Intelligence, Language, and Political Access:

Information gathering and Empire, 1770s-1830

Imperial Information and Debate

• Historians of the British Empire point out that after Plassey British expansion hit several walls:– Mysore wars—4 battles against Hyder Ali and his son

Tipu Sultan– Maratha wars—last into 1815, included 3 wars,

numerous battles and raids

• Review past histories that stress military superiority, such historians point out that opponents of the British such as Tipu Sultan in Mysore, the Marathas, Sikhs all had appropriated and innovated such advancements

Mobility of information & Technology

• In Mysore Haidar Ali, a former military commander took over the state of Mysore

• Created a modern military, hired French advisors to update artillery, tutor his son Tipu

• Tipu continued to implement new reforms and put up a fierce resistance to BritishOnly joint campaigns of Marathas, local rulers, allied with the EIC defeated him

• Such allies were crucial in providing logistical information and intelligence

S. Asian Information Systems

• South Asian systems were paradoxically both open, but due to their specialized linguistic and segmented nature difficult to master.

• Created during the Mughal era to incorporate local knowledge into a common Persian court system– Issue of mastering 100s of dialects over 20 major

language groups

• Relied on specialized categories of agents, runners, newswriters, clerks, ambassadors, some of whom could also be termed spies

Replication across ranks

• Each noble, elite Merchant or warlord would hire the following:

• Akhbarnawis or newswriters—posted at each court and every important town

• Several runners (qassid) to deliver mail• Clerks (munshis) skilled in courtly languages as

well as local dialects, also in cyphers• Representatives (vakils) privy to the more

sensitive details of private affairs and needs

Geographical and Climatic Barriers

• During Monsoon season, late June-August many roads and routes impassable on wheeled carriages or horses

• Complicated network of small states in 18th century require local knowledge and contacts to ensure safe delivery of mail and information

• Information easier to gather in Gangetic plains, more difficult in the rugged terrrain of the Deccan and the mountains of the northwest

Chambal area in Central India

Why did the EIC have trouble with Information sources?

• By the 1770s growing contempt for indigenous knowledge systems and the “information order”

• Few officers trained in local dialect, even orientalists largely studied Sanskrit, Persian, Bengali, or Urdu—which had limited use in other regions

• Most skilled officers were those of mixed background or postings in hinterlands—but their indigenized lifestyles were viewed as problematic

• Top levels of officials did not value or use their insights very well.

• Complaints about cost of hiring that many employees

Emphasis on European methods

• Trignometric surveys sanctioned soon after the Plassey years, but funding issues and access to non-EIC areas prove problematic

• Reliance on horse-power and carriage postal system did not work as efficiently

• Certain amount of fraud and misdirection against the EIC was successful due to their ignorance of local customs

• The issue of “cultural competence” becomes a serious problem by the 1780s for officers

• Awareness of difficulties of disguise and access

What kinds of Information necessary for expansion?

• Size of troops and resources of rivals (revenue, supplies, allies, etc)

• Power factions in rival courts, potential for recruiting allies or spies

• Routes for attacks, retreats, or supply lines• Sources for food, fodder, shelter along routes• Strategic areas (such as elevated spots) for use of

cannons and guns, or flat plains for cavalry action• Disposition of local villages and peasants—hostile,

neutral, or friendly• Nature of relationships between court and local

magnates such as zamindars

Barriers for Mastery for EIC

• This level of knowledge needed vastly different levels of cultural competency– Specialized knowledge of courtly etiquette and

Persian– Cordial relationships with local magnates and nobility– Ability to speak multiple local dialects or hire those

who did– Be able to retain their loyalty

• Required recruitment of specialized knowledge providers, but also that they be paid competitive salaries and treated with respect