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Insulin and the brain Mary ET Boyle, Ph. D. Department of Cognitive Science UCSD

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Page 1: Insulin and the brain - UC San Diego Social Sciencespages.ucsd.edu/~mboyle/COGS163/pdf-files/02-S15-Insulin and the... · Insulin reduces blood glucose levels by activating glucose

Insulin and the brain

Mary ET Boyle, Ph. D.Department of Cognitive Science

UCSD

Page 2: Insulin and the brain - UC San Diego Social Sciencespages.ucsd.edu/~mboyle/COGS163/pdf-files/02-S15-Insulin and the... · Insulin reduces blood glucose levels by activating glucose

1921 Banting & Macleod

Nobel Prize1923

White, M. F. (2003) Science

Page 3: Insulin and the brain - UC San Diego Social Sciencespages.ucsd.edu/~mboyle/COGS163/pdf-files/02-S15-Insulin and the... · Insulin reduces blood glucose levels by activating glucose

Berg, J. M., Tymoczko, J. L. and Stryer, L. (2007) Biochemistry 6 Ed.; WH Freeman, NY

Page 4: Insulin and the brain - UC San Diego Social Sciencespages.ucsd.edu/~mboyle/COGS163/pdf-files/02-S15-Insulin and the... · Insulin reduces blood glucose levels by activating glucose

Berg, J. M., Tymoczko, J. L. and Stryer, L. (2007) Biochemistry 6 Ed.; WH Freeman, NY

Page 5: Insulin and the brain - UC San Diego Social Sciencespages.ucsd.edu/~mboyle/COGS163/pdf-files/02-S15-Insulin and the... · Insulin reduces blood glucose levels by activating glucose
Page 6: Insulin and the brain - UC San Diego Social Sciencespages.ucsd.edu/~mboyle/COGS163/pdf-files/02-S15-Insulin and the... · Insulin reduces blood glucose levels by activating glucose

Pancreas basics

splenic vein

Images adapted from: Kapit. W. et al., (1987) The Physiology Coloring Book, Harper Collins, NY;   http://teachmeanatomy.info/

pancreatic duct

exocrine ‐ acinus

δ‐cellssomatostatin

β‐cellsinsulin& amylin

α‐cellsglucagon

F‐cellspancreatic polypeptide

ε‐cellsghrelin

Page 7: Insulin and the brain - UC San Diego Social Sciencespages.ucsd.edu/~mboyle/COGS163/pdf-files/02-S15-Insulin and the... · Insulin reduces blood glucose levels by activating glucose

Cell Hormone Function

α‐cells(15%)

glucagon stimulate gluconeogenesis and release of glucose into blood stream

β‐cells(75%)

insulin & amylin responsible for decreasing blood glucose levels and satiety (insulin 100:amylin 1)

δ‐cells(5%)

somatostatin inhibition of insulin and glucagon secretion

ε‐cells(<1%)

ghrelin stimulating appetite hormone

F‐cells(<5%)

pancreatic polypeptide

self‐regulate exocrine and endocrine pancreatic secretions

Cell types in the islets of Langerhans:

Berg, J. M., Tymoczko, J. L. and Stryer, L. (2007) Biochemistry 6 Ed.; WH Freeman, NY

Page 8: Insulin and the brain - UC San Diego Social Sciencespages.ucsd.edu/~mboyle/COGS163/pdf-files/02-S15-Insulin and the... · Insulin reduces blood glucose levels by activating glucose

Insulin and glucagon are complementary

Images adapted from: Kapit. W. et al., (1987) The Physiology Coloring Book, Harper Collins, NY

Page 9: Insulin and the brain - UC San Diego Social Sciencespages.ucsd.edu/~mboyle/COGS163/pdf-files/02-S15-Insulin and the... · Insulin reduces blood glucose levels by activating glucose

Insulin reduces blood glucose levels by activating glucose transporters (GLUT) enabling the uptake of glucose in:

β‐cells

Glucose sensor (GLUT2)

insulin

Glucose transporter(GLUT4)

Insulinreceptor

Cell metabolism

Glycogensynthesis

Glycogensynthesis

Proteinsynthesis

Fatty Acidsynthesis

Glycerol

Triglycerides

High levels of glucoseIn blood

Images adapted from: Kapit. W. et al., (1987) The Physiology Coloring Book, Harper Collins, NY

Page 10: Insulin and the brain - UC San Diego Social Sciencespages.ucsd.edu/~mboyle/COGS163/pdf-files/02-S15-Insulin and the... · Insulin reduces blood glucose levels by activating glucose

Tissue Distribution of glucose transporters

Berg, J. M., Tymoczko, J. L. and Stryer, L. (2007) Biochemistry 6 Ed.; WH Freeman, NY

Page 11: Insulin and the brain - UC San Diego Social Sciencespages.ucsd.edu/~mboyle/COGS163/pdf-files/02-S15-Insulin and the... · Insulin reduces blood glucose levels by activating glucose

Actions of glucagon:

Low levels of glucose in blood

Detect glucose levels

Glycogentree

Glucagonreceptors

After glucagon binds to its receptors on the liver cells,

There is an increase in cyclic‐AMP within hepatocytes.

cAMP activates a cascade of enzymes degrading glycogen into 

glucose.

Glycogenolysis = breakdown of glycogenGluconeogenesis = synthesis of glucose from amino acids in the liver

glycogen phosphorylase

Images adapted from: Kapit. W. et al., (1987) The Physiology Coloring Book, Harper Collins, NY

Page 12: Insulin and the brain - UC San Diego Social Sciencespages.ucsd.edu/~mboyle/COGS163/pdf-files/02-S15-Insulin and the... · Insulin reduces blood glucose levels by activating glucose

Glucose Tolerance Test:

Images adapted from: Kapit. W. et al., (1987) The Physiology Coloring Book, Harper Collins, NY

Page 13: Insulin and the brain - UC San Diego Social Sciencespages.ucsd.edu/~mboyle/COGS163/pdf-files/02-S15-Insulin and the... · Insulin reduces blood glucose levels by activating glucose

Insulin deficiency

Glucose entry is blocked

Cells utilize their own stores of glycogen

Fat

Protein

Excessive fatty acid utilization leads to formation of ketone 

bodies by liver

proteinglycogen

fat

Ketone bodies Hyperphagia

Images adapted from: Kapit. W. et al., (1987) The Physiology Coloring Book, Harper Collins, NY

Page 14: Insulin and the brain - UC San Diego Social Sciencespages.ucsd.edu/~mboyle/COGS163/pdf-files/02-S15-Insulin and the... · Insulin reduces blood glucose levels by activating glucose

Kidney tubules cannot reabsorb the excess filtered glucose.

The extra glucose spills over in urine 

(glycosuria)

The excess glucose causes osmotic diuresis (polyuria).  Polyuria reduces plasma water, leading to excessive 

thirst (polydipsia).

KetonuriaPolyuria

Glycosuria Images adapted from: Kapit. W. et al., (1987) The Physiology Coloring Book, Harper Collins, NY

Page 15: Insulin and the brain - UC San Diego Social Sciencespages.ucsd.edu/~mboyle/COGS163/pdf-files/02-S15-Insulin and the... · Insulin reduces blood glucose levels by activating glucose

Historically, there was little interest in insulin and the brain because:

Begg, D. P and Woods, S. C. (2013) Adv Physiol. Educ 37: 53‐60

“unlike [skeletal muscle], the brain does not require insulin to 

take up glucose

brain was considered to be 

insulin independent

insulin was considered too large to cross the blood brain barrier”

Page 16: Insulin and the brain - UC San Diego Social Sciencespages.ucsd.edu/~mboyle/COGS163/pdf-files/02-S15-Insulin and the... · Insulin reduces blood glucose levels by activating glucose

Innervation of islet of Langerhans“From the large nerve trunk at one pole of the islet emerges the peri‐insular plexus, the peri‐insular ganglia (p.i.g.), and the “neural terminal” net in and around the islet. 

The neural terminal is said to be composed of nerve fibers and interstitial  Cajal’s cells (in black). 

Part of the islet has been excised to show the interior structure of the islet. c capillary, 800.”

Image adapted from Honjin, 1956; courtesy of John Wiley & Sons, Inc) Durant, s. et al (2003) LABORATORY INVESTIGATION, Vol. 83, No. 

Page 17: Insulin and the brain - UC San Diego Social Sciencespages.ucsd.edu/~mboyle/COGS163/pdf-files/02-S15-Insulin and the... · Insulin reduces blood glucose levels by activating glucose

Nervous system divisions:

Nervous system

Central Nervous System Peripheral Nervous System

Autonomic Nervous system

Parasympathetic nervous system

Sympathetic nervous system

Enteric nervous system

Slowly activated dampening system

Page 18: Insulin and the brain - UC San Diego Social Sciencespages.ucsd.edu/~mboyle/COGS163/pdf-files/02-S15-Insulin and the... · Insulin reduces blood glucose levels by activating glucose

Autonomic Nervous System Control of insulin release:

parasympatheticceliac 

ganglion

Lateral hypothalamus

Ventromedial hypothalamus

Sympathetic

Para sympathetic

superior mesenteric ganglion

Kiba, T (2004) Pancreas, Vol 29

Page 19: Insulin and the brain - UC San Diego Social Sciencespages.ucsd.edu/~mboyle/COGS163/pdf-files/02-S15-Insulin and the... · Insulin reduces blood glucose levels by activating glucose

parasympathetic

sympathetic

sensory

isletsB

F

A

D

Insulin/Amylin

Glucagon

Pancreatic Polypeptide

Somatostatin

Kiba, T (2004) Pancreas, Vol 29 ;   Ahren, B. (2000) Diabetologia 43: 393–410

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Page 20: Insulin and the brain - UC San Diego Social Sciencespages.ucsd.edu/~mboyle/COGS163/pdf-files/02-S15-Insulin and the... · Insulin reduces blood glucose levels by activating glucose

Parasympathetic nerve input:

AChGRPPACAPVIP

B F A D

ACh: acetylcholineGRP: gastrin releasing polypeptide VIP: vasoactive intestinal polypeptidePACAP: pituitary adenylate cyclase activating polypeptide

Kiba, T (2004) Pancreas, Vol 29 ;   Ahren, B. (2000) Diabetologia 43: 393–410

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Page 21: Insulin and the brain - UC San Diego Social Sciencespages.ucsd.edu/~mboyle/COGS163/pdf-files/02-S15-Insulin and the... · Insulin reduces blood glucose levels by activating glucose

ACh: acetylcholineGRP: gastrin releasing polypeptide 

VIP: vasoactive intestinal polypeptidePACAP: pituitary adenylate cyclase activating polypeptide

Parasympathetic nerve input: B F A D

ACh –insulin release

VIP & PACAP –glucose dependent insulin release

GRP – may be involved in neuroregulation

βGLUT2

Vagus Nervestimulation

ACh – releases:glucagonsomatostatin

α,δ

PP – is released by para‐sympathetic activity

F

Kiba, T (2004) Pancreas, Vol 29 ;   Ahren, B. (2000) Diabetologia 43: 393–410

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Page 22: Insulin and the brain - UC San Diego Social Sciencespages.ucsd.edu/~mboyle/COGS163/pdf-files/02-S15-Insulin and the... · Insulin reduces blood glucose levels by activating glucose

Sympathetic nerve input:

NANPYGalanin

B F A D

NPY: Neuropeptide YNA: Noradrenalin

Kiba, T (2004) Pancreas, Vol 29 ;   Ahren, B. (2000) Diabetologia 43: 393–410

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Page 23: Insulin and the brain - UC San Diego Social Sciencespages.ucsd.edu/~mboyle/COGS163/pdf-files/02-S15-Insulin and the... · Insulin reduces blood glucose levels by activating glucose

NA: NoradrenalineNPY: Neuropeptide Y

Sympathetic nerve input: B F A D

NA –inhibits glucose dependent insulin release

NPY & Galanin–inhibit insulin release

βsplanchnic nerve

stimulation

NA– releases glucagonand PP

α,F

NA – inhibits somatostatinrelease

δ

Kiba, T (2004) Pancreas, Vol 29 ;   Ahren, B. (2000) Diabetologia 43: 393–410

Mary
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Page 24: Insulin and the brain - UC San Diego Social Sciencespages.ucsd.edu/~mboyle/COGS163/pdf-files/02-S15-Insulin and the... · Insulin reduces blood glucose levels by activating glucose

Other & sensory nerve input:

Sensory nerve CGRPSP

B F A D

CCK: cholecystokininNO: nitric oxideSP: Substance PCGRP: Calcitonin gene‐related polypeptide

Other nerveCCKNO

Kiba, T (2004) Pancreas, Vol 29 ;   Ahren, B. (2000) Diabetologia 43: 393–410

Mary
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Mary
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Page 25: Insulin and the brain - UC San Diego Social Sciencespages.ucsd.edu/~mboyle/COGS163/pdf-files/02-S15-Insulin and the... · Insulin reduces blood glucose levels by activating glucose

CGRP: Calcitonin Gene‐related peptideSP: Substance P

Sensory nerve input: B F A D

CGRP–inhibits insulin release

CGRP – involved with Amylin

SP – reported to increase and decrease insulin secretion

β

Sensory nerve stimulation

CGRP–stimulates glucagon release

α

CGRP is thought to exert a tonic inhibition of insulin secretion.Kiba, T (2004) Pancreas, Vol 29 ;   Ahren, B. (2000) Diabetologia 43: 393–410

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Page 26: Insulin and the brain - UC San Diego Social Sciencespages.ucsd.edu/~mboyle/COGS163/pdf-files/02-S15-Insulin and the... · Insulin reduces blood glucose levels by activating glucose

CCK: CholecystokininNO: Nitric Oxide

Other nerve input: B F A D

CCK–stimulates insulin release

NO– inhibition of NO‐synthase inhibits insulin release (mice)

Entero‐pancreatic neuroregulation from the duodenum

β

Other nerve stimulation

Kiba, T (2004) Pancreas, Vol 29 ;   Ahren, B. (2000) Diabetologia 43: 393–410

Mary
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Ahren, B. (2000) Diabetologia 43: 393–410

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Kiba, T. Pancreas • Volume 29, Number 2, August 2004