r e is a n a c c u m u l a t i v ed e v e l o p m e n t in th e u s e o f s u c h s t r a te g i e s d u e t o t ra i n i n g . I t a p p e a r s t h a t s t u d e n t s n e e d t oa c q u i r e a " r e p e r t o i r e o f s t r a t e g i e s " ( L i t t l e w o o d , 1 9 84 ), s u c h a s th e M o d i f i e d - I n t e r a c t i o nS t r a t e g i e s u s e d i n t h i s s t u d y , i n o r d e r t o e n a b l e t h e m t o m o d i f y t h e i r i n t e r a c t i o n i n t h et a r g e t l a n g u a g e a n d t h u s b e a b l e t o n e g o t i a t e m e a n i n g m o r e s u c c e s s f u l l y , e v e n w h e n l a n -g u a g e p r o f i c i e n c y i s l im i t e d . T h e r e s u l t o f a c q u i s i t i o n a n d u s e o f t h e s e s t r a te g i e s w i ll t u r nt h e s t u d e n t s i n t o b e t t e r i n t e r a c t a n t s i n s m a l l g r o u p s e t t i n g s .

REFERENCESAllwright, R. L. (1984) The impo rtance of interaction in classroom langu age and learning. App l ied L ingu is t ics 5,156-171.Bejarano, Y. (1987) A cooperative small-group methodology in the language classroom. T E S O L Q u a r t e r l y 21,483-504.Bialystok, E. (1978) A theoretical mo del of seco nd languag e learning. Language Learn ing 28(1), 69-83.Brubach er, M., Payn e, R. an d Ricke tt, K. (1990) Perspect ives on small group learning. Rubicon Pub. Inc.Deen, J. Y. (1988) Com paring in terac t ion in a cooperat ive-learning and teacher-ce ntered classroom. MA Thesis.Dept. of T ESO L/Applied Linguistics, UC LA.Doughty, C. and Pica, T (1986) Information-gap tasks: Do they facil itate second language acquisition? TESO LQua rterly 8, 305-324.Gass , S. and Va ronis, E. M . (1985) Task v ariation and n on-native/non -native nego tiation meaning . In Inpu t andsecond language acquisition, ed. S. Ga ss and C. M adde n, pp. 149-161. New bury Ho use: Massachussetts.Johnson, D. W. (1986) Reach ing ou t 3rd edn. P rentice Ha ll: Englewood, New Jersey.Johnson, D. W. and Johnson, F. P. (1987) Jo in ing toge ther g roup theory and group sk i l l s . Prenctice-Hall Inter-national, Inc.


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K r a s h e n , S . D . ( 1 9 8 0 ) T h e i n p u t h y p o t h e s i s . I n Current issues in bilingual education e d . J . A l a t i s , G e o r g e t o w nU n i v e r s i t y P r e s s : W a s h i n g t o n , D C .K r a s h e n , S . D . ( 1 9 8 2 ) Principles andpractiee in second language acquisition. P e r g a m o n P r es s: O x f o r d .L i t t l e w o o d , W . ( 1 9 8 4 ) Foreign and second language learning. C a m b r i d g e U n i v e r s i t y P r e s s.L o n g , M . H . ( 1 9 8 0 ) I n p u t , i n t e r a c t i o n a n d s e c o n d l a n g u a g e a c q u i s i t i o n . P h . D . d i s s e r t a ti o n , U n i v e r s i t y o f C a l i-f o r n i a , L o s A n g e l e s.L o n g , M . H . ( 1 98 1 ) Q u e s t i o n s i n f o r e i g n e r t a l k d i s c o u r s e . Language Learning 31( I ) , 135-1 58.L o n g , M . H . ( 19 8 3 ) N a t i v e s p e a k e r / n o n - a c t i v e s p e a k e r c o n v e r s a t i o n i n t h e s e c o n d la n g u a g e c l a s s r o o m . I n O nTE SO L ' 82 , e d . M . C l a r k e a n d J. H a n d s c o m b e , p p . 2 0 7 2 25 . T E S O L : W a s h i n g t o n D C .L o n g , M . H . ( 1 98 5 ) I n p u t a n d s e c o n d l a n g u a g e a c q u i s i t io n t h e o r y . I n Input and second language acquisition, ed .S . G a s s a n d C . M u d d e n , p p . 3 7 7 3 93 . N e w b u r y H o u s e .L o n g , M . H . a n d P o r t e r , P . ( 1 98 5 ) G r o u p w o r k , i n t e r l a n g u a g e t a l k a n d c l a s s r o o m s e c o n d l a n g u a g e a c q u i si t io n .TESOL Quarter ly 19(2), 207 228.P i c a , T . a n d D o u g h t y , C . ( 1 98 5 a ). I n p u t a n d i n t e r a c t i o n in t h e c o m m u n i c a t i v e l a n g u a g e c la s s r o o m : A c o m p a r i -s o n o f t e a c h e r - f r o n t e d a n d g r o u p a c t i v it i es . I n Input an d second langua ge acquisition, e d . S. G a s s a n d C . M a d d e n ,p p . I 1 5 1 3 6 . N e w b u r y H o u s e : M a s s a c h u s s e t t s .P i c a, T . a n d D o u g h t y , C . ( 1 9 85 b ) T h e r o l e o f g r o u p w o r k i n c l a s s r o o m s e c o n d l a n g u a g e a c q u i s it i o n . Studies inSecond Language Acquisition 7 , 233 248 .S c h m u c k , R . a n d S c h m u c k , P . ( 1 9 8 8 ) Gro up Processes in the Classroom 1 5 t h e d n . W m . B r o w n : D u b u q u e , I o w a .S e li g e r, H . ( 1 97 7 ) D o e s p r a c t i c e m a k e p e r f e c t ? A s t u d y o f i n t e r a c t i o n p a t t e r n s a n d s e c o n d l a n g u a g e c o m p e t e n c e .Language Learning 27(2), 263 278.S e l i g e r, H . ( 1 9 8 3 ) L e a r n e r i n t e r a c t i o n i n t h e c l a s s r o o m a n d i t s e f f e c t o n l a n g u a g e a c q u i s i t i o n . I n ClassroomOriented Research in Second Language Acquisition, e d s H . W . S e l ig e r a n d M . H . L o n g , p p . 8 9 1 0 7 . N e w b u r yH o u s e : M a s s a c h u s s e t t s .S h a r a n , S . a n d H e r t z - E a z a r o w i t z , R . ( 1 9 7 8 ) Cooperation and communication in school. S c h o c k e n : T e l A v i v a n dJ e r u s a l e m .S t e i n e r , J . (1 9 8 8 ) T r a i n i n g i n t h e s k i l le d u s e o f i n t e r a c t i o n s t r a t e g i e s i n t h e f o r e i g n l a n g u a g e c l a s s r o o m a n d i t se f f ec t o n s t u d e n ts " p a r t i c i p a t i o n i n g r o u p d i s c u s s io n . U n p u b l i s h e d M . A . t h e s is , T e l A v i v U n i v e r s i t y .S w a i n, M . ( 1 9 85 ) C o m m u n i c a t i v e c o m p e t e n c e : S o m e r o l e s o f c o m p r e h e n s i b l e in p u t a n d c o m p r e h e n s i b l e o n p u t i ni t s d e v e l o p m e n t . I n Input and second language acquisition, e d . S . G a s s a n d C . M a d d e n , p p . 23 5 2 53 . N e w b u r yH o u s e : M a s s a c h u s s e t t s .V a r o n i s , E . a n d G a s s , S . ( 1 98 5 ) N o n - n a t i v e / n o n - n a t i v e c o n v e r s a t i o n s : A m o d e l f o r n e g o t i a t i o n f o r m e a n i n g .Applied Linguistics 6( 1 , 71-9 0 .

A P P E N D I X I

T w o t r a i n in g a c t i vi t ie s f o r l e a r n in g t h e s k il l e d u s e o f in t e r a c t io n s t r a t e g i e s1. N A M E O F A C T I V I T Y : C o i n sS T R A T E G Y : P a r t ic i p a t io n T u r n - t a k i n gA I M : T h e p u r p o s e o f t h i s a c t i v it y i s t o h e l p s t u d e n t s b e c o m e a w a r e o f t h e i r o w np a r t i c ip a t i o n i n t h e g r o u p a n d t h a t o f o t h e r m e m b e r s o f t h e g r o u p . T h i s is d o n eb y u s i n g a c o i n t o r e p r e s e n t e a c h t im e a m e m b e r p a r t i c i p a t e s in t h e g r o u pd i s c u s s i o n .2 0 c o i n s o r t o k e n s f o r e a c h s t u d e n t . A t a ll y s h e e t.A T E R I A L S :P R O C E D U R E :a.

b.

c.

T h e c l a ss is d iv i d e d i n t o g r o u p s o f f o u r t o f i v e s t u d e n t s . E a c h g r o u p i s g iv e n a s u b j e c t f o r d i s c u s si o n a n d at a ll y s h e e t, a n d e a c h m e m b e r o f t h e g r o u p i s g i v e n a b a g o f 20 c o i n s . T h e s t u d e n t s a r e t o l d t o p u t a c o i n i nt h e m i d d l e o f th e t a b l e e a c h t i m e t h e y t a lk . W h e n a m e m b e r o f t h e g r o u p h a s u s e d u p a l l o f h is c o in s , t h ed i s c u s s i o n s t o p s .G r o u p m e m b e r s ' n a m e s a r e li s te d o n t h e ta l ly s h e e t, t o g e t h e r w i t h t h e n u m b e r o f c o i n s e a c h s t u d e n t w a sl e f t w i t h .T h e t e a c h e r d i s c u s s e s t h e r e s u l ts o n t h e t a ll y s h e e t w i t h e a c h g r o u p , f o c u s i n g o n q u e s t i o n s s u c h a s : " W h ya r e s o m e s t u d e n t s l e f t w i t h o n l y a f e w c o i n s w h i l e o t h e r s h a v e m o s t o f t h e i r c o i n s le f t o v e r ? " a n d " W h a tc o u l d b e d o n e i n o r d e r t o a l l o w f o r a m o r e e q u a l u s e o f c o i n s ? "


12/12

2 14 Y A E L B E J A R A N O et al.d . B e a r i n g in m i n d t h e p o i n t s b r o u g h t u p i n th e d i s c u s s io n w it h t h e te a c h e r, t h e g r o u p h o l d s a n o t h e r

d i s c u s s io n , u s i n g t h e s a m e p r o c e d u r e a s d e s c r i b e d a b o v e . T h e s t u d e n t s a r e to l d t o p a y a t t e n t io n t o h o wm a n y c o i n s ea c h m e m b e r i s us in g .e . T h e g r o u p m e m b e r s , t o g e t h e r w it h t h e t ea c h e r , c o m p a r e t h e t a ll ie s o f t h e tw o d i s c u s s i o n s a n d t h ed i f f e re n c e s in t h e r e s u l ts . T h e t e a c h e r t h e n e l i c it s e x p l a n a t i o n s o f t h e s e d i f f er e n c e s a n d a t t e m p t s t oh e i g h t e n s t u d e n t s ' a w a r e n e s s o f t h e f a c t t h a t w h e n t h e r e w a s a m o r e e q u a l u s e o f t h e c o i n s , th e g r o u pd i s c u s s i o n w a s m o r e c o h e r e n t a n d c o h e s iv e .

F O L L O W - U P D I S C U S S I O N :W i t h t h e e n t ir e c l a ss , t h e t e a c h e r d i s c u s s e s t h e i m p o r t a n c e o f t h e a w a r e n e s s o f l e t ti n g a ll m e m b e r s o f t h e g r o u pp a r t i c i p a t e :

a . D o m i n a n t m e m b e r s ( t h o s e w h o s e c o i n s w e re u s e d u p f ir st ) h a v e t o b e c o m e a w a r e o f th e n e e d t o le t o t h e r sp a r t i c i p a t e a n d t o l e a r n s k i ll s t o h e l p e n c o u r a g e o t h e r s t o p a r t i c i p a t e i n t h e d i s c u s s i o n .

b . T h e s t u d e n t s w h o h a r d l y t a l k e d ( t h o s e w h o h a d a l m o s t a ll o f t h e i r 2 0 c o i n s l ef t) n e e d t o b e a w a r e t h a t t h e ya r e i n f a c t n o t c o n t r i b u t i n g t o t h e g r o u p a c t iv i t y . T h e y n e e d t o l e a r n s k i ll s w h i c h w il l h e lp t h e m t op a r t i c i p a t e i n t h e d i s c u s s i o n .

c . I n o r d e r f o r t h e re t o b e m e a n i n g f u l c o m m u n i c a t i o n i n t h e g r o u p , s t u d e n t s n e ed t o l e ar n h o w t o i n t e r ac tw i t h o n e a n o t h e r t o p r o m o t e m a x i m u m a n d e q u a l p a r t ic i p a t io n , t h e r e b y e n a b l i n g t h e m t o c a r r y o u t t h eg r o u p t a s k s u c c e s s f u l l y .

2. N A M E O F A C T I V I T Y : R e d C a r d sS T R A T E G Y : R e p a i r i n gA I M : T o o b l ig e t h e s t u d e n t s t o f o c u s o n t h e a s p e c t o f a c c u r a c y . T h e a c ti v it y

r e q u i re s a t te n t i v e l i st e n in g f r o m t h e m e m b e r s w h o a r e n o t t a l k in g a n dh a v e t o t r y t o i d e n t i f y a n d c o r r e c t m i s t a k e s m a d e b y t h e s p e a k e r .

M A T E R I A L S : R e d c ar ds .P R O C E D U R E :a , T w o p a i r s o f s t u d e n t s s it a r o u n d a d e s k .b . S t u d e n t s 1 a n d 2 a r e g i v e n r e d c a rd s .

S t u d e n t s 3 a n d 4 a r e g i v e n a r o l e - p l a y s i tu a t i o n t o a c t o u t .c . W h i l e s t u d e n t s 3 a n d 4 a c t o u t t h e i r r o le - p l a y , S t u d e n t s 1 a n d 2 li s te n . W h e n e v e r S t u d e n t I o r 2 h e a r s am i s t a k e , h e / s h e h o l d s u p t h e r e d c a r d . T h i s s i g n if i es t o S t u d e n t s 3 a n d 4 t o s t o p t a l k i n g .d . S t u d e n t 1 o r 2 m a k e s t h e n e c e s s a r y " r e p a i r " . T h e s t u d e n t w h o e r r e d r e p e a t s t h e p h r a s e i n it s c o r re c t f o r m

a n d t h e p a i r r e s u m e th e i r r o le - p l a y .a . W h e n S t u d e n t s 3 a n d 4 h a v e c o m p l e t e d t h e i r ro l e - p l a y , t h e p a ir s s w i t c h t a s k s : S t u d e n t s 1 a n d 2 a c t o u t a

n e w r o l e p l a y , a n d S t u d e n t s 3 a n d 4 b e c o m e t h e " ' re p a i r e r s " .F O L L O W - U P D I S C U S S I O N :

W i t h t h e e n t ir e c l a ss , th e t e a c h e r d i s c u s s e s t h e i m p o r t a n c e o f i m p r o v i n g b o t h f lu e n c y a n d a c c u r a c y . P o i n t s t o b em a d e a r e:

a . O n e t e a c h e r - - n o m a t t e r h o w a d e p t - - i s u n a b l e t o c o r r e c t m a n y s t u d e n t s at on c e . B y w o r k i n g i n g r o u p s ,f e ll o w c l a s s m a t e s c a n c o r r e c t e a c h o t h e r a n d t h e r e b y h e l p i m p r o v e e a c h o t h e r ' s a c c u r a c y .

b . W h e n s t u d e n t s a re a w a r e t h a t l is t en i n g f o r th e m i s t a k e s o f t h e ir g r o u p m a t e s i s i m p o r t a n t f o r i m p r o v i n gt h e i r o w n a s w e l l a s t h e i r f e ll o w s t u d e n t s ' l a n g u a g e , t h e y l i st e n m o r e a t t e n t iv e l y .

A P P E N D I X I I

S o m e s t u d e n t s ' c o m m e n t s o n w o r k i n g in s m a l l g r o u p s a f t e r t ra i n in g i n th e s k i l le d u se o fi n t e ra c t i o n s t r a t e g i e s

I l e a rn e d h o w t o l is te n t o o t h e r m e m b e r s o f t h e g r o u p . I r e l a te d to t h e p e r s o n w h o w a s t a l k i n g . T h e a c t i v it i e s " d i d s o m e t h i n g " . I ' m a w a r e t h a t t h e r e a r e r u l e s t o le t e v e r y b o d y s p e a k , t o g i v e a s s i s t a n c e a n d t o a s k f o r a s s is t a n c e . I n o w k n o w h o w t o c o n d u c t a c o n v e r s a t i o n b e t te r n o t o n l y i n t h e E n g l is h c l a s s r o o m , b u t in m y n a t iv el a n g u a g e a s w e l l. U s i n g th e s ki ll s, I s p o k e m o r e a n d f e lt t h a t m y E n g l i s h g o t b e t te r .

interaction strategies use

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