innovations in science and technology education -...

Innovations in science and technology

education Edited by Professor David Layton

Vol. I

Unesco

Innovations in science

and technology education

Published in 1986 by the United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization, 7 Place de Fontenoy, 75700 Paris Composed by Pre-Press Group de Schutter, Antwerp (Belgium) Printed by Imprimerie G E D I T , Tournai (Belgium)

I S B N 92-3-102374-8

© Unesco 1986 Printed in Belgium

Preface

Throughout the world, innovation has become a permanent feature of the educational scene. This is particularly true in the fields of science and technology education where developments are proceeding at an ever-increasing pace, not only in curriculum content, but also in the associated teaching methods and materials. T h e Unesco International Congress on Science and Technology Education and National Development held in 1981 suggested that Unesco should establish, within the framework of its M e d i u m - T e r m Plan (1984-89), an international co-operative programme in the field of science and technology education.1 O n e of the major functions of this programme should be to promote the exchange of information, experience and materials a m o n g M e m b e r States and relevant international and regional organizations. In response to this suggestion, Unesco established, in 1984, an international network for information in science and technology education. Innovations in Science and Technology Education, of which this is the first volume, has been launched in association with this network in order to provide information, on an international basis, about innovations in science and technology education at all levels of schooling, in related teacher training (both pre-service and in-service), and in out-of-school activities.

T h e scope of Innovations in Science and Technology Education covers the teaching of the various scientific disciplines—physics, chemistry, biology and mathematics—integrated and interdisciplinary science teaching, and education in technology, nutrition and health. It also includes particular aspects of science and technology education, such as their social relevance, their

1. International Congress on Science and Technology Education and National Development, Paris, 1981, Final Report, Paris, Unesco, 1981 ( E D - 8 1 / C O N F . 4 0 1 / C O L . 1 0 ) , - Unesco, Science and Technology Education and National Development, Paris, Unesco, 1983.

teaching in relation to the local environment and their links with industry and agriculture. T h e range of innovations extends from subject-matter content, such as the educational implications of biotechnology in school science courses, to the use of n e w teaching methods and materials, such as the application of computers in science and mathematics education. It also includes the applications of the results of experimental projects and action-oriented research to the ongoing process of the development of science and technology education in all its aspects.

It is hoped that this and future volumes will be of interest to all those concerned with the development of science and technology education. They are especially addressed to science educators in universities and colleges, including those involved with teacher training and curriculum planning, to ministry of education officials and to practising teachers.

Appreciation is expressed to the contributors to this first volume, w h o so generously gave of their time and energy. Particular acknowledgement is due to the editor, Professor David Layton, of the Centre for Studies in Science and Mathematics Education, University of Leeds, United Kingdom.

The opinions expressed are those of Professor Layton and the various contributors ; they are not necessarily those of Unesco and do not commit the Organization.

Contents

Innovators' dilemmas : recontextualizing science and technology education David Layton 9

Recent developments in primary and lower secondary school science

Wynne Hauen 29

The teaching of mathematics in primary and secondary schools

David Wheeler 49

Community development through biology teaching Michael Atchia 67

Biotechnology and its educational implications in school biology

A. N. Rao 73

The teaching of chemistry in different parts of the world

Daniele Cros 85

Difficulties in concept formation Andrée Tiberghien 95

Towards a practical physics: experiments that can be done at h o m e and

in other out-of-school situations Luis Carlos de Menezes 109

Applications of calculators and computers in science and mathematics

education Richard J. Shumway 117

Science, technology and society: educational implications

Albert V. Baez 137

Science, technology and society courses : problems of implementation

in school systems 143

The activities of Pioneer Centres in the U S S R Olga Grekova 155

Stimulating innovation at the international level : Unesco's role in science

and technology education 163

Innovators' dilemmas: recontextualizing science and technology education

David Layton

'L'innovation permanente'

Innovation in science education is less a characteristic of a particular period in time than a normal and continuing process. T h e rapid advance of scientific knowledge and the emergence of significant technologies alone require that this is so. But other factors contribute considerably; demographic and economic influences on the context of science education are merely two among several powerful stimuli to innovation. Viewed from this perspective it is the periods of stability in science education which call for explanation, rather than the perpetual flux of classroom and laboratory practices as these adapt to changing circumstances.

Even so, the events of the past thirty years provide examples of planned innovation on a scale rarely witnessed previously. T h e reasons for this are familiar and in developed countries included a concern for specialized scientific and technological manpower to meet industrial and military demands. Additionally, however, within the same period n e w nations across the globe were progressively acquiring independence from colonial rule. Their subsequent drives towards modernization entailed the rapid implementation of up-to-date science curricula, initially imported from overseas, but later more reflective of indigenous needs and values. Against this background, science and technology education became increasingly acknowledged as essential contributors to national development, in both its personal and community dimensions (Unesco, 1983a, pp . 36-49).

Unquestionably, impressive curricula for the most able students were produced in these decades. Yet the 1980s opened with a widespread recognition that more than this was necessary. While n e w scientific knowledge and appropriate technologies clearly required specialized manpower for their generation, maintenance and growth, their local applications could not take root and be purposefully controlled in the absence of an informed public. A s a result, the goal of an appropriate science education for all came to assume 9

David Layton

greater prominence. In some contexts, anxiety focused on 'the illiterate millions w h o cultivate their fields with the age-old traditional skills and equipment, work in factories in the same routine manner in unhygienic conditions, and w h o believe in the power of charms and talismans rather than in modern diagnostic and therapeutic methods w h e n afflicted by disease' (Goswami, 1984, pp. 427-8). Elsewhere the concern was that 'our children could be stragglers in a world of technology' in which technological skills and sophistication 'are the basic capital of tomorrow's society' (National Science Board Commission, 1983, p . v). Irrespective of context, the role in which science education was n o w being cast contrasted significantly with that it played in the 1960s. In relation to development needs, science and technology education could no longer ignore the cultural and economic milieu and it was important that they extended to the great mass of the population.

Accompanying this acknowledgement of the need for science education to be more truly universal has been an awareness that planned curriculum change is harder to achieve than m a n y of the earlier reformers had anticipated. T h e telling phrase 'innovation without change' was coined in this period to describe a situation in which the rhetoric and resources of an innovation were adopted, while the classroom interactions between teachers and learners remained unaltered in any fundamental sense. Jerrold Zacharius's exasperated comment that it was easier to put m a n on the m o o n than reform the school science curriculum captured the frustration experienced by m a n y of those involved at the end of the 1960s (Silberman, 1970, p . 171).

These issues—the changing and, at times, competing goals of science education; the construction of non-élite curricula which are perceived by learners as having 'social meaning and usefulness'; and the problems of converting planned into actual change—are the subject of this chapter. Together they sketch the contours of the larger and overarching theme of science and technology education in relation to national development which encompasses the more detailed and particular accounts of current innovations which follow in later contributions.

Science education and national development

M u c h that was written about science education in the 1960s identified two

broad aims. There was, first, the need to increase substantially national stocks

of technicians, engineers, technologists and scientists. Second, it was essential

to promote an improved understanding and appreciation of science among the

general public. Both aims were associated primarily with the formal school

system and both were deemed equally appropriate to industrialized and

10


industrializing nations (Cooley, 1959, p . 43 ; Advisory Council on Scientific Policy, 1961; Mahalanobis, 1964, pp . 28-31).

Varying degress of success accompanied the m a n p o w e r goal. In the United States, for example, a report in 1981 from the National Science Foundation predicted that, if present undergraduate enrolments persisted throughout the decade 'there would continue to be more than enough n e w graduates in all the traditional fields of science'. Almost certainly, however, a shortage of trained personnel in computer science would exist in 1990; concern was expressed also about the supply of engineers, especially in specific, critical subspeciali-ties (National Science Foundation, 1982, pp . 7-8).

In m a n y developing countries of the world, the quantitative aspects of supply retain significance, not least in relation to a reduction of dependence on expatriate and non-indigenous expertise. In general, however, a large-size scientific community has been recognized as at best a necessary, though by no means sufficient, requirement for national development. T h e quality of that community is critical in relation to its ability to address problems which are of national importance and to incorporate science and technology into the life of the society without destruction of traditional culture (Bhagavantam, 1979, pp. 87-8; Unesco, 1981, p. 6). A s an illustration of the first of these conditions, it has been suggested that research in biotechnology is a promising field for development in Third World laboratories because of its applicability to agriculture, the relative newness of the field and the comparatively modest investments needed to pursue it (National Science Foundation, 1982, p . 24). However, as Professor Rao indicates in a later chapter, the particular type of scientific manpower needed for such a development is not yet available in rich supply.

Qualitative rather than quantitative m a n p o w e r considerations were, then, of particular significance for the planning of science education in relation to national development by the early 1980s. With the same end in mind , the second of the broad aims from the 1960s, an improved understanding and social appreciation of science by the general public, acquired a higher priority. Addressed at best incidentally by the earlier curriculum reforms, the need for a scientifically literate citizenry emerged as an important focus for innovation (Unesco, 1983a, pp. 47, 151).

T h e extent to which it had become necessary by the 1980s to redefine the goals of science education can be illustrated by reference to two examples, the first from Canada and the second from the Asian and Pacific nations. In North America, the Science Council of Canada commissioned a major four-year study in 1980, the report from which is titled Science for Every Student (Science Council of Canada, 1984). T h e study explores the future options for science education in relation to the personal and community development of

11

David Layton

Canadians. After extensive research and deliberations across the ten Canadian provinces and two territories, each autonomous in educational matters, an emerging consensus about the aims of science education was identified. T o quote the report, Canada needed science education that could (a) develop citizens able to participate fully in the political and social choices facing a technological society; (b) train those with a special interest in science and technology fields for further study ; (c) provide an appropriate preparation for the modern work world ; (d) stimulate intellectual and moral growth to help students develop into rational, autonomous individuals (Science Council of Canada, 1984, p. 13). In relation to 'science for informed citizens', the Canadian study endorsed the view expressed in the 1972 Unesco report Learning to Be :

Lack of understanding of technological methods makes one more and more dependent on others in daily life, narrows employment possibilities and increases the danger that the potentially harmful effects of the unrestrained application of technology—for example alienation of individuals or pollution—will finally become overwhelming (Faure et al., 1972, p. 66).

A n understanding of technology was also central to the radical re-examination of the relationship between science education and the world of work which the Canadian report deemed essential. Students would need to learn h o w technology affects the workplace, h o w it will influence the nature of work, and what n e w career opportunities it creates.

In relation to the fourth goal, the personal development of students, the report was fully in tune with m u c h recent research in science education, in its emphasis on the need to start 'where the child is'. A n impressive and still growing body of international work in the field of children's learning of science has explored the reasons w h y m a n y , perhaps the majority, of secondary school students do not understand or see m u c h point in the conceptually based science they are taught. O f the minority w h o are able to learn the taught ideas for examination purposes, most have difficulty in applying them in real-life situations. T h e implications of this research, which adopts a constructivist view of learning, is that a n e w range of pedagogical strategies is necessary to bring about change in a student's conceptual understanding. T h e use of language, the role of experiments, the organization of group activities and the structuring of curriculum content will need to be rethought in the light of what w e k n o w about the 'alternative frameworks' which students have constructed for their understanding of scientific p h e n o m ena (Driver, 1983). It has even been suggested that n e w objectives for science education need to be adopted to take into account the implications of

12


constructivist research (Fensham, 1983). T h e work confronts us with important questions about h o w far into the scientist's conception of natural phenomena w e are able to lead the student, with understanding, in the time available and, indeed, h o w far most students need to travel in this direction. As one leading researcher poses the question in a specific case, is it essential that all our students should leave secondary education thinking of electric current as the drift of a cloud of charged particles through a lattice structure, w h e n , for m a n y practical purposes, an understanding in terms of fluid flow will suffice? (Driver, 1984).

T h e Canadian report on Science for Every Student raises several profound issues for science educators, whatever their context. T w o are identified here as of prime significance, though, at this point, they are noted only. A more detailed examination follows later. 1. T h e compatibility of the four broad goals, and specifically, whether

education systems can deliver simultaneously the select élite for research and development ( R & D ) , needed especially in relation to industry and defence, as well as the scientifically literate citizenry deemed essential in both modernized and developing contexts.

2. T h e increasing educational emphasis on technology as a curriculum c o m ponent in its o w n right, with characteristics which differentiate it significantly from activities traditionally associated with science education.

T h e second instructive example of a contemporary restatement of the goals of science education is drawn from the countries of Asia and the Pacific. T h e results of a regional meeting held at the Unesco Regional Office for Education in Asia and the Pacific ( R O E A P ) , Bangkok, in September 1983 are embodied in an important report, Science for All ( A P E I D , 1983). Participants came from nineteen countries, m a n y of which had already developed n e w educational policies linked with the concept of endogenous economic and social development.

In these countries, population considerations feature strongly. Over 60 per cent of the world's population live there, mostly in rural areas, with 40 per cent of the region's population being under 15 years of age. T h e annual rate of increase of the school-going age-group is five times more than that of the total population. Understandably, the universalization of primary-level education has a high priority, together with a strong emphasis on the development of community-based non-formal education and training for out-of-school youth and adults, as a complement to the formal system.

As the report states, the nations of the region 'have n o w learnt that to achieve endogenous development, gain true self-determination and sustain healthy advancement, it is not sufficient to have just an élite cadre of experts. T h e whole population needs to be able to appreciate, and in their o w n

13

David Layton

respective w a y s , participate in [the] responsible use of science and technology for development' ( A P E I D , 1983, p . 15). Science education, then, is to be truly for all, with 'all' being defined as not only children in primary and secondary schools, but also 'out-of-school children and youth, including those w h o should have been in schools under the universalization of education process; the w o r k force including the vast n u m b e r s of illiterates; and the educated adult section of the populace' ( A P E I D , 1983, p . 17).

Within the formal education system 'science for all' is not intended to be an alternative, lower status p r o g r a m m e , but an essential core c o m p o n e n t , respectable in its o w n right, though supplemented for those students w h o might proceed later to a m o r e specialized, academic pre-professional education in science. It is important that this minority, however , should have followed a 'science and society course stressing the social responsibility of the scientist' ( A P E I D , 1983, p . 22) . In the non-formal sector it will need to be related to practical problems in a c o m m u n i t y and to the extension of existing crafts and technologies.

T h e report specifies fundamental criteria for the selection of the content of 'science for all' and these are worth quoting in full :

(a) It should be perceived by the learners as immediately useful in their real world or as having social worth by its economic or c o m m u n i t y value. In other w o r d s , it should lend itself to experiences and practical use that are meaningful to the learners;

(b) It should improve the living conditions of the learners, or increase their productivity, and contribute to the well-being of the community and to national development goals ;

(c) It should be based o n daily life experiences of the learners' needs, relate to the resources of their real world, and m u s t have obvious applications in their w o r k , leisure or h o m e s ;

(d) It should include natural phenomena which will create wonder and excitement in the learners ;

(e) It should enable learners to acquire and master useful and employable skills and intelligently to use these skills ;

(f) It m u s t consider cultural and social traditions, and seek to complem e n t these and not clash with t h e m unnecessarily ;

(g) It should m a k e the learner recognize and appreciate the importance of science and technology in national development; and

(h) It should enable the learners to utilize wisely the resources in their environments and to live more harmoniously with nature and society ( A P E I D , 1983, pp. 20-1).

Clearly a science course, the constituent knowledge of which satisfies these criteria, w o u l d differ profoundly from a traditional science course w h o s e principle of organization w a s derived from the nature of the subject itself. T h e invoking of external criteria, such as 'utility', and the focus o n solving real-life

14


problems lead to a reformulation of science education which resembles that

in the Canadian report, with its emphasis on technology education. There is a

further similarity between the reports in that the plurality of goals raises a

question about their mutual compatibility; specifically, is the price of

popularization a reduced capability for generating 'an élite cadre of experts' ?

However, the proposals for 'science for all' in the context of the Asian and

Pacific nations highlight a third crucial issue, the need of science education to

recognize and take account of traditional cultures. This idea is present in more

muted form in the Canadian report where reference is m a d e to the need for

science teaching to be set in a specifically Canadian context. It is rec

o m m e n d e d , for instance, that the historical roots of Canadian scientific and

technological activity in fields such as geology and agriculture should be

emphasized, and that research into the history and preservation of Canada's

scientific and technological heritage should be drawn upon in school curricu

lum construction (Science Council of Canada, 1984, pp . 40-1). For the Asian

and Pacific nations, however, as for others especially in developing areas of

the world, the harnessing into a complementary relationship of traditional

culture and the scientific and technological forces of development is para

mount in the reformation of science education (Unesco, 1981, p . 6 ; 1983a;

Vente et al., 1981; A P E I D , 1983, p . 16).

In one form or another, each of the three issues identified is central to most

recent proposals and practices associated with the redefinition of science

education, worldwide. Thus , in Thailand a n e w system of six years of primary

school education, followed by three years of lower secondary and three years

of upper secondary, implemented in 1978, is designed to permit a better

accommodation of the twin goals of 'science for all' and the production of

science specialists (Fensham, 1984, pp . 448-50). T h e incorporation of tech

nology in the school curriculum has been the object of legislation in Sweden

(Riis, 1984) and of substantial government funding in England and Wales

(Woolhouse, 1984). A n d a recent African perspective on science curriculum

innovation has argued that 'curricula should . . . be drawn directly from the

life of the community and from the environment. This is an enormous task

which is complicated by the fact that m a n y aspects of traditional African life

have "counter-scientific" undertones' (Urevbu, 1984, p . 223). Each issue is

n o w examined in a little more detail.

Scientists or citizens ?

Thomas K u h n ' s description of science education as 'a relatively dogmatic

initiation into a pre-established problem-solving tradition that the student is

15

David Layton

neither invited nor equipped to evaluate' captures m a n y characteristics of the

version of school science that has been dominant in the past ( K u h n , 1972,

pp . 84-5). Although alienating for the majority, a curriculum constituted

largely of decontextualized, abstract knowledge and sequenced in terms of

criteria derived from the internal logic of the discipline has nevertheless been

instrumental in providing a steady stream of trained specialists for m a n y

countries. It has also been the means by which a select minority has achieved

upward social mobility.

T h e demand n o w is for more ambitious outcomes from science education

and, by implication, a curriculum characterized by greater accessibility, more

obvious relevance to perceived problems and increased harmony with specific

cultural contexts. Trained scientists and engineers are no less in need, but

their contribution can be diminished by lack of a scientifically literate

population.

A dilemma, then, faces science educators today. Neither the science

specialists nor the educated citizenry on their o w n will suffice. Yet h o w do w e

ensure both? Each seems to require a tailor-made curriculum. That which

serves the specialists does not necessarily fit the needs of the majority.

Equally, there is little past evidence to suggest that issue-based or problem-

orientated science teaching, however well it might enable learners to apply

knowledge and skills in specific real-life situations, can also satisfy the

requirements of a liberal education by yielding general and transferable

masteries, independent of any specific context.

It would seem, therefore, that the two outcomes—trained specialists and a

scientifically literate population—are conflicting, rather than confutable, and

pull the curriculum in different directions. Each needs addressing separately.

T h e organizational responses to this, to be acceptable, must satisfy at least two

important conditions. First, the selection of those w h o are to follow the élite,

specialist route should not occur too early. Second, alternative versions of

science education must be provided in a way which does not permit the

specialist m o d e to retain a significantly higher status, and hence stronger

attraction for students, than others.

In discussing ways of constraining the competitive power of the science

curriculum as it has been offered to 'the élite training group', the Australian

science educator, Professor P . J. Fensham, has outlined three measures

(Fensham, 1984, pp . 447-52). T h e first is a policy of containment, whereby

élite or traditional science education is confined to some agreed upper level of

schooling and not allowed to intrude in the curriculum below. T h e education

system of Thailand provides an illustration, the academic science curriculum

being available only after pupils leave lower secondary school. In the

previous six years of primary schooling and three of lower secondary, there is

16


an integrated broad science curriculum which all pupils follow. There is little evidence to suggest that such a policy of containment would either lengthen the period of time needed to undertake a specialized academic education in science or reduce the pool from which the specialist science students come .

T h e second step involves the recognition of academic science as merely one of a number of possible versions of school science which might be offered in formal education. Alternative versions, more appropriate to the aim of 'science for all', might include the history of the subject, the study of its applications or its related technology, its social and cultural impact, or its more exciting recent and contemporary frontiers. F r o m the standpoint of history, there is m u c h evidence to suggest that well-defined and functional versions of science education, on these and other lines, have been constructed and have proved useful for specific social purposes in the past. They can also be found in m a n y informal and out-of-school contexts today. T h e fact of the matter is, however, that a standardized, canonical version of science has become institutionalized in formal education and, as long as this remains the practical currency for purposes of selection and credentials, it will retain a distinct advantage over other versions. T h e prospect of students preferring alternative versions because they embody a richer view of science seems remote w h e n educational and occupational advancement is determined by performance in the academic version.

A third measure which, it is suggested, might contribute to the education of both scientists and citizens is the incorporation of alternative science curricula parallel to the academic version. If, further, one (or more) of these mutants was mandatory for those following the academic course, some enhancement of the standing and educational contribution of the alternative versions might result.

At the end of the day, however, the actual outcomes of organizational and curriculum changes such as these are likely to be strongly influenced by students' (and parents') perceptions of the functions of school science education. Only if issue-based and problem-orientated 'science for all' is perceived as satisfying needs to which students and parents accord a high priority is it likely to compete effectively in the formal school context. B y the same token, the limits of what can be achieved within formal schooling in the direction of 'science for citizens' are exposed and the case for more direct attacks on the functional scientific literacy of adults is strengthened.

17

David Lay ton

Technology education : an innovation whose time has come?

In m a n y countries technology has been only a marginal contributor to general

education until comparatively recently. T h e reasons for this are complex but,

depending on the context, m a y include some of the following considerations.

First, the association of technology education with vocationalism and with

preparation for a specific occupation has encouraged a view of it as

antipathetic to liberal education. In countries such as the United States and

the United K i n g d o m there has been no stronger opposition to technology

education in schools than that from organized labour. Technology in the

curriculum of general education was seen as a means of confining working-

class children to working-class jobs. O n e explanation of the limited success in

establishing agricultural science as a component of general education in m a n y

developing countries runs along similar lines. T h e study of agricultural

science offers little prospect of release from a life of toil on the land, but

appears instead to reinforce the status quo (Lillis and H o g a n , 1983).

A second consideration, certainly in countries with a capitalist economy, is

that technology education, if it were to be developed m u c h beyond a study of

the principles of science applicable to the practice of a trade or industry, might

expose to public scrutiny crucial aspects of technique upon which the

economic success of the industry depended. In some countries, fear about loss

of trade secrets in a competitive industrial situation has undoubtedly ensured

that, in so far as a version of technology penetrated the education system, it

remained remarkably 'pure'.

A third point is that technology has frequently been portrayed in a

subservient and dependent role in relation to science. This view of technology

as merely applied science has been widely promulgated despite the existence of

m u c h empirical evidence which refutes it. Indeed, it might best be regarded as

a myth constructed in the late nineteenth century by scientists for their o w n

purposes, not least in relation to the funding of their research. After all, if

society values the products of technology, and if technology flows from pure

science, then investment by society in the research of pure scientists makes

good sense. Similarly, it would follow from this that the most appropriate

education for a technologist is not the study of technology in schools, but a

strong foundation of knowledge in the pure sciences.

T h e nature of the relationships between science and technology is still the

subject of considerable debate (Barnes and Edge, 1982, pp . 147-54), but a

significant international academic development over the past three decades

has been the emergence of the history and the philosophy of technology as

serious fields of study, with their o w n journals, conferences and other

18


apparatus of scholarship, distinct from the history and philosophy of science,

(Finnigan and Layton, 1984, p . 2). At the professional level, too, there have

been important changes in a n u m b e r of countries, sometimes summarized by

the phrase 'the revolt of the engineers'. A s the Finniston Report in the United

K i n g d o m expressed it, there was a need in the education system to correct the

tendency to view engineering as a subordinate branch of science (Finniston,

1980, p . 25). Engineering, involving activities such as problem-solving,

design and purposeful production of artefacts, was seen as differing signifi

cantly from science. T h e differences were a reflection of the value priorities of

two distinct, though interacting, communities. O n e , whose, sovereign goal was

'knowing'—the community of scientists—emphasized activities such as

abstracting, analysing and understanding. T h e other, whose ultimate goal was

'doing'—the community of engineers/technologists—gave prominence to

creating, designing, synthesizing and making.

In terms such as these, which focus on the distinctive contribution which

technology has to offer, a strong case for its inclusion as a component of

general education can be m a d e , and indeed seems to have been accepted in

m a n y different regions of the world. A revised recommendation concerning

technical and vocational education, adopted by the General Conference of

Unesco in 1974, stated that:

A n initiation to technology and to the world of work should be an essential component of general education without which this education is incomplete. A n understanding of the technological facet of modern culture in both its positive and negative attributes, and an appreciation of work requiring practical skills should thereby be acquired (Unesco, 1974, p. 9).

W h e n , in 1983, the results of a survey conducted in thirty-seven countries

were published, they showed that all the education systems involved had

introduced, or were on the point of introducing or developing, technological

components into general education curricula (Unesco, 1983b).

This impressive consensus, however, conceals both problems and differ

ences. O n e major problem, irrespective of country, is unquestionably the

acute shortage 'of suitably qualified, motivated and informed teachers'

(Unesco, 1983¿>, p . 21). Complex capabilities such as 'practical problem-

solving' and 'creative designing' m a y be teachable; at present they are

under-researched aspects of h u m a n behaviour and opinion varies on the

means of achieving them. W h a t is clear, however, is that few teachers in

schools today are skilled in these fields, and there is little prospect of quick

relief from the supply of n e w teachers. Also, in some contexts, there are

historical and institutional obstacles to progress. Craft/industrial arts teachers

19

David Layton

are trained in practical skills, but often lack scientific knowledge and an

appreciation of the social aspects of technology. O n the other hand, science

teachers are rarely able to apply their knowledge to the solution of real-life

problems, teaching as if in a social vacuum. A teachers' guide for introducing

technology into general education, being prepared by Unesco, clearly has an

important contribution to m a k e to the solution of this critical problem.

Almost as intractable, if not equally so, is the question of material

resources and particularly the nature of the work context for the teaching of

technology in schools. O n e example will suffice. A central component of most

prescriptions for the transformation of 'mere book learning' into 'knowledge

in action' is project work. Apart from the intellectual demands it places on

teachers, this also poses practical problems. T h e calls on resources and the

need for extended periods of working time alone make m u c h project work

incompatible with the normal constraints of classroom life. It does not fit

neatly into the timetabled regime of most schools. T h e incorporation of

technology into general education, then, has implications which go well

beyond 'new content' and ' new teaching methods'. It can entail structural

changes in the organization of the school and in the nature of the work

context.

In developing countries there are often additional problems, some of

which have been identified in the teaching of engineering to university

undergraduates (Bessell, 1982; Goonatilake, 1984). At school level they will

apply with even more force. For example, many Third World students are

handicapped by lack of early exposure to so-called 'educational toys' which

can improve dexterity and help to m a k e familiar m a n y basic engineering

principles. Understandably, students encounter difficulty in engineering

drawing and design in putting on paper a graphic representation of something

they have never seen and whose workings and purpose they do not understand

(Bessell, 1982, p . 213). T h e Graphic Communication Course developed by

Unesco and undergoing testing with students aged 13 to 15 years in eighteen

M e m b e r States addresses this problem (Unesco, 1982).

Even if these and other difficulties could be quickly overcome, there

would still remain a dilemma for the curriculum planner. Is technology to be

an alternative or an addition to science in general education ? If the former,

will it be a genuine alternative, capable of making progressively exacting

intellectual demands on learners, and delivering the specialists needed for a

nation's R & D programme? If the latter, and a separate subject, h o w can

uneconomical overlap in teaching be avoided, especially with physics, and, in

some countries n o w , with biology also ? If merely a science course enhanced

with applications, will it enable learners to achieve those objectives which are

distinctly 'technological' ? For developing countries there is perhaps another

20


dimension to the dilemma, in that a decision is needed about the version of technology education to be incorporated. Should this be 'high technology' (e.g. electronics and control technology) to prevent the gap with developments in industrialized countries from widening, or 'appropriate technology' to minister better to perceived community needs ?

The report of the survey m a d e special reference to differences in the purposes and manifestations of technology education. In one country, the emphasis might be on the involvement of pupils in productive activity in the community, while in another appreciation, and control, of the social impact of technology might predominate. Indeed, within the same country, competing versions of school technology could exist (Layton, 1984, pp . 268-73).

Such differences should not surprise us. W e readily accept that the concepts of science and technology are subject to historical change and that different epochs have different meanings for them (Mayr, 1982, p . 161). This historical relativity of the meaning of the concept is matched by its cultural dependence. T h e English 'science' is not quite the same as the German Wissenschaft, 'technology' does not correspond exactly to Technik, and 'technology education' is not necessarily 'polytechnical education'.

The constituent elements of technological activity are arguably the same wherever w e are. They include the skills of investigation, invention, implementation and validation in relation to a designed product; the knowledge base of understanding about materials, energy and control; and the value dimension—economic, technical, aesthetic and moral ( A P U , 1982). But the mix of these and the priority accorded to each specific element in a technology component in general education manifestly vary according to cultural context. Consideration of this relationship leads directly to the subject of the next section.

Science and technology education in cultural contexts

It is n o w no longer heretical to suggest that science curricula are inescapably

culturally impregnated and value-laden. T h e notion of value-free science

education has become as untenable as value-free science (Ravetz, 1971 ; Factor

and Kooser, 1981). A s for technology education, its inherent association with

purposeful activity locates it unambiguously in the realm of priorities and

preferences.

W h a t follows from this is a set of concerns about the relationship between

science and technology education, on the one hand, and traditional culture, on

the other. At the level of society, there are anxieties about the effect of

imported science and technology education on community values (Vente et

21

David Layton

al., 1981). At the level of the individual, there are problems about the

appropriate starting-points for science education in terms of the learners'

'traditional knowledge'. O n this constructivist perspective, if some children,

and adults, believe that an electric shock will result in blood being taken d o w n

the wires to the electricity company (King, 1983, p . 8) then it is important to

understand what 'theory' underlies their belief w h e n attempting to teach

about electric circuits.

Identification of these, and other, issues does not, however, yield any clear

indication of the extent to which science and technology education should be

adapted to different cultural contexts in the developing world. Adjustments to

goals and objectives; to content, activities and pedagogies; to assessment

procedures; even to the structures and organizations within which learning

takes place are all theoretically possible, though none follow as a matter of

logical entailment. T h e dilemma at the heart of the problem is that cultural

congruence has usually been achieved only at the expense of debasing the

currency. This is the historic curriculum trap, of constructing a curriculum

well matched to clients and contexts, only simultaneously to disadvantage

those w h o follow it because of its specificity and, often, reduced status.

There are perhaps three broad strategies that have been adopted in relation

to this problem. T h e first was the acceptance of a curriculum c o m m o n to all,

irrespective of context. This dominant version, in effect decontextualized,

abstract science, was then adopted, or imposed imperialistically, across a

broad front. Claimed as value-transcendent, it had apparent advantages in

relation to continuity of study across national boundaries, as well as assisting

educational planning within them. However , as w e have seen, one effect of

this policy has been to deny access to science to the majority of learners,

irrespective of country. For this and other reasons, there seems to be a general

movement away from this strategy in both industrialized and developing

countries.

T h e second approach, somewhat prevalent n o w , acknowledges the import

ance of 'indigenous and intuitive knowledge' or 'ethnoscience', and attempts

to understand it. However , more often than not, the purpose of understand

ing is to be better able to supplant it with 'modern science'. Indigenous

knowledge is seen as an obstacle to modernization. Another facet of this

approach is the organization of scientific knowledge around problems and

issues which are meaningful to learners, accepting their definition of what is

problematical in their environment as the organizing principle (Hernandez,

1980). It is perhaps significant that m u c h of this work appears to be easier to

carry out in the non-formal sector, in out-of-school education, than in

schools.

The third, and more radical, strategy adopts the view that what w e call

22


'modern science' is itself a cultural and time-located product of certain

countries in the Northern hemisphere. Given this, the aim of developing

nations should not be to join the 'Science Club' by conforming to its present

characteristics, but, by drawing upon it, to construct an alternative 'modern

science' which assimilates indigenous technical knowledge and is reflective of

local values. T h e strategy, then, envisages interactive and mutually a c c o m m o

dating knowledge systems.

It has to be acknowledged that there are few well-developed examples of

this strategy at work. Its critics assert that it romanticizes the past and accords

to indigenous knowledge an unwarranted potential. At a grass-roots level it

can be regarded mistakenly as anti-scientific, while, as Kenneth King has

pointed out, 'a science popularization that reinterprets and rediscovers the

changing local traditions while sorting and selecting from other technology

traditions is conceptually difficult to grasp' (King, 1984, p . 55). Possibly the

innovatory programme of F U N D A E C , the 'rural university' in Colombia,

offers an indication of both benefits and problems, with its emphasis on a

co-ordinated development of h u m a n resources and of science and technology.

The concept of 'appropriateness' in relation to science and technology is here

interpreted not solely in terms of matching material resources and h u m a n

capabilities. It also involves consideration of the ability to extend the scientific

and technical capabilities of the population.

A simple technology may be quite inappropriate if it leads to stagnation, and a complex one may be appropriate or not, depending on the accompanying educational process and whether it leads to real understanding of, and complete control over, the technology. The rural university was thus beginning to understand appropriateness more and more in the context of the systematic learning process within the population about its own path of development, in terms of which it was already formulating its concepts of education (Arbab et al., 1983).

This brief extract offers a glimpse of a genuinely 'popular' science education

through which 'science might . . . take hold of the people of the Third World ,

and they might take hold of it' (Anderson and Buck , 1980).

Understanding curriculum change

T h e persistence of established practices in the face of inducements to innovate

is well documented in education (Fullan, 1982; Olson, 1982). Certainly,

common-sense managerial approaches involving diffusion from a centre of

innovation, cascades of trainees successively training more trainees, have had

23

David Layton

limited success in transforming classroom realities. A s in the children's game ,

the meaning of the message is often changed at reception points in the chain.

Even w h e n the message is received intact, its implementation is often

frustrated by the exigencies of classroom life. These two considerations, the

need for those involved to achieve a shared meaning of an innovation, and the

necessity for the work context of teaching to accommodate the innovation, are

central to any understanding of curriculum change.

T o consider the work context first : there is m u c h evidence to suggest that

the activity of teachers in their work setting is significantly affected by (a) the

characteristics of the clientele with w h o m they interact (i.e. pupils); (b) the

resources available to them (e.g. time, space, materials, staff-pupil ratio, etc.) ;

and (c) the nature of the accountability and supervision experienced (e.g. from

other teachers, headteachers, inspectors, etc.) (Denscombe, 1980). W h a t

counts as competence on the part of a teacher is not decided in a vacuum. T h e

rigid allocations of space and time within which teaching has to take place in

m a n y schools contribute significantly to the perceptions which teachers have

of the exigencies of their situation. These and other contextual imperatives

dictate familiar teacher priorities such as a concern for control, and 'immedi

acy', in the sense of a localized perception of what is important. T h e urgent

problems that confront a teacher once the classroom door is closed take

precedence over any issues arising from wider perspectives.

T h e persistence of familiar stratagems such as the dictated note and the

didactic lesson are largely explicable in these terms. A specific example might

be the way in which a teacher with a mixed class of adolescent boys and girls

distributes questions to pupils in a science lesson. In m a n y contexts, questions

are directed more frequently to boys than to girls. In so far as this carries a

'hidden curriculum' message to girls that they are not expected to be involved

and to k n o w the answers in science lessons, it is objectionable. However ,

closer analysis shows that the questions are used primarily as a means of

control, to ensure that restless boys are kept in touch with the lesson, to

remind them that the teacher's eye is on them and to terminate unauthorized

activities. T h e nature of the clients—a mixed class of lively boys and more

conforming girls ; the resources available—a large number of pupils in a room

with one teacher ; and the accountability concerns—the necessity not to let the

class get out of hand and disrupt the work of neighbouring colleagues, all

contribute to the way in which the teacher questions his pupils. T o require

this teacher to 'innovate' by directing more questions to girls, even though

this might enhance their confidence to 'do ' science, would be to remove one of

the techniques of control at his disposal. Unless an alternative means of

control is provided (e.g. a more favourable teacher-pupil ratio), it is unlikely

that the innovation will be adopted quickly.

24


At the heart of the problem of change, however, lies the issue of individual

meaning. T o ask someone to innovate, to m a k e some change to their

established practices in the field of science and technology education, is to

invite them to abandon a familiar construction of reality to which they have

attached personal meaning in favour of another which m a y appear threatening

and uncertain. A n innovation cannot be assimilated unless its meaning is

shared (Marris, 1975, p . 121) and perhaps w e have persistently underesti

mated the time and support needed for individuals to come to terms with

innovations.

There is an analogy to be drawn here with the constructivist research on

children's 'alternative frameworks' and the problems they encounter in

moving to a 'scientific view' of natural phenomena. O n this view, innovation

requires individuals to reconstruct their meaning of events; for example, to

perceive science lessons more in terms of the reinforcing of sex stereotypes

than of the control of non-conforming pupils. But the transformation from

'the anxieties of uncertainty' to 'the joys of mastery' in the n e w construction is

not achieved rapidly. T o quote Marris again:

W h e n those who have power to manipulate changes act as if they have only to explain, and when their explanations are not at once accepted, shrug off opposition as ignorance or prejudice, they express a profound contempt for the meaning of lives other than their own. For the reformers have already assimilated these changes to their purposes, and worked out a reformulation which makes sense to them, perhaps through months or years of analysis and debate. If they deny others the chance to do the same, they treat them as puppets dangling by the threads of their own conceptions (Marris, 1975, p. 166).

Interestingly, without consciously adopting a constructivist or phenomeno-

logical viewpoint, m a n y of those engaged in innovation in science and

technology education today have come to adopt procedures which are

conducive to the reconstruction of meaning and the acquisition of shared

perceptions of events. T h e increased participation of community members

and industrialists in planning with science and technology educators; the

informal exchanges in an expanding range of out-of-school activities; the

interactive in-service programmes which involve teachers in curriculum

R & D ; the recognition that the science and technology curriculum should

respect existing culture; and the emphasis on a curriculum which is not

socially divisive are just some of the encouraging signs. In subsequent

chapters accounts of these and related innovations are provided. They

illustrate the important role of R & D in adapting science and technology

education to changing contexts, especially by means of forward-looking

experimental and pilot projets. At the same time they offer evidence that the

25

David Layton

problem of innovation in relation to the endogenous development of science

and technology education is being addressed productively.

References

A D V I S O R Y C O U N C I L O N SCIENTIFIC P O L I C Y . 1961. Annual Report

1960-1961. London, H M S O . A N D E R S O N , M . B . ; B U C K , P . 1980. Scientific Development: The

Development of Science, Science and Development, and the Science of Development. Social Studies of Science, Vol. 10. N o . 2 , pp. 215-30.

A P E I D (Asian Programme of Educational Innovation for Development). 1983. Science for All; Report of a Regional Meeting, Bangkok, 1983. Bangkok, Unesco Regional Office for Education in Asia and the Pacific.

A P U (Assessment of Performance Unit). 1982. Understanding Design and Technology. London, Department of Education and Science.

A R B A B , F . et al. 1983. Fundaec: A n Experience in Rural Development. (Mimeographed: unpublished paper. Cited in King, 1984.)

B A R N E S , B . ; E D G E , D . (eds.). 1982. Science in Context. Milton Keynes, Open University Press.

B E S S E L L , T . 1982. Observations on University Engineering Education in Developing Countries. International Journal of Mechanical Engineering Education, Vol. 10, N o . 3, pp. 211-15.

B H A G A V A N T A M , S. 1979. Improving Science Education. In: Scientists on Development; International Scientific and Technological Co-operation Today and Tomorrow, pp. 87-8. Paris, Unesco, (doc. SC-79 /WS/77 Rev.), 2nd ed., 1980.

C O O L E Y , W . W . 1959. National Welfare and Scientific Education. In: J. S. Roucek (ed.), The Challenge of Science Education, pp. 41-53. N e w York, Philosophical Library.

D E N S C O M B E , M . 1980. The W o r k Context of Teaching: A n Analytical Framework for the Study of Teachers in Classrooms. British Journal of Sociology of Education, Vol. 1, N o . 3, pp. 279-92.

D R I V E R , R . 1983. The Pupil As Scientist? Milton Keynes, Open University Press.

. 1984. Students' Alternative Frameworks and the Learning of Science. Thomond Lecture in Science Education, Limerick.

FACTOR, L . ; K O O S E R , R . 1981. Value Presuppositions in Science Textbooks. A Critical Bibliography. Galesburg, 111., Knox College.

F A U R E , E . et al. 1972. Learning to Be. Paris/London, Unesco/Harrap. F E N S H A M , P . J. 1983. A Research Base for N e w Objectives of Science

Teaching. Science Education, Vol. 67, N o . 1, pp. 3-12. . 1984. A Second Chance for School Systems and N e w Vision for

Population Outside of School. In: Science Education in Asia and the Pacific: Bulletin of the Unesco Regional Office for Education in Asia and the Pacific (Bangkok), N o . 25, June, pp. 437-68.

26


F I N N I G A N , R . ; L A Y T O N , D . 1984. Teaching and Learning in the Third Culture? Leeds, Centre for Studies in Science and Mathematics Education, University of Leeds.

FlNNISTON, M . 1980. Engineering Our Future. Report of the Committee of Inquiry into the Engineering Profession. London, H M S O .

FULLAN, M . 1982. The Meaning of Educational Change. Toronto, Ontario Institute for Studies in Education Press.

G O O N A T I L A K E , P . C . L . 1984. The Significance of Academics' Practical Experience in Engineering for Engineering Education in Developing Countries. International Review of Education, Vol. 30, N o . 1, pp. 85-90.

G O S W A M I , D . C . 1984. 'Science for All'—The Strategies Involved and Problems Encountered in Reaching the Masses—The Indian Experience. In: Science Education in Asia and the Pacific: Bulletin of the Unesco Regional Office for Education in Asia and the Pacific (Bangkok), N o . 25, June, pp. 426-36.

H E R N A N D E Z , D . F . 1980. Biology in Community Education: A Philippine Scenario for Lifelong Education. European Journal of Science Education, Vol. 2 , N o . 3, pp. 217-30.

K I N G , K . 1983. Technology, Education and Employment for Development. Report of a Technical Workshop on Science, Technology and Education Research in East and Central Africa. Nairobi. (Mimeographed, unpublished paper.)

. 1984. Education, Science Policy, Research and Action. A Review Paper. (Mimeographed, unpublished paper.)

K U H N , T . S. 1972. The Function of D o g m a in Scientific Research. In: B . Barnes (ed.), Sociology of Science, pp. 84-5. London, Penguin.

L A Y T O N , D . 1984. Interpreters of Science. London, John Murray/The Association for Science Education.

. (ed.) 1986. Innovations in Science and Technology Education, Vol. 1. Paris, Unesco.

LlLLIS, K . ; H O G A N , D . 1983. Dilemmas of Diversification: Problems Associated with Vocational Education in Developing Countries. Comparative Education, Vol. 19, N o . 1, pp. 89-107.

M A H A L A N O B I S , P . C . 1964. Science Education in Underdeveloped Countries. In: Commonwealth Education Liaison Committee, School Science Teaching. London, H M S O .

M A R R I S , P . 1975. Loss and Change. N e w York, Anchor Press/Double-day.

M A Y R , O . 1982. The Science-Technology Relationship. In: B . Barnes and D . Edge (eds.), Science in Context, pp. 155-63. Milton Keynes, Open University Press.

N A T I O N A L SCIENCE B O A R D COMMISSION. 1983. Educating Americans for the 21st Century. Washington, D . C , National Science Foundation.

N A T I O N A L SCIENCE F O U N D A T I O N . 1982. The 5-Year Outlook on Science and Technology 1981. Washington, D . C , United States Government Printing Office.

O L S O N , J. (ed.) 1982. Innovation in the Science Curriculum. London, Croom Helm.

27

David Layton

RAVETZ, J. R . 1971. Scientific Knowledge and its Social Problems. Oxford, Oxford University Press.

Rus , U . 1984. Technology and Natural Science in School and in Society: Culture, Education and In-service Training. Paper presented at the 12th IPN Symposium on Interest in Science and Technology Education, organized by the Institute for Science Education, Kiel, Federal Republic of Germany, in co-operation with Unesco, 2-6 April 1984.

SCIENCE C O U N C I L O F C A N A D A . 1984. Report 36. Science for Every Student. Ottawa, Ontario, Canadian Government Printing Centre.

Science Education in Asia and the Pacific : Bulletin of the Unesco Regional Office for Education in Asia and the Pacific (Bangkok), N o . 25, June 1984.

S I L B E R M A N , C . E . 1970. Crisis in the Classroom. N e w York, Random House.

UNESCO. 1974. Revised Recommendation concerning Technical and Vocational Education, adopted by the General Conference of Unesco at its eighteenth session, Paris, 19 November 1974.

. 1981. Final Report. International Congress on Science and Technology Education and National Development. Paris, Unesco. (ED-81/Conf.401/ C O L . 10.)

. 1982. Graphic Communications. A Technical Drawing Course for General Education; Background paper. 3rd ed. Paris, Unesco. (Info T V E , 6.)

. 1983a. Science and Technology and National Development. Paris, Unesco.

. 19836. Technology Education as Part of General Education. A Study Based on a Survey Conducted in 37 Countries. Paris, Unesco. (Science and Technology Education Document Series, 4.)

U R E V B U , A . O . 1984. School Science Curriculum and Innovation: A n African Perspective. European Journal of Science Education, Vol. 6, N o . 3, pp. 217-25.

V E N T E , R. E . ; B H A T H A L , R . S.; N A K H O O D A , R . M . (eds.). 1981.

Cultural Heritage Versus Technological Development. Challenges to Education. Singapore, Maruzen Asia (Pte) Ltd.

W O O L H O U S E , J. 1984. The Technical and Vocational Education Initiative. In: D . Layton (ed.), The Alternative Road, pp. 133-47. Leeds, Centre for Studies in Science and Mathematics Education, University of Leeds.

28


Wynne Harlen

Introduction

Compared with science education at other levels, m u c h of the practice at

primary level can be described as recent. Only ten to fifteen years ago science

either would not have featured in the primary school curriculum or would

have been similar in n a m e only to present-day intentions. Moreover, innova

tion is still very m u c h in progress in this area. M a n y different ideas have been

put into practice and from their relative success or failure more ideas have

sprung. Growing recognition of the importance of science at primary and

lower secondary levels has increased the motivation to wrestle with the very

difficult problems which this work presents. Not only does it develop young

children's understanding of the world as they experience it in their daily lives

but it is an essential foundation for later science education. These two

purposes are not incompatible; indeed, they are complementary and it is

essential to keep both in mind when considering children's whole science

education, whether this leads to a science-based career or whether, perforce, it

ends at about the age of 13.

In*the early period of science education (up to the age of 12 or 13),

decisions about the curriculum have to take into account the nature of the

learners, the teachers and their training, the resources available in a school

and the type of school environment. Complex issues have to be faced in all

these areas. Different views about them have led to the variety of approaches

tried, particularly in developed countries in the 1960s and 1970s, and, in the

late 1970s, in other countries also. A s these developments have been reviewed

elsewhere (Thier, 1973; Martin, 1983; Harlen, 1984), this chapter looks

forward, drawing out from experience and from current events the direction

in which further innovation in this field m a y take us.

W e begin by looking at current ideas about the science that is appropriate

at primary and lower secondary levels and then consider the associated issues

of integration within science and integration of science with other subjects ;

content selection and organization ; and continuity from primary to secondary 29

Wynne Harten

levels. Finally, the crucial subjects of teacher training and provision of

equipment and other resources will be considered.

W h a t science is appropriate ?

This question has generally been posed and answered separately for three age

or grade ranges : up to grade 3 ; grades 3 to 5/6; and grades 5/6 and 7. In some

countries, particularly where the language of instruction is different from the

children's h o m e language (as for example in Brazil, Singapore, Indonesia and

parts of India), science is not included before grade 3 since it is considered

necessary to concentrate fully on language development in the first two

grades. This decision m a y well be reconsidered in the future in the light of

growing opinion as to the value of science to children's language development.

U p to the present, however, the question of what science is appropriate does

not arise in these cases.

There are other countries where science is included from the first grade, in

some cases despite language difficulties. Most science programmes for grades

1 and 2 are marked by plenty of activity by the children themselves.

Differences in emphasis can be detected, however. For example, the Nigerian

core curriculum (Nigerian Federal Ministry of Education, 1979) focuses this

early activity on the use of the senses ; the introduction of skills which are

needed for communication in science, such as modelling, drawing and using

new words ; and the development of ability to group, classify and sequence

objects and events. This lays a foundation of skills, both mental and physical,

on which to build later work.

A somewhat different focus can be detected in Bulgarian primary schools,

in which the early work introduces children to basic ideas about such things as

seasonal changes, variety in living things, and the interrelation of m a n and the

environment (Nikolov and Kostova, 1983). A third variation is represented in

infant schools in the United K i n g d o m , where the keyword describing science

activities is exploration. Direct encounter between the children and a wide

range of objects and phenomena in their immediate surroundings is felt to be

important, the emphasis being more upon the process of finding out than on

grasping particular ideas or developing specific physical skills.

The considerations brought to bear in deciding what science is appropriate

for grades 3 to 5/6 (depending upon where the transition to lower secondary

school takes place) are rather different. These turn on a view of the nature of1

science and the characteristics of the learners (discussed in this section),

though the resources available in the schools and the background of the

teachers (considered in later sections) have also to be taken into account.

30


The nature of science : process versus concepts

A major issue in primary school science has been the relative emphasis upon process and concepts. Briefly, the case for the process view of science is that children should develop the mental skills and attitudes constituting a scientific approach in order to be able to investigate their surroundings and solve problems. These abilities, it is argued, enable children to respond to the changing world in which they live, to reason logically and k n o w h o w to seek and use evidence in all areas of their activity, not just in science.

T h e process skills to be developed have been variously described, but are usually taken to include observation, interpretation of observations and of data, inference, prediction, hypothesis, classification, communication, planning investigations (including the consideration of variables) and the combination of these and other process skills required to carry out investigations. T h e associated attitudes {of science rather than to science) are generally taken to include respect for evidence, curiosity, critical reflection and sensitivity to living things and the environment. W h e n processes and attitudes are considered the main focus, the role of specific content is generally played d o w n ; as long as the children approach a topic scientifically, it does not matter what the topic is, so the argument goes.

Underpinning the emphasis on process skills and attitudes there is an inductive view of learning science. It is assumed that by gathering information by observation, and interpreting what is found, patterns and generalizations will emerge. Provided predictions from them survive testing, these generalizations add to children's conceptual knowledge of the world around them.

T h e alternative school of thought regards the teaching of scientific concepts as fundamental to the children's understanding of their world. T h e concepts concerned are generally included under headings such as properties of materials, forces, motion, energy and living things. In order to acquire these concepts, it is regarded as important for children to build up a coherent body of knowledge through encounters with specific content. Although these encounters involve them in using some process skills, the main focus is upon the product in terms of knowledge and concepts rather than the process of achieving this product. T h e underlying approach to learning is deductive; children learn the generalizations which they then use in understanding things around them. Primary school science programmes based on this view showed considerable similarities to secondary school science programmes and were to be found in m a n y countries (such as Singapore and Indonesia) as a first response to science being included in the national syllabus before the wave of curriculum development began a few years later.

31

Wynne Harten

Interaction of process and concepts in learning

In the past five years there have been signs of a welcome shift away from this

process-concept polarization towards approaches which acknowledge the

essential interrelation of process skills and concepts in learning (Young,

1983). This movement represents the convergence of thinking and experience

from two distinct starting-points.

The first of these is our knowledge of the way in which children's

understanding develops. T h e learning of facts and generalizations by rote has

been shown to be ineffective in building understanding. Children m a y

memorize the elements of the water cycle, for example, but their ability to

recall them does not necessarily imply understanding of related events in their

environment which have a considerable impact on their daily lives. T h e

following statement has a wider relevance than its author suggested : 'Those of

us w h o are concerned about education development in Africa and indeed in

the third world countries in general, recognize rote learning as our greatest

setback in educational transactions' (Kamara, 1983, p . 176).

Recent classroom research (Osborne and Freyberg, 1985) shows that

children often maintain their own ideas despite having been 'taught' ones

which are scientifically more 'correct'. T h e conclusion from this work, which

has been replicated in m a n y countries of the world (Driver and Erickson,

1983 ; Gilbert and Watts, 1983 ; Tiberghien, 1984), is that children bring to

their science lessons their o w n ideas about the natural world. W h e n faced with

a new situation, they try to understand it in terms of these existing ideas.

Although m a n y of children's o w n ideas are at variance with scientifi

cally accepted ones, teachers ignore the former at their peril. It is no use

teaching other ideas as if children will automatically abandon their o w n . The

best way to change children's 'non-scientific' ideas, it is suggested, is to start

from the ideas they already have and to help them to test out both their o w n

and others' ideas, using evidence to decide which ideas are most useful for

making sense of things around them. So the use of process skills is

fundamental to the development of more acceptable and useful concepts.

T h e second line of thinking stems from consideration of the development

and deployment of process skills. Contrary to the assumption of the early

process-based programmes (e.g. American Association for the Advancement

of Sciences, Science—A Process Approach, 1974), it is n o w recognized that the

content of an activity influences children's use of process skills. A n y activity

must have some content and the children's initial ideas about this content

influence the way in which they think about it and explore it.

Such influence can be readily seen in the different observations which

children m a k e of the same event. Consider, for example, a group of 8-year-

32


olds w h o were asked by their teacher to watch carefully as two stones were put

into two identical jars each half-full of water and to say what differences they

noticed. T h e teacher hoped they would immediately mention the difference in

water levels in the two jars. Instead the children talked about the different

sizes of bubbles rising, the change in colour of the stones, and h o w , after

immersion, each looked to be different in size from before. W h a t was most

obvious to the teacher, and was there to be observed by the children, was not

mentioned. T h e difference in water levels was a significant observation to the

teacher, sharpened by her expectation, but the same expectation was not

focusing the children's observations.

With a little reflection, it is not difficult to appreciate that skills involved

in planning investigations are similarly influenced by existing ideas ; variables

are more likely to be recognized as ones to be controlled if the children have

some idea that they m a y have an effect; planning h o w to measure a quantity,

such as rate of swinging, depends on an understanding of what it means. T h e

identification of patterns is also influenced by existing ideas, for children will

tend to look for those they expect to find (as, indeed, do adults).

Evidently there is a danger that children's use of process skills will be

limited by their existing ideas, so inhibiting the collection of evidence which

will challenge these ideas. Indeed, this cycle of events is probably responsible

for the widespread existence a m o n g adults of beliefs which are contrary to

scientific principles. Ideas such as 'placing a lid on a pan of boiling water

makes it boil at a lower temperature', 'electricity flows better through wires if

they are straightened out', and 'metal objects that feel cold to the touch are at

a lower temperature than their surroundings' are commonly found a m o n g

adults (including teachers) and often go unchallenged even though each would

take only brief testing to disprove. Children's ideas can similarly remain

unchallenged unless an effort is m a d e to ensure that their process skills are

developed and freed from the grip of preconceived ideas. So children have to

be encouraged to observe m a n y different things about the objects and events

they study, to consider a wide range of variables, not just the ones they first

think will be important, to search systematically for patterns and relationships

and not merely those that their existing ideas or past experience lead them to

expect. In other words children have to be helped to approach problems

inductively as well as deductively.

T h e interdependence of process skills and concepts in learning means that

the development of each has to be pursued simultaneously in children's

science experiences. Activities designed to encourage process skill develop

ment in isolation from concept development (using 'empty' content such as

black boxes or artificial problems) are as non-productive of useful learning as

teaching scientific principles and generalizations by rote. Recognition of this

33

Wynne Harten

is evident in the m o r e recently p roduced curriculum materials in m a n y

countries. E x a m p l e s of children being involved in creating a n d developing

ideas through the use of process skills can b e found in, for e x a m p l e , the

elementary school science materials of the Philippines (Elementary School

Science, 1976) , the Nigerian core curriculum for primary science, a n d the

materials of the primary school science project of the Curr iculum D e v e l o p

m e n t Institute of Singapore (1981-84) .

T h e project w h i c h has gone furthest towards starting from children's ideas is

the N e w Zealand Learning in Science (Primary) Project. This recent initiative

is n o w producing classroom guides after a period of research into the p rob lems

of teaching a n d learning science in primary school classes. T h e need w a s

identified for:

(a) designing and carrying out activities in the classroom which better reflect children's ideas and questions ;

(b) allowing children to raise their o w n questions, and to plan and conduct their o w n investigations; and

(c) ensuring that children are neither left to their o w n devices to form their o w n conclusions, nor forced to accept 'scientific' conclusions that are often framed in technical language and cannot be related to the child's personal experiences within or outside the classroom (Learning in Science Project (Primary), 1984, p . 3).

If translated into practice, these intentions w o u l d give children the oppor tunity to use a n d test their o w n ideas, while at the s a m e time developing process skills. Also they w o u l d have access to ideas other than their o w n — f r o m the teacher, f rom other pupils, f rom b o o k s and f rom sources such as visitors to the school or field centres, m u s e u m s and places of w o r k .

T h e w o r d 'if is introduced here advisedly. W h i l e it m a y be possible to identify w h a t is theoretically w o r t h while as the direction of progress in primary school science education, it is important not to lose sight of the e n o r m o u s g a p be tween aspirations a n d practice that already exists. A timely reminder w a s a survey in 1979 of over 5 0 0 professional science educators in Brazil. This s h o w e d widespread agreement a m o n g general teachers a n d science teachers at all levels f rom school to university about the relative importance of a ims for the first grade school (children aged 7 to 14) . All placed 'to develop the ability to think logically a n d critically' at the top of the priority list, followed b y 'to understand the scientific m e t h o d ' . W h i l e it is encouraging to find such agreement about worthwhile a ims , it is of concern to find that in the s a m e country

Data from various sources indicate that what goes on in schools is essentially bookish and theoretical, aiming for memorization of infor-

34


mation, although this information is often inaccurate and isolated from the student's experience. . . . Activities seeking to develop observation skills, curiosity, independence in thinking and responsibility, in accordance with the accepted objectives, are very rare (Krasilchik, 1983, p. 28).

Science for the lower secondary school grades

In recognition of the fact that the ways of thinking of children aged 11 to 13

have m u c h in c o m m o n with primary school pupils, most lower secondary

school science programmes propose active learning, through handling m a

terials and carrying out investigations. It is very difficult, however, to

generalize about the extent to which process skills, attitudes and concepts are

interrelated or even represented in the pupils' experience in practice. With

very few exceptions (some areas of countries with decentralized systems), the

science content of the lower secondary school curriculum is more closely

specified than at the primary level and organized so as to relate to major

science concepts rather than, as at the earlier level, to topics which might cut

across a range of major concept areas.

It seems wholly appropriate that the early secondary school years should

stand as a bridge between the primary school work and the more formal study

of science in the later secondary school years. However , there is widespread

uncertainty as to h o w this bridge should be constructed. There is still room

for innovation in this area, but it is difficult to carry out mainly because lower

secondary school years are sandwiched between two phases of schooling in

which science education contrasts in content, organization, resources and

even, apparently, in aims and objectives. T h e upper secondary school

curriculum exerts a stronger pull in its direction than does that of primary

school. Despite what m a y be on paper, most lower secondary school science is

aligned more with secondary than with primary school work. T h e pupils m a y

thus be expected to deal with abstractions and to understand concepts which

are unrelated to their everyday experience while the opportunities to use

process skills m a y be infrequent.

T h e findings of research into children's learning (Brook et al., 1984;

Osborne and Freyberg, 1985) show that children's grasp of basic scientific

concepts in the lower secondary school years is poor. It leads to the suggestion

that more time is needed for pupils of this age to test out ideas, m u c h in the

way advocated at the top of the primary school, using process skills. T o give

this time would require a reduction, in the amount of content included and an

identification of the criteria which might be used in deciding the most

important concepts to include.

35

Wynne Haden

Integration : with other subjects and within science

M a n y of the aims of science teaching at primary and lower secondary school

level are c o m m o n to other subjects. This is particularly true of process skills

and attitudes ; indeed in these cases it is m o r e difficult to define what is unique

to science than to identify areas of overlap with other subjects. For this reason

it can be argued that science need not be separated from other subjects but can

be taught as part of wide-ranging topic w o r k , which could at the same time

cover mathematics, social and environmental studies and craft work , for

example.

In several countries attempts have been m a d e to integrate science with

other subjects, but beyond grade 3 they have not m e t with m u c h success. For

example, in Singapore a well-worked-out p r o g r a m m e for the integration of

science, mathematics and social studies was eventually abandoned in favour of

separate programmes in these subjects. M o r e success is found if the degree of

integration is less ambitious. For instance, science m a y be effectively taught as

part of an environmental studies p r o g r a m m e , as in Sri L a n k a (Peiris, 1983).

Further discussion of an environmental studies approach can be found in

Alles and Chiba (1977).

T h e experience in England and Wales m a y well point to a reason for the

difficulty of integration of subjects. Science was introduced there as part of

topic w o r k rather than being initially separate and then amalgamated. Recent

surveys and reports, however, have s h o w n that topic w o r k tends to cater for

those goals which science has in c o m m o n with other subjects and neglects

those which are specifically scientific—in particular process skills relating to

the testing of hypotheses by experiment and attitudes of respect for evidence

and critical reflection on methods of investigation (Department of Education

and Science, 1981). A recent curriculum document concerned with science in

primary schools included the following statement :

It is sometimes thought that all or most of the science experience children need can be included in or extracted from a whole range of activities which have other and different objectives. Unfortunately it is seldom that such an approach leads to good science education. The reasons lie in the fragmentation of the subject ; the labelling of parts of an activity as science when they may not be scientific at all ; and the use of unsuitable science topics because they seem to fit the general topic (Department of Education and Science, 1984, p. 5).

This does not deny that science can be taught successfully within an integrated

approach but, as this document points out, it requires 'outstanding knowl

edge, expertise and insight from the teacher'. Primary schools are being urged

to plan a coherent science p r o g r a m m e for their children, but whether or not

36


this will result in a greater separation of science as a distinct subject remains to

be seen.

Integration with other subjects m a y well be more successful in the early

grades, partly because the specifically scientific objectives are not as appro

priate at this age in any case. In Bulgarian schools, for example, science in the

first three grades is an integral part of a 'Homeland study' (Nikolov and

Kostova, 1983, p . 90).

Turning n o w to integration within science, it seems almost universal that

science is preserved as a whole, not treated as separate science subjects, at

least up to the age of 11. F r o m then onwards some countries (Bulgaria, for

example) begin to teach biology, physics and chemistry, but the majority have

integrated science programmes in the lower secondary school years.

There is more , however, to science teaching in the 1980s than biology,

physics and chemistry. Pressures are mounting to include aspects of technol

ogy, as well as environmental studies, within the scope of school science and

to ensure that topics relating to food production, health and hygiene are

introduced at an early stage. There is also a m o v e to ensure that science has

relevance for the individual in terms of developing personal attributes such as

self-awareness, self-reliance and respect for one's o w n body. Allied attitudes

of co-operation and respect for others are also included as aims of primary

school science. Examples of all of these can be found in programmes of

developed and developing countries—France (Host, 1983), Sri Lanka (Peiris,

1983), Nigeria (Nigerian Federal Ministry of Education, 1979). -

The extent to which the more socially relevant topics are being introduced

in science programmes for primary and lower secondary school'pupils can be

judged by examining the content of various published materials. O f course the

written materials m a y not be a true guide to the experience of the pupils.

Teachers m a y in practice go beyond what is written and discuss with children

the social impact of technology or of natural phenomena in the immediate

neighbourhood ; alternatively, they m a y skip quickly over parts of the syllabus

which seem to be 'just chat' and not 'real science'. So it is only possible to

judge intentions from the written word. But what is revealed by looking at

written materials is that there is as yet no threat to the pre-eminence of core

science topics from the introduction of socially relevant topics. C o m m o n to all

the materials and syllabuses for the primary grades are topics such as: the

senses; properties of air; classification of materials by properties; water;

plants and plant growth ; the characteristics and variety of animals ; sound ;

heat and temperature ; weather ; food ; the h u m a n body ; simple electricity and

magnetism; environmental pollution. Perhaps only the last of these might not

have been included in a secondary school science syllabus twenty years ago.

However, additional topics included in some, but not all, recent primary

37

Wynne Harten

school science materials are : farming ; conservation ; disease prevention ; soil ;

rocks and minerals; hygiene.

It is very difficult to detect signs of any widespread integration of

technology into the primary school science curriculum as yet, though this m a y

be a major area of development in the coming years. T h e Science Education

Programme for Africa, for example, emphasizes the early introduction of

technology-related activities such as w o o d w o r k , metalwork, motor mechanics

and basic electronics. However , few primary school teachers are technologi

cally oriented and a considerable amount of curriculum development is

required to provide the support that teachers will need to implement these

ideas (Alabi, 1980).

At the lower secondary school level, the main innovation additional to

some mentioned for the primary grades is the introduction of the role and

impact of science and scientists in society. In the n e w materials being

produced for the Nigerian junior secondary schools this is achieved through

the orientation of the content. T h e pupil is put at the centre of the study and

topics such as ' Y o u as a living thing', ' Y o u and your h o m e ' , and 'Saving your

energy' lead to discussion of reasons for and ways of controlling the

environment (Alabi et al., 1983).

Organization of content

T h e way in which activities are organized in a programme is not arbitrary and

has a profound influence on the learning that accumulates and therefore on

what goals can be achieved. In recent programmes there is evidence of careful

thought having been given to this matter with little sign of the somewhat

haphazard series of unrelated activities which characterized some early

primary school science materials. This trend is perhaps associated with the

recognition, mentioned earlier, that both the content of activities and the w a y

in which children interact with the content are important in building process

skills, basic concepts and attitudes. T h e notion of building up structures of

knowledge has been giVen particular attention in the development of pre-

secondary school science in France:

it is important to help children to organize their knowledge and build up structures which show the relationship between concepts and their hierarchy; only in this way can knowledge be reused to solve new problems and serve to integrate the abundant flow of information provided by the mass media. Because of the very nature of science, structures are not established once and for all but need to be rethought at each different level (Host, 1983, p. 33).

38


Several ways of providing a structure in the arrangement of content are represented in recent developments. A 'concentric' organization has been adopted in the Nigerian and Singaporean schemes : in both there are major topics which are visited and'taken further each year. A rather more elaborate version is the Sri Lankan 'spiral curriculum'. This arrangement was chosen so that it is possible to teach mixed grade classes, as is necessary in small rural schools, more easily than by using a concentric organization where the boundaries of material for each grade are more marked. T h e spiral curriculum and its eleven themes are represented in Figure 1.

11

Grade 1

Grade 2

Grade 3

Grade 4

Grade 5

mes

r homes and their inhabitants.

at w e eat and drink

at w e wear. ,

p for our work-

are different but similar too.

ngs around us.

r school and ¡ts neighbourhood.

3ple w h o help us

w w e travel and communicate,

r earth and its surroundings,

ngs w e see and hear.

FIG. 1. The spiral curriculum—a conceptual representation. (From Peiris, 1983.)

A third form of organization is the arrangement of material in 'modules',

i.e. units of work which pupils can study in groups or individually. Different

individuals or groups m a y be engaged on different modules at the same time

according to their interest or their rate of working. There is a sequence in the

modules from one year to the next, but flexibility in the order in which the

modules within any one year are studied. T h e structure of the material in a

module varies from one programme to another. For example, the modules of

39

Wynne Haden

the programme Exploring, currently being published in the United Kingdom

(Brown and Young , 1982) consist of a set of pupils' work cards each with a

teacher's card giving practical details, discussion points, hints for assessing

progress, extension work and links with other subjects. T h e modular system

being tried experimentally on a small scale in Indonesia is m u c h more

structured, constituting a self-instructional programme with worksheets and

tests. 'The extent to which each student masters the objectives is measured by

the formative test accompanying each module. If a student fails to achieve the

75 per cent level of mastery, he is required to do remedial work' (Dahar, 1983,

p . 80).

Continuity from primary to lower secondary school science education

In m a n y countries transfer from the primary to the secondary school phase of

education is marked by discontinuity and lack of communication. In science it

is quite often assumed that the children entering lower secondary schools have

had no previous science teaching. For example: 'This two-year course is

intended for secondary school children and no previous scientific knowledge

is assumed' (Mauritius Integrated Science Project, 1977); 'the teacher should

assume little [knowledge]' (Nigerian Federal Ministry of Education, 1981).

M a n y such examples could be cited, all implying that there is considerable

uncertainty about the extent and effectiveness of science in primary schools

even though a national syllabus and curriculum materials might exist.

There is a serious problem here and three points can be made about it.

First, it is clearly wasteful of scarce school time to go over ground already

covered. T o do so will inevitably reduce the interest and motivation of those

w h o have previously experienced the activity. Second, the message conveyed

to primary schools is that it does not really matter whether they include

science in the curriculum, because it will be ignored anyway. This does not

encourage them to make the effort to start—and undoubtedly it does take an

effort (see Elstgeest, 1983). Third, although it m a y be claimed that no

previous science is assumed, in fact analysis of the lower secondary school

activities generally shows that some basic science concepts and experience of

exploring the environment are needed to understand the often abstract ideas

which are presented. Thus , children w h o have not had any previous

experience of science activities are likely to be at a disadvantage. T h e present

situation is therefore detrimental to both primary and secondary school

science.

It is a matter of some urgency that serious thought be given to improving

40


the continuity between science in the primary and secondary school phases.

As a first step, it m a y be useful to consider what it is most appropriate for

children to learn at each phase, using criteria which take into account the

characteristics of the learner and the need for continuity. A s an example, the

following criteria were used in defining the basic concepts appropriate at the

primary level in Indonesia:

The concepts should be :

Within the grasp of children at their level of cognitive development, i.e. ones which children can construct for themselves.

Ones which are found in action in, and help the understanding of, everyday phenomena, i.e. ones which children can apply and strengthen through studying their immediate environment.

Accessible to children through the use of process skills.

Suited to the development of process skills.

Attainable through simple investigation, using equipment and materials available to the school.

Ones which form a basis for further science education. Harlen, 1983)

T h e training of teachers

It is easy, with hindsight, to fault the curriculum development projects of the

1970s for their whole-hearted attention to the preparation of classroom

materials and simultaneous neglect of the thorough training of teachers. It is

true that the projects usually did run some in-service courses for teachers, but

often these were too short and tried to do too m u c h in the time available ; they

could achieve little more than communication of the existence of the materials

whereas what was required was 're-education' (Rudduck and Kelly, 1976).

More elaborate plans were m a d e to provide the sustained support needed by

teachers trying out new teaching methods and materials ; examples include the

system of mobile teacher trainers in the northern states of Nigeria in 1976 and

other ways of multiplying the efforts of a central team tried in Israel and the

Philippines (described in Harlen, 1979). But where these systems of support

are temporary, have a rapid turnover of personnel or depend upon uncertain

communication with a regional centre, their effect diminishes. Without

continued support, teachers regress to more familiar and secure ways of

teaching. T h e problems of providing this support are often most severe in the

case of schools in rural areas where in fact the need is greatest 'because the

children in schools in those poor areas need school for their total development'

(Krasilchik, 1983, p . 29).

41

Wynne Harten

It was in recognition of the importance of the role of the teacher, not only

in using n e w materials effectively but more importantly in developing

children's ability to think logically and critically, that the Science Education

P r o g r a m m e for Africa ( S E P A ) produced two handbooks, one for teachers and

one for primary-school teacher trainers (Kamara , 1983). In Africa, as in m a n y

countries throughout the world, teachers are frequently trained by tutors w h o

have not themselves any first-hand experience of teaching science in primary

schools. T h u s an imaginative in-service course for trainers was initiated by

S E P A . T h e teacher trainers were involved in teaching in primary schools,

observing and analysing lessons, designing and trying out activities for

children and applying in practice the methods and organization of teaching

which they wished their o w n students to adopt.

Programmes such as that of S E P A are designed to convey their message as

m u c h through the w a y in which they are run as through the content. This

strategy is also advocated in the workshop approach to teacher training

(Unesco, 1985) and represents a m o v e away from lecturing and merely passing

on information in teacher training. It corresponds to the m o v e away from

didactic teaching and rote learning in the classroom. T h e innovation is as

important for training teachers in developed countries as in developing

countries where primary-school teachers often have a m u c h curtailed formal

education.

T h e essential characteristics of a workshop approach are :

The participants are active, both mentally and physically. They are involved in experiencing the kind of learning that is being advocated for children, in reflecting, in analysing, in creating.

The messages that are conveyed are not transmitted by direct telling but through active involvement.

Through handling materials for themselves the confidence is gained that is necessary for providing similar experiences for children.

Understanding is achieved by each participant from within rather than from outside ; it comes through reflecting on direct experiences and on new ideas which may be presented for discussion.

The product is not knowledge of a set of specific activities for children to do but an appreciation of new kinds of learning and some of the many ways of bringing this about in children (Unesco, 1985, pp. 8-9).

In order to design more effective teacher education programmes , considera

tion has to be given to the content as well as to the method of training. T h e

content has been the subject of a systematic inquiry carried out in Lebanon as

part of the development of primary school science in the Arab states. T h e

project has identified the skills required by primary-school teachers in order

to teach science as distinct from the skills of teaching in general. This is a first

42


of several steps, to be followed by the construction of appropriate materials and strategies for developing the identified skills (Za'Rour, 1983).

In Israel a team working on the problem of training primary-school teachers to teach science has identified deficiencies in the teachers' o w n thinking as the main problem. They have therefore produced units of work for student teachers and teachers on in-service courses which consist of assignments involving simple experiments, answering questions, drawing conclusions, etc. In working through these activities, it is claimed, they achieve intellectual success in science probably for the first time, are no longer afraid of it and are committed to working with children in this way (Shadmi, 1983).

Resources for teaching

T h e importance of direct experience of objects and materials in learning science has been widely agreed for the past decade. Consideration of children's ways of learning leads to the conclusion that the younger the child the more important it is for action and thought to be combined in exploring and working towards an understanding of the world around. A s children become more able to carry out actions in thought it still remains essential that the things they are asked to think and reason about have reality for them. Thus first-hand experience and observation are essential right through the period of primary and lower secondary education. It follows that materials and equipment have to be available in the classroom and laboratory.

T h e functions of materials and equipment are to stimulate and help exploration. In consequence there should be a match between the children's development and the equipment. Elaborate and expensive equipment is worthless if it intervenes obtrusively between a child and his direct exploration of real things. T h u s for young children there is a positive virtue in materials being 'homely' objects that they recognize and are used to using, rather than unfamiliar laboratory equipment (Lowe, 1983). Jam jars and cans m a y therefore be preferred to beakers and flasks; empty containers of all kinds from the h o m e can serve, sometimes with a little modification, for m a n y of the standard vessels that manufacturers supply. M a n y materials which are the subject of investigation themselves or can be used in the construction of equipment by the children can be obtained from junk, offcuts, manufacturers' waste, etc.

However, although m u c h material can be obtained free, effort and time are required to collect and store it. Furthermore, there are items that cannot be obtained in this way . A survey of teachers in Guyana led to the preparation

43

Wynne Harlen

of extensive lists of equipment useful at various levels in the primary school,

the items being grouped as those obtainable from homes and requiring or not

requiring modification, and those which probably had to be purchased by the

school or supplied by the ministry (Dalgety, 1983). It is noticeable that the list

of items which had to be purchased was longer for the older classes.

At the lower secondary school level the requirement for more specialized

equipment becomes greater. Heat sources are required and so are containers

which will withstand heat and associated equipment to ensure safety. There is

a need for other equipment such as accurate balances, microscopes, magnets,

batteries, etc., which cannot satisfactorily be improvised. Running costs are

not necessarily high but if they fall below a certain level the quality of the

pupils' experience will inevitably be impaired.

Although finance is not a problem unique to science education, it is an

important factor. It would be a pitiful waste if the efforts recently put into

curriculum development and teacher training were to be frustrated by lack of

materials in the schools. It is hoped that in the coming years politicians and

administrators will do what they can to m a k e available the tools teachers need

to apply their skill to the art and craft of teaching.

In conclusion

Perhaps the most encouraging change over the past decade is in the attitude of science educators to pre-secondary school science. Primary and lower secondary school science is being taken more seriously. In this the developed countries have lagged behind the developing countries, where the education in these years m a y be all that a large proportion of children experience and science of some kind has been seen as an important part of it. However , it is widely recognized, in countries at all levels of development, that primary school science has a crucial role to play in helping children to participate responsibly in, and begin to understand, the increasingly complex and technological world into which they are born.

It is in the primary school years that attitudes and ideas are formed which have a crucial influence on the way in which science and technology will be regarded in later life. If science is not taught, or taught poorly, at the primary level, children will still develop ideas about the world around them and attitudes to science, but not ones which help them to become scientifically literate and able to take their part in a society which uses science responsibly and effectively.

The problems of teaching science well in the primary and lower secondary years are difficult and have by no means been solved, even in the most affluent

44


societies. However , signs that progress can be m a d e are evident in the greater

amount of attention being given to the nature of early science learning and

teaching by researchers and science educators. T h e problems of science

education in this area are at last being tackled in a scientific manner. But

science in primary schools is still at the early stages of innovation ; too m u c h

should not be expected too soon.

References

A F R I C A N P R I M A R Y S C I E N C E P R O G R A M . 1973. Inks and Papers. In: P . E .

Richmond (ed), New Trends in Integrated Science Teaching, Vol. 2, pp. 178-87. Paris, Unesco.

A L A B I , R . 1980. Teaching Technology in Primary Schools. Contribution of the Science Education Programme for Africa prepared for the Meeting of Experts on the Incorporation of Science and Technology in the Primary School Curriculum, 23-27 June 1980.

ALABI, R. ; A S U N , P. ; M A Y , S. B. ; N D U , F. O . C. ; N D U , L. O . 1983.

Integrated Science for Junior Secondary Schools. Lagos, Longman Nigeria.

A L L E S , J. ; CHIBA, A . 1977. Environmental Education at the Pre-school and Primary Level. In : Trends in Environmental Education pp. 81-100. Paris, Unesco.

A M E R I C A N ASSOCIATION F O R T H E A D V A N C E M E N T O F SCIENCE. 1974.

Science—A Process Approach. Washington, D . C . , Ginn & Co. B R O O K , A . ; BRIGGS, H . ; B E L L , B . ; D R I V E R , R . 1984. Aspects of

Secondary Students' Understanding of Heat: Full Report. Report of the Children's Learning in Science Project. Leeds, Centre for Studies in Science and Mathematics Education, University of Leeds.

B R O W N , C . ; Y O U N G , B . L . 1982. Exploring Primary Science. A Teachers' Handbook. Cambridge, Cambridge University Press.

C U R R I C U L U M D E V E L O P M E N T INSTITUTE O F SINGAPORE. 1981-84. Pri

mary Science. Pupils' textbooks, workbooks and teacher's guides, grades 3-6.

D A H A R , R . W . 1983. The Indonesian Development School Project in Science. In: W . Harlen (ed.), New Trends in Primary School Science Education, pp. 78-86. Paris, Unesco.

DALGETY, F . 1983. Equipment for Primary School Science. In: W . Harlen (ed.), New Trends in Primary School Science Education, pp. 133-47. Paris, Unesco.

D E P A R T M E N T O F E D U C A T I O N A N D S C I E N C E . 1981. Science in Schools. Age

11: Report No. 1. London, H M S O . . 1984. Science in Primary Schools. A discussion paper produced by

the H . M . I . Science Committee. London, H M S O . D R I V E R , R . ; E R I C K S O N , G . 1983. Theories-in-Action : Some Theoretical

and Empirical Issues in the Study of Students' Conceptual Frameworks in Science. Studies in Science Education, Vol. 10, pp. 37-60.

45

Wynne Harten

E L E M E N T A R Y S C H O O L S C I E N C E (PHILIPPINES). 1976. Pupil's Guides

(grades 3-6) and Teacher's Guides (grades 1-6). University of the Philippines System, Science Education Center.

E L S T G E E S T , J. 1983. Making a Start; Making an Effort. In: W . Harlen (ed.), New Trends in Primary School Science Education, pp. 100-10. Paris, Unesco.

GILBERT, J. K . ; W A T T S , D . M . 1983. Concepts, Misconceptions and Alternative Conceptions : Changing Perspectives in Science Education. Studies in Science Education, Vol. 10, pp. 61-98.

H A R L E N , W . 1979. Towards the Implementation of Science at the. Primary Level. In: J. Reay (ed.), New Trends in Integrated Science Teaching. Vol. 5, pp. 59-67. Paris, Unesco.

. 1983. Basic Concepts and the Primary/secondary Science Interface.

European Journal of Science Education, Vol. 5, N o . 1, pp. 25-34. . 1984. Science Education: Primary School Programmes. In: T .

Husen and T . N . Postlethwaite (eds.), The International Encyclopedia of Education. Oxford, Pergamon.

. (ed.). 1983. New Trends in Primary School Science Education. Paris, Unesco.

H O S T , V . 1983. Science in Primary Schools in France. In: W . Harlen (ed.). New Trends in Primary School Science Education, pp. 30-7. Paris, Unesco.

K A M A R A , A . 1983. The Training of Science Teacher Educators in Africa. In: W . Harlen (ed.), New Trends in Primary School Science Education, pp. 175-84. Paris, Unesco.

K R A S I L C H I K , M . 1983. The Teaching of Science in Brazilian Primary Schools. In: W . Harlen (ed.), New Trends in Primary School Science Education, pp. 24-9. Paris, Unesco.

L E A R N I N G IN S C I E N C E P R O J E C T ( P R I M A R Y ) . 1984. Making Sense of Our

World: An Interactive Teaching Approach. Hamilton (New Zealand), Science Education Research Unit, University of Waikato. (Working Paper, N o . 122.)

L O W E , N . K . (ed.). 1983. New Trends in School Science Equipment. Paris, Unesco.

M A R T I N , M - D . 1983. Recent Trends in the Nature of Curriculum Programmes and Materials. In: W . Harlen (ed.), New Trends in Primary School Science Education, pp. 55-67. Paris, Unesco.

M A U R I T I U S I N T E G R A T E D S C I E N C E P R O J E C T . 1977. Teacher's Guide. M a u

ritius Institute of Education. (Experimental edition.) N I G E R I A N F E D E R A L M I N I S T R Y O F E D U C A T I O N . 1979. Core Curriculum for

Primary Science. Lagos, Federal Ministry of Education. . 1981. Core Curriculum for Integrated Science: Junior Secondary

Schools. Lagos, Federal Ministry of Education.

N I K O L O V , T . ; K O S T O V A , Z . 1983. Natural Science in Bulgarian Primary Schools. In: W . Harlen (ed.), New Trends in Primary School Science Education, pp. 87-93. Paris, Unesco.

O S B O R N E , R . ; F R E Y B E R G , P . 1985. Children's Science. London, Heine-mann Educational.

PEIRIS, K . 1983. Building Ladders to the M o o n : Primary School Science

46


in Sri Lanka. In: W . Harlen (ed.), New Trends in Primary School Science Education, pp. 68-77. Paris, Unesco.

R U D D U C K , J.; K E L L Y , P . J. 1976. The Dissemination of Curriculum Development. Windsor, National Foundation for Educational Research. (European Trend Reports on Educational Research.)

SHADMI, Y . 1983. Training Primary School Teachers to Teach Science. Paper presented at the Bat Sheva Seminar on Pre-service and In-service Education of Science Teachers, Rehovot and Jerusalem, 3-13 January 1983.

T H I E R , H . D . 1973. Content and Approaches of Integrated Science Programs at the Primary and Secondary School Levels. In: P . E . Richmond (ed.), New Trends in Integrated Science Teaching, Vol. 2 , pp. 53-69. Paris, Unesco.

T I B E R G H I E N , A . 1984. Critical Review on the Research Aimed at Elucidating Students' Understanding of Temperature and Heat (10-16 Years of Age), Electric Circuits (8-20) and Light (10-16). In: Research in Physics Education: Proceedings of the First International Workshop, pp. 55-136. Paris, Editions du Centre National de la Recherche Scientifique.

UNESCO. 1985. The Training of Primary Science Educators: A Workshop Approach. Paris, Unesco. (Science and Technology Document Series, 13.)

Y O U N G , B . L . 1983. The Selection of Processes, Context and Concepts and their Relation to Methods of Teaching. In: W . Harlen (ed.), New Trends in Primary School Science Education, pp. 7-16. Paris, Unesco.

Z A ' R O U R , G . I. 1983. Defining the Skills of Primary School Science Teaching. In: W . Harlen (ed.), New Trends in Primary School Science Education, pp. 167-74. Paris, Unesco.

47


David Wheeler

Introduction

This does not seem to be a good m o m e n t to review or recommend innovation in the teaching of mathematics. Innovation tends to be costly in material and human terms, and in many countries there is less willingness than thirty, twenty or even ten years ago, for governments to give the money for it or for individuals to give their time for it. T h e air of excitement and adventure that permeates at least the first two volumes of New Trends in Mathematics Teaching (Unesco, 1966, 1970) would be difficult to generate n o w . Over the past few decades the experiences of many countries have taught that the school curriculum is not as easy to change as one might expect, and that mathematics teachers do not change their ways as readily as one might wish.

The message should not have been unexpected. A n acquaintance with the history of mathematics education in the developed countries would have shown that reform is often difficult to achieve (e.g. N C T M , 1970 ; H o w s o n et al., 1981; H o w s o n , 1982). Too many innovations of the recent past ignored the available evidence and made splendid but simplistic predictions about the effects of reform. (Perhaps they had to shout in order to be heard; one has some sympathy for would-be innovators.) W h e n the predictions of improvement failed, as they mostly did, extreme disillusionment set in. It will remain until enough people have forgotten the past and are ready to set off optimistically again.

O f course, to put it this way is to attend only to the dramatic aspect of a complex situation. The simple picture must be modified in several respects. The attempted reforms, even those that are acknowledged to have failed, have left some positive residue (e.g. N A C O M E , 1975). A few countries, mainly through their acceptance of the responsibility to sustain reform over a long period, have secured substantial changes. A n d perhaps most importantly, changes have come to mathematics teaching from other sources, m a n y of them changes which no one had sought.

49

David Wheeler

Indeed, it appears that unintended changes, arising from shifts in social goals and values, and from n e w knowledge and technologies, often s w a m p the educational changes that people want to bring about. Metaphorically, in education the forces of the unconscious often seem to dominate the conscious will. O n e of the problems facing educators is—to pursue the metaphor—the problem of consciousness-raising, of becoming conscious of the overlooked factors that act on education. Without a more inclusive awareness of the total system of which mathematics teaching is just a small part, educators will frequently be taken by surprise and educational innovation will be restricted to the local and temporary.

In what follows I have chosen a small number of themes that point to certain movements in the field of mathematics teaching at the present time. S o m e are mainly 'internal', generated by a concern for educational improvement, others 'external', bringing changes that m a y or m a y not be welcome. But first, a more general remark.

Mathematics teaching

N o one writing about the teaching of mathematics can be satisfied with the overall situation. In m a n y countries it suffers from disabling shortages of teachers, buildings, books, materials and support services. In the more favoured countries, where there are no shortages of facilities to speak of, it offers most students a dull and stereotyped curriculum, weak in practical value and intellectual worth. The less successful students often learn to dislike mathematics, and the more successful students fail to gain a real understanding of what mathematics is all about.

That said, it must be acknowledged that mathematics is n o w taught to a larger proportion of the secondary (high) school age-group in virtually every country than a generation ago. Evidence about poor achievement must be interpreted with this fact kept in mind. History clearly shows that mathematics has never been taught very successfully, even in the days w h e n a secondary school education was provided only for an élite. Impressions of 'falling standards' are largely illusions created by the comparison of unlike situations. Moreover, there is no evidence, that I a m aware of, to show that the teaching of mathematics in any society is essentially less effective than the teaching of anything else.

Countries, through the voices of their politicians, officials, employers and community leaders, often lay unreasonable demands on teachers of mathematics. T h e people w h o m a k e criticisms and propose reforms often seem to have little idea of the restrictions that education systems, schools and classrooms

50


place on teachers, even where the teachers are dedicated, talented and knowledgeable. N o one can deny that education systems and the people within them must serve their societies and meet their society's needs as well as they can. But the educational process is not defined by merely stating its goals, even where there is no disagreement about what these goals should be. Teachers must not only k n o w what actions to take that will help their students in the direction of society's goals, but they must be free to take them, unhindered by unnecessary demands and supported by appropriate tools and professional advice. T h e Cockcroft Report (1982), the result of a detailed inquiry in the United K i n g d o m , found that while m u c h was unsatisfactory about the teaching of mathematics, public criticism was often ill-judged and uninformed while recommendations for reform were often simplistic and impractical. T h e report asserted unequivocally: 'Mathematics is a difficult subject both to teach and to learn.' T h e statement is worth keeping in mind.

Mathematics for all

S o m e countries have n o w had 100 years of compulsory primary school education and 40 or so years of compulsory secondary school education—time enough, one would think, to have solved the major economic, administrative and pedagogical problems of providing a solid educational foundation for all their citizens. Without denying the advances that have been m a d e , one must take note of some dissatisfactions with the achievements of this policy. There is still substantial illiteracy and 'innumeracy' in countries with a m o n g the most generous educational provision. Is this due to bad management, or are the ideals of the reformers w h o fought for a decent education for all impossible to attain ? T h e effects of mass secondary school education in the rich countries are significant for poor countries w h o must decide priorities in the allocation of their scarce material resources. Should they go this route? Can they avoid the mistakes?

'Mathematics for all' was the title chosen for the sessions of the International Commission for Mathematics Instruction at the 1983 International Mathematical Union ( I M U ) Congress in W a r s a w , and for several successive annual meetings of the Commission internationale pour l'étude et l'amélioration de l'enseignement des mathématiques, indicating a n e w level of concern a m o n g mathematics educators. T h e reason appears to be that certain basic errors in the implementation of mass secondary school education are only n o w beginning to emerge clearly. T h e fundamental error, as one might expect, is that mass education just extended to everyone the same kind of

51

David Wheeler

mathematical instruction that educators knew and which had formerly been

offered only to some. There was little re-examination of overall educational

and social goals, little modification of the mathematics curriculum (though

some students received less of it than others), and no reconsideration of the

role that mathematics might play in the life of the individual and of society.

This shortsightedness has had unhappy consequences, especially for those

students unable to find the jobs that they thought their society was promising

them.

Rethinking the position of mathematics in general education m a y come

easier in those countries n o w embarking, or yet to embark, on a programme of

mass education, particularly where their circumstances facilitate a break with

the traditions of the colonial past. Gerdes (1985) proposes an 'emancipatory

programme' of mathematics: by 'problemizing reality' it makes clear the

relevance of mathematics to people's personal and social goals, and by

emphasizing the history and culture of the society, it shows that mathematics

is not exclusively the prerogative of white societies. D'Ambrosio (1985)

conceptualizes 'ethnomathematics' as the mathematics of workers, craftsmen,

tradesmen and technicians and all the 'no account' mathematics which people

have invented and used but which is never assimilated into the academic core.

B y taking this mathematics seriously, and studying its development in a

historical and social context, and by putting academic mathematics back into

its social and historical context too, educators can find a better basis for

curriculum decisions.

The Cockcroft Report (1982) studied the 'mathematical needs of adult life'

in the United Kingdom and listed : (a) to read numbers and count ; (b) to tell

the time; (c) to pay for purchases and to give change; (d) to understand

weights and measures; (e) to understand timetables, simple graphs, charts,

and carry out necessary calculations connected with these ; (f) confidence that

one can do these things. H o w little this seems, even though it is not managed

very well ! Clearly it is not sufficient by itself to justify the duration or the

status of the usual general mathematics curriculum. O f course, even if, say,

only 20 per cent of the population will ever use any more mathematics than

this w h e n they are adults, no one can k n o w , w h e n they are in school, w h o

might belong to that 20 per cent. O n e must conclude that although the list

indicates a criterion that school mathematics ought to satisfy (in the United

Kingdom, at least), such a list cannot serve as the basis for a curriculum for

general mathematics education.

But neither can an adaptation of 'elementary academic pure mathematics'

(Steinbring, 1984; D'Ambrosio , 1985), which assumes that selected activities

of the pure mathematician should be mimicked by the student learning

mathematics—so that, for example, the precise definition of concepts and the

52


mastery of proof are given greater prominence than the extension of

concept-ideas through a variety of experiences and the exploratory activities

that develop n e w mathematical knowledge. T h e introduction of set-theoretic

concepts into school mathematics is perhaps the most striking example of the

foolishness of such mimicry.

Mathematics for all must take account not only of 'mathematics for what

purposes?' but also of 'what mathematics is accessible to novices?'—or,

better, 'what experiences are mathematizable by novices?' T h e latter question

gives a different orientation to the construction of a general mathematics

curriculum since the emphasis is on what the learners can already do that will

enable them to climb their w a y to mathematics rather than h o w mathematics

m a y be brought d o w n to the learners. Examples of this approach can be found

in many sources (e.g. Banwell et al., 1972; Gattegno, 1974), but it requires

too radical a change in widely held views about children's abilities and about

mathematics to be acceptable, or even conceivable, to most of those w h o have

the responsibility for planning national curricula.

Problem-solving

Recommendation I : Problem solving must be the focus of school mathematics in the 1980s (NCTM, 1980, p. 2).

A n account of current trends must include mention of the National Council of

Teachers of Mathematics' ( N C T M ) endorsement of problem-solving as a

central ingredient of school mathematics (which m a y be usefully compared

with the Cockcroft Report's endorsement of 'mathematical investigations').

The effect of the N C T M pronouncement has naturally been greatest in North

America, where it has been followed by a surge of books, textbooks,

curriculum modifications, in-service courses and research. T h e 'noise' is

substantial, but already, not half-way through the decade, the signs are that

the impetus will not last through it. This is a pity, for the recommendation has

merit and is dying for reasons unrelated to its quality as a proposal (illustrating

once again that good intentions are not enough in educational reform).

In the 1940s the distinguished mathematician George Polya turned his

attention to secondary school education and proposed that mathematical

problem-solving should be m a d e an essential ingredient of the school

curriculum. Examining his o w n mathematical experience, and reviving a

forgotten notion of 'heuristic' (a systematic approach to finding problem

solutions), he taught teachers, supervised graduate students and wrote books

(1945, 1954, 1962). Well received and respected though they were, his ideas

53

David Wheeler

gained little general currency as proposals for classroom action. But with the

decline of the ' new math' movement , followed by the perceived aridity of the

'back to basics' movement which succeeded it, the climate of the late 1970s

favoured the conception of a curriculum which was more traditional than the

' new math' and more challenging than 'basics'. Another strand in the

argument was provided by educators (typified by those involved in the

Unified Science and Mathematics in Elementary Schools project) w h o felt that

school mathematics should address itself to 'real life' situations and demon

strate its applicability to the world that students live in. 'Problem-solving', in

the sense of the N C T M recommendation, became a composite term, covering

'standard' (i.e. existing in the traditional curriculum) and 'non-standard'

problems, 'mathematical' and 'real' problems.

This is proving too broad a front on which to advance with all teachers of

mathematics. It is also in another sense not sufficient: the proposal has

nothing to say about the mathematical content of the curriculum, so the

suggested reform seems little more than cosmetic. There is no acknowledge

ment that a thoroughgoing problem-solving approach to mathematics in the

classroom m a y require and m a y generate mathematics not normally encoun

tered in the secondary school curriculum. In spite of these reservations, there

has been valuable spin-off from the work of some educators on this theme

(e.g. Burton, n .d . ; Schoenfeld, 1979), and the educational importance of

problem-solving as a m e d i u m for learning mathematics has been reaffirmed

(Halmos, 1980).

The difficulty of determining what is required for good problem-solving is

analogous to the difficulty of determining what is required for good teaching.

Not only m a y problem-solvers (and teachers) develop certain styles, but being

good at problem-solving (and teaching) involves different constellations of

behaviours in different circumstances. Research specially directed to finding

ways to instruct students in problem-solving skills has not yielded m u c h yet.

But knowledge about what is involved in problem-solving has been added to.

For example, the requirements of problem-solving cannot be reduced to

mathematical knowledge, know-hows and skills. 'Management skills' are also

required so that the would-be solver can organize and sustain an attack,

abandon false trails and search intelligently for alternative tracks (Schoenfeld,

1983); commitment and courage are also required since problem-solving is a

risk-taking activity (Wertime, 1979). Traditional classrooms have not usually

shown students h o w to deal with either these metacognitive or affective

demands—or even acknowledged that they might exist.

A n advantage of problem-solving as both an educational goal and an

educational means is that it diminishes the teacher's role as 'instructor' or

knowledge-giver and increases the teacher's role as 'adviser'. Just to believe

54


that students can solve problems credits them with the ability to do m o r e than

anyone has taught them h o w to do .

Calculators and computers1

A child should not be forced to do by hand anything that can be done better and more easily with a pocket calculator (Moise, 1984, p. 37).

I try to show how the computer presence can bring children into a more humanistic as well as a more humane relationship with mathematics (Papert, 1980, p. 39).

Calculators and computers are in schools—some schools in s o m e countries—because they are in stores, workshops, offices, laboratories and h o m e s . Calculators have become so cheap that students are buying and using t h e m ; computers have become such a visible presence in society that it is believed that an ability to use them will be required for m a n y jobs. Schools have not introduced these tools because of their educational value but because they could not keep them out. M a n y teachers at all levels still resist the incorporation of work with calculators into the mathematics curriculum. Computers have not been resisted so strongly, though not m a n y mathematics teachers feel competent to teach mathematics with them (those that do are in some cases diverted into the teaching of computer science).

O n e of the claims of technology is that it enables people to do what was formerly impossible, or to do more easily what was formerly difficult. Both calculators and computers have amply substantiated this claim in mathematics; it is not yet clear that they will meet the claim to the same extent in mathematics education. There the problem m a y appear to be that the technology does not add capability but replaces it. W h a t arithmetic will teachers teach w h e n all the computation that forms the core of the elementary school mathematics curriculum is performed by calculators? W h a t algebra and calculus will teachers teach w h e n a computer takes over graphing, the simplification of algebraic expressions, the differentiation and integration of functions ?

In a w a y these are naive questions, but they reflect the naivety of any education system w h e n confronted with a development it has not sought. Taken by surprise by the speed of events, educators and administrators have not been able to prepare their responses to a large environmental shift. There is therefore no clear direction at this time to the adaptive changes within

1. The issues in this section are the subject of a later chapter (pp. 117-36) where they are dealt with more extensively.—Ed.

55

David Wheeler

mathematics classrooms, no consensus as to policy, and little general awareness of the pedagogical influence (and the influence on pedagogy) of machines.

Pocket calculators pose the easier challenge. It is impossible to believe that they can have a harmful effect on mathematics teaching even in situations where their full potential is neglected. Since calculators, unlike people, calculate efficiently but unintentionally, anyone w h o uses one must k n o w just as m u c h about the reasons for performing a calculation, the operations that must be activated, and the reasonableness of the answer, as a person calculating 'by hand' or 'in the head'. T h e ability to estimate in advance the likely size of an answer requires at least as good a grasp of 'number facts' as do conventional algorithms. A n d the calculator is an ideal tool for generating sequences and patterns of numbers whose investigation can lead to deeper understanding of numerical relationships (Leapfrogs, 1977; N C T M , 1979).

A computer in the classroom can play the parts of'tutor', 'tutee' and 'tool', to use the terminology suggested by Taylor (1980). In the role of tutor, the computer, controlled by specially prepared software, instructs the student in some skill or knowledge, usually interacting with the student according to the student's responses to prepared questions and cues. A s 'tutee' the computer is programmed by the student, using one of the various programming languages, to do something that the student wishes done, e.g. a graph drawn, a sequence generated, or the value of a complex expression calculated. As a tool the computer becomes a part of the classroom, like the chalkboard, available to be used by teacher or students for any suitable purpose.

T he power of today's microcomputers has implications for the practice of mathematics teaching that 'are so extensive that it is difficult to present a balanced appraisal without seeming to exaggerate' (Fletcher, 1983). T h e computer has such a potentially radical impact on the classroom environment that, used unthinkingly and carelessly, it could set mathematics teaching back 100 years. O n the other hand, used intelligently, the computer could allow students to learn more mathematics more easily. Difficult concepts such as variable, function, limit, convergence, continuity, randomness, recursion, can be concretized and subsequently explored in different and illuminating ways. Better still, the capability of the computer could be imaginatively exploited to introduce quite n e w possibilities into the mathematics curriculum.

T w o examples of such an enlargement of 'pedagogical space' m a y be mentioned. (Other examples are given elsewhere in this volume.) 'Turtle geometry', devised by Seymour Papert (1980), uses the computer in its 'tutee' role. The student programs the computer, using the language Logo, to produce graphic patterns, designs and geometrical pictures on the display screen. With a small number of primitive c o m m a n d s , and a very simple

56


g r a m m a r , the student can construct procedures to implement increasingly

complex intentions. T h e system invites the student to enter and explore a

'microworld' of geometry. A very different situation is presented by 'Visible

and Tangible M a t h ' , devised by Caleb Gattegno (1984), which uses the

computer in its tutoring m o d e to teach the student numeration and the

addition and subtraction of counting numbers . Here the power of the

computer is used not only to generate 'practice' examples but to present

images that can be internalized in order to m a k e sense of the conventions of

arithmetic. (The analysis of the task also has implications for the philosophy

of the foundations of mathematics.)

T h e undeniable glamour and excitement of the computer as an educational

resource should not m a k e educators forget the hard questions. Will it tend to

liberate or enslave h u m a n learning? It will certainly tend to increase the

disparities of opportunity between rich and poor people, and rich and poor

countries. N o one yet k n o w s whether its use will substantially affect styles of

h u m a n thinking or, if so, in what direction. T h e eventual social, political and

ethical dimensions of its influence can only be guessed. But the option not to

have invented computers is n o longer available.

Research in mathematics education

Researchers are supposed to provide the basic and applied science from which to derive techniques for diagnosing and solving the problems of practice. Practitioners are supposed to furnish researchers with problems for study and with tests of the utility of research results (Schön, 1983, p. 26).

Research in mathematics education has been increasingly moving out into the classroom. . . . It would be better, however, if teachers were working more closely with researchers in formulating their problems and interpreting their findings and not simply in helping them to gather data (Kilpatrick, 1981, p. 27).

T h e separation of researchers from practitioners, and of theory from practice,

is c o m m o n to most professional activity in m a n y societies. T h e structure of

academic institutions, which distinguish 'pure' and 'applied' science, and

institutionalized differential career opportunities, reinforce the separation. In

education the gap is particularly wide and distressing. This is not so m u c h

because teachers do not want technical help, nor because researchers would

not be able to supply it, but because each group is e m b e d d e d in a distinct

situation with its o w n goals, responsibilities and rewards, none of which relate

to communication between the two groups. Researchers are not recognized by

the extent to which their w o r k proves useful to teachers, nor are teachers

57

David Wheeler

recognized by the extent to which they are informed about and use the latest

research. T h e system of separation, meant to be rational and efficient, does

not work.

A n opportunity exists for educators in developing countries to devise a

better system, though it will be enormously difficult to avoid imitating the

current model. Aware of the unsatisfactory nature of the relation between

theory and practice in education, some educators are n o w proposing the

greater involvement of teachers in research. T h e idea of teacher-as-researcher

is an important development that could improve the relevance and quality of

research as well as the quality of teaching. T h e systemic shift, however, will

not be easy to achieve.

In the last few years there has been a considerable increase in the amount

of research specifically focused on mathematics education. Noteworthy is the

formation in France of twenty-five Instituts de Recherche sur l'Enseignement

des Mathématiques ( I R E M ) ; in the Federal Republic of Germany of the

Institut für Didaktik der Mathematik; in the United Kingdom of two Shell

Centres for Mathematical Education ; in the United States of several concen

trations of researchers; and similar developments elsewhere, including a

vigorous centre in Papua N e w Guinea. T h e International Group for the

Psychology of Mathematics Education has been active since 1976. T h e m o v e

to more specialized research has paralleled a m o v e away from the general

behavioural theories and techniques that formerly dominated educational

research. T h e impact of Piaget's work was one of the factors bringing about

this change, though the whole story is more complicated than this. N o w there

m a y seem to be an absence of wide-ranging theories that could provide a

framework for specific research efforts. T h e newly formed International

Group for the Theory of Mathematics Education (Steiner, 1984) indicates a

n e w concern.

F r o m this surge of research activity1 w e m a y select a few themes. T h e early

development of arithmetical understanding by children has attracted con

siderable and ongoing research attention (e.g. Carpenter et al., 1982), no

doubt because it is at this stage that the foundations of children's mathemat

ical understanding are laid d o w n . T h e errors that students make in school

have also been studied extensively (e.g. Hart, 1984) on the grounds that

mistakes provide important evidence about misconceptions and misunder

standings. These two research areas are structured by the subject-matter: the

learning of mathematics is seen as a specific task likely to yield characteristic

phenomena.

1. A useful source book is the Review of Research in Mathematical Education prepared for the Cockcroft Committee in the United Kingdom ( R R M E , 1983).

58


T h e traditional areas with which research in mathematics education has been concerned involve broad constructs such as general and specific mental abilities, attitudes, and general learning theory. Abilities, attitudes and learning are still researched, but m a n y of the underlying assumptions have been abandoned. Learning, for example, is n o w studied more as a function of the task to be learned than as the application of very general learning techniques to a particular task. 'Information processing', which has achieved some success in providing a theoretical framework for research in problem-solving, suggests that the w a y a task is mastered depends m o r e on the task and on the limitations of all h u m a n processing than on the characteristics of the particular person facing the task (Simon, 1981).

T h e n e w focus on mathematics has m a d e the subject of language important, particularly within the triadic relationship of teacher, student and subject. This relationship is the particular object of study of a n u m b e r of French researchers (e.g. Balacheff, 1984; Brousseau, 1984). Their work m a y be taken as typifying a shift of the centre of gravity of mathematics education research from the psychological to the epistemological, from the experimental to the reflective. T h e shift could go too far, taking research even further away from teachers' everyday concerns, but the hope is that since the focus of the research is located in the classroom, the researcher and the teacher will find themselves sharing each other's viewpoints.

The myth of the neutrality of mathematics

Mathematics itself may be ethically neutral, mathematics education is not (Pottage, 1983, p. xviii).

The most neglected existence theorem in mathematics is the existence of people (Hammer, 1964, p. 514).

T h e way any subject is taught is influenced by the educational and social goals of the society in which it is taught, the institutional structure that is responsible for implementing these goals, and the c o m m o n l y held beliefs, particularly of teachers and administrators, about the subject. Most m e m b e r s of any society learn most of what they k n o w about a subject from the w a y it is taught to them unless, in their adult lives, they use it or practise it frequently in their work or study it for their personal pleasure. For m a n y people in a society, then, the 'subject itself is inextricably connected to the 'subject as taught'. T o an extent the two m a y be identified, even by teachers, especially in those countries .where teachers have not studied the subject m u c h beyond

59

David Wheeler

the level to which they have to teach it. They not only 'teach as they were taught', but see what they teach as the proper elements of the subject.

In this situation it is not surprising if a gap exists between the view of mathematics held by the schoolteacher and the view of mathematics held by the expert practitioner: a distinction emerges between 'mathematics' and 'school mathematics', the latter being a simplified, or distorted, or even mistaken, approximation to the former. A c o m m o n proposal to deal with this unwelcome gap is to demand 'better qualified' teachers, teachers w h o ' know more mathematics'. This cry can even be heard in the richer countries ( N C E E , 1983).

Further education will of course tend to narrow the gap, but w e m a y note that it is not impossible for the more advanced instruction given to would-be teachers to have the same characteristics as the elementary instruction they have already received.

A n analysis of the difference between mathematics and school mathematics is given by Freudenthal (1973). H e shows that school mathematics (in the pejorative sense w e are using temporarily) is the natural consequence of two propositions: that mathematics is ready-made, and that learning must be active. F rom these two assumptions follows the traditional way of teaching by 'presenting' a small piece of ready-made mathematics and giving students 'exercises' to stimulate their activity. Such exercises are not genuine problems, even elementary ones, and play no role in mathematics; they are artefacts of a particular pedagogical style. But a substantial diet of such exercises suggests to the student that they must represent genuine mathematical activity, and hence arise the c o m m o n misconceptions about the nature of mathematics. Freudenthal proposes instead a pedagogical style which 'acts out' mathematics which is already k n o w n (although not by the student) so that the students experience mathematics as something they are able to participate in re-creating. (See Freudenthal, 1978, 1983, for m a n y exemplifications.)

Mathematics is particularly difficult for novices to understand—that is, to understand in the sense of knowing something about its nature and the purposes to which it can be put. People k n o w , though mainly by hearsay, that mathematics has contributed powerfully to technological advances, and is said to be 'important' for society ; but their personal experience of it m a y only be of routine numerical calculation or of struggling with the mysteries of algebra or the formal proof of a geometrical theorem. W h a t is mathematics 'for'? Experience of school mathematics tends to make people say things like 'mathematics is logical', 'it's a set of rules for finding answers', 'it's about proving things true', 'it's got nothing to do with opinions', T like it because you k n o w when you're right or wrong' , and so on. Mathematics in these terms appears to lack any content but to have an immediately recognizable style : it is

60


impersonal and irrefutable, permanent and authoritative; it demands obedience.

The negative consequences of this perception of mathematics by learners are strong. At best it delays or inhibits their awareness that they are capable of thinking mathematically for themselves, that they can 'mathematize'. At worst it repels and alienates them altogether, convinces them that they are unable to learn, that they are irrevocably ' d u m b ' . T h e phenomenon of 'math anxiety' (Tobias and Weissbrod, 1980) is not n e w , though the term is. T h e feminist movement in the West , particularly concerned with 'math anxiety' because relatively more w o m e n than m e n appear to suffer from it, and ideologically convinced that this difference has nothing to do with differences in mental ability, has turned an old question around. Instead of asking, ' W h a t is it about girls that leads to fewer girls than boys succeeding at mathematics?', it is as legitimate to ask, ' W h a t is it about the teaching of mathematics that leads to fewer girls succeeding than boys ?' Once this kind of question has been entertained, m a n y similar ones follow.

In all countries, mathematics education does m u c h more (and m u c h less) than attempt to put each citizen in touch with an acultural h u m a n achievement called mathematics. Mathematics instruction is inevitably shaped by both the ideals and the pragmatic values of its cultural and social milieu. It m a y be associated with the selection and maintenance of a social élite (as in e.g. France; see Revuz, 1978) or with the liberation of post-colonial peoples (as in e.g. Mozambique ; see Gerdes, 1985). It m a y reinforce its society's disadvantageous treatment of minority groups. A s part of a society's 'socializing' programme, mathematics education m a y support the environmentalist position on the origins of h u m a n ability (Krutetskii, 1976); it can favour a certain style of analytical thought ; or it can be used as a means of imposing mental discipline (Easley, 1979). F r o m such a socio-political point of view even the inscription over the entrance to Plato's Academy ('Let no one ignorant of geometry enter here') takes on the character of an exclusionary device. Mathematics education, indeed, is not ethically neutral.

Although mathematics teaching m a y convey a false picture of mathematics (just as science teaching m a y convey a false picture of science ; see e.g. Nadeau and Désautels, 1984), mathematics itself is not above cultural, social and ethical considerations. In recent years a number of studies have applied a sociological approach to classical mathematics (e.g. Bloor, 1976; Wilder, 1981; Restivo, 1983). Fuller and more perceptive histories of the large mathematical achievements of India, China and Arabia are beginning to be available. Anthropological studies are n o w less given to patronizing the mathematical achievements of, for example, African tribes (Cole et al., 1971) or American Indian craftsmen (Ascher and Ascher, 1981). It seems certain

61

David Wheeler

that this trend to humanize mathematics and place it in its various historical

and cultural contexts will continue. Whether and when all this work will alter

the public perception of mathematics remains to be seen.

Unlike the other subjects of the school curriculum, mathematics has no

obvious external referent. W h a t is its content, its 'stuff? W h a t is it 'about'?

The absence of anything concrete to point to has at various times and in all

cultures associated mathematics with magic and the supernatural. (European

mathematics has suppressed memories of John Dee's hermeticism, Newton's

demonology and Cantor's brushes with insanity.) T h e emergence in h u m a n

kind of mathematics as a way of 'patterning' a mysterious world associates it

with the emergence of language as a way of 'reading' and 'sharing' the world ;

indeed, there is a strong presumption that some mathematical awarenesses

must precede the development of any language. T h e intimate association of

mathematics and language embeds mathematics very firmly indeed in culture

and in the myth-making and symbol-making activities of all societies. The

enormous elaboration by, successively, the Babylonians, Egyptians, Greeks,

Hindus, Arabs and Europeans has produced the cross-cultural 'international'

mathematics that everyone knows, dominating all others by its power and

complexity, but by no mean exhausting the possibilities of a mathematical

interpretation of our local or global worlds.

The neutrality and impersonality of mathematics are a myth, a story that

people have told to account for the strange quality of self-evidence and

irrefutability that they sense in it when they engage with it. But this has

become confused with the idea that mathematics as w e k n o w it today—the

massive edifice of classical pure mathematics—is universal and beyond

question (and, for most people, beyond reach). This is a fiction—and a wicked

myth indeed.

Conclusion

I have presented a brief anthology of ideas about the teaching of mathematics

that I perceive as being 'in the air'. Perhaps they will suggest questions that

educators can ask about the present and future of mathematics teaching in

their o w n countries. The limits of m y experience have biased m y account and

I k n o w I have not reflected the achievements or difficulties of most

mathematics teachers. Some readers will find all that I have said over-

familiar ; others may not. In either case no one will suppose that the last word

on mathematics teaching has been said. People everywhere teach mathematics

to students, usually in the best way they k n o w in their particular circum

stances, but everywhere finding that m u c h of the process is mysterious.

62


Teaching is a very complex activity, influenced by m a n y things. It is more

successful in practice than in any prescription that anyone has yet managed to

formulate. In the last resort, mathematics teaching is a system of actions that

induce people to,learn mathematics ; getting the actions right is what matters.

D o all our theories and experiments, our institutions and training methods,

our curricula, technologies, value systems, inducements and so on , actually

help more teachers to get their actions right ? W e have to hope so, but it is very

difficult to be sure.

References

ASCHER, M . ; ASCHER, R . 1981. Code of the Quipu: A Study in Media, Mathematics and Culture. A n n Arbor, Mich., University of Michigan Press.

BALACHEFF, N . 1984. French Research Activities in Didactics of Mathematics: Some Key Words and Related References. In: H . G . Steiner (ed.), Theory of Mathematics Education. Universität Bielefeld, Institut für Didaktik der Mathematik. (Occasional paper, 54.)

B A N W E L L , C . S. ; S A U N D E R S , K . D . ; T A H T A , D . G . 1972. Starting Points.

London, Oxford University Press. B L O O R , D . 1976. Knowledge and Social Imagery. London, Routledge &

Kegan Paul. B R O U S S E A U , G . 1984. The Crucial Role of the Didactical Contract in the

Analysis and Construction of Situations in Teaching and Learning Mathematics. In: H . G . Steiner (ed.), Theory of Mathematics Education. Universität Bielefeld, Institut für Didaktik der Mathematik. (Occasional paper, 54.)

B U R T O N , L . (n.d.). The Skills and Procedures of Mathematical Problem Solving. Report of a project at the Polytechnic of the South Bank, London.

C A R P E N T E R , T . P . ; M O S E R , J. M . ; R O M B E R G , T . A . (eds.). 1982.

Addition and Subtraction: A Cognitive Perspective. Hillsdale, N . J . , Lawrence Erlbaum.

COCKCROFT R E P O R T . 1982. Mathematics Counts. Report of the Committee of Inquiry into the Teaching of Mathematics, under the chairmanship of Dr W . H . Cockcroft. London, H M S O .

C O L E , M . ; G A Y , J.; G L I C K , J. A . ; S H A R P , D . W . 1971. The Cultural

Context of Learning and Thinking. London, Methuen. D ' A M B R O S I O , U . 1985. Ethnomathematics and its Place in the History

and Pedagogy of Mathematics. For the Learning of Mathematics, Vol. 5, N o . 1, February, pp. 44-8.

E A S L E Y , J. A . 1979. A Portrayal of Traditional Teachers of Mathematics in American Schools. Critical Reviews in Mathematics Education, Materialen and Studien der IDM. Vol. 9, pp. 4-108. Universität Bielefeld, Institut für Didaktik der Mathematik.

63

David Wheeler

F L E T C H E R , T . J. 1983. Microcomputers and Mathematics in Schools: A Discussion Paper. London, Department of Education and Science.

F R E U D E N T H A L , H . 1973. Mathematics as an Educational Task. Dordrecht, Reidel.

. 1978. Weeding and Sowing: A Preface to a Science of Mathematics Education. Dordrecht, Reidel.

. 1983. Didactical Phenomenology of Mathematical Structures. Dordrecht, Reidel.

G A T T E G N O , C . 1974. The Commonsense of Teaching Mathematics. N e w York, Educational Explorers.

. 1984. Curriculum and Epistemology. For the Learning of Mathematics, Vol. 4 , N o . 2, pp. 33-8.

G E R D E S , P . 1985. Conditions and Strategies for Emancipatory Mathematics Education in Undeveloped Countries. For the Learning of Mathematics, Vol. 5, N o . 1, February, pp. 15-20.

H A L M O S , P . R . 1980. The Heart of Mathematics. American Mathematical Monthly, Vol. 87, pp. 519-24.

H A M M E R , P . 1964. The Role and Nature of Mathematics. The Mathematics Teacher, Vol. 57, pp. 514—21.

H A R T , K . M . 1984. Ratio: Children's Strategies and Errors. Windsor, NFER/Nelson.

H O W S O N , A . G . 1982. A History of Mathematics Education in England. Cambridge, The University Press.

H O W S O N , A . G . ; K E I T E L , C . ; K I L P A T R I C K , J. 1981. Curriculum Devel

opment in Mathematics. Cambridge, The University Press. K I L P A T R I C K , J. 1981. The Reasonable Ineffectiveness of Research in

Mathematics Education. For the Learning of Mathematics, Vol. 2, N o . 2, pp. 22-9.

K R U T E T S K I I , V . A . 1976. The Psychology of Mathematical Abilities in School Children. Chicago, 111./London, University of Chicago Press.

L E A P F R O G S . 1977. Calculators. Diss, Norfolk, Leapfrogs Publishing Group, Tarquin Publications.

M O Ï S E , E . E . 1984. Mathematics, Computation and Psychic Intelligence. In: V . P . Hansen and M . J. Zweng (eds), NCTMM-Computers in Education; 1984 Yearbook, pp. 3 5 ^ 2 . Reston, Va . , National Council of Teachers of Mathematics ( N C T M ) .

N A C O M E . 1975. Overview and Analysis of School Mathematics, Grades K-12. A report of the National Advisory Committee on Mathematical Education of the Conference Board of the Mathematical Sciences, Washington, D . C .

N A D E A U , R . ; D E S A U T E L S , J. 1984. Epistemology and the Teaching of Science: A Discussion Paper. Ottawa, Science Council of Canada.

N C E E . 1983. A Nation at Risk: The Imperative for Educational Reform. Report of the National Committee for Excellence in Education. Washington, United States Department of Education.

N C T M . 1970. A History of Mathematics Education in the United Stales and Canada; 32nd Yearbook. P . S. Jones and A . F . Coxford (eds.). Washington, D . C , National Council of Teachers of Mathematics.

. 1979. Calculators: Readings from the Arithmetic Teacher and the

64


Mathematics Teacher. Reston, V a . , National Council of Teachers of Mathematics.

. 1980. An Agenda for Action : Recommendations for School Mathematics of the 1980s. Reston, V a . , National Council of Teachers of Mathematics.

. 1984. Computers in Education; 1984 Yearbook. V . P . Hansen and M . J. Zweng (eds.). Reston, V a . , National Council of Teachers of Mathematics.

P A P E R T , S. 1980. Mindstorms: Children, Computers and Powerful Ideas. N e w York, Basic Books.

P O L Y A , G . 1945. How to Solve It. Princeton, N . J . , Princeton University Press.

. 1954. Mathematics and Plausible Reasoning. Princeton, N . J . , Princeton University Press.

. 1962. Mathematical Discovery. On Understanding, Learning and Teaching Problem Solving. N e w York, John Wiley. 2 vols.

POTTAGE, J. 1983. Geometrical Investigations: Illustrating the Art of Discovery in the Mathematical Field. Reading, Addison-Wesley.

R E S T I V O , S. 1983. The Social Relations of Physics, Mysticism and Mathematics. Dordrecht, Reidel.

R E V U Z , A . 1978. Transformations de l'enseignement des mathématiques en France. Educational Studies in Mathematics, Vol. 9, N o . 2, pp. 171-81.

R R M E . 1983. Review of Research in Mathematical Education, Prepared for the Cockcroft Committee. Part A : Research on Learning and Teaching by A . W . Bell, J. Costello and D . Küchemann. Part B : Research on Social Contexts of Mathematics Education by A . J. Bishop and M . N,ickson. Part C : Curriculum Development and Curriculum Research by A . G . Howson. Windsor, NFER/Nelson.

S C H O E N F E L D , A . H . 1979. Explicit Heuristic Training as a Variable in Problem Solving Performance. Journal for Research in Mathematics Education, Vol. 10, pp. 173-87.

. 1983. Episodes and Executive Decisions in Mathematical Problem Solving. In : R . Lesh and M . Landau (eds.), Acquisition of Mathematical Concepts and Processes. N e w York, Academic Press.

S C H Ö N , D . A . 1983. The Reflective Practitioner: How Professionals Think in Action. N e w York, Basic Books.

S I M O N , H . A . 1981. The Sciences of the Artificial. 2nd ed. Cambridge, Mass. , M I T Press.

S T E I N B R I N G , H . 1984. Mathematical Concepts in Didactical Situations as Complex Systems: The Case of Probability. In: H . G . Steiner (ed.), Theory of Mathematics Education. Universität Bielefeld, Institut für Didaktik der Mathematik. (Occasional paper, 54.)

S T E I N E R , H . G . (ed.). 1984. Theory of Mathematics Education. Universität Bielefeld, Institut für Didaktik der Mathematik. (Occasional paper, 54.)

T A Y L O R , R . P. (ed.), 1980. The Computer in the Classroom: Tutor, Tutee, Tool. N e w York, Teachers College Press.

T O B I A S , S. ; W E I S S B R O D , C . 1980. Anxiety and Mathematics: A n Update. Harvard Educational Review, Vol. 50, pp. 63-70.

65

David Wheeler

UNESCO. 1966. New Trends in Mathematics Teaching. Vol. 1, Paris, Unesco. (The Teaching of Basic Sciences.)

. 1970. New Trends in Mathematics Teaching. Vol. 2. Paris, Unesco. (The Teaching of Basic Sciences.)

W E R T I M E , R . 1979. Students, Problems and 'Courage Spans'. In: J. Lochhead and J. Clement (eds.), Cognitive Process Instruction. Philadelphia, Pa., Franklin Institute Press.

W I L D E R , R . L . 1981. Mathematics as a Cultural System. Oxford, Perga-m o n Press.

66

Community development through biology teaching

Michael Atchia

The renovation of biology

Curriculum changes in the last two decades have radically transformed the teaching of the science of life. T h e Biological Sciences Curriculum Study (BSCS) project in the United States, the Nuffield Foundation Biology Project in the United K i n g d o m , the work of the Arab Educational, Cultural and Scientific Organization ( A L E C S O ) in the Arab States and the Unesco Biology Project for Africa have been some of the landmarks in this renewal of biology education.

Since the early days of B S C S , the teaching of biology has experienced several major innovations. T h e characteristics of these include: an evolutionary approach (emphasis on adaptation and the fact of change) ; a functional approach (emphasis on physiology) ; an environmental approach (emphasis on ecology and conservation) ; a genetic and molecular biology approach ; and an applied biology approach, i.e. the use of biology teaching to solve h u m a n problems.

All these emphases (evolutionary, functional, environmental, genetic and molecular) have survived, thereby considerably enriching the discipline. T h e latest development—the application of biology teaching to answer h u m a n needs—has, so far, two objectives : a community development objective and a biotechnological development objective. T h e first of these is the subject of this chapter.

The nature of human communities

A h u m a n community, be it at village, suburban or city level, is a living, dynamic, ecological entity. It became apparent, recently, that a number of biological and ecological laws apply to such h u m a n entities and that the teaching of these laws could have an effect in h u m a n community development. (A new subdivision of biology called human ecology has been developed by some colleagues to cover the area under discussion here.)

67

Michael Atchia

T h e relationship between education and community development was examined in a recent report of the International Bank for Reconstruction and Development ( IBRD/World Bank) where it was stated that the level of general education of farmers had a positive effect on farmer productivity. This conclusion was based on some seventeen case-studies carried out in different parts of the world. T h e average (unweighted) increase in farm output due to four years of primary school education, rather than none, was 13.2 per cent with complementary inputs and 6.3 per cent without complementary inputs (World Bank, 1980, p. 48). T h e same report (p. 50) cites studies carried out in Bangladesh, Kenya and Colombia which show that the more education their mothers have the less likely children are to die; studies from Säo Paulo (Brazil) showed that for any given income level the higher the mother's education the better fed families were.

T o the above examples, one m a y add the case of the well-established relationship that exists between level of education (or economic standing) and size of families ; the higher the former, the smaller the latter.

If farm productivity, better health, better feeding and smaller families are aspects of community development which are closely affected by general primary school education, h o w m u c h more effective would specific biological education be ? Pioneering work in this field has been carried out by members of the Commission for Biological Education ( C B E ) of the International Union of Biological Sciences (IUBS).

Strategies for community-based biological education

T w o strategies for dealing with community-based biological education have been developed by I U B S - C B E . In brief, they involve: 1. A n output model whereby the biological (and scientific) knowledge pos

sessed by a small h u m a n community is studied, with particular reference to h o w this knowledge is utilized in solving the community's needs. The output from this community {needs + biological knowledge utilized in solving these needs) could be of value to other communities within the same region/country, as well as, through international diffusion, to other countries elsewhere in the world. T h e concepts and traditional technologies identified in communities (e.g. conservation practices, life-supporting activities, biosocial traditions) would also be useful w h e n integrated into the formal education system, especially during a curriculum development exercise aimed at transforming an education system which is largely foreign-based.

2. A n input model, incorporating seven stages as follows : (a) identification of a h u m a n community ; (b) setting up of a community action team, identifi-

68


cation of places, agencies and contact people ; (c) finding out the needs of the community and setting out the restricted objectives attainable by the action team in relation to the improvement of the quality of life in the community ; (d) determination of the biological (and scientific) knowledge to be introduced (the input); (e) design of section programme; (f) implementation of action programme; (g) evaluation and adjustments.

It is n o w seen that both these strategies—output from a community and input into a community—complement each other. A community should not be regarded as an island unto itself, with its concepts and perceptions taken for granted, nor should a community's concepts and perceptions be totally ignored in favour of expert input from outside.

A community development cycle

For the sake of clarity and ease of application, the strategies described above f- -ive been converted into a (diagrammatic) 'wheel' (Figure 1). T h e scientific,

Motivation

Community Knowledge

Resources

F I G . 1. A community development 'Wheel' (Atchia, redrawn partly from Blum, 1982).

69

Michael Atchia

biological and environmental knowledge required for community action m a y be obtained case by case from resource persons, from libraries and other sources. However , and ideally, this knowledge should have been acquired during the education process.

Teaching implications

In the last part of this chapter, educational implications will be examined in the light of problems in the achievement of community development through biology teaching which have been identified by experienced workers in the field.

It is obvious that biological topics which have implications for the community should be given priority in the curriculum. Kelly (1980, pp. 1-2 and 30) suggests a way to do this: greater emphasis on issues studies, rather than knowledge studies, the former being studies emphasizing problem-solving and decision-making. 'Examples of topics for knowledge studies are M e n d e -lian inheritance and the food requirements of the body. . . . Their equivalent issue studies are genetic counselling and planning the provision of a balanced diet from locally available food crops.'

It is one thing to introduce n e w and desirable topics in the curriculum. W h o will teach them? H o w will they be taught? Teachers, particularly in some developing countries, are poorly paid, undertrained and often overworked. H o w will they welcome an additional community development task? It is m u c h easier to restrict oneself to theoretical (knowledge) studies than to deal with reality, particularly w h e n this reality demands regular confrontation with the community at large.

T h e need for closer links between school and community is axiomatic. But acceptance of these links is not easy, especially where the parental aim of sending children to school is still some 'well-paid white-collar job' instead of 'learning to be' and 'learning to be useful to the community'.

Finally, let us consider the all important time-lag factor. As Gornall (1980, p. 9) puts it, 'the world has not changed immediately after the programme was introduced'. This is specially true of community development objectives in, for example, agriculture and food production, health, conservation of resources and afforestation. Probably years are needed, if not one entire generation, before educational planning produces lasting beneficial effects. In the meantime, strategically, a selection of minor issues which m a y be tangibly solved, and be seen to have been solved by both community and school, must be m a d e . O n e example might be a study of malaria and its transmission by the Anopheles mosquito, followed by community action to reduce breeding

70


grounds. T h u s , the evaluation of teaching will be not by tests and examin

ations but by concretesresults in the field.

References

B L U M , A . 1982. From Biological Knowledge to Community Development. In: M . Atchia (ed.), Research in Community-based Biological Education. International Union of Biological Sciences.

G O R N A L L , F . 1980. Comments on Working Documents. In: P. J. Kelly and G . Schaefer (eds.), Biological Education for Community Development. London, Taylor & Francis.

K E L L Y , P. J. 1980. Working Document for a Meeting on Biological Education for Community Development. In: P. J. Kelly and G . Schaefer (eds), Biological Education for Community Development. London, Taylor & Francis.

W O R L D B A N K . 1980. World Development Report. Washington, D . C . , World Bank.

Further reading

A T C H I A , M . Assessment of Community Needs in Mauritius; The Gap Between Commonly Believed and Actually Expressed Needs. In: M . Atchia (ed.), Research in Community-based Biological Education. International Union of Biological Sciences, 1982.

B E R G M A N N , H . ; B U D E , U . A n Analysis of Existing School-Community Participation in a Central African Country. In: K . King (ed.), Education and Community in Africa, pp. 121-60. Edinburgh, The Centre of African Studies, University of Edinburgh, 1976.

D E L F O R G E , G . Enquete sociale. La vie dans les cités C.H.A. et E.D.C. des PlainesWilhems. Port Louis (Mauritius ), Institut pour le développement et le progrès (IDP), 1972.

H E R N A N D E Z , D . F . Biology in Community Education; A Philippine Scenario for Life-long Education. European Journal of Science Education, Vol. 2, N o . 3, pp. 217-30, 1980.

M E Y E R , G . R . T h e Place of Out-of-school Science in General Education. In: G . R . Meyer and A . N . Rao (eds,), Teaching Science Out-of-school vAth Special Reference to Biology, pp. 133-50. Singapore and Sydney, International Union of Biological Sciences : Commission for Biological Education and Asian Network for Biological Sciences, 1984.

71


A . N . Rao

Introduction

T h e application of biological knowledge for industrial and technological purposes is biotechnology. In biotechnology, the potential of cells and tissues is m a d e use of to obtain certain chemical substances on an industrial scale. Wherever possible, the cell structure, particularly at the nuclear level, is manipulated to m a k e the cell system behave in a particular way and for certain biochemical ends. S o m e of the recent researches in cell and molecular biology and recombinant deoxyribonucleic acid ( D N A ) are providing enough data to enable scientists to modify the structure and functions of the living systems in microbial organisms, plants and animals. T h e application of these results will have a significant effect on the solution of some current problems in the production of food, feed, fuel and fibres. Beneficial results are foreseen in the manufacture of drugs, processing of food, control of pollution, improvement of crop plants, energy production, biomass utilization, animal fertilization and other biological and biochemical processes.

Methods of biotechnology have been familiar to m a n for thousands of years in the manufacture of fermented foods, beer, wine, bread and cheese. S o m e of the methods practised to produce the above products are based on experience and traditional use, with or without scientific analysis and understanding. T h e production of antibiotics and vaccines is of more recent origin than the above and is based on sound scientific principles. Microbial organisms are also used in water purification and waste management, while in biomedical work the growth of unwanted organisms is controlled by aseptic methods. All these are regarded as old or familiar areas in biotechnology.

T h e discovery and importance of D N A , the building block of genetic materials, and the isolation and recombination of D N A opened up m a n y n e w possibilities. Monoclonal antibody technology and bioprocess technology are increasingly used in the manufacture of medicines and certain chemicals, including proteins, antibiotics and vaccines. All these are n e w areas in the field of biotechnology.

73

A . N. Rao

T h e applications of biotechnological methods in these and other fields are m a n y . N e w commercial companies have come into existence in m a n y of the developed and industrial countries in North America and Europe, as well as in Japan. So far huge financial investments of up to 4,000 million American dollars have been m a d e , involving more than 150 companies, and by the turn of the century it is predicted that the capital will have increased to 60,000-70,000 million dollars. In the area of modern biotechnology, therefore, both substantial material benefits and huge financial investments affecting the economy of m a n y countries are involved (Office of Technology Assessment, 1982).

Most of these developments will have important implications for our lives whether w e live in tropical or temperate conditions, in rich or poor countries, in urban or rural situations and irrespective of the social background or standing of the people.

T h e educational implications of biotechnology are m a n y and their influence on the general public is very great. T h e nature of the subject-matter is such that it attracts the attention of the public through such mass media as radio, television, newspapers and magazines. T h e various articles and features inform the public of the results and material products of biotechnology. They no doubt arouse curiosity in the minds of the people, but such news items and information can have only a temporary or casual value because of their impermanent nature. T h e basic scientific principles involved can only be made k n o w n , at least in broad terms, as part of the school curriculum. H o w general or specific should be the subject-matter included in the curriculum is a question which has to be decided with reference to a state, country or region and by the relevance of the topic to local conditions.

Recent developments and innovations

Genetic engineering

T h e story of the double helix and D N A molecule is well k n o w n (Watson and Crick, 1953 ; Watson, 1968). A gene is part of the chromosome, the hereditary unit. It is m a d e up of D N A which directs the functioning of cells through protein synthesis. T h e basic structure of D N A is similar in all living beings, including microbes, plants and animals. In general, the D N A of the genes is transcribed into messenger R N A ( m R N A ) which is then translated by reactions in the cell into protein. Each gene has the potential to produce or influence the production of a single protein. D N A itself consists of sugar, phosphate and four nitrogen bases—adenine (A), thymine (T), guanine (G)

74


and cytosine (C)—and the whole structure forms a nucleotide. In 1973 it was clearly demonstrated that the basic D N A material could be transferred from one living system to another.

Genes m o v e from one bacterium to the other through the viruses (also called phages or bacteriophages) that infect bacteria. T h e phages pass on their D N A into the bacterial host cell where it resides and functions harmoniously. O n division, the phage is passed on to the next generation of bacterial cells. In some cases, the viral D N A would also divide and multiply. W h e n the host cell bursts open, the viral D N A is liberated, sometimes with part of the host or bacterial D N A . These new viral particles infect other bacteria, inserting both the bacterial D N A and their o w n . T h e transfer of genetic material in bacteria by viruses or phages and by bacterial mating is a well-known phenomenon and the same phenomenon is m a d e use of by scientists to transfer the useful gene or genes from one organism to another. In this programme of transference, the enzymes are particularly useful either to cut (restriction enzymes) the long strands of D N A into smaller units or to fuse (ligase enzymes) them with plasmid D N A . T h e recombinant D N A technology essentially involves this cutting and fusing of useful D N A fragments (genes) with the plasmid D N A and transferring the reconstituted plasmid into bacterium. T h e bacterial cell with the reconstituted plasmid divides at a very fast rate, producing millions of cells in a short period of time. O n e bacterial cell can divide to produce one thousand million cells in fifteen hours. T h e newly inserted gene also functions in these bacteria, producing the same substance that it used to do in the original organism. T h e great success of insulin production by the well-known bacterium Escherichia coli was due to the recombinant D N A technique. T h e gene in the humans responsible for insulin production was transferred to the bacterial cell through the plasmids. T h e inherited gene of E. coli functioned normally to produce the insulin in the bacterial cell as it had done in the h u m a n body. T h e insulin produced by bacteria is n o w m a d e available on the market (National Research Council, 1982).

Attempts are also being m a d e in m a n y laboratories to identify and isolate the genes that are responsible for m a n y useful functions and products. Such genes can be isolated either from chromosomes or even from organelle D N A . T h e desired gene then can be recombined with the plasmid ( D N A ) or a plant organelle which is capable of entering the host cell, whether it is of a plant or a bacterium. Each plasmid or organelle multiplies itself within a cell and the new genetic trait is carried on from generation to generation. T h e success achieved is somewhat limited in the case of plant cells as compared with bacteria, due to m a n y technical reasons.

75

A. N. Rao

Monoclonal antibodies

Different viruses, bacteria and other micro-organisms are responsible for m a n y infectious diseases. Infection starts when the chemical compounds or antigens are injected into or consumed by the humans. T h e antigens are chemical compounds, both proteins and carbohydrates, and these are destroyed by antibodies—the protein components produced in the h u m a n i m m u n e system. Antibodies formed in the h u m a n or other systems are very specific in their reactions to antigens; each offers resistance to a particular pathogen. Once formed, the antibodies remain more or less permanently in the system offering continuous immunity against that particular pathogen. The triple antigen injection given for children is a good example.

O n e of the standard methods to produce vaccines for use in inoculation is to inject antigens into an animal and collect the antibodies thus formed from the blood serum. The liquid collected with the antibodies is the anti-serum. The quality of the anti-serum varies because of the variable quantities of antibodies present and the impurities included.

Antibodies can also be produced through pure cell cultures but the cultures have to be renewed periodically after every harvest. In another novel method, continuous cell cultures can be established. T u m o u r cells have the potential to grow continuously and if mammalian cells that produce the antibodies are fused with them, w e can obtain cultures that remain active for a longer time, so producing the vast quantities of antibodies required. This process of cell fusion is called 'hybridoma'. As the antibodies are derived from a single cell source, they are called monoclonal antibodies.

In the process, the tumour cells 'myeloma' of the bone marrow are fused with antibody-producing spleen cells and the hybrid cells produce the required monoclonal antibodies. Monoclonal antibodies are also used to detect the disease of cancer during the early stage of infection. The cancer cells have specific proteins on their surfaces and the nature of the protein, it is hoped, can be detected by using appropriate protein antigens (interferons).

Human growth hormone

Pituitary gland hormones play an important part in the growth of humans and at present the extraction process is a complicated one. A larger and more regular supply of this hormone can be obtained by using D N A cloning technique. T h e h u m a n growth hormone will be useful to correct underdevelopment. Similarly, the reproductive hormones can also be produced by the same method; these will be useful to correct fertility problems in m e n and w o m e n , to test for pregnancy and to facilitate childbirth.

76


Fermentation industries

As stated earlier, fermentation is one of the ancient methods of biotechnology which has helped to produce various kinds of solid and liquid foods such as bread, cheese, soya sauce, beer and wine. Improved methods of fermentation on an industrial scale have helped us to manufacture antibiotic drugs, alcohols, acids, vitamins, chemicals, feed supplements and other products. Different types of micro-organisms are employed, and they are grown on various inexpensive raw materials to obtain useful proteins and other materials. T h e small fermentation tanks previously used in laboratories have been enlarged to industrial bio-reactors that can handle 50-100,000 gallons of reactants at any one time. Computers are used to regulate the required temperature, light, humidity and p H conditions, and to achieve uniform production. T h e industrial methods for m a n y of the processes and products are well k n o w n , and small- to medium-scale industries can be established wherever the raw materials and energy are available.

Biotechnology and agriculture

Biotechnology can be used to improve various practices connected with agriculture. S o m e of the main areas are: (a) improving the quality and quantity of superior crop plants; (b) control of pests and pathogens; (c) nitrogen fixation; (d) increasing productivity; (e) tissue culture; and (f) animal production. T h e applications and advantages of biotechnological methods in each of the above areas are briefly described in the following paragraphs.

Traditional methods for plant breeding are well k n o w n and are time-consuming. After breeding, selection and field trials take eight to ten years, on average, before a selected variety is released for cultivation. Agronomic practices that require fertilizers and herbicides are elaborate. Although genetic engineering methods can help to rearrange or incorporate n e w and desirable crop plant qualities, plant characteristics such as height, n u m b e r of flowers formed, seeds produced and protein content in the seeds are controlled by m a n y genes. These have to be identified before being used in recombination studies.

Pests and diseases destroy 20 to 30 per cent of the crop plants grown and in certain areas as m u c h as 60 to 70 per cent. T h e resistant varieties in each crop have been selected for cultivation but with limited success so far. But the identification and isolation of genes resistant to pests and diseases and their incorporation into crop plants would greatly reduce the crop loss. S o m e toxic and insect-repellent substances, produced by bacteria, are already in use.

77

A . N. Rao

Rhizobium species have the ability to use atmospheric nitrogen and fix it in nitrogenous compounds , such as a m m o n i a , in the root nodules of legumes. T h e quality and quantity of nodules produced vary in different plant species and strains oí Rhizobium. T h e efficiency of nitrogen fixation can be improved by r D N A techniques. T h e genes that favourably respond to nitrogen fixation have to be isolated and incorporated into the host plant. Furthermore, by using plant tissue culture methods, it m a y be possible to transfer the nitrogen-fixing genes into the genomes or organelles of plants.

In addition to using the standard agronomic methods such as the use of fertilizers, good water supply, and conditioning the soil, the important biological process of photosynthesis can also be improved w h e n the genes involved for efficient photosynthesis in plants are identified. Studies of the C-3 and C - 4 pathways in photosynthesis are yielding clues about means of increasing the carbohydrate assimilation in plants. T h e different enzymes responsible for greater productivity are also well k n o w n . Genes responsible for the functioning of these enzymes m a y be transferred from one plant to the other to increase the enzyme efficiency. M a n y plants have a natural ability to withstand adverse conditions such as acidic soil, excess drought or deep water conditions. Use m a y be m a d e of the genes responsible for these characteristics to improve the adaptive qualities in other plants, a method which will be easier than correcting the soil and other growth conditions. Further basic research should improve the conditions.

Tissue culture is a useful method to obtain regenerated tissues and plants both from the vegetative and reproductive parts of plants. Aseptic conditions are used and successful cases include m a n y economically important plants (Rao, 1981). With careful manipulation, it is possible to maintain genetic purity (clonal purity) of the regenerated plants so that plants of uniform size, height and quality are obtained. In general, the vegetative tissues are easier to handle than the reproductive ones. Another approach, which is relatively n e w , is to obtain the protoplasts from different plant parts or from the tissues grown in vitro and induce their fusion so that vegetative (somatic) embryos or callus are formed. Unlike animal cells, the plant cells have rigid walls; on removal of the wall, the spherical protoplasts are released into the m e d i u m . T h e embryos develop further and regenerate into full plants. In the case of callus, further differentiation has to be induced to obtain full plants from them. T h e protoplasts can also be used as carriers of modified plasmids with recombinant D N A or even organelles with reconstituted or hybrid D N A . T h e foreign genes thus introduced would bring new qualities into the regenerated plants, or suitably modify the plants to produce a particular substance or m a k e them grow well even under stress or extreme conditions. W o r k on genetic engineering in plant improvement is progressing at a fast rate and plants with

78


superior qualities can be synthesized either to increase food production and biomass, or even to m a k e them free from viruses and other diseases. Remarkable results have already been achieved in the cases of corn, rice, sugar-cane and others. Genetically engineered crop plants are already being brought under cultivation in m a n y instances.

T h e n u m b e r of farm animals so far used as livestock is only seven. Considerable improvements have been achieved by selection of superior animals and planned breeding. T h e n e w research on artificial in vivo fertilization, use of surrogate mothers, freezing the sperms, artificial insemination, supplying good-quality sperms wherever required and use of air transport have facilitated higher production of better-quality animals. At present, smaller numbers of animals with superior qualities can produce the same, if not a higher, quality of meat or milk as greater numbers in the past. T h e quality of animal feed is considerably improved. Advances in genetic engineering are paving the way to the control or elimination of m a n y viral diseases that infect pigs, cows and other farm animals. Foot-and-mouth disease is one such example, and in the near future improved remedies will be found. T h e D N A transfer studies are proving to be very helpful in improving the quality of farm animals and their products (National Research Council, 1982; Rao and Pritchard, 1984).

Perspectives and challenges ahead

Applications of biotechnological methods hold great promise for the solution of m a n y problems in the following areas (National Research Council, 1982).

Production of vaccines

Vaccine development is important for the cure or prevention of m a n y h u m a n diseases, and this area of research is given high priority in the cases of respiratory and enteric diseases caused by bacteria ; dengue ; rabies ; encephalitis; malaria; tuberculosis; hepatitis; and haemorrhagic fever. M u c h basic research is still needed, but feasibility studies have indicated great potential for success. Similarly, vaccines need to be developed for animal diseases such as.tuberculosis, respiratory diseases, swine fever, foot-and-mouth disease, and rabies. Cures for these diseases would save millions of dollars in each case every year, besides m u c h h u m a n effort and time.

79

A . N. Rao

Animal production

In the area of animal production, elimination of infectious diseases is important. Genetic, reproductive and nutritional problems also need to be solved. Transportation of disease-free embryos and semen by air, the establishment of embryo replication capabilities and the use of monoclonal antibody techniques are identified as important areas for the improvement of both quality and quantity in animal production.

Use of monoclonal antibodies

Monoclonal antibodies will be used as effective diagnostic reagents to determine the pathogens in various bacterial diseases such as those caused by Streptococcus, Salmonella, Pneumococcus and Mycobacterium. Viral, proto- and metazoan infections are also included in this category.

Similarly, plant health can be considerably improved by identifying the viral, bacterial and fungal pathogens and developing suitable antibodies. Diseases caused by viruses and fungi can be cured or eliminated in rice, maize, cassava, Citrus, potato and other fruit crops by using the monoclonal methods.

Energy production

At present vast quantities of biomass are allowed to decay or are burnt to avoid pollution. Lignocellulose and other plant wastes can be hydrolysed and converted into sugar syrups and other compounds. They can also be fermented to produce ethyl alcohol and microbial protein. T h e use of gasohol in Brazil to replace petroleum is a well-known success story. Improved utilization of wood and other lignocellulose materials in the tropics to produce alcohols and other chemicals would be very profitable. Poor-quality starch could be used as a growth m e d i u m for yeasts, bacteria and fungi which would enrich the substrate with proteins, to be used either in animal or in h u m a n food.

Nitrogen fixation

Further research could help to identify and select more useful plants both as food crops and as valuable sources of raw materials. Tropical legumes hold great promise. B y D N A technology, the organisms that prevent the growth of Rhizobium m a y be controlled so that the nitrogen-fixing bacterium grows more luxuriously. Also, m a n y scientists are working in different parts of the world to transfer nitrogen-fixing genes (nif genes) to non-legumes and even to cereals. Such attempts, when successful, will enrich the soil with nitrogen making it more fertile. T h e use oiAzolla and Cyanobacteria in rice cultivation

80


is c o m m o n and these organisms and their performance can be further improved by genetic engineering methods.

Plant tissue culture

Plant tissue culture methods are useful in clonal propagation, disease elimination, germplasm storage and exchange, gene transfer by wide hybridization, somaclonal variation, production of haploid plants, obtaining secondary natural products and molecular genetic engineering in plants. S o m e of the above methods are easy to follow and adopt, while others are more elaborate. T h e scientific manpower needed to apply them more effectively in different parts of the world is in short supply and will need to be developed. T h e quality of the plants can be improved by using genetic engineering methods incorporating the genes responsible for disease resistance, higher growth and better yields. T h e outcome of such research, if successful, will be tremendous. T h e different methods mentioned above are interrelated and m a n y of them have to be used together to bring about the required improvement in economically important plants (Dodds and Roberts, 1982).

Implementation in teaching

M a n y biology syllabuses for secondary schools include topics such as 'basic biochemistry', 'fundamental chemicals of living organisms' and 'control of cellular activity'. T h e amino acids, protein and nucleic acid structures are discussed in very general terms. It would be worth while to include the D N A technology and virus structures here as applied aspects of R N A and D N A . T h e plant and animal tissue culture aspects m a y be included under 'control of cellular activity'. T h e fermentation processes could be a suitable topic under 'the physiology of organisms, release of energy and respiration'. Growth hormones, monoclonal antibodies and other aspects could be included under 'growth, development and reproduction'. In brief, the advantages of biotech-nological methods and applications, and the benefits derived, should be highlighted at appropriate places so that students are m a d e aware of the great changes and progress taking place in the field of biotechnology.1 T h e school

1. Experimental work in biotechnology can present some problems for schools because certain of the active micro-organisms are hazardous and can only be handled safely under specially controlled conditions. Advice on these aspects of practical work is available from a number of sources, including: 'Safety in School Microbiology', Education in Science, N o . 92, April 1981, pp. 19-27.—Ed.

81

A . N. Rao

syllabuses for agricultural science and h u m a n social biology include m a n y appropriate topics such as crop production and protection, livestock production, micro-organisms and their importance, and health and disease. Different aspects of biotechnology that are related to the above topics should be included under appropriate sections (Rao and Pritchard, 1984).

Curriculum modules have already been developed in advanced countries for the teaching of certain aspects of biomedical technology at the school level. These include changing patterns of sickness and death, public understanding of biomedical science, genetic engineering, in vitro fertilization and embryo transfer, pre-natal diagnosis and recombinant D N A . There is discussion of the techniques involved, the drugs, biological equipment and procedures used by professionals in providing health care and in operating the systems within which care is provided. Teachers have the option to choose the topics that are relevant to their local conditions. Suitable outlines are also available to teach plant tissue culture as an undergraduate course and, with certain modifications, these could be adapted for higher school teaching (Graziadei, 1984). T h e important methods in plant tissue culture can be used for a variety of purposes relevant to both urban and rural conditions.

A general review of these syllabuses in biology, h u m a n and social biology and agricultural science would reveal that most of the topics covered were designed to teach only the biological principles involved. Problems associated with improvement of the quality of life and solutions to these and other problems faced by modern society are rarely included in the curriculum. It is high time that a general review of biology syllabuses at the school level was undertaken on a global scale to include the outstanding biological problems that w e are facing today connected with food, feed, fibre, fuel, energy, pollution, availability of natural resources and nature conservation. These subjects are, no doubt, discussed at very great length in international meetings on science and technology. But the recommendations and solutions suggested at such meetings are rarely presented in a form which is readily applicable to schoolteaching. This is a serious omission in the system. T h e need for developing such a process and its implementation in teaching is very great for two reasons. O n e is that young biologists should be m a d e aware of the scientific principles that govern the advances being m a d e in biotechnology; the other is the need to prepare students suitably to face the challenges that lie ahead. T h e vision of the students should be broadened so that they can comprehend the cause-and-effect relationship of the various social and political activities that they witness every day. While one section of society lives in comfort, the other suffers ; likewise, while certain countries are living in peace and plenty, others are going through hardship and famine. O n e of the main objectives of biology education at school level should be to analyse such

82


situations and indicate the solutions that are available to improve the

conditions of h u m a n beings and the quality of life.

References

D O D D S , J. H . ; ROBERTS, L . W . 1982. Experiments in Plant Tissue Culture. Cambridge, Cambridge University Press.

G R A Z I A D E I , W . D . 1984. Science Professional Training Programme in Tissue Culture and Biotechnology. Gaithersburg, M d . , Tissue Culture Association.

N A T I O N A L R E S E A R C H C O U N C I L ( U N I T E D S T A T E S ) . 1982. Proceedings of

Workshop on Priorities in Biotechnology Research for International Development. Washington, D . C . , National Academic Press.

OFFICE O F T E C H N O L O G Y A S S E S S M E N T O F T H E C O N G R E S S O F T H E U N I T E D S T A T E S . 1982. Genetic Technology: A New Frontier. Boulder, Colo., Westview Press.

R A O , A . N . (ed.). 1981. Tissue Culture of Economically Important Plants. Singapore, Committee on Science Teaching in Developing Countries/ Asian Network for Biological Sciences.

R A O , A . N . ; P R I T C H A R D , A . J. 1984. Agriculture and Biology Teaching. Paris, Unesco. (Science and Technology Education Document Series, 11.)

W A T S O N , J. D . 1968. The Double Helix. London, Weidenfeld & Nicolson.

W A T S O N , J. D . ; C R I C K , F . 1953. Genetical Implications of the Structure of Deoxyribonucleic Acid. Nature, Vol. 171, pp. 964-7.

83


Daniele Cros

During the 1960s, and more especially in the 1970s, innovations were m a d e in chemistry curricula in schools all over the world. T h e first projects were on a national scale, being primarily responses to the educational needs of the country in which they originated, though some did exert an influence on developments in other countries.

As examples, w e m a y mention three projects which in recent years have had a considerable impact on curriculum developments in m a n y parts of the world: the American projects, C B A (Chemical Bond Approach) and C H E M Study (Chemical Education Material Study) and the Nuffield Foundation's Ordinary Level chemistry teaching project in the United Kingdom. These, projects aimed to revise the teaching of chemistry in the light of modern knowledge in order to offer pupils a better approach to the subject. Basic themes of chemistry, such as periodicity, the mole, structure and kinetics, were introduced from the beginning (Ingle and Ranaweera, 1984).

At an early date Unesco took the initiative of developing chemical education projects involving a number of countries in the same region (Cartmell, 1967; Unesco, 1972a). There is n o w a constant stream of new curricula, including some in which chemistry is taught as an integral part of a general science course, combined with biology, geology, physics and other subjects. Th e need to evaluate these developments is urgent. Tunisia has just embarked on one such vast operation. The preliminary phase involved training inspectors of all school subjects in the techniques used in evaluating curricula and textbooks. Working committees were then set up to m a k e a systematic and rapid evaluation of all the curricula and textbooks used in primary and secondary schools.

Teaching chemistry in primary schools

In recent years there has been a growing recognition in m a n y countries of the importance of teaching science in primary schools. Projects in this field

85

Daniele Cros

integrate all the science subjects using an experimental approach (International Conference on Education, 1981 ; Guerrero, 1984).

Latin American countries

In 1982 a project was introduced in Argentina (Guerrero and Bowelli, 1982) which attempted to integrate the experiment-based teaching of topics such as energy, gases, liquids and solids with a knowledge of basic chemical techniques. T h e n , by using scientific methods, the work was extended to the study of h u m a n beings and their environment. In other Latin American countries, a similar integrated approach can be found, but it is mainly focused on biology with little emphasis on chemistry.

In Venezuela an integrated science teaching project has been adopted (Castillo, n.d. ) . This project involves children learning problem-solving skills and acquiring a rounded education in the use of scientific methods. T h e same approach has also been used in Chile, but for the most part in secondary schools only (Unesco, 19726). Twelve processes, such as observation and communication, are progressively introduced through the experimental work which the students perform.

An example of a chemistry lesson in a primary school

In the primary school, the only feasible way of introducing chemistry is by using experiments. During the 1983-84 school year, some children in the fifth class of the primary school in the Ecole Normale Mixte at Agen, France, conducted chemistry experiments using small-scale apparatus. Their equipment was provided in a chemistry set which was, in effect, a miniature chemistry laboratory (Carretto et al., 1979).

O n e of their lessons was on the purification of contaminated salt (Martin, 1983). T h e objectives of the lesson were : to dispel any mystery which children might associate with chemical substances ; to teach children rules for the safe handling of unfamiliar materials ; to teach children the technique of purification by selective dissolution ; and to give children an understanding of the concept of solubility. The conduct of the lesson was guided by constructivist theories according to which the child has to act on the material in order to create his o w n cognitive structures (Piaget and Inhelder, 1969). This requirement exposes the inadequacy of teaching methods in which the experiment, or, worse still, pictures of it are merely shown to pupils. However, acting on the material is not enough, for this could result in little more than stimulation of the senses. Only the recognition of a problem will give the pupil the chance to be genuinely active. This was what G . Bachelard

86


(1965) meant w h e n he stated that 'for a scientific mind , all knowledge is the answer to a question. If there is no question, there can be no scientific knowledge. Nothing is taken for granted. Nothing is given. Everything must be constructed.' T o enable the child to progress from one isolated discovery (the solubility of salt in water) to the more general notion of interaction between solute and solvent, it is necessary to present him with a number of such situations. T h e method of working in small groups enables children to exchange ideas and to put their hypotheses (epistemological obstacles as Bachelard called them) to the test in real situations. T h e interaction pupil-material-teacher helps the child to become more objective through experimental questioning, with the teacher acting as a guide and adviser rather than as someone w h o holds the answer to the question. Emphasis is placed as m u c h on the methods of experimental investigation as on the results of this, in keeping with the spirit in which science is being introduced into primary school, i.e '. . . to develop in the child a set of skills and a system of knowledge which will enable him to understand the environment in which he lives . . .' (France, 1980).

Teaching chemistry in secondary schools

First stage

In m a n y countries the teaching of chemistry has been an integral part of the curriculum at all levels of education for m a n y years. However , this has not been the case everywhere. O n e innovation of the past few years has been the more widespread introduction of chemistry into the first stage of secondary education.

Tunisia T o raise the status of scientific, technical and vocational education in Tunisia (International Conference on Education, 1984) and to encourage young people to embark on these studies, a number of measures have been adopted. These are designed to encourage experimentation and assist the incorporation of the physical sciences in the c o m m o n core curriculum planned for 1986. T h e teaching of such courses is intended to give pupils a better idea of what the experimental sciences are like and to increase their confidence to opt for scientific and technical studies.

France In 1971 (Union des physiciens, 1981) a n u m b e r of scientists, led by Professor Lagarrigue, defined the aim of science teaching as 'to initiate learners

87

Daniele Cros

progressively and rationally into scientific knowledge and technology, thus

giving them a balanced general education in one of the most significant

dimensions of the modern world'.

T h e major aims of this teaching were : to help pupils to grasp the essentials

of scientific method; to develop in pupils a scientific approach to their

material and technical environment ; to help them to acquire various types of

scientific k n o w - h o w ; and to introduce them to a number of essential

concepts.

It was understood that these objectives could not be attained unless the

teaching involved experimental work. T h e experimental approach enables the

teacher to detect aptitudes in some pupils w h o m a y experience difficulties in

subjects presented axiomatically.

Since 1977, the teaching of the physical sciences has been an integral part

of the first stage of secondary school education in France.

Second stage

A number of courses developed for this stage have similar objectives (Ingle and Ranaweera, 1984). These include the following: to help pupils to think like scientists; to foster experimental skills in practical work which makes chemistry seem 'real' (experimentation should also help pupils to practise the various types of scientific and critical thought that go hand in hand with laboratory research); to give pupils a general idea of the applications of chemistry in everyday life and in industry through the study of plastics, detergents, medicines, insecticides, etc. ; and to develop the autonomy of the learner. A few examples illustrating these objectives are given below.

Development of autonomy A n experiment in programmed instruction (Gast, 1980) was undertaken in French-speaking Switzerland. T h e experiment was begun in 1980 at Neuchâ-tel's area secondary school using Arnold A m i ' s three books ( A m i , 1980) as a resource. Each of these books consists of ten chapters and five lessons. Each lesson is printed on a left-hand page and includes information about the subject of the lesson followed by questions. These exercises are designed to help the pupil to pick out the main ideas contained in the information. The pupil thus learns to look for the essential ideas and learns to read with this aim in mind—a very important skill.

O n the right-hand page are the answers to the questions and sometimes additional information. At the end of each chapter are two passages with twelve questions which enable the pupil to see if he has really understood the lesson.

88


Pupils seem to take to this method quite spontaneously and improved overall participation has been observed. T h e pupil is given all the basic information he needs and a method for studying it on his o w n . H e feels that he is being 'taken seriously', that he is 'somebody', regardless of whether the teacher is there or not, since he is able to study chemistry all by himself (or almost so). Ultimately, he is still dependent on the teacher, but to a lesser degree. In fact, he is not dependent on the teacher personally, since if he wished, he could ask for help from anyone capable of following the course of lessons.

Linking chemistry with everyday life In addition to traditional classroom teaching, some schools offer traineeships in companies, 'out-of-school' weeks or interdisciplinary modules based on a general theme. S o m e examples of activities that go beyond the usual limits of the classroom are given below. 1. Traineeships in companies. For the past three years, an experimental

secondary school in Anduze (France) has been attempting to take third-year students (14- and 15-year-olds) up to the baccalauréat (General Certificate) level, but having them specialize as late as possible and refusing to let the lowest ability level dictate the pace (Cohen, 1984). Students are grouped according to attainment in each subject. There are three levels corresponding to three approaches to studying: level I: acquisition of the basics of the dicipline ; level II : acquisition of techniques of thinking and working skills ; level III : preparation for the baccalauréat (General Certificate). T h e traineeships are compulsory for all students not taking an examination. T h e choice of training course is m a d e with regard to one of two objectives : either, to enable the pupil to try out a job for which he is motivated (immediate or future interest) ; or, to give a pupil fresh motivation for his studies by providing experience of the world of employment. These traineeships are intended both to encourage the pupil gradually to become autonomous by accepting responsibility and to help him acquire the life-skills he needs to cope with the world around him. T o ensure that their discovery of the world of employment has m a x i m u m impact, pupils begin their traineeships with a n u m b e r of questions (economic problems, social relationships, job specification) which will form the basis of a written report on which they will be examined orally.

2. The interdisciplinary module: the 'Big Bang' (Le 'Big-Bang', 1984). This module was tried in an experimental secondary school near Caen (France). It lasted two days and covered several subjects including physics, mathematics, literature, history and languages. T h e pupils were aged 13 and 14

89

Daniele Cros

years. T h e aim was to introduce pupils to what is k n o w n of the history of the universe and to give them an opportunity to think about science and its history from the standpoint of creation myths. T h e introductory learning activities were the same for all the pupils, covering the origin of the universe and the origins of life. T h e pupils were then divided into workshops dealing with astrology, literature, space travel (why? w h e n ? h o w ? do w e get any benefits from it?), Indian myths, light and optical instruments.

3. An 'out-of-school' week in Switzerland (Gast, 1984). In m a n y parts of Switzerland, secondary schools give pupils an 'out-of-school' week at the end of the academic year. Sixth-year pupils go on well-organized cultural trips and fifth-year pupils take part in seminars. At the Neuchâtel secondary school pupils were posed the following problem in 1983 : h o w to extract the active component from black pepper and h o w to determine experimentally its molecular structure. T h e work for the week was divided into four parts : (a) extraction of the active component from black pepper ; (b) description of the methods of instrument analysis: films, talks, exercises and special instruments for analysis ; (c) experimental determination of the structure of piperine at the Institute of Chemistry at the University of Neuchâtel ; (d) visit to the research and analytical laboratories and the computer centre of Hoffman-la-Roche (Basle). This example shows h o w effective co-operation is possible, on a very specific project, between secondary schools, universities and industry.

4. Chemistry and local industry. A number of developing countries have included in their curricula a course on chemistry in the context of local industry. For example, in Papua N e w Guinea (1980) there is a course in chemical technology. Pupils conduct a series of experiments which are all linked to the local environment. In Japan's n e w curricula (Shimozawa, 1978) there are subjects such as photography, food additives, the chemistry of aspirin and natural resources (distribution and uses). In East Africa, the aims of the chemistry syllabus are very explicit (Kenya, 1983). W h e n he finishes his education, the pupil should be able to : explain h o w nitrogen, oxygen and inert gases are separated in industry; k n o w the advantages and disadvantages of different types of fuel ; list the domestic and industrial uses of water and explain the causes and cures of pollution ; list the specific uses of chemical compounds both locally and around the world ; list the natural resources available locally and illustrate their uses in local industry; illustrate the chemical principles found in the natural environment and the corresponding industrial processes; explain the synthesis and decomposition of natural and synthetic materials ; and k n o w the relative advantages of synthetic materials over natural materials in

90


terms of structure and properties. O n e curriculum in Asia encourages projects which are related to the local environment. S o m e of these projects, as early as primary school, are based on topics such as ' h o w to choose the right fuel'.

Extracurricular activities Increasingly, extracurricular activities are being introduced alongside regular classroom work, e.g. science clubs, science excursions, chemistry olympiads and science exhibitions. 1. Science exhibitions. M a n y exhibitions are organized in various regions of the

world, often in co-operation with National Centres for Research and Industry. In Brazil and Bolivia, they are also sponsored by the A c a d e m y of Sciences. In August 1983, an exhibition called 'Everyday Chemistry' was held in Montpellier in conjunction with the seventh International Conference on Chemistry Education. Its aim was to give the general public a picture of chemistry as close as possible to reality. It is a well-known fact that the m a n in the street entertains some totally mistaken ideas about chemistry which are often based on outdated ideas. This is w h y twenty-five exhibitors (industrialists, teachers, researchers and staff from science m u s e u m s ) decided to contribute to this project. T h e exhibition's organizers wanted to create a n e w image of chemistry to replace the old idea that 'chemistry is stinks and pollution', and to counteract the tendency a m o n g young people to avoid chemistry as a subject for study. O n e of the aims of such exhibitions is to encourage people to study chemistry.

2. National chemistry olympiads. Another project aimed at arousing interest in chemistry is the national chemistry olympiad. T h e international chemistry olympiads, in which some twenty countries n o w participate, have been held regularly since 1968. All the participating countries have a strict selection system, each country entering only five to ten candidates in the final competitions. T h e level of these competitions is quite high. In terms of rank order, France comes at the 'back of the pack'. T h e image of chemistry certainly suffers in France, compared with other European countries. T h e tendency for young people to lack enthusiasm for the study of chemistry has been accentuated by the elevated status accorded to mathematics; France therefore, tends to be less competitive than some of its European neighbours. A large French industrial group had the idea of organizing a national chemistry olympiad in France for the 1984—85 school year in order to stimulate interest in the study of this fast-developing industrially relevant subject. This innovation—which stemmed from a joint initiative on the part of teachers and industrialists—aimed to promote the teaching of chemistry in secondary schools. T h e olympiad was held

91

Daniele Cros

under the auspices of the Comité National de la Chimie which includes members of the Academy of Sciences, representatives of industry, the universities and learned societies in the field of chemistry. T h e Union des Physiciens (a secondary school teachers' association) and the educational inspectorate were also associated with the event. T h e announcement of the national chemistry olympiads met with great enthusiasm by pupils in their final year at secondary school. T h e number of pupils w h o officially prepared for the olympiad far exceeded even the most optimistic forecasts. A n initial regional competition was used to select competitors for the national contest.

Teaching based o n experiments Over the past ten years, m u c h has been done all over the world to develop experiment-based teaching at all levels. M u c h emphasis has been placed on experiments which require only simple and inexpensive equipment. In particular, Unesco and the International Union of Pure and Applied Chemistry ( IUPAC) have participated in numerous international meetings to promote inexpensive experiment-based teaching of chemistry (Waddington, 1982).

After the first regional workshop held in Madras in 1981, two trends emerged: the first was towards locally manufactured equipment requiring only locally available components (an example is provided by the University of Delhi group led by D r Sane and D r Srivastava): the second was towards locally manufactured equipment which needed foreign components.

The first European workshop (Unesco/IUPAC, 1983) was held in Copenhagen (Denmark) in August 1983. It reviewed inexpensive equipment manufactured in several countries.

The Centre international francophone pour l'éducation en chimie (CIFEC) of the Université des sciences et techniques du Languedoc (Montpellier), organized an experimental workshop at the University of Tunis. Inexpensive p H meters m a d e at the Ecole Normale Supérieure in Saint-Cloud under the supervision of Professor Viovy, and in India by D r Sane's team, were tested and the results compared with those obtained with commercially available instruments. Small-scale equipment developed by J. Carretto and R . Viovy (Carretto et al., 1979) was also presented and tested. This equipment makes it possible to reduce the cost of both equipment and chemicals needed for practical work. Use of small quantities of chemicals makes m a n y experiments m u c h less dangerous to perform, especially when harmful liquids, poisonous gases and the risks of explosion are involved. Small-scale apparatus also obliges the user to work more accurately and use more care when conducting experiments, especially when these involve gathering quantitative data.

92


A project begun in 1981 in Latin American countries has produced a book

of simple experiments (Guerrero, 1982). Another initiative is P R O N A M E C

(1975), a Peruvian project carried out in co-operation with the Ministry of

Education, which publishes documents about experiments on natural

resources and on other aspects of science and technology relevant to the

situation in Peru. Since the 1960s Brazil has been using a kit of apparatus

which is distributed to schools, accompanied by booklets which are used as

pupil guides. In various provinces, there are teacher training courses in

experiment-based teaching. M a n y seminars on inexpensive equipment have

been held in Säo Paulo (Sane et al., 1983) under the direction of D r Sane

(India).

Conclusion

Since the 1970s, there has been a considerable amount of innovation in chemistry teaching throughout the world. T h e essential features of this have been the importance placed on experiment-based teaching at primary school level and during the first stage of secondary school. Projects have also shown originality in their choice of themes, which are often multidisciplinary and linked with the environment and the world of industry.

References

A R N I , A . 1980. Chemie und Biologie, N o . 1, pp. 9-15. B A C H E L A R D , G . 1965. La formation de l'esprit scientifique. Paris, Vrin. CARRETTO, J. ; C H Ô M Â T , A. ; MESMIN, M . ; VIOVY, R. 1979. Matériel de

chimie miniaturisé. Bulletin de l'Union des physiciens, N o . 613, pp. 896-705.

C A R T M E L L , E . (ed.), 1967. New Trends in Chemistry Teaching/Tendances nouvelles de l'enseignement de la chimie. Vol. 1. Paris, Unesco.

C A S T I L L O , J. S. et al. (n.d.). Mi mundo y la ciencia. Vol. I. Caracas, Ministry of Education.

C O H E N , A . 1984. Stages en entreprise 1984. Anduze, Centre expérimental Vincent Jacquet. (Internai document.)

F R A N C E . 1980. Instructions officielles pour le Cours Moyen. Arrêté du 16 juillet 1980.

G A S T , G . 1980. Arni en Suisse Romande ? Chemie und Biologie, N o . 2 , pp. 3-5.

. 1984. Extraction et détermination de la structure de la piperine. Chemie und Biologie, N o . 1, pp. 14—36.

G U E R R E R O , A . H . 1982. Repertory of Simple Experiments. Report to the Unesco Seminar-Workshop, Lima, 1982.

93

Daniele Cros

. 1984. Innovations in Science and Technology Education: Chemistry in Latin America. Buenos Aires.

G U E R R E R O , A . H . ; B O W E L L I , R . 1982. Programa de actividades experimentales para alumnos de química. Buenos Aires, Ministry of Education.

I N G L E , R. B . ; R A N A W E E R A , A . M . 1984. Curriculum Innovation in

School Chemistry. In: D . J. Waddington (ed.), Teaching School Chemistry, pp. 45-114. Paris, Unesco.

INTERNATIONAL C O N F E R E N C E O N E D U C A T I O N , 38th, Geneva, 1981. Rap

port sur le développement de l'éducation en chimie (1978-1981). Tunis, Ministry of Education.

. 39th, Geneva, 1984. Rapport sur le développement de l'éducation en Tunisie (1981-1984). Tunis, Ministry of Education.

K E N Y A . M I N I S T R Y O F E D U C A T I O N . 1983. Kenyan Advanced Certificate of

Education (KACE) in Chemistry. Nairobi, Ministry of Education. L E ' B I G - B A N G ' . 1984. L'interdisciplinarité au C L . E . Caen, Collège-

Lycée expérimental. (Internal document.) M A R T I N , J. P . 1983. Purification du sel gris. Bulletin de l'Union des

physiciens, N o . 694, p. 1071. PAPUA N E W GUINEA. DEPARTMENT OF EDUCATION. 1980. Teachers'

Guide, Grade 10. Boroko. PlAGET, J.; I N H E L D E R , B . 1969. The Psychology of the Child. Translated

from the French by Helen Weaver. London, Routledge & Kegan Paul.

P R O N A M E C . 1975. PRONAMEC. General Report. First Symposium on Chemical Education, Lima, 1975.

S A N E , K . et al. 1983. Low-cost Equipment for Chemistry Laboratories. Unesco Project. Seminar Workshop, Sao Paulo, 1983.

S H I M O Z A W A , J. T . 1978. Journal of Science Education in Japan, Vol. 2, p. 181.

UNESCO. 1972a. First Report and Evaluation of the Unesco Pilot Project for Chemistry Teaching in Asia. Paris, Unesco.

. 19726. La química en la enseñanza secundaria: un enfoque chileno. Actas del Seminario sobre Enseñanza de la Química. Montevideo, Unesco.

UNESCO/INTERNATIONAL UNION OF PURE A N D APPLIED CHEMISTRY

(IUPAC). 1983. Proceedings of the Workshop on Locally produced Laboratory Equipment for Chemical Education, Copenhagen, August 1983.

U N I O N D E S P H Y S I C I E N S . 1981. Dossier sur l'enseignement des sciences

physiques au collège. Bulletin de l'Union des physiciens, Supplement to N o . 636, July-August-September.

W A D D I N G T O N , D . J. 1982. Locally produced and Low-cost Equipment and Experiments for Chemistry Teaching. International Newsletter on Chemical Education ( IUPAC), N o . 17, August, pp. 6-8 .

94

Difficulties in concept formation

Andrée Tiberghien

Introduction

O n e aim of physics teaching is to provide students with the opt imum conditions for acquiring a grasp of concepts needed to interpret and predict natural phenomena and to solve problems. T h u s , the concepts should have wide applicability. T h e level of understanding of these concepts and the extent of their applicability will of course vary according to the age of the student and the type of instruction given.

Unfortunately, m a n y people from countries in all parts of the world agree that this aim is rarely achieved. It has been observed that, after instruction, students often experience serious difficulties in interpreting phenomena and solving problems within their field of study.

Research into the learning of physics has n o w identified some of the conceptual difficulties experienced by students. Researchers have studied students' thinking in their approach to phenomena or problem-solving and have evaluated students' understanding of concepts learnt, in some instances, from instructional sequences designed by the researchers themselves. T h e research has concentrated on three areas.

Investigations have been m a d e into the interpretations (or predictions) given by students before and after having been taught about phenomena to which physicists apply the same set of concepts. This area of research concerns what are often called representations, spontaneous reasoning, conceptions, ideas, misconceptions or alternative frameworks. Studies of this type have revealed the similarities between answers given by different students in a variety of circumstances (Driver, 1973; Driver and Easley, 1978).

Other studies have concerned problem-solving. Here again, researchers have analysed the responses given by students either orally (they were often asked to 'think aloud') or in writing (Reif, 1984). These studies, some of which have m u c h in c o m m o n with research in the cognitive sciences, have investigated the problem-solving strategies of the expert (the physics teacher)

95

Andrée Tiberghien

or computer simulation of the problem-solving process of the expert and/or the learner. A n analysis of the differences between the solutions used by teachers and those used by students, not only the types of solutions but the 'representation' of the problem (Larkin, 1983), makes it possible to formulate hypotheses about the nature of the difficulties experienced by students.

T h e third area has been concerned with evaluation, both of curricula and of the performance of individual students. Educational researchers have, of course, studied this field extensively, especially with regard to curricula (e.g. Landsheere and Landsheere, 1976). There has also been m u c h research on evaluation in relation to the specific objectives of physics instruction (e.g. Black, 1984; Wierstra, 1984). These studies yield m u c h information about students' difficulties, or, alternatively, the ease with which they master concepts, methods and techniques.

Researchers have also worked on the evaluation of individual performance, e.g. the tests given by teachers during their lessons or in the examination at the end of a course (Carre and Driver, 1984). Such evaluations call for a prior specification of the type and level of acquisition desired as well as of the contexts of application of the concepts in question.

These evaluation studies play an important role in determining what types of concepts or, more generally, what capacities students can be helped to acquire by teaching. In the context of teaching, the problem of concept formation cannot be isolated from that of evaluation of the acquisition of the concept.

S o m e examples of difficulties experienced by students in acquiring concepts

In connection with the analysis of difficulties experienced by students, there is an important point to be m a d e , especially w h e n dealing with young students or older students w h o have not previously been taught any physics. A s a rule, their frame of reference (which is often difficult to establish) is not that of the physicist. Students m a k e reference to their perceptions and everyday experiences in order to interpret phenomena. Moreover, these references m a y alter in the course of their interpretation.

T h e physicist's approach is different. Faced with a natural phenomenon, he will observe it, usually using instruments and making measurements. However, the instruments he chooses and the measurements he makes are influenced by his assumptions, models and theories, which give meaning to the measurements and their relationships. It is, therefore, often misleading to m a k e a point-by-point comparison between the student's interpretation and

96


the interpretation as it has become standardized by physicists (Wiser and Carey, 1983). T h e student's frames of reference and his theories must be taken into consideration.

Wiser and Carey refer to the history of science and the work of T . S. K u h n (1972) on scientific change in their argument against the assumption that the student's concepts and those of the expert are of the same nature. Consider, for example, the concept of force : the student's idea m a y be entirely different from that held by the physicist, both in the ways in which he applies it and in its relationship with other concepts. Posner et al. (1982) have conducted a study along these lines using as a basis the concept of time and, more specifically, that of simultaneity.

M a n y studies have dealt with the ideas or conceptions held by students before and after teaching. T h e results of these researches, which are commented on below, illustrate: (a) the degree of mental activity necessary for grasping a concept in physics, a matter which is often underestimated as demonstrated by studies conducted in educational settings and involving the concepts of temperature and heat ; and (b) the fact that the same types of difficulties are experienced by children and by university students. Examples will be taken from electrokinetics and mechanics, including the role of analogical reasoning in building up electrokinetic concepts.

Temperature and heat

Let us examine the case of thermal insulation. T h e second-year physics

curriculum in French secondary schools (average student age of 12 years)

includes an 'experimental and practical' study of thermal insulation. T h e

following questions were asked before and after the students had received

instruction (Tiberghien et al., 1984):

1. If you wanted to carry some ice cubes from one place to another, what kind

of a container would you put them in ? Y o u have

a metal cup ;

an ordinary drinking glass ; a plastic-coated paper cup ;

a drinking glass wrapped in cloth.

I don't k n o w .

Put an X beside the answer of your choice.

2 . Suppose that you want to serve a hot beverage and you want it to stay hot

for as long as possible. Which container would you choose ? (Same choice

of answers).

The correct answers (the same for both situations : plastic-coated paper cup or

a drinking glass wrapped in cloth) were given in very few cases. At the

97

Andrée Tiberghien

beginning of the year, approximately 10 per cent of the 500 pupils involved gave correct answers. At the end of the school year, there was little improvement : 13 per cent of the 335 pupils in their second year of secondary school, w h o had been taught in the traditional way, answered correctly. As expected, classes receiving teaching which emphasized thermal insulation and included pupil experiments scored better (38 per cent), but correct answers were still in the minority. It is interesting to note that even at the end of the year, m a n y pupils chose the metal cup in both cases. This answer scored the most votes in classes receiving traditional instruction (26 per cent) and was also frequently chosen by pupils in the other group of classes.

Let us examine the case of one particular pupil, a m e m b e r of the class whose work included experiments involving the concepts of heat and temperature (Tiberghien, 1979, 1980). T h e same teaching was given to a group of ten or so pupils and video tape-recordings were m a d e throughout. Each pupil also had an individual interview before and after the lessons.

At the first interview, before teaching started, pupils were asked to choose a container which would be able to keep an ice cube cold for the longest possible time and another container which would be able to keep hot water hot for the longest possible time. This pupil (Marie-Noëlle) touched a metal container and said : 'Metal makes things cold . . . metal is cold' and then chose a metal container in which to put the ice cube. Here, M - N . was using the concept of causality: because a substance is cold, it makes other things cold. She applied it to the metal which felt cold to the touch. M - N . also chose a metal container for the hot water because : 'You drink coffee from it and it keeps hot for quite a long time, and in the army m y father had little containers like this and he put coffee in them to keep it hot.'

In her first answer, M - N . used information acquired through her perceptual experience (the sense of touch): metal is cold. T o this information she applied causal reasoning linking the state of coldness and the action of cooling (something cold will m a k e other things cold). Analysis of M - N . ' s second response is a m u c h more complicated and delicate matter involving observation and emotions.

During the period of instruction, M - N . personally carried out experiments whose results contradicted her predictions. However, she continued for several weeks to use the idea that 'something cold makes other things cold' in relation to metals, even after she had observed and memorized the fact that, in a room, the temperature of various objects (which were not controlled by thermostats) was the same. It is worth noting that she also had the opportunity to distinguish between sources of heat (her o w n body, electric elements, etc.) and other objects.

This example shows that neither the most rigorous and logical d e m o n -

98


stration nor experimental evidence will necessarily change the mind of someone w h o thinks otherwise. T o help interpret this fact, let us very briefly consider the following idea. O u r mental activity can be considered in terms of bits of information (in a very broad sense, this can also m e a n procedures) which interact with one another, and not in terms of 'compartments' which are filled or which are modified independently of one another. W h e n a person acquires n e w concepts, it is m u c h more difficult to reorganize a set of information than it is to replace one 'compartment' by another or to create a new 'compartment' without having to modify the others. This 'model' offers us better understanding of the difficulties involved in the acquisition of a n e w concept (Rumelhart and N o r m a n , 1976, 1981).

After several weeks of instruction, M - N . had learned another kind of interpretation. She came to analyse various situations by using the idea that heat could travel more or less easily in different materials. Six weeks after the end of the instruction period, she said, for example, about a metal container : 'It's a conductor . . . the heat of the hot water will go on to the walls and then it will go through. . . .'

N o n e the less, in some instances M - N . still used her old style of interpretation. For example, in the same test (the final examination), she answered two different questions on conduction as follows : in the first case, she used the idea that heat could travel more or less readily in different materials ; in the second case, she referred to her experience : coffee pots are m a d e of metal; therefore a metal container keeps liquid hot. In this latter instance, she did not mobilize die 'right' information.

Analysis of the modifications in M - N . 's interpretations led us to m a k e the following inferences. Before instruction M - N . had certain bits of information (knowledge, reasoning, etc.) : Metal is cold to the touch. Plastic is not cold to the touch. Coffee can be drunk out of metal containers. Her father had used metal containers. Coffee pots are m a d e of metal. Different materials have different characteristics.

She also k n e w the words 'heat' and 'movement' which she had even associated with each another (she had used them in other situations). She m a d e comparisons between materials, using what she perceived w h e n touching them as a criterion. She used causal relationships: (a) between the perception of cold and the fact that something is cold (or rather, colder than other materials) ; (b) between a cold object and its ability to m a k e other things cold ; and (c) between the usual function of an object and its properties, etc. After instruction, M - N . retained the information she already had and added other

99

Andrée Tiberghien

information, for example : some of the results of the experiments which she had done or observed (the fact that various objects in a room are at the same temperature, etc.); certain information supplied by the teacher (the words 'conductor', 'insulator', etc.).

However , these acquisitions are not sufficient in themselves to enable M - N . to utilize a concept of conduction. She still used the same reasoning, but with different terms; or she used the same words, but with altered meanings. For example, she makes the distinction between heat and the hot object (the heat of hot water) ; she assigns to heat the property of movement within a material ; she still compares materials with other materials, but her criterion is the ease with which heat goes through them, rather than the feeling of heat or cold. This system of classification enables her to use the words 'conductor' and 'insulator' correctly.

This example illustrates h o w , in order to learn a concept, it is necessary to restructure both n e w and pre-existing information (Norman, 1983). This restructuring is accompanied by a modification of the ways of using old information. It is then possible to mobilize the 'right' information at the 'right' time.

Electric circuits

This field has been studied extensively with students at various levels, from primary-school children to university students. W e shall not discuss here the various arrangements proposed by young and not-so-young students for lighting a lamp by using a battery, wires and bulbs (Tiberghien and Delacote, 1976; Andersson and Karrquist, 1979; Fredette and Lochhead, 1980). W e shall illustrate instead one of the difficulties encountered in the acquisition of the concept of electric current : m a n y students do not understand that, in a closed circuit, electric current is conserved.

R2

^ V W — ' ±

FIG. 1.

100


Let us consider the following question which was put to pupils aged

between 12 and 17 (first to sixth year of secondary school education, c o m

prehensive school) (Shipstone, 1984). T h e students were asked to say whether

the light would be brighter or less bright in accordance with the variations

of the resistances R\ and R2 (Fig. 1). Their replies indicated a very

widespread belief that electric current is not conserved : w h e n a resistance is

increased, the current in the part of the circuit after that resistances decreases,

whereas before it remained unchanged. For pupils in the third and fourth

years of secondary school (14 and 15 years old) this was the response most

often given (59 and 52 per cent respectively). Even in the sixth year of

instruction (age 17), approximately one-third of the students (31 per cent)

used this idea in their answers, i.e. that the current was not maintained. T h e

arguments most frequently used to justify these answers were similar to that

given by a sixth-year student (age 17). (If Ri is decreased, the brightness of

the bulb will remain the same because:) 'Ri is positioned after the bulb (in

terms of the flow of the current of electrons) so it will not obstruct the

voltage.' (If R2 is increased, the brightness of the bulb will decrease because:)

' Ä 2 comes before the bulb and therefore will impede the flow of energy to the

bulb since electrons flow from — to + . ' A n d yet these students had been

taught the appropriate concepts. Here again, w e are faced with a genuine

learning difficulty.

It has been observed that, even at university level, this difficulty can

persist. Even when exercises such as the one given above do not yield

incorrect answers, other questions that are more complex, but which cover the

same concept, can elicit the same type of reasoning (Closset, 1983). Related

researches have shown the difficulties associated with the concept of potential,

which appears to be an extremely demanding one (Cohen et al., 1983;

Rhöneck, 1984).

This field has also provided opportunities for studying the role of analogy

(or simple images) in learning (Gentner and Gentner, 1983). This work is

especially interesting in view of the likelihood that analogy is a very good

method of acquiring concepts (see review article: Cauzinille et al., in

preparation). Here w e are concerned with analogies which enable us to draw

inferences ('generative' analogies) as opposed to literary analogies, or those

which assist expression of a thought.

In the case of these 'generative' analogies, findings show that, depending

on the sphere of reference used, some problems are more easily solved than

others (Gentner and Gentner, 1983). T h e study was conducted with students

w h o were completing their secondary schooling or beginning a course at

university. T w o areas of reference were used. O n e was a hydraulic circuit (a

tank or p u m p was the equivalent of the generator and a pipe of reduced bore

101

Andrée Tiberghien

was the equivalent of the resistor; the water current corresponded to the electric current and the pressure corresponded to potential). T h e other area of reference consisted of objects in motion (the current is represented as a throng of small objects, the voltage as a forward pressure and a resistor as a barrier which is only partially opened).

Reference to the analogy of small objects in motion enabled students to give better answers to questions about changes in the current w h e n a simple circuit (generator, resistor) was modified to become a circuit with two resistors in series or in parallel. For example, when there are two parallel barriers, the current passes more easily.

T h e hydraulic analogy seems to lead to better answers in the case of generators in parallel or in series. However , this analogy presents a real problem, because students in their final year at secondary school or in their first year at university do not seem to have yet mastered the subject of hydraulics : for example, they do not understand that the water pressure in the circuit is different depending on whether the tanks are in series or in parallel. W e must, therefore, be very cautious w h e n utilizing analogies in teaching. It is necessary to m a k e sure that the students have mastered the field of reference before drawing an analogy from it.

It is worth mentioning that another study (Joshua, 1984) shows that, independently of the formal use of analogy in teaching, the metaphor of a fluid in motion was very frequently used by students.

Mechanics

This field has attracted by far the most research on students' conceptions, ideas, etc. as well as on problem-solving. McDermot t (1984) has produced an excellent review of the problems experienced by students in interpreting mechanical phenomena. For example, for m a n y students, motion implies the existence of a force; force varies with speed, etc. These findings show h o w m a n y of the same problems are shared by children and adults, even though adults are often confronted with more complicated situations (see e.g. Viennot, 1979; Sjoberg and Lie, 1981; Clement, 1982; McCloskey, 1983). Similarly, observation of students during and after teaching reveals the difficulties involved in the acquisition of concepts from the field of mechanics (Champagne et al., 1983; Driver, 1985).

W e shall n o w illustrate the procedural difficulties experienced in applying principles or concepts of mechanics. W e shall use the findings of studies in which the same questions were asked of students (aged 15; fourth year of secondary school) and of teachers teaching in schools at the same level (Khraibani-Mounayar, 1984).

102


The teachers' responses to two of the questions are given below. In the

first case, a subject, standing on the ground, had to push successively a light

bag resting on a table, a wall, a wardrobe and a rather heavy desk. T h e teacher

was asked to explain what happens (or what does not happen), either in his

o w n words or by answering questions such as 'what acts on what?' O n the

whole, the teachers affirmed the equality of reciprocal actions. However , they

did not always use, or even draw upon, this principle in the way that a

physicist would have done. For example, a teacher said, 'The force exerted by

the wall will always be greater than mine, so I cannot m o v e it (the wall).'

Another teacher said, ' W h e n I m o v e it (the bag), the force of m y hand on the

bag will be greater than the force of the bag on m y hand because there is

motion. . . .'

A second situation involved a weighted ping-pong ball which was placed

on a balance pan bearing a container full of water. T h e teacher was asked to

predict what the pointer on the balance scale would record, first when the ball

was at the bottom of the container full of water, and then when the ball, still in

the water, was suspended by a string. For example, w h e n the ball was at the

bottom of the container, a teacher remarked, 'There are forces pressing . . .

from the liquid . . . I mean . . . the weight of the ball ; you have Archimedes'

principle.' With the ball suspended on a string, one response was that 'part of

the weight will be compensated by Archimedes' principle . . . the weight

recorded will be less than that when the ball is at the bottom of the container

full of water'.

These comments show that the teachers had difficulties with procedures ;

in this case, the correct utilization of an idea such as Archimedes' principle

even when they could state it, or the distinction between forces within the

system (container plus ball) and forces external to it.

Studies in the area of problem-solving also demonstrate the extent to

which students have failed to master correct procedures specific to problem-

solving and to the utilization of concepts (Larkin, 1983; Reif, 1984). It is

often observed that these are not explicitly taught. S o m e of these findings

have been the basis of proposals for better teaching methods designed to

improve the performance of students (Faucher, 1984; Fergusson-Hessler and

D e Jong, 1984; Gil Perez and Martinez Torregrosa, 1984; V a n Weeren,

1984).

Learning models and the teaching of physics

At present, research findings are still far from being able to provide models for

concept learning in physics. Nevertheless, m a n y psychologists, specialists in

103

Andrée Tiberghien

cognitive sciences and educationists have worked, and are continuing to work , towards this end.

Established findings such as the notion that cognitive structures develop in stages, as set forth by Piaget (1974) and confirmed by numerous studies, constitute important steps towards a better understanding of the learning process.

Other psychologists have studied learning from the standpoint of the relationship between stimuli and responses, or between the initial conditions of the individual learner and the intended changes or modifications in individual performance (Gagné, 1977 ; N o v a k , 1979). These important studies also provide a foundation for research in the field of learning.

At present, most studies by psychologists in this sphere are focused on the processes that occur inside the individual. T h e stimulation received by the individual is transformed and processed in a great m a n y ways by the individual's internal structures: the whole\area of the processing of information in the m e m o r y is involved here. N o r m a n (1983) writes:

People's views of the world, of themselves, of their own capabilities, and of the tasks that they are asked to perform, or topics they are asked to learn, depend heavily on the conceptualizations that they bring to the task. In interacting with the environment, with others, and with the artefacts of technology, people form internal, mental models of themselves and of the things with which they are interacting. These models provide predictive and explanatory power for understanding the interaction.

A s regards the consequences for the teaching of physics, there is no doubt whatsoever that the work of Piaget on the one hand and that of the behaviourists on the other have influenced curriculum developments. This does not m e a n that the content of a course can be deduced directly from the models. Planning the content of a course of instruction entails taking into consideration m a n y types of factors; for example, in order to define the objectives of a course, one must specify the criteria according to which choices are to be m a d e (Martinand, 1982).

Various research projects have undertaken the development and, in m a n y cases, the evaluation of a course of instruction making explicit use of learning models or hypotheses (see the review by Driver, 1985). For example, some projects have stressed the importance of placing students in cognitive conflict situations (Stavy and Berkovitz, 1980). Others have emphasized the importance of discussion between students, and between teachers and students (Champagne et al., 1983). Still others are based on Piaget's theory of stages (Shayer and A d e y , 1981).

104


Conclusion

In conclusion, it must be acknowledged that the ways in which the concepts of physics are acquired still remain obscure. Even so, current findings can already be used by teachers. For example, knowledge of possible difficulties can help teachers to gain a clearer insight into the learning problems faced by their students. T h u s , in the course of discussions, examinations and experiments it will be easier for them to understand the explanations given by their students and recognize their difficulties. This can help the teacher to adapt the content and the pace of instruction to students' needs. In addition, teachers can m a k e students more aware of their o w n difficulties and the need to overcome them before they can acquire n e w knowledge. Secondly, the recognition that students have often failed to grasp the procedures that enable them to m a k e correct use of what they k n o w in solving problems or interpreting experiments makes it possible for the teacher to bring the content of instruction m o r e closely into line with the needs of students. T h u s , certain procedures might be explicitly taught to the students.

Finally, w h e n studying concept formation w e should not lose sight of the manifold aims of physics teaching. E v e n if the learning models are effective, they will not automatically determine the objectives of the course. T h e choice of objectives still remains to be m a d e .

References

ANDERSSON, B . ; K A R R Q U I S T , C . 1979. Elektriska Kretsar. Mölndal (Sweden), Gothenburg University. ( E K N A Report, N o . 2.)

B L A C K , P . 1984. National Monitoring of School Science Performance in the United Kingdom. In : Recherche en didactique de la physique : les actes du premier atelier international, La Londe, 1983, pp. 363-82. Paris, Editions du Centre National de la Recherche Scientifique.

C A R R E , A . ; DRIVER, R . 1984. Evaluation des performances individuelles. In: Recherche en didactique de la physique: les actes du premier atelier international, La Londe, 1983, pp. 523-33. Paris, Editions du Centre National de la Recherche Scientifique.

C A U Z I N I L L E , E . ; M A T H I E U , J.; W E I L - B A R A I S , A . (In preparation.)

Raisonnement analogique et résolution de problèmes. L'année psychologique (Paris).

C H A M P A G N E , A . ; G U N S T O N E , R . ; K L O P F E R , L . 1983. Effecting Changes in Cognitive Structure Amongst Physics Students. Paper presented at the Symposium on Stability and Change in Conceptual Understanding. Annual Meeting of the American Educational Research Association, Montreal.

105

Andrée Tiberghien

C L E M E N T , J. 1982. Students* Preconceptions in Introductory Mechanics. American Journal of Physics, Vol. 50, N o . 1, pp. 66-71.

C L O S S E T , J. L . 1983. Le raisonnement séquentiel en électronique. (Thèse de 3e cycle, Paris, Université de Paris 7.)

C O H E N , R . ; E Y L O N , B . ; G A N I E L , U . 1983. Potential Difference and Current in Simple Electric Circuits. American Journal of Physics, Vol. 51, N o . 5, pp. 407-12.

D R I V E R , R . 1973. The Representation of Conceptual Frameworks in Young Adolescent Science Students. (Ph.D. thesis, Urbana, 111., University of Illinois.)

. 1985. Cognitive Psychology and Pupils' Frameworks in Mechanics. In: P. Lijnse (ed.), The Many Faces of Teaching and Learning Mechanics. Utrecht, W C C .

D R I V E R , R . ; E A S L E Y , J. 1978. Pupils and Paradigms: A Review of Literature Related-to Concept Development in Adolescent Science Students. Studies in Science Education, Vol. 5, pp. 61-84.

F A U C H E R , G . 1984. Résolution de problèmes et enseignement individualisé. In: Recherche en didactique de la physique: les actes du premier atelier international, La Londe, ¡983, pp. 297-302. Paris, Editions du Centre National de la Recherche Scientifique.

F E R G U S S O N - H E S S L E R , M . ; D E J O N G , T . 1984. O n Success and Failure in

the Solving of Electricity and Magnetism Problems. In : Recherche en didactique de la physique: les actes du premier atelier international, La Londe, 1983, pp. 271-9. Paris, Editions du Centre National de la Recherche Scientifique.

F R E D E T T E , N . ; L O C H H E A D , J. 1980. Students' Conceptions of Simple Circuits. The Physics Teacher, Vol. 18, pp. 194-8.

G A G N É , R . M . 1977. The Conditions of Learning. N e w York, Holt, Rinehart & Winston.

G E N T N E R , D . ; G E N T N E R , D . R . 1983. Flowing Waters or Teeming Crowds: Mental Models of Electricity. In: D . Gentner and A . L . Stevens (eds.), Mental Models, pp. 99-129. Hillsdale, N . J . , Lawrence Erlbaum Associates.

G I L P E R E Z , D . ; M A R T I N E Z T O R R E G R O S A , J. 1984. Problem Solving

in Physics: A Critical Analysis. In: Recherche en didactique de la physique: les actes du premier atelier international, La Londe, 1983, pp. 289-96. Paris, Editions du Centre National de la Recherche Scientifique.

J O S H U A , S. 1984. La métaphore du fluide et le raisonnement en courant. In: Recherche en didactique de la physique: les actes du premier atelier international, La Londe, 1983, pp. 321-30. Paris, Editions du Centre National de la Recherche Scientifique.

K H R A I B A N I - M O U N A Y A R , S. 1984. Registres d'interprétation des élèves et des professeurs de collège dans le domaine de la mécanique. (Thèse de 3e cycle, Paris, Université de Paris 7 ; Directeur de thèse G . Lemeig-nan.)

K U H N , T . S. 1972. La structure des révolutions scientifiques. Paris, Flammarion.

L A N D S H E E R E , G . ; L A N D S H E E R E V . 1976. Définir les objectifs de l'éducation. Paris, Presses Universitaires de France.

106


L A R K I N , J. H . 1983. The Role of Problem Representation in Physics. In: D . Gentner and A . L . Stevens (eds.), Mental Models, pp. 75-98. Hillsdale, N . J . , Lawrence Erlbaum Associates.

M C C L O S K E Y , M . 1983. Intuitive Physics. Scientific American, Vol. 248, N o . 4, pp. 114-22.

M C D E R M O T T , L . C . 1984. Critical Review of Research in the Domain of Mechanics. In: Recherche en didactique de la physique: les actes du premier atelier international, LaLonde, 1983, pp. 137-82. Paris, Editions du Centre National de la Recherche Scientifique.

M A R T I N A N D , J. L . 1982. Contribution à la caractérisation des objectifs de l'initiation aux sciences et techniques. (Thèse d'Etat, Paris, Université de Paris 11.) (To be published by P. Lang, Berne.)

N O R M A N , D . A . 1983. Some Observations on Mental Models. In: D . Gentner and A . L . Stevens (eds.), Mental Models, pp. 7-14. Hillsdale, N . J . , Lawrence Erlbaum Associates.

N O V A K , J. D . 1979. Methodological Issues in Investigating Meaningful Learning. In : Cognitive Development Research in Science and Mathematics, pp. 129-48. Leeds, Centre for Studies in Science Education, University of Leeds.

PlAGET, J. 1974. See for example: Introduction à l'épistémologie génétique. 2nd ed. Vol. 2: La pensée physique. Paris, Presses. Universitaires de France.

P O S N E R , G. J. ; STRIKE, K . A. ; H E W S O N , P. W . ; G E R T Z O G , W . A. 1982.

Accommodation of a Scientific Conception: Toward a Theory of Conceptual Change. Science Education, Vol. 66, No. 2, pp. 211-27.

REIF, F . 1984. Understanding and Teaching Problem Solving in Physics. In: Recherche en didactique de la physique: les actes du premier atelier international, La Londe, 1983, pp. 15-53. Paris, Editions du Centre National de la Recherche Scientifique.

R H Ö N E C K , C . von. 1984. Semantic Structures Describing the Electric Circuit Before and After Instruction. In : Recherche en didactique de la physique: les actes du premier atelier international, La Londe, 1983, pp. 303-12. Paris, Editions du Centre National de la Recherche Scientifique.

R U M E L H A R T , D . E . ; N O R M A N , D . A . 1976. Accretion, Tuning, and Restructuring: Three Modes of Learning. San Diego, Calif., University of California,Department of Psychology, Center for H u m a n Processing. (Technical Report, N o . 63.)

; . 1981. Analogical Processes in Learning. In: J. R . Anderson (ed.), Cognitive Skills and their Acquisition, pp. 335-59. Hillsdale, N . J . , Lawrence Erlbaum Associates.

S H A Y E R , M . ; A D E Y , P. 1981. Towards a Science of Science Teaching. London, Heinemann.

S H I P S T O N E , D . M . 1984. A Study of Children's Understanding of Electricity in Simple D . C . Circuits. European Journal of Science Education, Vol. 6, pp. 185-98.

SjOBERG, S . ; L I E , S. 1981. Ideas about Force and Movement Among Norwegian Pupils and Students. Oslo, University of Oslo. (Institute of Physics Report Series, Report 81-11.)

S T A V Y , R . ; B E R K O V I T Z , B . 1980. Cognitive Conflict as a Basis for

107

Andrée Tiberghien

Teaching Quantitative Aspects of the Concept of Temperature. Science Education, Vol. 64, N o . 5, pp. 679-92.

T I B E R G H I E N , A . 1979. Modes and Conditions of Learning. A n Example : The Learning of Some Aspects of the Concept of Heat. In : Cognitive Development Research in Science and Mathematics, pp. 288-309. Leeds, Centre for Studies in Science Education, University of Leeds.

. 1980. U n exemple de restructuration de l'organisation conceptuelle à l'occasion d'un enseignement concernant la notion de chaleur. In: Compte-rendus des Deuxièmes Journées sur l'éducation scientifique, Cha-monix.

TIBERGHIEN, A. ; BARBOUX, M . ; C H Ô M Â T , A. ; SERE, M . G. 1984. Etude des représentations préalables de quelques notions de sciences physiques et leur évolution chez les élèves de collège. Paris, I N A P , L I R E S P T . (Rapport de recherche.)

T I B E R G H I E N , A . ; D E L A C O T E , G . 1976. Manipulations et représentations

de circuits électriques simples par des enfants de 7 à 12 ans. Revue française de pédagogie, N o . 34, pp. 32-44.

V A N W E E R E N , J. H . P . 1984. Route Mapping and Réflexion in the Process of Learning Problem Solving. In: Recherche en didactique de la physique: les actes du premier atelier international, La Londe, 1983, pp. 257-60. Paris, Editions du Centre National de la Recherche Scientifique.

VlENNOT, L . 1979. Spontaneous Reasoning in Elementary Dynamics. European Journal of Science Education, Vol. 1, N o . 2, pp. 205-22.

WlERSTRA, R . F . A . 1984. Cognitive and Affective Curriculum-Evaluation in the P L Ö N Project. In: Recherche en didactique de la physique: les actes du premier atelier international, La Londe, 1983, pp. 383-9. Paris, Editions du Centre National de la Recherche Scientifique.

W I S E R , M . ; C A R E Y , S. 1983. W h e n Heat and Temperature were O n e . In : D . Gentner and A . L . Stevens (eds.), Mental Models, pp. 75-98. Hillsdale, N . J . , Lawrence Erlbaum Associates.

108

Towards a practical physics : experiments that can be done at home and in other out-of-school situations

Luis Carlos de Menezes

Introduction

M a n y physics experiments, normally performed in teaching laboratories, can be done at h o m e . All that is needed is some ability, a few tools and inventive thinking.

For a number of reasons, the 'laboratory at h o m e ' is important. Under certain conditions, e.g. when there are severe economic limitations on the state school system, it might be the only option available to a teacher if he wants his students to perform experiments. Even where the circumstances are not so constrained, teachers need to be aware of the potential of the 'laboratory at h o m e ' to extend their science teaching to the whole environment of the student.

The aim of this paper is to explore a new practical approach to physics teaching. A related development, very similar in intention, is described in a recent book, Physics for Rural Development (Swift, 1983). This outlines in great detail, for rural areas, what is proposed here, briefly, for urban environments.

All the efforts that have been m a d e already in the direction of 'low-cost' and 'laboratory-independent' experimental sets of scientific apparatus are particularly important for the developing areas of the world. T h e n e w practical approach is convergent with these efforts and makes use of them. However, it goes beyond them in that its aim is to produce a new attitude in teachers and educators towards the learning of science and especially towards a practical experimental physics.

While some aspects of the approach are important to teachers in both primary and secondary schools in any country, the principal message is

109


addressed to secondary-school teachers in the developing countries, and to those w h o train these teachers. Secondary school is here meant to include die fifth to the twelfth school years.

Towards a practical physics

T h e division of labour which, in our times, has manifested itself in extreme specialization, has been both cause and consequence of technical progress and results from the nature of contemporary modes of production. This division, however, has sharpened a not very clear distinction between science and technology with results which, particularly in basic education, are far from desirable.

Basic education today reflects this distinction by its incorporation of some assumptions which have been generated in certain advanced economies, but which have none the less been widely accepted throughout the world. These assumptions are: 1. Technology is based on science. 2. Technical learning must therefore be preceded by scientific knowledge. 3. Scientific knowledge must be learnt in its whole universality, beginning

with concepts which are simple from an academic point of view. These 'truths' are quite misleading w h e n applied to elementary education or introductory courses. T h e first is even false, since scientific-technological dependence is reciprocal, both n o w and historically. A s for the other two, they m a y well be applicable in higher education where students are mature and able to handle abstractions. They are, however, quite inappropriate for most of elementary education.

Just as in the learning of a language, where practical and useful phrases must precede the grammatical rules, so in the learning of science, especially of physics, general laws and concepts must be preceded by selected practical examples in terms of which the abstract laws can then 'make sense'. These examples should be simple, but the criterion for simplicity should not be derived from the classical academic version of the subject. For instance, from a practical point of view, electric current is a simpler idea than point charges and O h m ' s law is simpler than Coulomb's law. F r o m the standpoint of classical physics, however, the reverse is true.

Over 90 per cent of all students, worldwide, w h o attend physics classes at school will not be able to apply anything of what they have learnt in these classes. It is not difficult to understand w h y . In a physics teaching sequence in which the study of mechanics starts with point particles, or that of electricity starts with Coulomb's law, there is seldom enough time for learning also about

110


tools, electric circuits or electric motors. Even less will be learnt about

combustion engines or refrigerators because entropy is such a sophisticated

concept that few would dare to talk about these things before teaching first

about the Carnot cycle. In such situations, it is rare to find a secondary-school

student (or even a teacher) w h o can do something as simple as, for example,

choosing the correct fuse to protect part of the electric circuit of his o w n

house. A n d this happens in a world where the whole production system, to say

nothing of automobiles, houses and communications systems, is laden with

the physics which mankind has learnt over the centuries.

Both as users and as future producers, young people should be prepared to

understand this practical physics. T h e formal knowledge m a y sometimes

precede, sometimes follow, the practical learning, but should never be learnt

instead of it. However, the teaching of such practical physics can be a

challenge to m a n y teachers. T he change m a y best be made gradually, by the

introduction of 'elements of reality' into the regular physics courses, as

motivations or applications.

Neither textbooks nor teaching laboratories are at present well designed to

handle practical problems. In m u c h of the developing world, schools in

general have no science laboratory at all, while teachers are often afraid to

tackle technical problems because their o w n education in physics has involved

the same formal teaching that they themselves use with their students. In

recognition of these difficulties, the suggestions made in this chapter do not

depend upon the teacher being in possession of 'all the answers'. But he

should stimulate students to make observations in their physical environment

and then he should help them to interpret the observed phenomena or the data

obtained.

The education goal is a double one; to promote among students and

teachers a better understanding of what they use, see and do, and at the same

time to establish clear links between 'blackboard physics' and real life.

Examples of out-of-school laboratories

Essentially, everything can be the object of physical experimentation or observation. This is not to say that the whole world is a big physics laboratory. A laboratory is supposed to have instruments for observation and measurement. But even if resources are limited, some form of out-of-school laboratory m a y be possible. M u c h depends on what is intended. If one is concerned with understanding the phenomenon, that is to say with asking 'what is going on ?' or ' h o w does it work? ' , then one's o w n senses plus an inquiring attitude m a y be enough. However , if one wants to determine, or to verify, a quantitative

111


relationship, then it is necessary to have measuring instruments; even so,

what can be considered to be a measuring instrument will be determined by

the required precision of the measurement.

In an introductory study of thermodynamics, for instance, the students

can m a k e a qualitative investigation of refrigerators, following visually the

circuit (tubes) of the refrigerating substance, identifying the compressor, the

radiator, the expansion valve (or capillary) and the evaporator. B y touching

with their fingers, they will be able to tell where it is hotter or colder. They

will realize that the radiator is invariably painted black, and that, whether in

the h o m e or in the ice cream shop, refrigerators have similar parts. In the

latter case, it m a y become clearer that the electricity enters the system just to

feed the motor that drives the compressor. After such an 'investigation' the

blackboard explanation of a refrigerator surely will be more 'real' and

understandable. Also, statements that gases become hotter (or colder) w h e n

compressed (or expanded) m a y n o w , for the first time, become meaningful.

O f course, the teacher must prepare himself to explain the refrigerator and to

link its functioning to general laws, some of them quantitative, that apply

equally to combustion engines, which could be simultaneously under 'inves

tigation' by another group of students.

While studying statics it m a y be interesting to let the students m a k e

semi-quantitative experiments, for example, on conservation of mechanical

work. Take, for instance, a jack used to raise an automobile. The student

might evaluate h o w m u c h force he is applying by comparison with the amount

of water he is able to hold in a container w h e n applying that same force. Next,

he can measure on a scale the displacement of his hand and h o w m u c h he has

raised the car with that movement . The weight of the car (half of which is

being raised) can be found from the manufacturer's specifications. T h e

products of each force by its displacement will be approximately equal,

although some errors are to be expected, and should be explained.

Most jacks are a combination of levers and worm-screws. T h e mechanical

advantage of such a jack can be calculated as the product of those of the simple

machines that constitute it. T h e mechanical advantage (resultant force/applied

force) so obtained can be compared with the one measured or obtained from

the conservation of work.

These mechanical experiments are not particularly accurate. They are,

however, important in order to give the students a feeling for the orders of

magnitude of forces, which they could hardly obtain in any other way. It is

always important to have, at the same time, different groups of students

observing similar systems such as simple tools like screwdrivers and spanners ;

civil construction cranes ; assemblies of pulleys to raise motors in automobile

repair stations ; and bicycle or motor-cycle gears. W h e n studying dynamics a

112


good site for observations would be an amusement park where energy conservation and centripetal force, for instance, have important roles to play.

Things discovered by a group of students should be shared with other groups in the classroom. Non-conclusive observations should be subjected to critical analysis. This sort of project should not be proposed without a previous thematic investigation by the teacher in order to determine what is available in the neighbourhood or what is of most relevance to the students. Ideally, this sort of neighbourhood reconnaissance should be m a d e simultaneously for different disciplines, such as physics and chemistry and even social studies.

Physics of homes and cars : a subject available everywhere

S o m e subjects, because they are almost universal, could, with little adap

tation, be investigated by students of whatever country or place. H o m e s , with

their particular facilities or appliances, and cars, with their systems and

instruments, are good examples of such subjects.

M a n y different features of a house can be investigated systematically,

ranging from the statics of its construction to its thermal insulation in cold

countries. In m a n y situations, the electric and hydraulic systems of the h o m e

are relevant and proper subjects for physical experiments. Kitchen thermo

dynamics can also provide interesting and creative illustrations.

T o be more specific, let us concentrate on the electrical system. Suppose

O h m ' s law and the heating effect of an electric current are being studied in a

physics course for the eleventh or twelfth school year. W e can list some

experimental tasks that could be given to students, after having first provided

some safety instructions :

1. F r o m observations on the position of outlets (power points) and switches,

draw a plausible diagram of the electrical wiring of your h o m e (including

the approximate length of each piece of wire).

2. O p e n carefully one outlet and compare the thickness of the wire with some

short pieces of standard wiring (previously collected at the local hardware

store). D o the same at the box of fuses. Try, with this, to evaluate the

electrical resistivity of each partial circuit (use tables of properties of

copper, available in the textbooks).

3. M a k e a note of the nominal power of each electrical appliance in the h o m e ,

and compare each with the number of revolutions per minute m a d e by the

pointer on the electric meter of the house (use your watch), w h e n this

113


appliance only is working (e.g. a lamp, electric heater, television set, radio,

washing machine).

4 . See n o w if you can use the electric meter (which usually measures energy in

kilowatt-hours) as a meter of power (in watts).

5. Find out if the power registered by the meter w h e n you have several

appliances functioning at the same time is really the sum of the individual

powers.

6. Calculate the currents in a particular wire, connected to a fuse, for

different loads (i.e. with different appliances connected to the outlets

served by that particular wiring). Compare this current with the value

which is marked on the fuse protecting that wire (10 amperes or 30

amperes for instance).

7. Calculate the heating per metre of this wire for m a x i m u m load and try to

deduce the role of the fuse. W h a t is the m a x i m u m power that each fuse at

your h o m e can accept without fusing ('burning') ?

These are only a few of the questions which could be asked in connection with

this particular investigation. M a n y different investigations on the electricity of

a house or on h o m e appliances are possible, but there is little point in entering

further into details which m a y not be reproducible elsewhere. For instance,

some houses have 'magnetic fuses' that do not 'burn' at all. A teacher m a y

decide to perform some of these 'real life' experiments at school, either

because they are appropriate as demonstrations or because he m a y find them

difficult or too dangerous to be done at h o m e . If he does so, he needs only

standard equipment, like plugs, lamps, wire and fuses, that can be bought at

the local hardware stores. A laboratory is not necessary, as the normal

electrical supply to the classroom will suffice. Hopefully, students will

recognize this experimental physics elsewhere in their lives.

Cars and vehicles in general, particularly their parts and instruments

which are easy to obtain (used or damaged) at repair stations or at wrecked

cars retailers, are a permanent source of material for investigation. Young

people everywhere demonstrate great interest and surprising technical k n o w

ledge on these subjects. T h e teacher could guide this interest to investigations

that are relevant to the topic being treated in the physics class. Examples

are:

1. S o m e instruments displayed on the panel of vehicles are actually galva

nometers connected to different electric sensors, e.g. thermocouples.

2. T h e production of sparks (for the combustion) from a low voltage direct

current source is an interesting system involving capacitors and coils.

3. Clutch, accelerator and brakes are operated by simple levers. T h e

steering-wheel and gears are 'disguised' levers. Both are relevant to the

study of statics.

114


4 . T h e fluid system of brakes and the gasoline p u m p are simple but

interesting applications of hydrostatics.

This list would be readily extended. Even the terrible car collisions can be

related to the study of dynamics : Newton 's second law can be used to show

that an undeformable vehicle is less safe for the user than a partially

deformable one. T h e understandng of this has changed the concept of car

safety in the last decade.

Cars or houses, earth or sky, industries or living nature, everything m a y be

investigated. T h e criteria for deciding what is feasible, relevant, safe and

appropriate must be decided by each teacher according to the particular

social, cultural and economic contexts in which he works. Ideally, groups of

teachers from a given neighbourhood might associate to discuss c o m m o n

projects, to develop instructional ideas and materials related to their social

environment, and to try to m a k e their work as educators more fertile and

useful for their students and their country.

Reference

S W I F T , D . G . 1983. Physics for Rural Development. N e w York, Wiley.

Further reading

E D G E , R . D . String and Sticky-tape Experiments. In: E . J. W e n h a m (ed.), New Trends in Physics Teaching. Vol. 4 , pp. 309-39. Paris, Unesco, 1984.

J A M A I C A . M I N I S T R Y O F E D U C A T I O N . Improvisations in Science. A Handbook for Teachers. Kingston, Gleaner & Co. Ltd, 1981.

LOCKARD, J. D . (ed.). New Unesco Source Book for Science Teaching. Paris, Unesco, 1973. (Especially chapters 2 and 4.)

L O W E , N . K . (ed.). New Trends in School Science Equipment. Paris, Unesco, 1983.

115

Applications of calculators and computers in science and mathematics education Rlchard L Shumway

In recent years calculators and computers have become inexpensive enough to be considered potential educational tools for children. Throughout m u c h of the world, adult computations are done routinely with a calculator (handheld, electronic calculator). Such use of calculators is not limited to the so-called developed or industrialized nations, nor is interest in using computers so limited. W e will assume calculators and computers are, or can be, made available for the study of mathematics and science by school-age children. T o illustrate the tenability of such an assumption, consider a major manufacturer w h o , five years after beginning production on a high-quality, scientific calculator, found the price reduced by a factor of 40. T h e same company has just announced a portable, self-contained, battery-powered computer with nearly 4 0 0 K of read only m e m o r y ( R O M ) , nearly 300K of random access m e m o r y ( R A M ) , and something on the order of ten times the computing power and m e m o r y as respected, full-sized microcomputers currently available at the same price. It is possible such computers will be available in the future for the price of two or three books. Consequently, in this chapter w e shall be future oriented, assume calculators and computers can be made available to children in some form, and focus on the potential implications of such availability for the learning of mathematics and science.

It is natural to look to research for guidance about the use of calculators and computers. T h e Educational Resources Information Center (ERIC) Clearinghouse for Science, Mathematics and Environmental Education; (Ohio State University) has published several reviews of research on calculators and computers (Suydam, 1981a, 19816; Helgeson, 1982).

Calculator research

There have been more studies on the impact of calculators on school mathematics than any other single educational question (Suydam, 1981a). The research consistently supports the regular, widespread use of calculators

117

Richard J. Shumway

to do mathematics at all ages. Less is known about the way calculators should

be used, but one message is clear. Contrary to the beliefs of m a n y , calculators

do not interfere with the learning of mathematics. In fact, there is evidence

that even the most routine use of calculators facilitates learning mathematics.

Preliminary reports from the Fifth International Congress of Mathematics

Educators (e.g. Meissner, 1984) suggest there is a dramatic disparity between

adult use of calculators and the use of calculators for school mathematics. W e

seem to have accepted the idea that adults should use calculators, but, in spite

of the research evidence, w e are reluctant to use calculators with children.

O n e purpose of this chapter will be to illustrate some ways calculators can be

used to support mathematics and science instruction. Also, w e will raise

questions appropriate for further research.

Computer research

The research on computers and the learning of mathematics and science can

be divided into two sections : those studies conducted with large computers in

the earlier years (1960-76), and those studies using the more recent micro

computers (1977-present). The results are somewhat tenuous and give less

direction than the calculator studies (Suydam, 1981&; Helgeson, 1982). T h e

computer uses with the most promise seem to be drill and practice for skill

learning, and student programming and exploration of simulations for

conceptualizing and problem-solving (Suydam, 1984). The use of a computer

to simulate teachers seems to be far from realized and more difficult than was

once believed. Enthusiasm for computer use in schools is usually high when

the use is practical, affordable and allows student control of computers. W e

will illustrate some of the computer uses that seem to have the most promise

and provide some rationale for their use. Several research problems needing

study will be identified.

Impact on the curriculum

Researchers suggest that calculators and computers can be used by children as

young as 4 years old (Papert, 1980; S h u m w a y , 1984). There is less guidance

about what exactly should be done. T h e nature of mathematics and science is

such that a substantial number.of computations can be required and it seems

natural to use calculators and computers to do these computations, m u c h as

adults would. Those w h o perform complex computations welcome such use of

computing machines. However, it is easy to see such a decision having impact

118

Applications of calculators and computers in science and mathematics education

on the study and practice of paper-and-pencil algorithms or other algorithms

to do computations. W e m a y need to rethink h o w w e define, use and teach

computation, in both mathematics and science. T h e use of the calculator and

computer introduces n e w topics to the curriculum. For example, decimals are

often delayed several years in school mathematics and science. Such topics

m a y need to be treated as soon as computers and calculators are used. T h e

simulation of complex but intuitively viable topics in both mathematics and

science m a y be possible using computers and calculators. S o m e researchers

are studying the use of the computer as a learning environment for both

current and n e w topics in mathematics and science. S o m e argue for the rich

play and experimentation which computers allow children in learning and

exploring. Later in this chapter w e will discuss ideas from research about the

curricular impact as well as attempt to predict potential future uses of

computers in mathematics and science education.

The nature of mathematics and science learning

Classifications of types of learning often recognize and distinguish between

skill learning, conceptualizing and problem-solving as distinct capabilities

(Gagné, 1970; S h u m w a y , 1980). K n o w i n g 9 x 7 as 63, or knowing the

oxidation number of S O 4 as — 2 , are examples of fact or skill learning.

Understanding multiplication as a binary operation, or understanding the role

of oxidation numbers in the formation of molecules, are examples of

conceptualizing. Using multiplication to model the probability of simulta

neous events, or using oxidation numbers to aid in explaining the formation of

ion pairs, can be examples of problem-solving. Strategies such as practice and

chunking1 are appropriate for skill learning, but mathematical and scientific

thinking are seen to fit models for conceptualizing and problem-solving.

Resnick observes :

Good problem-solvers do not rush in to apply a formula or an equation. Instead they try to understand the problem situation; they consider alternative representations and relations among the variables. . . . First, learners construct understanding. [. . .] Second, to understand something is to know relationships. [. . .] Third, all learning depends on prior knowledge. [. . .] It is never too soon to start. From their earliest years, children are developing theories about how the world works. . . . Finally, since naive theories are inevitable, teachers will probably have to confront them directly (Resnick, 1983, pp. 477-8).

1. A term used in psychology when referring to grasping a classification.

119

Richard J. Shumway

Burton identifies the four processes of mathematical thinking as specializing,

conjecturing, generalizing and convincing, and notes mathematical thinking

demonstrates open inquiry (Burton, 1984). M a y observes that:

If you wish to study mathematics efficiently, you must center your work on understanding fundamentals and on doing your own thinking. Of course, you will have to memorize some definitions and rules of procedure (just as you must learn the moves in chess), but forgotten facts can easily be looked up and those that are used frequently will naturally come to be remembered. Understanding, however, can neither be looked up nor forgotten. . . . In order to learn to understand, in order to develop the ability to find out what to do, you must go boldly ahead. If you are not sure what to do with a problem, experiment and see what happens. If the results are not satisfactory, try something else. Experiment, record your work, think about your results, and experiment again. In this way, and only in this way, will you develop the confidence to think independently in mathematics (May, 1959, preface).

It seems clear that all these characterizations of conceptualizing and problem-

solving in mathematics and science have the c o m m o n elements of experimen

ting, testing hypotheses, generalizing and theory building. W e will n o w

consider the hypothesis that using calculators and computers in doing

mathematics and science can develop some of these critical elements of

learning for children.

The impact of calculators and computers

Computer uses in education are often divided into the following categories:

computation, conceptualizing, problem-solving, simulatibn, drill and prac

tice, teacher utility, information management and tutorial.

All disciplines can involve the computer for drill and practice, teacher

utility, information management and tutorial uses. Most disciplines have facts

and skills which allow students to profit from the random generation of

stimuli and immediate feedback. T h e data processing or word processing

capabilities of computers are useful to all teachers for the analysis, manage

ment and interpretation of student data or the preparation of instructional

materials. Information management systems allow the swift location of

relevant information from large information data bases such as libraries,

abstracting services, student records and other information sources. Tutorial

uses not involving simulations are usually efforts to imitate one-to-one

teaching. T h e simulation of good teaching is extremely complex and, at

present, most tutorial software is-not well received by thoughtful teachers and

students because conceptualizing and problem-solving are rarely involved.

120


Mathematics and science education can be influenced markedly by

computation, conceptualizing, problem-solving and simulation uses of calcu

lators and computers. In addition, computing technology m a y require the

redefinition of what is fundamental mathematics and there are new views of

what it means to think and learn mathematics and science ( C B M S , 1983). W e

shall focus the discussion on computation, theory building, modelling,

thinking and curriculum changes.

Computation

O n e should not be surprised that calculators and computers have impact on computations in mathematics and science. T h e very names of the devices suggest computations and both mathematics and science curricular materials make extensive use of numerical computations. First, consider the impact of the calculator on computations.

M a n y science teachers have discovered that instructional time can be saved because computations are done quickly and accurately with a calculator. Computations or data summary techniques which used to consume more than half a science lesson are reduced to a few moments and the time can then be used to do science. Because computation is not the focus of science teaching, the use of calculators is seen as a welcome addition.

The situation regarding calculators in mathematics education is different. A great deal of the mathematics curriculum has involved the learning of written, computational algorithms. Extensive research and careful thought have led most mathematics educators to the conclusion that there is no circumstance in mathematics instruction or testing w h e n the use of calculators should be restricted (Fey and Corbett, 1984; S h u m w a y , 1984). Nevertheless, despite their ready availability, there is a worldwide lack of use of calculators in the teaching of mathematics (Meissner, 1984). In m a n y countries, w e have a situation where adults are using calculators for almost all computations except estimation and mental arithmetic, w e have children in schools denied the use of calculators for the same or more complex computations, and w e have few school programmes designed to teach estimation and mental arithmetic. O n e reason for the lack of use of calculators m a y be the confusion between, say, the learning of a computational algorithm for doing division (skill learning), and the meaning and use of division to solve problems (conceptualizing).

Our ultimate goal in teaching a division algorithm is to develop skills that can be done quickly, accurately and without thinking. The calculator is the best computational algorithm available today. Our goal in teaching the

121

Richard J. Shumway

meaning and use of division is conceptualizing division. N o amount of

practice with written algorithms leads to such conceptualization. Rather, the

concept of division is developed through examination of the fundamental

definition and the study and classification of m a n y examples for which

division is or is not the correct model. Physical models of division are essential

and a variety of examples and non-examples is needed to develop the

appropriate generalizations.

Written algorithms and symbolic manipulations, to be effective algo

rithms, should be done with little thinking or effort, and are not designed to

develop conceptual models. W e need to use calculators at all times and focus

on the conceptualizations and skills needed to use calculators effectively.

(Such activities would include mental arithmetic, estimation and conceptual

izing.) The result would be the removal of m a n y pages of practice of written

algorithms and more emphasis on basic concepts of mathematics, models

of such concepts and practice using such concepts to solve problems.

T h e use of computers in mathematics and science to do computations

appears to be welcomed, useful and only delayed by computer cost factors.

The computations are usually not done simply for their o w n sake, but for

conceptualizing or problem-solving in mathematics or science. W e will

discuss and illustrate these uses w h e n w e consider conceptualizing, problem-

solving and simulation.

Another significant development in the computational capability of

microcomputers involves the availability of symbolic manipulation systems

such as m u M A T H / m u S I M P - 8 0 . 1 Such systems perform all the symbolic

computations done in algebra, trigonometry and calculus. For example,

elementary algebra, solving equations, matrix operations, logarithmic simpli

fications, trigonometric simplifications, differentiation, integration, Taylor

series expansions, limits of functions, and closed-form summations and

products are all calculated symbolically, m u c h as would an expert student of

calculus. Thus , the four complex and one real roots of the equation x5 = - 3 2

are computed, as well as giving - x sin(2x)/4 + x2/4 - cos(2x)/8 as the indefinite

integral of x sin2x.

W e n o w have secondary and post-secondary school mathematics teachers

faced with the same problem regarding computation as are elementary school

teachers (Wilf, 1982). If the results from elementary mathematics can be

generalized, and it appears they can (Fey and Heid, 1984), it will soon be

possible to eliminate m a n y pages of practice of m a n y written, symbolic

1. See e.g. The muMATHImu SIMP-80 Symbolic Mathematics System Reference Manual for the Apple II Computer. Honolulu, The Software House, 1981.

122


algorithms in algebra, trigonometry and calculus, and focus more on concep

tualizing and problem-solving. Portable machines of nearly 7 0 0 K are n o w

available and could easily contain such symbol-manipulating systems for

students of mathematics and science. It seems clear that with such computa

tional power as Taylor series expansions, the computation one might reason

ably expect in an introductory physics course could change significantly.

This new availability of computational power to 'everyone' should change

our view of mathematics and science education. Is it possible to expand the

proportion of children and adults in the world w h o can use such computation

al power to solve problems? History says yes, teacher intuitions m a y say no.

The question is an exciting one and needs exploration.

In summary, it appears appropriate to use calculators and computers for

'all' computations in mathematics and science at all ages. T h e only potential

reservation to the 'all' lies with the recognized need to develop mental

arithmetic and estimation skills. Such skills can and should be developed in

the context of using calculators and computers. T h e c o m m o n strategies of

restricted use of calculators and computers or the emphasis on outmoded

paper-and-pencil algorithms appear to be inappropriate. W e need to adopt the

widespread use of calculators and computers and move on to the job of

teaching and learning mathematics and science.

Theory building

Theory building in mathematics and science probably begins with the

formation of concepts. Regularity among fundamental objects of mathematics

and science is recognized and primitive concepts are formed. Then , interre

lationships among such concepts are discovered or hypothesized and theory

building begins in earnest. W e shall examine some of the roles the calculator

and computer can play in such theory building.

Counting is a fundamental activity in both mathematics and science.

Measurement begins with one-to-one correspondences between sets and a

set's cardinality, numerousness or measure. Most calculators can produce the

following sequence :

1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10, 11, 12, 13, 14, 15, 16, 17, 18, . . .,

for as long as desired by the repeated pressing of the ' = ' key on the calculator ;

that is, press: 1, + , = , = , = , . . . , or 1, + , + , = , = , = , . . . Counting and

generalizations to multiples and repeated multiplication are so important and

fundamental that calculators for school use should have such capability.

Children find counting with a calculator most interesting and will repeat

the sequence m a n y times, in m u c h the same way adults will input a number

123

Richard J. Shumway

and press the ' V ' key over and over to see the limit approach 1. (Try it. Start with 89 and/or 0.094.) Adults are surprised that numbers less than 1 grow and approach 1 (pressing ' V ' ) and children are impressed with the size of 100 or 1,000 (pressing ' = ') and h o w long it takes the sequence to reach 100 or 1,000. Racing to 100 and guessing h o w long it will take to count to 1,000 are good explorations which relate the physical activity of repeatedly pressing the ' = ' key to the relative size of numbers.

Naturally the opportunity to study place value, number names and numbers just before and after certain marker numbers such as 100 are all extensions of this simple counting activity. Timing the counting and predicting longer counting problems introduces prediction and the natural variability of scientific measurement. Generalizing the counting to multiples (e.g. 5, + , = , = , = , . . . ) introduces a new form of counting which generalizes to multiplication. Racing to 1,000 by two groups of children, one counting by twos and another counting by threes produces results very different from those in the case of one group counting by eights and the other by nines. If the difference is 1 in each case (3 — 2 = 1 = 9 — 8), w h y are the results so different ? If you start with 7 and count by threes can you stop exactly on 78 ? W h a t happens when you start with 10 and count by - 1 (press : 10, - , 1, = , = , = , . . .,)? W h a t happens when one counts by 0.01 ? H o w long does it take to count from 0 to 100 by 0.01 ? There are a large number of problems and concepts that can be involved in such counting activities.

Suppose one weighs 50 kg and eats 100 calories too m u c h each day. If w e assume each 7,700 calories of extra consumption results in a weight increase of 1 kg, can w e use simple counting on a calculator to illustrate the weight gain day by day ? Can w e produce the sequence :

50, 50.012987, 50.025974, 50.038961, 50.051948, . . .,

and answer such questions as what type of growth this is, h o w long will it take to gain 1 kg, or why such a sequence might be related to the difficulty of controlling one's weight ? These are questions of science, mathematics and psychology. If you are unfamiliar with calculators you m a y have some difficulty teaching the calculator to count by 100/7,700. Perhaps if adults are to be able to do such computations on a calculator, w e need to explore such problems in school mathematics and science.

O f course a simple computer program in a language such as B A S I C can also produce a similar sequence :.

10 FOR W = 50 T O 80 STEP 100/7700 20 PRINT W 30 N E X T W

124


or, generalized:

10 INPUT S, E 20 F O R W = S T O S + 30 STEP E/7700 30 PRINT W 40 N E X T W

W e find when students write such computer programs they are using variables, using formulae to represent relationships between variables and using variables to generalize the program to allow for any starting weight, S, and any caloric increase or decrease, E . So, in addition to producing a sequence to examine and explore, the computer allows students to develop a generalized formulation of the relationship between the variables and a mechanism for expressing the generalization using variables m u c h as a scientist would.

W h e n w e began this discussion on counting w e were talking about young children of 4 or 5 years of age. The discussion progresses to activities appropriate for older children. W e will make no comments about appropriate ages for these activities n o w , but will return to age issues in a later section on curriculum.

The problem of finding the sum of the first N natural numbers illustrates another way in which the computer is related to theory building. T h e following program finds the sum of the first N natural numbers in a straightforward, computational manner :

10 INPUT N 20 LET S = 0 30 FOR K = 1 TO N 40 LET S = S + K 50 N E X T K 60 PRINT N , S

70 G O T O 10

Yet, for large values of N , say 10,000 or more, the program is not very fast. By developing some theory about sums, the program can be shortened to the following :

10 INPUT N 20 PRINT N , N * ( N + l)/2 30 GOTO 10

O n e can run the program and verify that the results are the same, but, to determine the correctness of the program for all meaningful values of N

125

Richard J. Shumway

requires a mathematical proof. There is a nice interplay between the computational power of the computer, the need for further mathematical exploration and finally, the need for a mathematical proof to determine the correctness of the more efficient program. This example illustrates an interplay between computation and theory which is common when computers are used to do mathematics.

The following program is designed to simulate a simple probability experiment :

10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90

INPUT P FOR N = 1 TO 10

IF RND(l) < P THEN GOTO 60 PRINT"-"; GOTO 70 PRINT "H";

N E X T N PRINT GOTO 20

or,

10 INPUT P 20 FOR N = 1 TO 10 30 IF R N D < P THEN PRINT " H " ; ELSE PRINT "-"; 40 N E X T N 50 PRINT 60 G O T O 20

(In line 30, the use of R N D is non-machine specific. Choose the R N D function appropriate for your machine that produces a random decimal between 0 and 1.) Program output would be similar to:

H _ H - H H - -- H H H H H H - H H

H H -H H H H H H H - H H - H - H H

H - H - H H H H H H H H H -- H H - H - H - H H

126


if the value input for P were 0.5. W e would claim the program provides a model for coin flipping, or any other binomial distribution with probability level of 0.5. The availability of such a program would allow students to explore questions about such distributions related to the meaning of random. For example, can there be strings of, say, 8 H ' s in a row? H o w often do you see strings of 8 H ' s ? Is there always a string of -'s to make up for strings of H ' s? Suppose the value of P is changed to 0.3 and you consider your chances of getting a job at a single interview to be 30 per cent. N o w what does the program simulate ? W h a t can you learn from the simulation ? W h a t other 'real life' problems can w e model by such a program ? N o w that w e have explored a variety of simulations, can w e develop a theory which describes the probability of getting, say 10 H ' s in a single row? The task is to develop a theory which underlies the distribution which the computer is simulating. Thus , w e can give the computer a few simple instructions to simulate a situation which requires relatively sophisticated mathematical theory to model. T h e computer allows us to explore a situation and test various hypotheses which might be candidates for a theory. The computer provides a laboratory for exploring conjectures and testing theories for their potential.

The following program can be used to find zeros of a function :

10 INPUT A, B, S 20 FOR X = A TO B STEP S 30 PRINT X , SIN(X) 40 N E X T X 50 GOTO 10

T o examine other functions, replace SIN(X) by the desired function. Zeros are found by a simple guess and check strategy. The strategy makes certain assumptions about the behaviour of functions which become apparent to students as they use the program on more complex functions. There are questions about efficiencies in strategies which arise naturally and the program can lead to theoretical discussions about such strategies, possible generalizations and their correctness.

O f course, instead of printing the values, one can modify line 30 so the computer graphs the function. O n some computers the change can be so simple as to modify only line 30. T h e needed change introduces the need for the concepts of domain, range, translation and perhaps, dialation.

In each of the examples of computer use some theory was needed to write the program. W e were required to specify precisely what the computer was to do. Such a requirement results in a careful analysis of some aspect of the world in order to produce an exact algorithm for the computer. Often such a demand

127

Richard J. Shumway

introduces new understandings to the programmer. Then by examining data from the program, there are further new understandings or requirements which m a y cause the user to develop more theory to improve the program or understand the data.

Modelling

Modelling is an important strategy in both mathematics and science. Developing models to predict events in the natural world is a primary element of doing science. Developing models is a critical element in applied mathematics and foundations of mathematics. Learning mathematics is greatly facilitated by the development of models.

Exponential growth is an important component of many biological systems. The following program might serve as a beginning program to model such growth :'

10 LET G = 1 20 PRINT G 30 LET G = G + G 40 GOTO 20

Such a program models the unrestricted growth of bacteria, or thicknesses of paper if you repeatedly fold a paper in half. Running the program illustrates the dramatic growth involved in such situations. T h e refinement of the program to other growth rates, and the interest in determining the value on the nth iteration result in further modelling and insight into the generalized concept of exponential growth. For example, the following program:

10 INPUT B, G 20 FOR N = 0 T O 20 30 PRINT N , B * G | N 40 NEXT N 50 G O T O 10

illustrates a variety of exponential growth problems and requires significant generalization of the problem through the use of variables. O n e might argue the key element here is the recognition of the function B * G A N (2> -gn in 'standard' notation) and the learning is done with the writing of the program. Yet running the program with values such as : 100,000 for B and 1.04 for G to illustrate the 4 per cent population growth per year of a city of 100,000 (or 0.95 for G to illustrate a 5 per cent decline in population per year); or 10,000

128


for B and 1.13 for G to illustrate the effects of an annual inflation rate of 13 per

cent on the money need to purchase something of current value of 10,000 in

the years to come , teaches and builds a great deal of intuition and understand

ing about the nature of exponential growth and decay. The program allows

students to explore a variety of situations and see the effects quickly. Instead

of seeing one or two examples of exponential growth, students are able to

examine and simulate twenty or thirty examples in less than an hour. Further

extensions of the problem could involve determining the sums of several such

series and looking for ways to shorten the program to find the sums more

quickly.

Recursion is a concept which has applications in both mathematics and

science, but the concept is often not well understood. The following program

in Logo (Abelson and diSessa, 1980, p . 88) illustrates recursion used to draw

nested triangles :

T O NESTED. TRIANGLE SIZE IF SIZE < 10 T H E N RETURN REPEAT 3

NESTED. TRIANGLE SIZE/2 F O R W A R D SIZE RIGHT 120

(The Logo program is non-machine specific. Y o u will need to choose the appropriate punctuation and variable names for your machine and implementation of Logo.) Because the computer models recursion effectively, students m a y use the computer to model various recursive situations to develop further understanding of recursion and see a variety of examples as well as learn to represent the concept symbolically.

The use of the computer to model situations which are impractical, impossible or time-consuming seems to offer m a n y opportunities to teach scientific processes. For example, I have often used a short program of less than twenty lines to simulate collecting data on the time it takes for a rock to fall from the top of a cliff to the bottom. T h e story line assumes the times are found to the nearest tenth of a second and the cliffs are estimated with an error rate as large as 20 per cent. T h e program allows you to determine h o w m a n y trials you want and then requires you to predict, with an error rate of less than 5 per cent, the heights for randomly generated times in a certain range. Students often attempt to predict with too small a sample and discover they are unable to make the predictions. Further work with the program leads to the discovery of the value of graphing the data, the value of a larger sample, and the value of a mathematical symbolization of the discovered relationship.

129

Richard J. Shumway

Other simulations could require the student to determine the range of values to be sampled, the precision required and the sample size required to obtain the needed precision. W e are assuming that the relationship between height and time is not k n o w n to the students.

With more advanced students, one might ask them to write the program to produce the simulation. T h e focus is n o w on completely understanding the system to be modelled. W h a t is the relationship between the variables? H o w do you produce the error associated with the measurements and what is the appropriate error distribution ? Are there limits to the domain of values over which the relationship holds? W h a t are they? Such a programming task requires students to study and learn a great deal of science so they can teach the computer what to do to model the situation.

There are at least two ways modelling can be effective for learning. In one case, the model or simulation is already written and the student uses the model to explore and discover relationships between variables. In the other case, the student m a y write the program to model simple behaviour that m a y require modelling to generalize, or the student m a y write the program to model a fairly complex situation that requires significant n e w learning on the part of the student to do the writing.

The use of the computer in mathematics and science seems justified from the perspective of student learning alone. However, it is clear that mathematicians and scientists doing research also use the computer to model mathematics and science (Wolfram, 1984). It is entirely appropriate to share such knowledge and excitement about computer modelling of mathematics and science with our students.

Thinking

S o m e argue that the use of the computer in mathematics and science is introducing new ways of thinking about science (Cheatham, 1974; Wolfram, 1984). There is an algorithmic style of thinking to programming computers to do mathematics and science that results in choosing theories and models which are algorithmic in nature. Cheatham states: 'the requirement for exact algorithms to model some aspect of the world of interest to scientists has had an unexpected, and sometimes profound, impact on scientists and their understanding of the world'.

There exists some correlational evidence that computer programming and success in pure mathematics are related (Johnson and Harding, 1979). There are m a n y possible reasons for such a relationship including: good students

130


choose to do programming; programming teaches mathematical modelling;

and good programming is good problem-solving.

There are examples of programming tasks which provide good problem-

solving experiences. For example, writing a program to test arbitrary finite

operation tables for the properties of Abelian groups not only requires the

student to have a precise understanding of the properties of an Abelian group

and the subtleties of the order of quantifiers, but the exploring of examples

allows discoveries such as the proof of the uniqueness of inverses requires

associativity, whereas the proof of the uniqueness of the identity does not.

Using a computer often provides m a n y of the examples and non-examples

required to sharpen student understanding of concepts and principles. Using

the computer requires systematic and careful analysis of the problem situation

and identification of all relevant and irrelevant variables. Such strategies are

good problem-solving strategies for both mathematics and science.

Using computers to do mathematics and science can foster an exploratory

approach to doing mathematics and science. Developing and exploring

models that m a y not correspond to any k n o w n phenomena can provide critical

non-examples which help explain the world in which w e live. The potential

for impact on student thinking seems great. It is time to begin learning

research which will help identify potential advantages and develop models for

capitalizing on these advantages for students of mathematics and science.

Curriculum

There are m a n y ways in which calculators and computers could have an

impact on the mathematics and science curriculum. Several suggestions or

potential conclusions which can be drawn from experiences and research that

have implications for curricula are listed below :

1. Computers and calculators should be 'standard' tools for doing mathemat

ics and science.

2. All children at all grade levels should program computers and use

calculators to do mathematics and science.

3. Because of the availability of calculators and computers, w e need to m a k e

deep and significant revisions in school mathematics and science. These

revisions will include the elimination of m a n y written algorithms, the

introduction of new topics, and more emphasis on conceptualizing and

problem-solving.

4 . Student programming and use of simulations provide opportunities for

conceptualizing and problem-solving in mathematics and science.

131

Richard J. Shumway

5. Tutorial programs designed to simulate teachers or other educational

materials are most effective as drill and practice for skill learning.

For mathematics curricula, the use of calculators and computers has produced

a need for n e w topics, a n e w emphasis on discrete mathematics and an

opportunity to introduce new topics. For example, the use of decimals,

scientific notation and variables can, and perhaps should, be introduced to

children in their first years of school. Subscripted variables, iteration

techniques and matrices all enhance computer applications and should be

introduced as early as is possible. Topics in discrete mathematics such as

symbolic logic, Boolean algebras, lattices, finite fields, homomorphisms,

quotient structures, induction, trees, networks and combinatorics are all

related to calculators and computers and h o w they do mathematics. It is

possible to use computers to explore concepts such as numeration systems,

limits, continuity, differentiation, integration, algebraic structures, axiomatic

systems, proof and algorithm design (Fey et al., 1984).

For science curricula, the use of calculators and computers has produced

the ability to introduce new topics involving complex computations; an

opportunity, through simulations, to manipulate variables and study scientific

systems at low cost in both time and resources ; and an opportunity to control

variables, generate stimuli and analyse data of laboratory experiments with

unparalleled precision and speed (Lower et al., 1979; Marks , 1982).

For both mathematics and science curricula, w e need to explore more fully

the use of algorithms to model mathematics and science. Mathematics and

science teachers must use and value structured programming strategies. T h e

relationship between correctness of programs and mathematical proof should

be emphasized. Understanding the limitations of a computer for modelling

mathematics and science is important. Problem-solving techniques involved

in programming mathematics and science concepts appear to be well-

recognized problem-solving techniques applicable to mathematics and science

generally.

T h e computer as an object of study in itself is an appropriate topic for

mathematics and science students. T h e logical structure of computers and

computer techniques devised to do mathematical operations is appropriate for

study in mathematics. T h e physics and chemistry involved in the construction

and operation of computers is a most appropriate topic for the study in

science. T h e ability of computers to monitor arid control scientific exper

iments is a critical element in doing science today. Consequently, while

mathematics and science teachers have correctly resisted teaching computer

science in physics or mathematics courses, there are some topics about

computers which are entirely appropriate for the mathematics and science

curricula.

132


Language and machines

There are several biases one can develop that are unfounded in fact. There are

m a n y , m a n y programming languages and they are all good for something. T h e

appropriate strategy for language selection is to use the language that best fits

the problem you are trying to solve. Languages and their advocates abound

( P E C A N , B A S I C , Pascal, C O B O L , Logo, Forth, A P L , Lisp, F O R T R A N ,

PL/I, Prolog, Smalltalk, Clascal, Simula, Occam, C O M P E L , machine code,

assembly code, C O M I T , J O V I A L , etc.). Often language favourites develop

because the language is the first language of the advocate, invented by the

advocate or the language of an expensive, favourite computer owned by the

advocate. Good programming habits can be taught in any language. Tesler

summarizes his review of programming languages (Tesler, 1984, p . 66) with

the following: ' A programming language must be chosen according to the

purpose intended.'

As with languages, there are many, many machines and they are all good

for something. Almost all microcomputers can be programmed in an easily

learned language such as B A S I C . Consequently, almost any microcomputer

can be used to do mathematics and science. Student uses of computers can be

enhanced by the ability to draw graphs of functions or plot data. The most

mathematical way to do graphics would be to locate the origin in die lower

left-hand corner (or the centre) of the screen and use equal scaling on both

axes. Symbol manipulation programs such as m u M A T H would be desirable,

but not necessary on every machine in a school. Some machines able to use the

variety of software likely to be available would be desirable. W o r d processing

and data management capabilities are desirable in some machines. Unlike

adults, students seem to have little difficulty adjusting to a variety of

machines. Inexpensive computers can be owned in greater number by schools

and in greater numbers by students. In summary, schools should have access

to a variety of machines, and allow one to choose the machine most

appropriate for the particular problem to be solved.

The practical realities of language and computer choice must be related to

budget considerations. Significant mathematics can be done on very inexpen

sive machines in B A S I C . O n some machines, Logo can be added without

great cost. Pascal may soon be available at low coßt on inexpensive machines.

However, most of the applications and uses illustrated here can be done on

very inexpensive machines using B A S I C (Shumway, in press). Today, B A S I C

is likely to be the first choice of budget-minded schools. In the future, any

popular language will be readily available at low cost. T h e basic questions are :

can you afford it, will it run on your machine, and can you do the mathematics

and science desired with the language and the machine ?

133

Richard J. Shumway

The future

W h a t will the impact of computers really be? History can give us some clues.

T h e invention of the printing press m a d e libraries and books available to

everyone. M a n y feared students' minds would become weak because every

thing could be looked up. W e soon found books to be powerful devices which

could extend our memories. Books made significant changes in students'

opportunities to learn independently. Books required new knowledge and

abilities such as reading. Unfortunately, books did not solve problems; they

were only useful tools to aid in solving problems. O n e still had to be able to

think, but one could think with m u c h more power and diversity.

Computers and calculators raise some of the same fears. Students will no

longer have to think, they will be unable to compute and will not need to

k n o w anything. Reality suggests students will be freed from many skills and

demands on m e m o r y . Calculators and computers are powerful tools for

extending our m e m o r y , skills and ability to learn independently. Computers

require new knowledge such as programming languages and using variables.

Unfortunately, computers do not solve problems ; they are only useful tools to

aid in solving problems. O n e still has to think, but one can think with m u c h

more power and diversity.

Today is an exciting time for mathematics and science teaching and

learning. W e have powerful new tools that will m a k e dramatic changes in

mathematics, science and h o w w e learn mathematics and science. The tools

are inexpensive and can be as available as books. There are still m a n y

questions, but it is clear that our responsibility is to help the youth of today

learn to use these powerful tools to do mathematics and science.

References

A B E L S O N , H ; D I SESSA, A . 1980. Turtle Geometry: The Computer as a Medium for Exploring Mathematics. Cambridge, Mass., The M I T Press.

A H L , D A V I D H . 1984. The First Decade of Personal Computing. Creative Computing, Vol. 10. N o . 11, pp. 30-45.

B U R T O N , L . 1984. Mathematical Thinking: The Struggle for Meaning. Journal for Research in Mathematics Education, Vol. 15, pp. 35-49.

C B M S (Conference Board of the Mathematical Sciences). 1983. The Mathematical Sciences Curriculum K-12 : What is Still Fundamental and What is Not. Report to the National Science Board Commission on Precollege Education in Mathematics, Science and Technology. Washington, D . C . , National Science Foundation.

134


C H E A T H A M , T . E . , jr. 1974. The Unexpected Impact of Computers on Science and Mathematics. In: Proceedings of Symposia in Applied Mathematics (Providence, R.I. , American Mathematical Society), Vol. 20, pp. 67-75.

F E Y , J. T . ; C O R B E T T , M . K . 1984. Technology and the Mathematics Curriculum. Draft of conference report. Reston, V a . , National Council of Teachers of Mathematics.

F E Y , J. T . et al. (eds.). 1984. Computing & Mathematics: The Impact on Secondary School Curricula. Reston, Va . , National Council of Teachers of Mathematics.

F E Y , J. T . ; H E I D , M . K . 1984. Impact of Computing on Calculus. In J. T . Fey et al., Computing & Mathematics: The Impact on Secondary School Curricula, pp. 53-70. Reston, Va . , National Council of Teachers of Mathematics.

G A G N É , R . M . 1970. The Conditions of learning. 2nd ed. N e w York, Holt, Rinehart & Winston.

H E L G E S O N , S. L . 1982. Microcomputers and Science Teaching. ERIC , 1200 Chambers Road, Columbus, Ohio 43212. ( E R I C / S M E A C Science Education Fact Sheet, N o . 3.)

JOHNSON, D . C . ; T I N S L E Y , J .D . (eds.). 1978. Informatics and Mathematics in Secondary Schools: Impacts and Relationships. Amsterdam, North-Holland.

JOHNSON, D . C . ; HARDING, R . D . 1979. University Level Computing and Mathematical Problem-solving Ability. Journal for Research in Mathematics Education, Vol. 10, pp. 37-55.

KlDDER, J. T . 1981. The Soul of a New Machine. Boston, Mass., Little, Brown & Co.

L O W E R , S. et al. 1979. Computer Series 2 : Computer-assisted Instruction in Chemistry. Journal of Chemical Education, Vol. 56, pp. 219-27.

M A R K S , G . H . 1982. Computer Simulations in Science Teaching: A n Introduction. The Journal of Computers in Mathematics and Science Teaching, Vol. 1, N o . 4 , pp. 18-20.

M A Y , K . O . 1959. Elements of Modern Mathematics. Reading, Mass., Addison-Wesley.

M E I S S N E R , H . 1984. Calculators for Developing Countries and for Developed Countries. Draft of International Congress on Mathematical Education report of working group 1.1/1.2. Münster, University of Münster (Federal Republic of Germany).

P A P E R T , S. 1980. Mindstorms; Children, Computers, and Powerful Ideas. N e w York, Basic Books.

R E S N I C K , L . B . 1983. Mathematics and Science Learning: A N e w Conception. Science, Vol. 220, N o . 4596, pp. 477-8.

S H U M W A Y , R . J. (ed.). 1980. Research in Mathematics Education. Reston, Va . , National Council of Teachers of Mathematics.

S H U M W A Y , R . J. 1984. Young Children, Programming, and Mathematical Thinking. In: V . P . Hansen and M . J. Zweng (eds.), Computers in Mathematics Education, 1984 Yearbook, pp. 127-34. Reston, V a . , National Council of Teachers of Mathematics.

. (in press). 101 Ways to Learn Mathematics Using BASIC (K-8). Englewood Cliffs, N . J . , Prentice-Hall.

135

Richard J. Shumway

S U Y D A M , M . N . 1981a. The Use of Calculators in Pre-College Education: Fourth Annual State-of-the-Art Review. Columbus, Ohio, Calculator Information Center.

. 19816. Microcomputers and Mathematics Instruction. ERIC, 1200 Chambers Road, Columbus, Ohio 43212. ( E R I C / S M E A C Mathematics Education Fact Sheet, N o . 4.)

. 1984. Microcomputers in Mathematics Instruction. The Arithmetic Teacher, Vol. 32, N o . 2, p. 35.

TESLER, L . G . 1984. Programming Languages. Scientific American, Vol. 251, N o . 3, pp. 58-66.

W I L F , H . S. 1982. The Disk with the College Education. The American Mathematical Monthly, Vol. 89, pp. 4—8.

W O L F R A M , S. 1984. Computer Software in Science and Mathematics. Scientific American, Vol. 251, N o . 3, pp. 140-51.

136

Science, technology and society : educational implications

Albert V . Baez

Science, technology and society

T w o important international meetings have recently been held on topics close to the subject of this paper. O n e was the Third International Symposium on World Trends in Science and Technology Education at Brisbane in December 1984; the other was the International Conference on Science and Technology Education and Future H u m a n Needs at Bangalore, India, in August 1985.

The title 'Science, Technology and Society : Educational Implications' has been chosen deliberately because the title of the entire volume makes it clear that interest is being directed principally to problems of teaching about science, technology and society.

A logical way to begin would, nevertheless, have been by defining the terms science, technology and society, but this subject has already been treated extensively in the literature. Unesco, for example, has published the excellent journal IMPACT of Science on Society for m a n y years. It also published Innovation in Science Education—World-wide (Baez, 1976) in which I dealt with definitions and examples of these terms as well as with the process of innovation.

There are major activities in this area of education in the United States, Australia and the United Kingdom. According to Ian L o w e (1984), 140 science, technology and society courses were being taught in over 100 tertiary-level institutions in the United K i n g d o m and over 1,000 variations on the theme of science, technology and society had appeared in courses and programmes in the United States by the end of 1984. It would be impossible, therefore, for this to be a comprehensive review article of what is going on in science, technology and society worldwide, though some current issues arising from attempts to implement such courses are mentioned in the following chapter. Instead, I will concentrate on the one science, technology and society topic which has occupied m y attention for the past five years, namely, the environment—an excellent integrating theme which can give relevance and a societal focus to science, technology and society activities. The environment is

137

Albert V. Baez

a theme which represents an overriding concern and which can also lend unity

to m y treatment of the subject of science, technology and society. I shall

therefore lean heavily on the related issues of environment and conservation of

resources as a means of illustrating h o w innovation in science and technology

education can be more closely linked with the needs of society. T h e

innovation which I think ought to take place is the infusion of an environmen

tal ethic into all of science and technology education.

The environment and science, technology and society

Let us consider briefly the world situation today as compared with that at the

turn of the century ; our perception of the benefits of science and technology

has changed considerably in the interval. At the turn of the last century when

new vistas of progress through invention seemed to be opening up with the

automobile, electric light, motion pictures, fast railroad travel and later radio

and the aeroplane, the benefits of science and technology seemed to be their

overriding characteristic.

But today the number of negative examples of h o w society is linked with

science and technology grows daily. T w o devastating examples have taken

place recently. O n e was the gas explosion that took the lives of 500 slum

dwellers in Mexico City and the other was the leak of poison gas from the

Union Carbide plant in Bhopal, India, which claimed the lives of over 1,000

m e n , w o m e n and children w h o died in agony in a situation in which medical

assistance was lacking in both quantity and in quality. Both were environmen

tal disasters of a large order involving the three Ps : population, pollution and

poverty.

It would be comforting to believe that no more such devastating

catastrophes will occur but w e k n o w that this is not very likely. T h e fourth

P—proliferation of nuclear weapons—could lead to a nuclear confrontation

that would wipe out a large portion of the entire plant and animal population,

including people of course, and possibly lead to a nuclear winter.

Furthermore, there is still another form of ravaging that is going on

relentlessly, possibly less visibly, and that is the large-scale destruction of

natural resources and life support systems which also threatens all life on

earth. This is documented in the World Conservation Strategy (WCS) which I

will discuss later.

138

Science, technology and society : educational implications

The World Conservation Strategy and environmental education

Science, technology and society approaches have arisen out of the need for relevance in education and in response to a sense of social responsibility. Environmental education, that is education in, for, and about the environment, is obviously a proper science, technology and society subject; what could be more relevant and more demanding of social responsibility than the survival of h u m a n life on this planet ?

A publication which documents the problems posed by the impact of a burgeoning h u m a n population on the environment and its life support systems is the World Conservation Strategy (International Union for Conservation of Nature and Natural Resources ( I U C N ) , 1980) which deals with the increasingly dangerous stresses being put on the earth's biological systems and recommends measures for relieving them. It could serve as a handbook of facts and issues on which to base a science, technology and society approach (see also I U C N , 1984). I will summarize very briefly the message of the Strategy and then discuss its educational implications.

T h e goal of the Strategy is the integration of conservation and development to ensure that modifications to the planet do indeed secure the survival and well-being of people. Its purpose is to persuade the nations of the world to adopt ecologically sound development practices. T h e Strategy provides remedies, applicable worldwide, for the ongoing destruction of nature that casts such a dark shadow over the future of our species. It points the way for development-minded and conservation-minded people to unite in a c o m m o n drive towards survival and a life of dignity for all people on the shared planet.

It addresses itself to the problems of a deteriorating planet. T h e biosphere—the thin layer of air, water, soil and living things that sustains us—is deteriorating because of the burdens put on it by our increasing numbers and needs. T h e earth, if it is to provide the means by which all people can survive and prosper, can no longer tolerate the destruction of living systems either by the poorer or the richer nations. It is the task of this generation to act to reverse the damaging trends that are making the planet less and less fit to live on.

T h e World Conservation Strategy points the way to what must be done if w e are to satisfy the needs of the world's people and, at the same time, preserve the earth's living systems on which all life depends for survival.

I will cite the three main objectives of the Strategy to show that in order to carry them out a huge educational effort will have to be launched inasmuch as even to understand the concepts in these objectives will require a scientifically

139

Albert V. Baez

literate public. T h e objectives are : (a) to maintain ecological processes and life support systems ; (b) to preserve genetic diversity ; (c) to ensure the sustainable utilization of species and ecosystems. T h e Strategy is not an educational document. It concentrates on h o w education should be used for building support for conservation but it does not spell out in any detail what needs to be done in education. It poses but does not solve educational problems.

Nevertheless, it contains an eloquent statement which affirms that the domain of environmental education is broader than conservation and that environmental education must have an ethical component :

Ultimately the behaviour of entire societies towards the biosphere must be transformed if the achievement of conservation objectives is to be assured. A new ethic, embracing plants and animals as well as people, is required for human societies to live in harmony with the natural world on which they depend for survival and wellbeing. The long term task of environmental education is to foster or reinforce attitudes and behaviour compatible with this new ethic.

T h e challenge of the World Conservation Strategy

It is clear that m a n y of the world's environmental problems have been created by the impact of science and technology on society. It also seems clear to m e , however, that the problems will not be solved without increased utilization of scientific principles and knowledge and through the application of appropriate technologies. This, in turn, will not c o m e about unless reformed codes of behaviour towards the environment are generated through education.

T h e environment, therefore, poses problems that can be used to m a k e teaching in science and technology interesting, relevant and stimulating. It could generate a sense of social responsibility. In other words, environmental topics satisfy the criteria for science, technology and society mentioned earlier.

T h e n e w science which is basic for a consideration of environmental problems is ecology (Bybee, 1979). A s an academic discipline, it is usually treated at the university level. But ecological principles should be considered in designing environmental science, technology and society activities at all levels, both in and out of school.

I believe that environmental education must be solidly based on the facts and approaches of science and that even research scientists and technologists should have a general education strongly infused with the environmental ethic so they can consider the environmental impact of their work . Integrated

140

Science, technology and society: educational implications

science courses, in particular, could benefit from the use of the environment

as an integrating theme.

Science, technology and society must be taught in a positive way that

motivates people towards the solution of global environmental problems.

Otherwise w e might succumb to the fatalistic speculation which says that if

M a n should destroy himself in a nuclear holocaust through an improper use of

science and technology, this would be evidence that the earth, as a self-healing

entity (Lovelock, 1979), had chosen this extreme way of ridding itself of the

agent, M a n , w h o had nearly brought about its ecological death. After all,

without M a n on the planet the earth could, in due time, conceivably heal itself

and make the air and the waters clean so that fish and other wildlife could,

once again, inhabit the earth in ecological and dynamical equilibrium.

Let m e conclude with the following thoughts. M a n prides himself in being

the only intelligent animal on the earth. Yet he is the only one that has caused

such vast devastation on the biosphere (Schell, 1982). In less than a thousand

years, which is the blink of an eye in geologic time, he has consumed most of

the fossil fuels which took nature millions of years to produce. T h e air w e

breathe is full of noxious fumes and radioactive particles of his making. H e

had placed millions of tonnes of concrete and cement on roads and cities

where there were once forests and wildlife. At least 300 square kilometres of

prime farm land is disappearing each year under buildings and roads in

developing countries alone. Thousands of millions of tons of soil are being

lost each year as a result of deforestation and poor land management.

Hundreds of millions of rural people in developing countries are forced to

strip their land of vegetation in order to find w o o d for cooking and heat. Each

year millions of tons of dung and crop residues are burned for fuel which

could otherwise regenerate soils. A n d n o w M a n has the capability of

generating a nuclear holocaust which could devastate the biosphere and m a k e

life on earth extinct.

I believe M a n is intelligent enough to develop a science, technology and

society strategy to teach science and technology in socially responsible ways

which contribute to the improvement of the quality of all life on this planet. I

have written elsewhere (Baez, 1980) that to improve the quality of life

education must generate the 4 C s : curiosity, creativity, competence and

compassion. I a m n o w suggesting that a fifth C—conservation—which really

springs from a sense of compassion for the earth and all the living things on it,

is a worthy goal for science, technology and society.

W h a t would m a k e ours different from the usual approach to the teaching

of science and technology is that the behavioural changes which are aimed for

are considered just as important as the scientific information which is learned

or the technological skills which are acquired. I a m not suggesting merely the

141

Albert V. Baez

creation of n e w environmental education courses but the development of

instructional methods and materials which can be integrated into existing

courses and other types of science and technology activities both in and out of

the classroom. It will take innovative skill to produce a project whose aim is to

take the ideas of the World Conservation Strategy and use them to generate

resource materials whose ultimate aim is to infuse the environmental ethic into

all science and technology education, formal and non-formal.

References

B A E Z , A . V . 1976. Innovation in Science Education—World-wide. Paris, Unesco.

. 1980. Curiosity, Creativity, Competence and Compassion: Guidelines for Science Education in the Year 2000. In: C . P. McFadden (ed.), World Trends in Science Education, pp. 60-5. Halifax, Nova Scotia, Atlantic Institute of Education.

B Y B E E , R . W . 1979. Science Education and the Emerging Ecological Society. Science Education, Vol. 63, pp. 95-109.

I U C N (International Union for Conservation of Nature and Natural Resources). 1980. World Conservation Strategy. Gland (Switzerland), I U C N . Prepared by I U C N with the advice, co-operation and financial assistance of the United Nations Environment Programme ( U N E P ) and the World Wildlife Fund ( W W F ) and in collaboration with the Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations ( F A O ) and Unesco.

. 1984. An Introduction to the World Conservation Strategy. Gland (Switzerland), I U C N . A photographically illustrated summary of the World Conservation Strategy in non-technical language, prepared for the International Union for Conservation of Nature and Natural Resources (IUCN) by its Commission on Education. Text and selection of photographs by S. Croner.

L O V E L O C K , J. E . 1979. Gaia—A New Look at Life on Earth. Oxford, Oxford University Press.

L O W E , I. 1984. Some Important Examples of the STS Interaction. Keynote paper read to the third International Conference on World Trends in Science and Technology Education, Brisbane, December 1984.

SCHELL, J. 1982. The Fate of the Earth. N e w York, Alfred A . Knopf.

142

Science, technology and society courses : problems of implementation in school systems

The case for science, technology and society education has been well m a d e elsewhere (Layton, 1973; H u r d , 1975; Lewis, 1979; Aikenhead, 1980; Solomon, 1980; Ziman, 1980; Piel, 1981; Hall et al., 1983) and is not repeated here. The educational contexts for science, technology and society teaching in schools vary considerably, however, and the purpose of this brief chapter is to examine some of the ensuing problems of implementation. Pupils m a y be in the uppermost levels of secondary school education, or in primary schools. T h e location of schools m a y vary from urban industrialized to isolated rural settings, while community issues m a y range from control of the effects of the most advanced technological developments to the need for appropriate technologies to solve basic problems of survival.

There is a corresponding diversity of objectives which might be associated with science, technology and society courses. In some situations, it m a y be enough to create awareness of the problems which result from the interactions of science, technology and society ; more ambitiously, other courses might aim to help students 'translate their clarified and informed values' in relation to a particular science, technology and society issue 'into participatory action' (McConnell, 1982, p. 18). At least one project, S - S T S , has as its primary aim the learning of science, approaching this through science, technology and society subjects and concepts (Roy, 1984).

T o add to the complications, there is no long-established academic community in higher education, as is the case with science disciplines such as chemistry and physics, which has defined the scope of science, technology and society subject-matter and assigned priorities. A recent review of such courses in higher education in the United K i n g d o m and North America found them characterized by 'tremendous diversity of programmes and orientations' (Hoch, 1984). Understandably, this diversity is reflected in prescriptions for school courses. Project Synthesis in the United States listed as the key areas of concern: energy; population; h u m a n engineering; environmental quality; utilization of natural resources; national defence and space; sociology of science; and effects of technological development (Harms and Yager, 1981, p.

143

Science, technology and society courses: problems of implementation in school systems

95). The agenda for the Conference on Science and Technology Education

and Future H u m a n Needs at Bangalore in 1985 comprised a somewhat

different grouping : health ; food and agriculture ; energy resources ; the use of

land, water and mineral resources; industry and technology; the environ

ment ; information technology and transfer; and ethics and social responsi

bility (ICSU, 1983). Not only does the content of science, technology and

society education differ from situation to situation, but its relation to more

traditional science education divides opinion. At the Malvern seminar,

sponsored by I C S U and Unesco in 1980, while there was unanimous

agreement that the need for basic science and technology was as great as ever,

it was recommended that science and society issues should be infused into

existing science courses, up to the extent of 10 to 20 per cent. A n alternative

view sees science, technology and society courses as 'a most appropriate

approach to science education for today's students' (Hall et al., 1983, p . 5),

and 'the highest priority for the scientifically literate citizen' (Aikenhead,

1980, p . 69). Here, science, technology and society is science education in the

context of general education.

Whichever view is adopted, clearly there are considerable problems

associated with the teaching of such courses and the examining of pupils'

learning. Science teachers have not been used to operating in the realms of

value judgements and of political and moral issues. T h e classroom strategies

for teaching about the laws of electromagnetism and the reactions of

concentrated nitric acid will not transfer with equal effect to programmes

designed to encourage autonomous decision-making about fuel policy or the

use of herbicides. Similarly, the pencil and paper tests familiar in science

education are not well matched to the task of evaluating a pupil's contribution

through practical action to community development.

Perhaps enough has been said by way of introduction to indicate that the

aims of science, technology and society education, though supported by

compelling arguments, carry with them formidable problems of implemen

tation. T h e remainder of this chapter addresses these in more detail.

School problems

T o illustrate the problems which a school might face if attempting to

incorporate science, technology and society considerations into the curricu

lum, three questions are identified. First, h o w can n e w material be accommo

dated in the existing curriculum ? Second, w h o will teach the course ? Third,

where are the resources ?

With regard to the first question, it is significant that m a n y of the projects

144


in developed countries have been directed to students in the upper levels of secondary school education, often by way of an option within existing courses. Both the Science in Society project (Lewis, 1981) and the Siscon in Schools project (Solomon, 1983) in the United K i n g d o m are aimed at pupils aged 16 to 18 and are designed to supplement specialized science and other studies. In the United States, and for a similar age-group, the Biological Sciences Curriculum Study inaugurated in 1980-81 a programme called Innovations: The Social Consequences of Science and Technology (1ST). T h e resulting first-generation science, technology and society materials included modules on day care (the technological response to the social phenomenon of two-career families and one-parent families) ; computers and privacy ; h u m a n reproduction—social and technological aspects; and biomedical technology (social issues attendant on rapid progress in biomedicine) among others. A n interesting comment on the innovation, which was funded by the National Science Foundation ( N S F ) , is that the science reviewers perceived the materials as being more representative of a humanistic style of inquiry than a scientific one, and hence unlikely to receive future N S F support (McConnell, 1982, p . 27). In the Netherlands, Physics in Society materials were developed to support an option in the physics syllabus, again for pupils aged 16 to 18 (Eijkelhof et al., 1981, p . vii), while Science: A W a y of Knowing , a Canadian course for 15-year-olds, requires students to study the ways in which the community is affected by science and the ways in which science is affected by the community (Aikenhead and Fleming, 1975; Gaskell, 1982, p . 40). Efforts to teach 'science in its social context' to younger pupils in developed countries are not plentiful, though examples of work done in the United Kingdom have been published by the Association for Science Education (1984). In general, despite some powerful advocacy of science, technology and society education, its infusion into existing science curricula in industrialized countries is not yet appreciable and its establishment by way of independent courses is limited.

Given the great quantitative expansion of schools in developing countries in response to efforts to achieve universal primary and junior secondary education, and all its consequences—large classes, high pupil/teacher ratios, many untrained teachers, lack of materials and equipment—curricular innovation of any sort is difficult and slow. T o expect science, technology and society to take a great proportion of the curriculum in any subject area is unrealistic and probably not even desirable. Achieving functional literacy and numeracy for the vast majority of school-age children remains the central goal of these schools. In this light, curriculum developers^ will have to assess carefully the amount of time which can be given to science, technology and society in the overall school curriculum and also where it can be infused most efficiently in terms of achieving the literacy and numeracy goals of schooling.

145


Furthermore, they must keep in mind h o w m u c h science, technology and society will count in national school-leaving examinations. Keeping science, technology and society in perspective in terms of the central role of the school, and of its curriculum and examination structures, can only enhance its implementation.

Within most developing countries the economic and cultural diversity that exists has implications determining where elements of science, technology and society might be placed within the overall school curriculum. Aspects of science, technology and society which relate to issues arising from modern industrialization m a y be placed best in traditional science courses. Other aspects, relating to community development and raising living standards of the rural and urban poor, m a y be placed best in agriculture, health and domestic science courses. Recognizing that there are degrees of overlap, topics such as technology appreciation, choice and control; pollution; and population/genetics more naturally fit into current academic science ; topics such as food production; forest depletion; nutrition; sanitation and village technology fit more naturally into the 'practical' subjects.

Reference has already been m a d e to the demands which are placed on science teachers by science, technology and society courses. In passing, it is worth noting that advocacy of science, technology and society education comes not only from science educators : social science teachers have staked a claim in the field (National Council for the Social Studies, 1979). Whatever their academic background, however, it is clear that substantial changes will be needed in the initial and in-service education of teachers if they are to acquire the knowledge and pedagogical skills needed for successful science, technology and society teaching. A beginning has been m a d e in initial training (e.g. van der L o o , 1980) and in-service training (e.g. Y a k u b u , 1984), involving the use of simulation games and materials preparation respectively.

In laying out the possible contribution of a science teacher in a developing country with regard to science, technology and society, it might be useful to identify two extreme roles he might assume : the teacher as 'modernizer' and the teacher as 'liberator'. T h e modernizer plays the role of a 'scientist-in-residence'. His brief emerges from the modern socio-economic sector, the interests of the state and large, probably multinational, corporations. His objectives are to provide basic academic science education for future professional scientists, engineers and technologists; to instil an appreciation of Western science and technology; and to encourage a modern scientific disposition as a way of life. H e is a conveyer of the dominant science/ technology and development models.

T h e liberator on the other hand plays the role of 'scientist-as-facilitator'. His brief emerges from popular science movements . His objectives are to help

146


learners to reassess science/technology and development m o d e l s from developed countries and to re-evaluate indigenous science and technology traditions. Together with learners he is in search of alternative, self-reliant approaches to local small-scale agriculture, village industry, fuel resources, water supply, health and housing. H e is a 'broker' be tween ethnoscience a n d m o d e r n science (King, 1984). T h e science teacher as 'modern ized teaches for acceptance, e.g. chemical fertilizers are g o o d because the ministry of agriculture and commercial firms encourage their use. T h e science teacher as 'liberator' teaches for critical analysis and controversy, e.g. chemical fertilizers in the local context m a y or m a y not be g o o d . Table 1 c o m p a r e s the t w o approaches.

T A B L E 1. Alternative roles for the science teacher in the developing world.

Science teacher as 'modernizer' Science teacher as 'liberator'

Overcomes superstition

Raises consciousness about dominant science/technology and development models

Feeds in dominant science/technology and development models

Conserves dominant science/technology and development models : teaches for acceptance

Accommodates superstition and puts it to work

Facilitates people's reaction to dominant science/technology and development models

Facilitates people's participation in evolving alternative science/technology and development models

Creates alternative science/technology and development models : teaches for critique and controversy

O f course, the roles as outlined in Table 1 are contrived polar opposites. Neither could be advocated in its extreme form. T h e 'liberator' role requires exceptional intellectual qualities and interpersonal skills. F u r t h e r m o r e , it is fraught with politics from the school to national level. O n the other h a n d , the 'modernizer' is unresponsive to the needs a n d realities, a n d to the potential, of poor communit ies .

Perhaps a m o r e reasonable role definition for the science, technology a n d society teacher in the developing country context lies s o m e w h e r e in between . Certainly it w o u l d include abilities to assess personal a n d c o m m u n i t y needs and to relate science, technology and deve lopment m o d e l s , f rom whatever source, to those needs.

A t the m o m e n t few science teachers teach locally relevant science in school. T h e y teach academic science, whether or not g o v e r n m e n t policy calls

147


for 'social meaning and usefulness' and their teacher training includes

community work. F e w teachers take cognizance of children's out-of-school

experience and perceptions, or of local issues in the community. Children's

wide knowledge of different fuel woods , for instance, is not normally used as a

vehicle for teaching classification or the structure of matter ; the disease cycle

of bilharzia m a y be beautifully displayed on a chart on the classroom wall, but

unprotected water sources are rarely surveyed for snails. For most teachers,

relevant school science is examination science.

For some science teachers in the developing countries, however, their role

alters w h e n the school day is over, and the scene changes from formal classes

to extra-curricular activities. In m a n y countries out-of-school youth clubs

abound—wildlife and conservation clubs, agricultural clubs, health scouts,

youth brigades, young engineer and technologist clubs. Here, science and

technology education is related to society. Not all of it, however, focuses on

local community development issues. Science clubs and fairs, for instance, are

often for the purpose of identifying professional scientific talent, and only

those with ability and confidence in science participate and benefit. Neverthe

less, it is in the realm of extra-curricular science that w e are more likely to find

science, technology and society. Research into h o w club leaders work and the

skills they exhibit, h o w they relate activities to the community, and the

community's response to them, might yield fruitful information for assessing

teacher/leader needs and abilities in science, technology and society. Such

research might also be useful in the design of teacher education components

for implementing science, technology and society in schools, if indeed it is

thought that science, technology and society should be placed in the formal

curriculum.

There is also a question to be asked about whether science, technology and

society is best left as a prime responsibility of the science teacher. If science,

technology and society teaching in developing countries focuses mainly on the

improvement of living standards in poor communities, it might be better

undertaken by the more technically oriented teachers, i.e. agriculture, h o m e

economics and craft teachers. T h e teacher's credibility as a community

development worker is greatly enhanced if he has a technical skill to offer,

whether in the area of adult literacy, poultry keeping or well digging, a fact

that has been brought h o m e vividly in m a n y unsuccessful community

development programmes. Technical teachers are at least one step ahead of

m a n y science teachers in this regard. O f course, every teacher as community

developer should also have some training in interpersonal communication and

management skills.

Turning n o w to the design of science, technology and society courses and

the production of teaching materials, there are three major contextual

148


constraints on schools in developing countries. T h e first is that most

developing countries, regardless of size and diversity, have one science

curriculum c o m m o n to all schools and all children. It is centrally controlled

and there are few options. There is one syllabus for all teachers' colleges and

one national examination. If a main criterion of science, technology and

society in developing countries is social meaning and usefulness to the c o m

munity, then localization and variety in curriculum content are required.

Curriculum decentralization in school systems in developing countries,

however, is in its infancy.

Another constraint, which follows from the above, is that parents,

children and teachers are very reluctant to accept curriculum change that

appears to depart from 'élite' science, i.e. traditional academic science needed

for higher professional training and modern sector employment. School

science in particular is viewed as a means for escaping local poverty. If

science, technology and society is implemented in a curriculum, or a portion

of a curriculum, that is directed at potential drop-outs or the less academically

able, then it raises the spectre of a dual school system and is unlikely to be

accepted. For the science, technology and society curriculum, in whatever

guise, to succeed in schools, it must appear on national school-leaving

examinations.

A third constraint is that science education in most developing countries is

'doubly authoritarian, both in its tradition and in its pedagogy' (King, 1984,

p . 21). Authoritarianism is inherent in m a n y cultures and is reflected in

schools. If science, technology and society offers participation and contro

versy, it m a y be in direct conflict with cultural norms. In such situations,

science, technology and society is more likely to succeed if its content is

directed to technical k n o w - h o w and its pedagogy 'exploits the demonstration

m o d e that is both inherent to m u c h science and to the cultural learning that

occurs pre- and outside of schooling' (Fensham, 1984, p . 453).

If not a contextual constraint, then a general problem which faces anyone

wishing to develop teaching materials for science, technology and society

courses, is access to relevant information. T h e difficulty m a y be that the

existing academic scientific knowledge is not in a form which assists

application to practical problem-solving (de Menezes, 1985). A n d , of course,

it is not only scientific knowledge which has to be marshalled to enable a

comprehensive study of an issue to be undertaken. M a n y of the science,

technology and society projects to date have placed great emphasis on the

provision of resource material for teachers (Lewis, 1981; Solomon, 1983;

Yakubu , 1984). M o r e intractable, however, is the problem that not all

scientific knowledge exists in the public domain. M u c h is owned by industrial

and commercial organizations, or is the result of government-sponsored

149


research to which there is restricted access. Inability to 'get at the facts', e.g. about the effects of certain herbicides, the evidence about infant deformities due to drugs taken by pregnant mothers, and the assumptions underlying calculations of risk associated with a nuclear or chemical installation (to mention only three 'controversial issues') makes a balanced presentation of curriculum materials difficult to achieve in relation to m a n y science, technology and society issues. Certain countries have adopted national legislation (e.g. Freedom of Information Acts) to provide enforceable right of access to relevant information, but this is only a partial solution (Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development, 1979, pp . 21-4). It is significant that m u c h of the criticism directed at existing science, technology and society teaching materials has been on this point about lack of balance (Gaskell, 1982), the concern being that the teaching is biased.

Classroom issues

In developing countries especially, almost every science, technology and society topic, whether related to issues emerging from the modern socioeconomic sector or from underdeveloped communities, is controversial. T h e choice of technology, the acceptable level of pollution resulting from the expansion of the manufacturing industry and the direction of agricultural developments all divide opinion. Wildlife and conservation aims m a y be in direct conflict with the aims of local farmers. Domestic science and health issues m a y touch deeply held religious and cultural beliefs. Even seemingly 'neutral' technical innovations such as the fencing in of vegetable gardens and choosing the style and location of toilet facilities can be 'delicate' issues in some communities.

T h e question then arises as to h o w far a classroom teacher can go in considering local problems. A complete science, technology and society issue-based approach might include the following elements : recognizing and defining a potential problem ; collecting, recording and analysing information relevant to the problem; deciding whether or not there is a problem worth considering further ; and if so identifying and evaluating alternative solutions ; developing a plan of social action ; and implementing the plan and evaluating the results. It could be argued that the first five processes are 'non-political' and could be done 'safely' in schools, only the implementation of social action decisions, the sixth process, taking science, technology and society clearly into the political arena. Indeed, science, technology and society issue-based studies could stop at the gathering of information. T h e IP A R scheme in Cameroon, involving a curriculum for primary school agriculture, has had considerable

150


success at this 'monitoring' level of school-community involvement. Even this

attempt to relate subject knowledge to children's lives outside of school would

be an advance and, as Bergmann points out, 'it does not m e a n an extension of

the role of the school or the teacher' (Bergmann, 1980, p . 19). Interestingly,

the same restriction on action characterized the objectives of the 1ST project

in the United States. Students were intended 'to translate their clarified and

informed values into participatory action', but only 'in the classroom'

(McConnell, 1982, p . 18).

A second problem facing the classroom teacher of science, technology and

society is that the cognitive demands of the learning appear formidable. Pupils

experience considerable difficulties with science concepts alone (Tiberghien,

1985). Science, technology and society courses relate these concepts to others

in multidisciplinary studies involving social, economic, political, aesthetic and

ethical considerations, often at a relatively high level of abstraction. T h e work

places a premium on information processing skills, rarely taught in schools in

developing countries, and on value clarification or moral development skills.

Indeed, m u c h science, technology and society teaching inescapably associates

science education with moral education (Barman et al., 1979).

These considerations might suggest that teaching about science, technol

ogy and society issues should be restricted in schools to the upper levels of

secondary institutions, or even confined to adult science literacy programmes.

Certainly such issues would have an important place there. However , if

learning is related to what children already k n o w and experience in their daily

lives (e.g. the use of the Shakir strip to measure malnutrition among infant

brothers and sisters, or information about varieties of local fuel resources),

then younger children m a y also benefit. T h e contribution of science education

to the moral development of children is a n e w challenge, however, which

science educators have scarcely begun to address in non-authoritarian contexts

where diversity of opinion, controversy and even dissent are not discouraged.

Elsewhere, centrally defined values provide the framework within which

science, technology and society teaching has to take place and the degrees of

freedom available to a teacher are fewer.

There remains a further question about the learning resulting from

science, technology and society studies. Such learning is almost always related

to some problem or issue and it is implicit in the advocacy of this approach

that what is learnt is transferable to other problems and issues. Putting the

matter another way , if w e relate academic knowledge and skills to real-life

situations, will students be more capable of, and committed to, dealing with

personal and community problems than if they had acquired the general

mental tools first through study of the separate disciplines? A s has been

pointed out, there is as yet little empirical evidence to support the notion that

151


what is learnt in issue-based studies is more effective than 'subject knowledge'

in relation to future effective participation in community development (Sutton

and Tomley , 1980, p . 148).

Developing this point further, the nature of the issues which are topical

and pressing at any given time is likely to change rapidly because of the speed

with which science and technology advance. In terms of conceptual under

standing, it is therefore unrealistic to expect schools to equip pupils with a

multi-purpose science, technology and society 'tool-kit' which will serve well

into the future. However thoroughly constructed and sensitively taught,

science, technology and society school courses on 'city noise pollution',

'indigenous industries' or 'alternative energy sources' will be of little use if the

dominant issues confronting society a decade or so later are 'experimentation

on h u m a n embryos' and 'computers and privacy'.

It would seem then that schools by their very nature, certainly as

conceived at present, are institutional environments not altogether well

adapted to the species of science education termed science, technology and

society. M o r e hospitable environments are to be found elsewhere, especially,

it is argued by some, in out-of-school and non-formal contexts and in

programmes of adult scientific literacy (Atchia, 1984, pp . 5 3 - 6 ; King, 1984,

p . 28).

References

AlKENHEAD, G . S. 1980. Science in Social Issues. Implications for Teaching. Ottawa, Science Council of Canada.

AlKENHEAD, G . S . ; FLEMING, R . W . 1975. Science: A Way of Knowing. Saskatoon, University of Saskatchewan.

A S S O C I A T I O N F O R S C I E N C E E D U C A T I O N . 1984. Rethinking Science? Teaching Science in its Social Context. Occasional Paper. Prepared by a working party on the Interactions of Science with Society in the 11-16 Curriculum. Hatfield, Association for Science Education.

A T C H I A , M . 1984. Problems and Prospects of Popularising Science and Technology through Non-School Activities; Some Thoughts on the African Situation. In: G . R . Meyer and A . N . Rao (eds.), Teaching Science Out-of-School with Special Reference to Biology, pp. 53-6. Singapore and Sydney, International Union of Biological Sciences Commission for Biological Education and Asian Network for Biological Sciences.

B A R M A N , C . R . ; R U S C H , J. J. ; C O O N E Y , T . M . 1979. Science and Societal Issues: A Guide for Science Teachers. Cedar Falls, Iowa 50613, Science Activity Fund, Price Laboratory School, University of Northern Iowa.

152


B E R G M A N N , H . 1980. Comments on Working Document. In: P . J. Kelly and G . Schaefer (eds.), Biological Education for Community Development, pp. 10-19. London, Taylor & Francis.

EIJKELHOF, H . M . C. ; BOEKER, E. ; R A A T , J. H . ; WIJNBEEK, N . J.

1981. Physics in Society. Amsterdam, V U Boekhandel/Uitgeverij. F E N S H A M , P . J. 1984. A Second Chance for School Systems and N e w

Vision for Population Outside of School. In : Science Education in Asia and the Pacific. Bulletin of the Unesco Regional Office for Education in Asia and the Pacific (Bangkok), N o . 25, June, pp. 437-68.

G A S K E L L , P . J. 1982. Science, Technology and Society: Issues for Science Teachers. Studies in Science Education, Vol. 9, pp. 33-46.

H A L L , W . ; L O W E , I. ; M C K A V A N A G H , C. ; MCKENZIE , S. ; MARTIN, H .

1983. Teaching Science, Technology and Society in the Junior High School. Brisbane, Brisbane College of Advanced Education.

H A R M S , N . C . ; Y A G E R , R . E . (eds.). 1981. What Research Says to the Science Teacher. Vol. 3. Washington, D . C , National Science Teachers Association.

H O C H , P . 1984. Atlantic Comparisons: STS in Britain and North America. STSA Newsletter (Science, Technology and Society Association), Issue 20, pp. 10-12.

H u R D , P . 1975. Science, Technology and Society: N e w Goals for Interdisciplinary Teaching. The Science Teacher, Vol. 42, pp. 27-30.

ICSU (International Council of Scientific Unions. Committee on the Teaching of Science). 1983. Science and Technology Education and Future Human Needs, Conference in Bangalore, India, August 1985. Malvern, ICSU.

K I N G , K . 1984. Education, Science Policy, Research and Action. A Review Paper. (Mimeographed, unpublished paper.)

L A Y T O N , D . 1973. The Secondary School Curriculum and Science Education. Physics Education, Vol. 8, N o . 1, pp. 19-23.

L E W I S , J. L . 1979. Science in Society. In: J. Reay (ed.), New Trends in Integrated Science Teaching. Vol. 5, pp. 153-9. Paris, Unesco.

. 1981. Science and Society. Teacher's Guide. London/Hatfield, Heinemann/The Association for Science Education.

M C C O N N E L L , M . C . 1982. Teaching about Science, Technology and Society at the Secondary School Level in the United States. A n Educational Dilemma for the 1980s. Studies in Science Education, Vol. 9, pp. 1-32.

M E N E Z E S , L . C . de. 1985. Towards a Practical Physics. In: D . Layton (ed.), Innovations in Science and Technology Education. Vol. 1, pp. 109-15. Paris, Unesco.

N A T I O N A L C O U N C I L F O R T H E S O C I A L S T U D I E S . 1979. Science and Tech

nology for a Global Society. Social Education (Washington, D . C ) , Vol. 43, N o . 6, October.

ORGANISATION FOR ECONOMIC CO-OPERATION A N D DEVELOPMENT

( O E C D ) . 1979. Technology on Trial. Public Participation in Decision-Making related to Science and Technology. Paris, O E C D .

P I E L , E . J. 1981. Interactions of Science, Technology and Society in Secondary Schools. In: N . C . Harms and R . E . Yager (eds.), What

153


Research Says to the Science Teacher. Vol. 3, pp. 94—112. Washington, D . C . , National Science Teachers Association.

R O Y , R . 1984. S-STS. Teaching Science via Science, Technology and Society Material in the Pre-College Years. Pennsylvania, The Pennsylvania State University.

S O L O M O N , J. 1980. Science and Society Studies in the School Curriculum. The School Science Review, Vol. 62, N o . 219, pp. 213-19.

. 1983. Science in a Social Context (SISCON). Oxford, Basil Blackwell.

S U T T O N , C . ; T O M L E Y , D . 1980. Teaching for Action beyond School: Theoretical and Practical Problems. In: P . J. Kelly and G . Schaefer (eds.), Biological Education for Community Development, pp. 148-58. London, Taylor & Francis.

TlBERGHIEN, A . 1985. Difficulties in Concept Formation. In: D . Layton (ed.), Innovations in Science and Technology Education. Vol. 1, pp. 95-108. Paris, Unesco.

V A N D E R L O O , F . 1980. Physics and Society. A Course on Science, Technology and Society at a Dutch Teacher-training College. (Unpublished paper delivered at the ICSU/Unesco seminar, Malvern, 1980.)

Y A K U B U , J. M . 1984. Science in Ghanaian Society Project. Report. (Mimeographed, unpublished report.)

Z lMAN, J. 1980. Teaching and Learning about Science and Society. Cambridge, Cambridge University Press.

154

The activities of Pioneer Centres in the USSR1

Olga Grekova

Every day, thousands of boys and girls of all ages go to the Pioneer Centres.

These children are all different and yet similar in that they are all seeking their

w a y in life. T h e y hurry to their group activities or to meet people such as

workers, scientists and sportsmen w h o are k n o w n and respected. Others

simply have a brief hour of free time in which to go to the play centre or

reading-room, or watch competitions and meet others. T h e y go without an

invitation, just as they would go h o m e . W e educators cherish this attitude,

which turns a vast centre into a hospitable house where the youngsters are

always expected and where they are happy.

Education envelops the child in influences of m a n y kinds, e.g. school,

family, friends, public organizations, the mass media and out-of-school

institutions. T h e latter c a m e into being in the very early days of Soviet rule

and can truly be termed the progeny of the October Revolution.

T h e principles of the legislation of the U n i o n of Soviet Socialist Republics

and the Union Republics allot to out-of-school institutions a significant role in

the education of children and young people, side by side with school, the

family and the c o m m u n i t y . These out-of-school institutions have good

facilities and exist to develop the abilities and interests of pupils in a balanced

w a y , fostering social activeness, interest in w o r k , science, technology, art and

sport; they also aim to provide cultural pursuits for leisure time and to

improve health.2

Together with the formal education system, out-of-school institutions

firmly guarantee the right of every Soviet citizen to education and to the

development of his abilities, interests and career aims, and scientific, technical

and artistic creativity.3

1. This article is based on research into the activities of out-of-school institutions carried out by the author when director of the Moscow Municipal Pioneer and Children's Centre between 1968 and 1983. 2. Principles of the legislation of the Union of Soviet Socialist Republics and the Union Republics concerning national education. 3. Constitution of the U S S R , Articles 40, 41, 42, 45, 47.

155

Olga Grekova

Out-of-school institutions, including the Pioneer Centres, are an integral

part of the education system.1 They continue the instruction and communist

upbringing of schoolchildren in out-of-class time, while also furthering the

work of the councils of the Pioneer organization, the Communist League of

Youth (Komsomol) and national education bodies.

The concern of the state for the education of every boy and girl is reflected

in the steady increase in the number of out-of-school institutions. In 1984

these numbered over 80,000, some 5,000 of them being Pioneer and

schoolchildren's centres.

T h e work of these institutions is based on the general principles of

communist upbringing, that is, communist ideals and purposefulness, a

connection with life and with the building of c o m m u n i s m ; education in a

group and through the group; the making of exacting demands on a person;

the development of initiative and independent activity; allowance for the

different ages and individualities of pupils ; and the systematic and consistent

nature of the education process.

Out of the general principles come the specific principles underlying the

activity of out-of-school institutions, e.g. a close link between such insti

tutions and the formal education system ; compatibility and interaction with

the Pioneer and K o m s o m o l organizations, families and the community ; broad

voluntary participation and free choice of activities by the children ; and the

combination of mass, group and individual approaches. Out-of-school institu

tions have considerable opportunities for using activity programmes that take

account of a child's individual interests, abilities and level of development.

T h e institutions work with a variety of pupil groups, e.g. with Pioneer and

K o m s o m o l members in schools; with schoolchildren w h o come to work in

groups, clubs and sections; with children and young people taking part in

large-scale festivities, sports, competitions and the like.

T h e institutions' educational activity has m u c h to offer in that it can give

the schoolchild more than the essential m i n i m u m of knowledge and skills. In

1. In the Soviet Union such institutions m a y be either special purpose, concerned for instance with sport, music or travel, or general purpose as in the case of Pioneer Centres, whose work combines various forms of educational activity. A variety of these institutions at present operate in the country, including 5,000 Pioneer and schoolchildren's centres, 1,503 young technicians' centres, 989 young naturalists' centres, 248 young travellers' centres, 1,283 clubs for young technicians, 6,776 children's sectors of cultural institutions and trade unions, some 500 sports schools for children and young people, 48 children's railways, and about 8,000 schoolchildren's study rooms.

156

The activities of Pioneer Centres in the USSR

particular, it helps to shape such traits as a creative approach to problem-solving and a willing attitude towards work and social activity.

T h e specific role of out-of-school institutions in the communist education system finds practical expression in their intrinsic functions which are dictated by the need to strive for the improvement of everything connected with the all-round development of the personality of every schoolchild. In this connection, the staff and students of out-of-school institutions are not only influenced by society but themselves act upon it, and their influence is the more fruitful the more positive the attitude they adopt.

T h e classification of functions is the responsibility of educational science and, in particular, of the staff of the sector concerned with the educational work of out-of-school institutions in the Institute of General Problems of the Academy of Pedagogical Sciences. A study is being m a d e here of the unity and originality of the functions of out-of-school institutions in co-operation with the formal education system.

Being linked to all aspects of education, out-of-school institutions are distinguished by the wide variety of functions they perform. There is, however, a unity in their educational w o r k , teaching methods and mass political activity, as a closer look at h o w some of their basic functions are carried out reveals.

For example, their educational function is manifest in the drive for detailed and reliable knowledge. Because the institutions possess a very wide range of sources of the most up-to-date knowledge, they can provide material over and above the compulsory school curriculum. Activities in groups concerned with model-building, cybernetics, design and similar topics m a k e it possible to establish links between school subjects such as physics, mathematics and chemistry.

T h e teaching-methods function helps to improve the skills of those working with children in out-of-school institutions and provides assistance for Pioneer leaders and schoolteachers by summarizing and introducing progressive educational experience. T o this end, recommendations about methods, bulletins and model syllabuses are issued. Continuous courses of advanced educational experience are organized, and seminars and discussion groups are held.

T h e organizational function is manifest in the use of out-of-class time and in work with children in their neighbourhood and during holidays. T h e institutions become centres for creative and worthwhile leisure activities for children and young people. They are also the organizers of republic-wide and municipal affairs and initiate m a n y mass activities. For example, creative groups and clubs in the Pioneer Centres take an active part in meetings of young peace campaigners, exhibitions, contests, competitions, concerts,

157

Olga Grekova

performances and amateur talent festivals, each activity being regarded as a logical link in a unified system of measures influencing the young person.

This analysis of functions is, of course, merely a convenience since in actual practice they interlock and interact closely with each other. Every out-of-school institution in the U S S R today is seeking the most effective forms and methods of work and is endeavouring to become a genuine laboratory of progressive experience of Pioneer activity, striving to integrate all that is best in the many-sided work of the formal education system and the community for the education of Pioneers and schoolchildren.

Actual experience shows that these institutions devote a great deal of effort to ensuring close links with the formal education system and to the development of the forms and methods of work with children. It needs re-emphasizing that their activities are not compulsory for all pupils. Pupils are entitled to a free choice of what they do, according to their age and their o w n interests, inclinations and abilities.

Within a group or section which he has chosen to join, a young person is in a position a m o n g children of his o w n age and vis-à-vis the teachers which is different from his situation at school. It is not u n c o m m o n for relationships established here between young people and their leaders to assume a more trusting and sincere quality and to exert a marked influence on the shaping of their attitudes and convictions, conduct and approach to learning and to social life. T h u s , whatever the careers chosen by the pupils from the groups operating in the Pioneer Centres of Leningrad, Tbilisi, B a k u , Kiev, Minsk and a great m a n y other cities, each young person has taken with him into adulthood a sense of responsibility for the task assigned to him and a feeling of participation in the achievements of the Soviet people.

T h e process of involving children in group and team activities in the Pioneer Centres is a profoundly h u m a n one. T h e initial aim is to arouse interest and give children the opportunity of showing what they can do in various types of activity and, if possible, to build on some particular inclination, the intention being not to let the child go away without finding what appeals to him most.

T h e subsequent stage is the acquisition of experience and skill, which fosters sustained interest and a deeper attachment to one's favourite occupation. Group activities play an important part in establishing theoretical concepts, building up self-assurance and developing skill. In addition, they promote a materialistic understanding of the world, aid the development of links between subjects and help to form a class approach to the evaluation of events.

T h e third stage is work in experimental groups connected with research. This, of course, is for senior pupils.

158


At a time of such rapid scientific and technological progress, no academic or out-of-school institution can provide its pupils with knowledge and skills to last a lifetime. There is thus a special need to teach children and young people to strive continually for knowledge and to develop the ability to hand it on to others, and also to learn to acquire occupational skills in an active way . Each Pioneer Centre trains, for assistance to Pioneer detachments and K o m s o m o l groups, child instructors, popularizers of knowledge, organizers of school olympiads, demonstrators of classroom experiments to assist the teacher, and providers of information. All this finds its culmination in the activity of the youth science society, which aims to give children a deeper insight into various areas of production, science and art, to assist in choosing a career and to provide the necessary skills for self-education, self-improvement and independence.

The members of the science society at a Pioneer Centre, whatever their special interest (socio-political knowledge, archaeology, microbiology, molecular genetics, mathematics, computer technology, etc.), work hard to learn about their country's history, to bring up children in a spirit of peace, to become familiar with the revolutionary, military and labour traditions of the Soviet people, to acquaint themselves with their country's scientific achievements and to m a k e such modest contributions of their o w n as they can.

For over ten years, a pupil science society has been operating in the Chelyabinsk Pioneer Centre. Every year, between 1,500 and 1,800 pupils in the eight, ninth and tenth classes pursue their activities in thefifty or more sections of this society, under the guidance of scientists, production innovators, and school and university teachers. T h e schoolchildren's work gains recognition in the form of medals of the permanent Exhibition of National Economic Achievements, and it is published in periodicals and in the Young Researcher series. For its work, the Chelyabinsk science society has been awarded the Lenin K o m s o m o l Prize.

T h e painstaking, day-to-day work of the education specialists, the influence of the groups as a team, the creation of conditions in which the group leader finds himself actively involved and team exercises give results. T h e fostering of an active attitude on the part of each group leader, and studying the personality and forecasting its psychological growth, all constitute a complex problem calling on the skills of the whole teaching team and of each group leader.

Out-of-school institutions are distinctive, with their o w n traditions. They have a particular and unique ethos which consolidates the children as a unit and is an important factor in forming the personality. Such units live on for decades, and former pupils remember with gratitude h o w they were educated.

159

Olga Grekova

Let us take a look at the M o s c o w municipal Pioneer and Schoolchildren's Centre, which was opened in 1936 on the initiative of Nadezhda Konstanti-novna Krupskaya, Lenin's wife.

In 1962, in a picturesque area of M o s c o w on the Lenin Hills, the centre began work in a new complex of buildings and facilities. This consists of a stadium, a swimming pool, 80 special-purpose rooms and laboratories, more than 400 areas for group activities, a 1,000-seat concert hall, a reading-room and a Pioneer theatre where children's drama, puppet and other artistic groups perform. All activities for children at the centre are carried out free of charge, being paid for out of the budget of the M o s c o w Soviet of Workers' Deputies.

T h e M o s c o w Pioneer and Schoolchildren's Centre, together with the education system and the Pioneer and K o m s o m o l organizations, sees to the communist upbringing of children. It develops the creative interests of schoolchildren in the first to tenth classes and brings them into contact with the world of beauty, with technology and with sport. There are over 1,000 groups functioning at the centre, offering more than 172 different courses in nature study, creative technical work, and artistic and physical education. T h e groups, sections and teams of the centre have a membership of over 15,000 children. In the creative technical groups, for example, some 1,500 children learn more about science and technology, are given an introductory grasp of h o w industry functions, study technical modelling and build models of ships, aircraft and motor vehicles. In the motor club, over 600 schoolchildren a year obtain young drivers' certificates. Young radio operators can contact almost all countries in the world. T h e groups which cover new ideas in modern science and technology, space biology, electronics and the like are very popular. T h e centre maintains close links with the city's research establishments and production units. These include the Lomonosov M o s c o w State University, the Lenin K o m s o m o l Motor Factory, the Bach Institute of Biochemistry and the Shternberg State Institute of Astronomy. Soviet cosmonauts, scientists and people spearheading industrial progress are frequent guests of the Pioneers.

Over 1,100 schoolchildren work enthusiastically in fifty-six biology section groups. They have their o w n experimental plot, greenhouse and small zoo. In the s u m m e r , young biologists set off on expeditions to the country's nature reserves.

In the artistic education section, some 3,000 Pioneers and schoolchildren are concerned with painting, sculpture, photography, artistic expression, drama and cinematography. T h e centre has its o w n drama and puppet theatres, amateur film studio and the Loktev song and dance ensemble involving 1,300 children, w h o are warmly applauded both in the U S S R and abroad.

160


At the centre, over 4,000 children can go in for various types of sport. In recent years alone, the centre has trained m o r e than 100 masters and candidate masters of sport and about 6,000 rank-and-file sportsmen. S o m e former pupils of the Pioneer Centre have become champions of the Soviet Union and members of Soviet national teams.

T h e doors of the centre are wide open to every child. It is a children's club visited daily by between 5,000 and 7,000 children. It is a place for meeting interesting people, a place for games and recreation. G a m e s can be borrowed free of charge for temporary h o m e and school use.

T h e centre is also a place for mass organizational and educational work with children. Events that have n o w become traditional are the festival of arts and similar occasions in connection with games and toys, children's books and the N e w Year's tree, together with meetings and competitions of young technicians, sportsmen, cosmonauts and regional specialists. Large-scale celebrations, festivals and olympiads concerned with science and technology, literature and art are organized. Over 100,000 schoolchildren of various ages take part in these activities each month .

Every day after school, thousands of boys and girls go to their Pioneer Centres. In these youngsters lies the future, and happy childhood experiences in these out-of-school institutions help them to find their path in life and realize their dreams.

Bibliography

B A L Y A S N A Y A , L . K . Vsemerno uluösat' dejatel'nost' vneskol'nyh ucrez-denij [Improving the W o r k of Out-of-school Institutions by Every Means]. Narodnoe obrazovanie [Popular Education], N o . 5, 1975. (In Russian.)

C H U B A R O V A , G . P. Idet smotr vneskol'nyh ucrezdenij [The Current Review of Out-of-school Institutions]. Vozatyj [Youth leader], N o . 5, 1974. (In Russian.)

I O G O L E V I C H , A . Z . O nekotoryh putjah soversenstvovanija vneskol'nogo vospitanija ucascihsja [On a N u m b e r of Ways of Improving the Out-of-school Education of Pupils]. Vospitanie skol'nikov [Education of Schoolchildren], N o . 1, 1977. (In Russian.)

K O B A L , M . B . Problema vzaimodejstvija pedagogov i vozatyh v processe rukovodstva dejatel'nost'ju pionerov [The Problem of the Interaction of Educationists and Leaders in the Process of Guidance of the Activity of Pioneers]. Kandidat degree thesis, Moscow, 1970. (In Russian.)

K R U P S K A Y A , N . K . Pionerdvizenie kak pedagogiceskaja problema [The Pioneer Movement as a Pedagogical Problem]. Pedagogiceskie Socineni-ja [Pedagogical Works] (Moscow, Academy of Pedagogical Sciences of the U S S R ) , Vol. 5, 1959. (In Russian.)

161

Olga Grekova

L E N I N , V . I. O vospitanii i obrazovanii [On Education and Upbringing]. M o s c o w , Academy of Pedagogical Sciences of the U S S R , 1963. (In Russian.)

M I T I N A , I. I. Organizacija raboty kollektiva vneäkol'nyh ucrezdenij [Organizing the W o r k of the Staff of Out-of-school Institutions]. Vospitanie skol'nikov [Education-of Schoolchildren], N o . 3, 1974. (In Russian.)

N O V I K O V A , L . I. Kollektiv i liènost' kak pedagogiceskaja problema [The Group and the Individual as a Pedagogical Problem]. Doctor's degree thesis, Leningrad, 1977. (In Russian.)

O reforme obsceobrazovatel'noj i professional'noj skoly. Sbornik doku-mentov i materialov [On the Reform of General and Vocational Education. A Collection of Documents and Material]. Leningrad, 1984. (In Russian.)

S H I R V I N D T , B . E . (ed.). Problemy preemstvennosti v dejatel'nosti pion-erskoj i komsomol'skoj organizacii Skoly [Problems of Continuity in the Activity of the Pioneer and K o m s o m o l Organization of Formal Education]. Pedagogika [Pedagogy]. M o s c o w , 1972. (In Russian.)

Tipovoe poloienie o respublikanskom, kraevom, oblastnom Dvorce pionerov i skol'nikov [Model Regulations for Pioneer and Schoolchildren's Centres in Republics, Territories and Regions]. M o s c o w , Molodaja gvardija, 1969. (In Russian.)

162

Stimulating innovation at the international level: Unesco's role in science and technology education

Recent experimental projects

Promoting experimentation and innovation has been a continuing feature of Unesco programmes for development of science and technology education worldwide. While the first Unesco experimental pilot projects in the 1960s focused on curriculum reform and preparation of teaching materials in basic science disciplines (chemistry, physics, biology and mathematics), attention in the 1970s was given to primary and integrated science and out-of-school scientific activities for young people. F r o m the beginning of the present decade, emphasis has been placed on the application of science and technology education to the needs of daily life and development of society. In this connection Unesco convened, in 1981, an International Congress on Science and Technology Education and National Development (Unesco, 1983a).

T o keep science and technology teaching in schools up to date and relevant to the needs of the individual and society, continuous efforts are needed. Research and innovation in science and technology education are being carried out by a variety of professional and scientific institutions and organizations throughout the world. Unesco catalyses these efforts at national, regional and international levels through promoting the exchange of information and supporting innovative groups in the production of teaching materials and the development of innovative approaches to science education. In recent years, a n u m b e r of themes have been selected for special support through experimental and pilot activities carried out by national institutions ; Unesco's role has been essentially to assist in the initial orientation, facilitating contact and exchanges between participating institutions and providing technical back-up to the experimental/pilot projects, as necessary.

Since 1981, projects on the following topics have been initiated: science and technology education in rural areas; n e w methods for pre-service and in-service training of personnel ; technology in general education ; science and technology education and productive w o r k ; application of calculators and computers in the teaching of science and mathematics ; teaching of science and

163

Stimulating innovation at the international level

technology in an interdisciplinary perspective; use of games and other practical activities in the teaching of science to children ; and development of innovative mass media programmes for the training of science teachers.

S o m e of these projects are continuing and will be dealt with in later volumes of Innovations in Science and Technology Education.

Science and technology education in rural areas

T h e need to improve education in rural areas has been expressed in m a n y high-level conferences in recent years and Unesco, in co-operation with other agencies, has assisted projects with this aim. In particular, Unesco has co-operated with several M e m b e r States in undertaking pilot projects to integrate their education to rural development.

Adaptation of general education to rural areas in Africa

During the period 1981-83 Unesco initiated an experimental/pilot project on adapting science and technology education in rural areas in five African countries: Burkina Faso, G a m b i a , Mali, Senegal and the United Republic of Tanzania. T h e objectives of this project were to improve the quality of science and technology education both in and out of school in rural areas ; to develop suitable teaching materials and methods adapted to the rural environment of the participating countries, based on national science curricula and textbooks ; and to develop appropriate strategies for wider application of the results of the pilot project with a view to the improvement of the quality and relevance of science and technology education in rural areas.

T h e participating institutions began the project by collecting and preparing relevant documentation concerned with the development of education in rural areas and more particularly with issues related to the improvement of science and technology education. This was followed by technical seminars and workshops involving curriculum specialists, teacher educators and educational administrators.

O n the basis of the strategies and work-plan adopted by each country, experimental/pilot activities were initiated. T h e plan envisaged the possibility of consultation and exchange of information and materials between the participating institutions during the implementation of the pilot project.

While each participating institution decided upon its o w n approach in the execution of the pilot project, certain c o m m o n strategic guidelines emerged from the preliminary deliberations of the five countries. First, the schools in rural areas were not as well equipped for science and technology education as

164


urban schools and consequently greater use had to be m a d e of out-of-school activities, using local facilities and the environment. Second, the temptation to apply the 'theory of dichotomy' and offer a limited science and technology education to young people in rural areas had to be resisted. Third, the teaching materials and methods for science and technology education needed to be simple, low-cost and activity-based, and allow m a x i m u m participation of learners. Fourth, measures were needed to ensure full participation of rural teachers, parents and community institutions in the process of science and technology education in rural areas.

T h e general guidelines for preparing instructional materials and selecting teaching methodologies included the following considerations : 1. National education system and policy. T h e project should be planned and

operated within the national education system's policy and development goals, taking into consideration the specific socio-economic and cultural realities of the rural areas concerned. Teaching/learning materials were to be conceived and adapted within the framework of the approved national curriculum in science and technology education but on a scale which was not overly ambitious.

2. Simultaneous education of children and adults. It was important to discourage a generation gap in scientific information. Instructional materials offering scope for the application of scientific and technological knowledge should be planned for the family as a whole, especially in relation to topics such as food, nutrition, water, hygiene and health.

3. Education-life link. Education being a cumulative process of preparation for life, practical experience and acquisition of skills for everyday life should be important criteria for the selection and preparation of teaching/ learning materials in science and technology. T h e aim should be to explain things done at h o m e or out in the field against a scientific background and not to introduce science and technology that will alienate learners from their immediate environment and life-styles.

In accordance with these guidelines, the curriculum emphasized local problems associated with agro-technology, food production, conservation and protection, clean water, health and hygiene. Activities involved reading and following instructions in pamphlets as well as writing for information about the use of fertilizers and insecticides. Teaching/learning materials and methodologies incorporated practical activities which were meaningful and had a bearing on everyday life.

Instructional materials and teaching methodologies were designed to inculcate scientific method and thinking as well as to develop related skills. Acquisition of scientific information was of less importance than a scientific approach to problem-solving. Science and technology education was used to

165


teach the pupil to observe accurately, reason logically and avoid both metaphysical interpretations of nature and the mystification of science and technology.

Technology in general education

In view of the ever-increasing interaction of technology with our daily existence, the question of its contribution to general education, and in particular to the science education component, cannot be ignored. In considering this role, however, the major concern should be not so m u c h for the education of the future technologists, but for that of the majority (both in and out of school) living as non-technologists in a technology-based society. As part of general education, technology education need not focus exclusively on the high technology and complicated manufacturing processes included in courses for specialist technicians and engineers.

Based on the analysis of existing curricula, particularly in science education, a pilot project at the secondary school level on technology in general education was initiated in 1981-83 with the participation of Australia, China, India and the Philippines; it was intended to give selected topics a practical and technological bias, so enabling students to achieve a better understanding of the surrounding environment. In preparing the teaching/ learning materials for the project, the participating M e m b e r States considered various objectives : to m a k e general education more relevant and realistic to the environment and daily life of students ; to prepare students for life in a society increasingly based on science and technology and their products ; to equip students to be useful m e m b e r s of the community with an attitude to contribute their best to the c o m m o n good in school, h o m e and community life; to motivate the students to explore and experiment, and to express individual creativeness ; to impart an understanding of the design and problem-solving processes characteristic of technology ; to encourage critical thinking with clean and safe work habits, i.e. to train students in the constructive use of both the head and hands ; to develop positive attitudes of economy, team-work, ethics and socially desirable values such as self-reliance, dignity of labour, tolerance, co-operation, sympathy and helpfulness; to impart to students a basic knowledge of materials, processes and techniques with a view to their introduction to the world of work ; to encourage students to develop practical skills and techniques, e.g. graphic communication, use of elementary hand-tools and equipment, scientific method and problem-solving techniques ; to develop in students an appreciation of the role of agriculture and industry in the development of the country ; and to impart to students

166


knowledge and related skills necessary for resource conservation, development and its wise utilization, discouraging waste and pollution.

Procedures and experiences of participating countries

Australia

T h e project was viewed as a 'seeding exercise' within the state of Victoria for a larger programme to be conducted by the State Education Department ; it was also intended as a means of raising consciousness of the same issues in the other states of Australia.

T h e advisory committee, set up for the project, regarded technology as the conscious adaptation of materials and processes, in particular those of problem-solving and decision-making, to accomplish h u m a n purposes. In being taught the subject, the young people were to be encouraged to design, build and test technological solutions to selected problems.

In preference to the widely used 'research-develop-disseminate' pattern of curriculum design, the advisory committee chose to seek from practising teachers materials which they had developed and tested in the classrooms and which exemplified technology education as described in this project. For the most part, these involved short independent activities rather than structured sequences or whole courses. This strategy permits fewer assumptions about the 'right' kind of activity and so is more clearly exploratory or experimental in nature. In preparing such activities, emphasis was on 'education through technology'.

Students were required to search for information and select materials of possible relevance to their problems. Other activities involved consideration of h o w these particular solutions could be m a d e more general : whether they could be incorporated into a larger context of problem-solving; and what would happen if the constraints and parameters of the original problem were changed significantly. Curriculum materials addressed questions of teaching methods in so far as these related to opportunities for young people to work collaboratively, to plan projects, to allocate time, to discuss tentative solutions and to interact with their teacher.

China

In China, the pilot project was located at the N o . 4 High School, one of the leading institutions of learning in Beijing. T h e educational policy of the country stipulates a three-pronged approach to develop students morally,

167


intellectually and physically and thus help them to become useful members of their community. Under the pilot project, the Chinese authorities decided to introduce two elective subjects, astronomy and medical biology, for students w h o started their senior school in September 1982. These subjects were selected for their general usefulness.

The broad content of the course on medical biology included h u m a n anatomy and physiology with an emphasis on the cardio-vascular and nervous systems ; medical microbiology including the basis of immunity ; and Chinese herbal medicine. Topics in the astronomy course were an introduction to astronomy; fundamental knowledge of celestial bodies such as the solar system, stars and galaxies ; knowledge of spherical astronomy and practical astronomy with emphasis on the celestial co-ordinate system, time, calendars and navigational astronomy ; contemporary astronomy ; radio astronomy ; and exploration of space.

Instruction commenced in the autumn semester of 1982 after a six-month planning period, during which teachers were developing course materials. Teaching continued throughout the spring semester of 1983, with lectures and discussions on special topics by experts. In August 1984 a s u m m e r camp was held for the imparting of practical information and skills related to the courses. A research and evaluation phase commenced in September 1983 and continued to the end of April 1984.

T h e integrated approach to science and technology was illustrated through simple experiments linked with social customs. T h u s , to help students understand the scientific background behind the social custom of washing hands before meals, they were asked to touch, with clean and dirty hands respectively, two culture media which were then incubated. At the conclusion of the experiment, the class could observe the rapid development of bacteria in the culture m e d i u m touched by the unclean hands.

In another experiment, students studied the relationship between white and red blood corpuscles, an abnormal count of these cells being indicative of the malfunctioning of the body. In particular, the medical biology course emphasized the use of Chinese herbal medicines over the ages.

India

The Unesco pilot project on technology in general education was conducted at the Regional College of Education, Mysore, using its physical facilities, h u m a n resources and its contact with the national school system in India.

Technology as a process for problem-solving and decision-making in daily life was accepted as the working definition for the project. Instructional modules were prepared on seven topics: energy; friction; 'combustion for

168


light' ; household electricity ; electromagnetic devices ; 'wheat-to-biscuit' ; and 'design-your-diet'. Each module consisted of self-instructional materials and worksheets for students, a teachers' guide and an equipment kit.

The Philippines

In the Philippines, the pilot project was conducted by the Technology Resource Centre ( T R C ) , a corporate agency of the Ministry of H u m a n Settlements. T h e work began with a survey to determine the level of technology awareness a m o n g the Filipinos, as well as their needs in this field. This was followed by a national workshop involving teachers, professors, science educators, administrators, agronomists, technologists and textbook writers.

In accord with the recommendation that technology education should be needs-orientated and following other suggestions from the workshop, a 'technology-enriched' curriculum was designed. This emphasized the application of science and technological skills to everyday life, being intended to meet the national goals associated with the eleven basic concerns of the Ministry of H u m a n Settlements, i.e. food, water, shelter, clothing, livelihood, health, education (including culture), ecological balance, sports (including recreation), mobility and power (economic base). A teachers' guide and a students' manual on instruction materials comprising appropriate technologies were also prepared. These were supplemented with 'do-it-yourself tech-nology-cum-livelihood brochures and ecology posters, a m o n g other audiovisual materials.

In a subsequent teacher-training seminar, the appropriateness of instructional materials so far developed was reviewed and ways of interlinking technology and science in general education were explored. T h e appropriate technologies that could be injected into secondary school science courses were identified and priorities assigned. Available community resources for the teaching of interlinked science and technology were also noted.

In the course of pilot testing the n e w curriculum, other activities to enhance the learning process were developed. These included films and demonstrations to show the practical applications of scientific concepts; dramatization of scientific principles; technology exhibitions; contests to foster the spirit of co-operation and initiative a m o n g students ; and visits to R & D laboratories, as well as to local industries.

Sri Lanka

In Sri Lanka, the pilot experiment on the development of a life skills curriculum within the joint United Nations Development Programme

169


( U N D P ) / U n e s c o Project on Quality Improvement of General Education offers an imaginative strategy for introducing technology as part of general education. T h e experiment, emphasizing activity, creativity, relevance and integration of disciplines, was initiated mainly to provide the pupil with meaningful learning activities ; to introduce the child to the world of work and to inculcate a positive attitude thereto; and to help the pupil acquire some familiarity and proficiency in the use of c o m m o n tools and appliances around the house, community and place of work.

T h e project, while encouraging interdisciplinarity, discourages sexual discrimination. In learning h o w to cook food, m a k e compost or set up a low-voltage electrical circuit, both boys and girls learn according to their individual aptitudes rather than their sex.

T o further help such teachers, Unesco has initiated the preparation of a guide or manual.

N e w approaches to in-service training of science teachers

Large increases in the numbers of pupils and teachers, the need to implement n e w and updated science curricula, the emphasis on experimental work in and outside the classroom and the expectation that pupils should acquire problem-solving attitudes and skills which m a y enable them to apply their knowledge within their environment are only some of the factors that are making increasing demands on science teachers and hence also on the whole process of training science teachers. This is true for most countries, but particularly so for developing countries.

Because of this, a project on n e w approaches to the in-service training of science teachers, focusing mainly on secondary school science, was included in Unesco's programme and budget for 1981-83. T h e general objectives of this project were to explore n e w and more effective ways of providing in-service training to science teachers and to develop innovative teaching/ learning materials as well as teachers' guides to satisfy the n e w qualitative and quantitative demands in science teaching.

It was decided to hold this experimental project in Spanish- and Portuguese-speaking countries (this limitation being intended to facilitate cooperation a m o n g the participating teams) in collaboration with four institutions to be selected by Unesco. T h e final selection was based on criteria such as the past achievements of the institutions in the area of science teacher training, their understanding of the problems to be tackled, the innovative aspects of their plans, and their possibilities of carrying them out in the light of their h u m a n and material resources. During the selection process,

170


Barbados was also included in order to promote co-operation between Latin America and the Caribbean.

Barbados

In Barbados, the work was planned and supervised by the Ministry of Education. It involved a large n u m b e r of science teachers from ten different schools. T h e following project activities are a m o n g those selected by the participating teachers : audio-visual aids for teaching about sugar production and for other topics in agricultural science ; practical workbooks for integrated science; practical workbooks on electricity; a unit on living things; a workbook on life processes; mathematics workbooks on fractions, sets, graphs and geometry; reading materials and other aids for slow learners; photographs of microscope preparations and other specimens ; exploration of pupil-to-pupil teaching/learning relationships.

T h e discussions that led to those curriculum projects were based on real problems encountered by the teachers in their classrooms.

Brazil

T h e team responsible for the work done in Brazil was based at the Physics Department of the University of Sâo Paulo.1 T h e work done can be described under four headings; special in-service training courses for teachers, educational research projects, development of educational materials and other training activities such as visits to laboratories, seminars and other meetings.

T h e special in-service training courses that have been held fall into five categories: (a) n e w ways of looking at the learning process; (b) the design, development, utilization and repair of low-cost equipment; (c) interdisciplinary courses bridging biology and physics ; (d) cultural and societal aspects of science; and (e) topics in modern physics. Several educational research projects arose as a consequence of the special interest shown by m a n y teachers.

T h e development of teaching materials, mainly in the form of teachers' guides, was a very important part of all this activity. Initially, these materials were prepared by the university staff responsible for a given course. But in m a n y cases this work has been expanded, with the active participation of the teachers themselves.

1. Instituto de Física, Universidade de Sao Paulo (IFUSP), Caixa Postal 20516, Sao Paulo.

171


T w o additional types of activities have also taken place. O n e of them consisted of seminars and meetings with teachers, mainly to discuss their problems and possible solutions. T h e other was a series of organized visits of groups of school students w h o came with their respective teachers to the physics teaching laboratories of I F U S P where special experiments had been prepared for them. Each visit would last two or three hours. In some cases, a visit to the research laboratories of I F U S P was included as well. Several thousand pupils from about forty secondary schools have taken part in such visits.

In conclusion, it can be said that, within the general objectives of this pilot project, the work done by the Brazilian team attempted to face the challenge of contributing to the improvement of the teachers' teaching capabilities by increasing their familiarity with the process of concept formation and more generally with the practice and theory of the learning process; by helping them to see h o w the 'mistakes' m a d e by their pupils reveal hidden intuitive ideas which must be changed by an adequate teaching strategy ; by providing them with examples of situations that illustrate similarities and differences between scientific knowledge and c o m m o n sense ; by helping them to include in their courses topics based on real-life phenomena, to organize more effectively their classroom work and to use low-cost equipment for the experiments to be done by their pupils; by giving them some additional scientific knowledge (experimental and theoretical) as well as a better understanding of the interactions between science, technology and society.

Colombia

In Colombia, the team that participated in this project was based in Cali, at the university's centre for the production of teaching materials.1 T h e most interesting feature of the work done by the Colombian group was the way in which the following three types of activities were combined : 1. T h e design, development, testing and production of low-cost equipment

for science teaching m a d e of materials that could be obtained locally, accompanied by the preparation of the corresponding teachers' guides.

2. T h e setting-up of a number of special laboratories (Laboratorios integrados de ciencias) where pupils from the schools of a town can come to do experimental work under the guidance of their o w n teachers and of the staff of the laboratory.

1. Multitaller de Materiales Didácticos, Facultad de Ciencias, Universidad del Valle, Apartado Aéreo 2188, Cali, Colombia.

172


3. A comprehensive in-service training programme of courses, seminars, discussion sessions, consultative services, etc. (some of them on the spot) for helping the teachers to work with the n e w ideas and n e w equipment plus the other curriculum materials.

T h e planning of experiments to be done by the pupils and the production of low-cost science teaching equipment for this purpose have occupied an important place in the Multitaller's programme of activities in recent years. In the course of this work , it became clear that there was also the need to prepare, for each set of experiments, some kind of a guide for the pupils which would help them in carrying out their work in a meaningful way , as well as a teachers' guide to assist teachers in organizing the work of their pupils. This led to the idea of preparing a series of 'modules' or teaching/learning units.

In order to have an impact in the schools in the region around Cali, the Multitaller has taken the initiative of setting up a network of integrated science laboratories in the Cauca Valley region, with support from the educational authorities of the region.

Each of these integrated laboratories provides services (in physics, chemistry and biology) to a n u m b e r of secondary schools (ranging from six to fifteen) in its geographic area. At peak times, there m a y be up to 2,000 pupils per week coming to one of these laboratories. T h e word 'integrated' does not refer to integration of the various sciences, but to the integration of resources and services. Each of these laboratories has a small nucleus of permanent staff (teachers and technicians) supported in m a n y ways, on a part-time basis, by university personnel (Multitaller and science departments) from Cali.

Groups of secondary school students c o m e , with their o w n teachers, to work in these integrated laboratories under the guidance of their teachers and of the staff of the laboratory. It is clear that, apart from the inconvenience of having to transport the students from their o w n school to the integrated laboratory, the scheme has m a n y advantages: the students do experimental work, which is not always the case in their o w n schools ; the experiments and the equipment have been selected according to sound educational criteria ; this way of working is as valuable to the teachers as it is to their pupils ; the cost of the operation is minimized (the installations and the equipment are used nearly full-time), etc. But there is more to it than that: these integrated laboratories have turned out to be ideal places for on-the-spot training through short but frequent discussions with the teachers based on specific problems encountered during a particular session with the pupils ; through weekly meetings involving a group of schoolteachers, the staff of an integrated laboratory and university teachers from Cali; and through more formal courses.

T h e model adopted for the in-service training programme was the result of a detailed field study to ascertain the main difficulties faced by the teachers in

173


their work. T h e model finally adopted uses a combined and co-ordinated approach which provides the training components embodied in the above-mentioned modules and integrated laboratories, plus more formal training courses on various subjects.

These courses, always covering both content and methodology, and based on situations and problems reported by the teachers, were of two types : some were intensive full-time courses of four to five weeks' duration, while others were held over a period of several months but meeting only during week-ends. T o give just one example of the order of magnitude of this effort : in a single year (1983) there were six courses of the first type and eight of the second, with a total attendance of 245 teachers.

T h e team responsible for this project has carried out a detailed evaluation of the work done so far, through questionnaires given to the participating teachers as well as by other means. 1 T h e final conclusion is that the simultaneous implementation of all three strategies described above can induce significant beneficial changes in the right direction.

Peru

T h e Peruvian team was based at the Universidad Nacional de Ancash 'Santiago Antúnez de Mayólo' ( U N A S A M ) , in Huaraz.

A n introductory phase of the work included a survey of the situation regarding secondary school science in and around Huaraz, followed by a diagnosis of the most urgent problems. Generally these related to the need to m a k e the school programmes more relevant to the pupils' environment ; the need to pay attention, if an adequate process of concept formation was to take place, to the preconceptions, the spontaneous ways of thinking, and the prior experience of both pupils and teachers ; the need to recognize that different pupils have different preferential styles of learning; the need to organize school science in such a way that it contributes better to the pupils' understanding of their environment as well as to provide tools (knowledge, abilities, attitudes) for achieving a proper balance between preserving the environment and adapting it to the satisfaction of h u m a n needs ; and the need to help the teachers by providing the necessary infrastructures, by giving them adequate training and by making available good teaching and learning materials.

1. Full details of this evaluation can be found in the Final Report prepared by the Multitaller de Materiales Didácticos, in 1984, on its work as part of this pilot project. (There is a full version of this report in Spanish, and a shorter one in English.)

174


In a second phase, an attempt was m a d e to identify the critical concepts, abilities and attitudes, as well as everyday life situations, to be included both in the in-service training courses for teachers and in the modules or learning-packages to be developed.

Then followed the main phase of the work which included die training courses and the development of the modules and teachers' guides. A combined approach was used, which permitted the teachers in training to take part in the development work and, reciprocally, m a d e it possible to test the n e w modules and teachers' guides as part of the training courses. Because the Ancash region is mainly rural, special attention was paid to possible links between school science and agriculture.

T w o types of training courses have been offered : an intensive course of two months' duration for forty teachers from all over the Ancash region, at which the n e w methodologies were applied to mathematics and science topics related to agriculture, using the corresponding module that had been developed for this purpose ; and a series of shorter seminars, workshops and discussion sessions on concept formation, the learning process, the design of modules, the use of simple equipment and local materials for the experimental work to be done by the pupils, and various other problems suggested by the teachers themselves.

Spain

T h e Spanish group was based at the Institute for Educational Studies, University of Madrid. ' T h e originality of the work of this group resided in the ways in which : (a) the results of research in science education were applied to the design and production of more effective teaching materials; (b) this curriculum work was combined with in-service teacher training programmes ; (c) experience gained in extra-curricular science activities for children was used in the above work ; and (d) teachers were involved in the work as part of their in-service training. A project gradually emerged with the aim of helping teachers to develop in their pupils scientific ways of thinking as well as scientific attitudes.2 In order to accomplish this, it was necessary to bear in mind, on the one hand, the abilities and shortcomings of the teachers, and on the other, the way in which children approach a particular learning situation.

1. Instituto de Ciencias de la Educación, Universidad Autónoma de Madrid, Ciudad Universitaria de Canto Blanco, Madrid 34. 2. T h e original title of their project, in Spanish, is : La formación del espíritu científico en el niño.

175


In order for children to learn science which related to everyday life

situations and use whenever possible materials taken from their o w n environ

ment, new teachers' guides had to be prepared. Although the activity of the

pupils themselves is of paramount importance (see, for instance, Delval,

1983), the teacher does play a vital role in the organization of the work done in

the classroom; hence the need for new materials and training programmes.

T h e materials were prepared in the form of modules (teaching units) on

specific topics. Each module was self-contained in terms of content, sugges

tions for activities, list of materials required, methods to be used at various

stages, ideas on possible applications, relations with phenomena or situations

that might interest the pupils, etc. M a n y details were given, but the structure

of each module was very flexible ; and the teachers decide themselves h o w

m u c h or h o w little of it they wish to use. Both the modules and the

corresponding in-service training programmes were conceived in such a way

that a teacher w h o was not very familiar with the subject could teach it in some

adequate manner, and that a teacher w h o k n e w the subject well could teach it

better and introduce variations of his o w n . A n additional objective of these

modules was that they should encourage some teachers to prepare other

modules of their o w n choice.

T h e modules were planned, designed, developed, tested and improved by

teams comprising both science teachers and psychologists. T h e presence, in

every team, of specialists in the psychology of learning was due to the need to

pay considerable attention to the development of cognitive processes in

children. Each team analysed in great detail the genesis of the scientific

concepts related to its module; this was done by observing the children at

work, by means of interviews with them and through the study of recent

publications reporting results of research in that same area. After m u c h of this

foundation work, initial versions of the modules were prepared for trials with

small groups of pupils. Feedback from these trials was used in preparing a

second version, and so on. S o m e of the modules have thus gone through

various phases of evaluation and improvement.

T h e training of the teachers, to help them in their work with these new

modules, was started as soon as the first tentative version was ready. In this

way , these teachers were able to work on the trials with pupils and to

participate in the subsequent revisions of the materials. T h u s , the in-service

training of the teachers was closely linked with the research on concept

formation and the development of teaching materials.

Training on a larger scale is taking place n o w , through seminars,

discussion groups and more formal courses in several cities of the country.

Articles in educational journals have been published and lectures on this work

have been given by members of the group at educational meetings both in

176

Stimulating innovation at the international level /

Spain and abroad (Colombia, Costa Rica, Nicaragua and Panama). All this is

helping to enlarge the circle of teachers w h o will be participating in a further

round of experimentation and evaluation as well as to stimulate additional

research leading to work on n e w modules.

Out-of-school science activities

Within non-formal education in the fields of science and technology, the principal activities of young people take place out of school. In m a n y countries, special provisions have been m a d e for these activities ; accounts of them are to be found in a growing literature, in m a n y languages.

The first Unesco publication on this subject, Out-of-School Science Activities for Young People, appeared in 1969 (Stevens, 1969). This timely handbook described different kinds of out-of-school activities for youth, e.g. science clubs, fairs, camps and m u s e u m s and discussed specific issues such as nature observation and the role of non-specialized agencies. Since 1971 an international journal, Out-of-School Scientific and Technical Education, has been published regularly by the International Co-ordinating Committee for the Presentation of Science and the Development of Out-of-School Scientific Activities (ICC) with the assistance of Unesco.

In accordance with Unesco's Second M e d i u m - T e r m Plan (1984—89), adopted by the General Conference at its fourth extraordinary session in 1982, one of the programmes which Unesco encourages involves the international and regional exchange of information and experience in scientific and technological extension activities ; the setting-up of national programmes of out-of-school scientific and technological activities for young people, such as science olympiads and fairs, science clubs and s u m m e r camps ; the training of regional and subregional levels of personnel concerned with extension courses and out-of-school activities; and the establishment of experimental out-of-school teaching programmes in science and technology for young people (Unesco, 1983b). The Unesco Sourcebook for Out-of-School Science and Technology Education (Unesco, 1986) is part of this programme.

Science olympiads

Olympiads for students go back m a n y years, particularly in eastern European

countries. A s early as 1894 the Hungarian Physical and Mathematical Society

organized olympiads in mathematics for students graduating from secondary

school; similar olympiads in physics have been held since 1916 (Charles

University, 1977; Tarasuk, 1982, p . 5).

177


Science olympiads at national level provide a valuable opportunity to e m phasize the social role of science, for not only are good future scientists identified, but also the team-work helps promote the formation of 'good citizens of the world' in a field which will play a major role in the future of mankind.

International science olympiads (IScOs) are at present organized in mathematics ( I M O ) , chemistry (ICO) and physics (IPO). Special issues of the I C C journal Out-of-School Scientific and Technical Education have been devoted to accounts of, respectively, international physics and mathematics olympiads and international chemistry olympiads (ICC, 1982a, 1982fc; see also Hébert and Dufour, 1984). T h e official languages of the IScOs are English, French, G e r m a n and Russian, but all participants are allowed to write the solutions to the competition tasks in their o w n language.

Science camps, science fairs, scientific forums

In the Unesco handbook (Stevens, 1969), information was given about the first science c a m p for youth, organized in N o r w a y in 1945 by Calle Godske, professor of meteorology. Today, there are m a n y countries in which science camps, both national and international, are held and there is a considerable literature describing them.

Unesco assists this type of out-of-school activity in m a n y parts of the world. For example, in 1985 Unesco supported an international science c a m p for young people in 'Godskegarden' (Godske F a r m ) devoted to the fortieth anniversary of the Norwegian camps. This c a m p is usually organized for two weeks during the month of August, the participants, aged 17 or more , coming from Norway and other parts of Europe.

Researchers from die university and college community in Bergen visit the campers to give lectures and demonstrations, as well as to lead excursions relating to their special fields. Visiting lecturers also live at the farm for brief periods. O n e of the principal aims of these science camps is the popularization of scientific knowledge through out-of-school activities.

A n Asian Science C a m p , probably the first ever held in that part of the world, was organized at the Bangsaen Marine Centre of Sri Nakharinwirot University, Chonburi, Thailand, 12-17 March 1984.

O f particular interest is the science fair as a means of promoting out-of-school activities for youth at national level. These fairs are designed to exhibit projects carried out by students. T h e topics of these projects cover the whole field of science and awards are given on the basis of scientific or technical merit. T h e fairs range in scope from individual school fairs, to city-wide, regional and national fairs, up to international fairs with students from two or more countries taking part.

178


A n example of an international science fair is provided by the work of the J E T S (Junior Engineers, Technicians and Scientists) in Zambia. Several national and international science fairs have been held by the J E T S organization, participants being those w h o have w o n first prizes in the eleven regional fairs held in Zambia, as well as students from other countries w h o have excelled in science.

Another good example of the promotion of out-of-school activities in Africa is the Association jeunes science de Tunisie, which organizes several camps during students' s u m m e r holidays. Students from countries other than Tunisia participate in these camps.

Unesco clubs

A n appeal was launched on 4 N o v e m b e r 1949 for the creation of Unesco clubs in secondary schools and universities. B y 1983, there were more than 2,500 clubs in over eighty countries, in the following regions : Africa, Latin America and the Caribbean, Asia, the Arab States and the Europe Region, and their numbers were steadily increasing (ICC, 1983a).

The Unesco club may be considered as a centre for lifelong education ; it plays a 'training role' of the greatest importance for its members, for in addition to acquisition of knowledge per se—which is provided by many other associations—the club aims to induce in its members an attitude of open-mindedness and understanding of other peoples, however distant, in their intellectual and active work (ICC, 1983a, p. 6).

T h e first regional federation of clubs was established in 1974, and was called the Asian Federation of Unesco Clubs and Associations ( A F U C A ) , with its headquarters located in Japan.

W h e n the first World Congress of clubs was called at Unesco's H e a d quarters in 1978, it unanimously adopted a plan to implement a World Federation of Unesco Clubs and Associations. This was officially inaugurated in July 1981.

Science clubs

'The science club is a spontaneous grouping of young people whose aim is to allow its m e m b e r s to broaden their knowledge through the application of practical scientific methods, experiments, discussions, debates, lectures, factory visits, films, model-making, machinery, technical projects, etc' (ICC, 1983a, p. 8). Science clubs n o w exist in m a n y countries and are a good way of disseminating scientific and technological knowledge, not merely to young people.

179


T h e organization and work of the clubs are determined largely by local factors. Sometimes they work closely with schools; at other times they are totally independent. They fall into three categories; general clubs, specialized clubs and laboratory clubs. T h e functions of science clubs include: information dissemination and educational pastimes; research; services to the school and community; and reflection and opinion formation. T h e I C C journal Out-of-School Scientific and Technical Education devoted a special issue (ICC, 1983a) to science clubs, especially their relationship to Unesco clubs.

Training of staff

T h e formation and development of out-of-school science activities are impossible without appropriate staff. T h e question of training and retraining of personnel w h o are responsible for out-of-school scientific activities of youth is, therefore, a most important aspect of the promotion of these activities. For this reason, Unesco periodically organizes special workshops, seminars and symposia at national, subregional, regional and international levels. T h e participants at these meetings can exchange ideas with each other and with people experienced in the popularization of science and out-of-school scientific activities. Other outcomes of these Unesco workshops include national reports, discussions and proposals for future action, and publications (Gott-wald, 1983; I C C , 19836; Unesco, 1983c, 19846, 1984c).

Environmental education and science teaching

In 1972 global concern about environmental problems led to the holding in Stockholm of a United Nations Conference on the H u m a n Environment. At this meeting, participants stressed the role of education, of both the general public and the specialist. Specifically, Recommendation 96 called on 'the organizations of the United Nations system, especially Unesco . . . [to] take the necessary steps to establish an international programme in environmental education, interdisciplinary in approach, in-school and out-of-school, encompassing all levels of education and directed towards the general public' (United Nations Conference on the H u m a n Environment, 1972, p . 24).

In response, Unesco and the United Nations Environment Programme ( U N E P ) co-operatively launched the current International Environmental Education Programme, commencing in January 1975. T h e programme's activities in the first phase were conducted in three principal areas : (a) initial research, experimentation and development of innovations in the field of environmental education; (b) collection, organization and dissemination of information concerning environmental education (in part through a free,

180


five-language quarterly newsletter Connect); and (c) promotion of the discussion and elaboration of policies and strategies for the development of environmental education locally, nationally, regionally and internationally.

T h e Tbilisi recommendations (Intergovernmental Conference on Environmental Education, 1977) clarified the concept of environmental education and constituted its framework, principles and guidelines for all levels, national and international, and all age-groups, both inside and outside the formal school system.

F r o m the Tbilisi recommendations three principal and interlinked characteristics of environmental education emerge, namely, that environmental education is (a) interdisciplinary; (b) problem-solving; and (c) community-based.

T h e need for interdisciplinarity in the teaching/learning process of environmental education derives from the holistic approach to the environment itself, as a totality—a complex of natural, built and social components in the life of humanity, as the Tbilisi Final Report expressed it (Intergovernmental Conference on Environmental Education, 1977). It becomes clear that no single discipline—geography, sociology, history, chemistry or biology, for example—can encompass this totality of the environment. In consequence it entails the utilization, combination and co-ordination of appropriate disciplines from the natural sciences, social sciences, applied sciences/technologies and humanities in an integrated approach towards the environment, its problems, protection, conservation and improvement.

As for the problem-solving approach, it is by its very nature community-based, since it aims at solving local environmental problems 'or at least to m a k e pupils better equipped for their solution by teaching them to participate in decision-making' (Intergovernmental Conference on Environmental E d u cation, 1977, p. 20).

Development of teaching strategies to encourage problem-solving, as with the interdisciplinary approach, necessitates changes in the teaching/learning process and extends to educational content and methodologies, teacher training and the institutional organization of education itself.

Generally, solving a problem implies finding a point of attack as well as the suitable means. Analytically, it involves a series of successive phases: identification of the problem, its causes and effects, formulation and evaluation of possible solutions, and finally a plan of effective action. Pedagogical-ly, it means developing alertness to environmental problems, a creative response and a desire to participate in decision-making as well as collective and personal environmental action. There is not one pedagogical approach for all problems : meuiodologies such as group discussion, games and simulation, experimental workshop or 'action-research' m a y be appropriate in various phases of the same problem-solving process.

181


T h e U n e s c o - U N E P International Environmental Education Programme is currently undertaking research and development activities designed to foster the problem-solving and interdisciplinary approaches of environmental education. S o m e strategies for achieving the goals of environmental education are n o w described, with particular reference to changes in both primary and secondary school science teaching.

T h e incorporation of an environmental dimension into science teaching requires comprehensive changes in present practices which have implications at the level of policy. Such policy decisions can be m a d e easier and faster if the key personnel concerned are m a d e aware of the need for environmental education and specifically the need for incorporating the environmental dimension into science teaching. This awareness m a y be imparted through national seminars, mass media programmes and study tours of educational institutions involved in the development of environmental education.

T h e incorporation of an environmental dimension into science teaching at primary and secondary school levels has major implications for objectives, including, in the long term, the attitudes, commitment, actions and life-styles of students with respect to the environment. T h e formal objectives of science education, including science teacher training, need to be changed accordingly, so giving educators the mandate and responsibility for fulfilling them.

Incorporating an environmental dimension into science teaching is not a completely new development, since almost all science curricula contain certain environmental topics. A recent Unesco survey on the incorporation of environmental education into school curricula revealed that a number of school science curricula in the Federal Republic of Germany, Colombia, India, Jamaica, Japan, Kenya, Kuwait, Sri Lanka and the U S S R contained environmental topics.

T h e incorporation of an environmental dimension into chemistry curricula was specifically studied at the International Symposium on Chemistry Teaching and the Environment organized by the Centre de recherche pédagogique et de rénovation didactique en Chimie, University of Nice, in M a y 1982, with Unesco support.

Similarly, biology teaching was given an environmental orientation. In a meeting on biology education in Asia in 1980, the environmental aspects of biology teaching were elaborated in detail.

Developing environmental chemistry, physics and biology courses

Development of an environmental chemistry course was also discussed at the International Symposium on Chemistry Teaching and the Environment. It is

182


clear that the preparation of appropriate materials and the environmental education training of science teachers are essential prerequisites for the effective teaching of environmental chemistry, physics and biology courses.

Developing an interdisciplinary environmental course at senior secondary level

At the senior secondary school level, which is terminal for m a n y students, further attention can be focused on the environment through an interdisciplinary environmental course involving chemistry, physics, biology, geology and geography, as well as social studies and the arts. A concrete example is the ' M a n and biosphere' course offered in the final stage of general secondary education in the U S S R .

The environment as a science laboratory

T h e environment is a living natural science laboratory because 'science is in action here'. It might be added that, despite the valuable contribution of traditional science laboratories (chemistry, physics, biology), their effective use is very dependent on the availability of specially constructed space, materials and equipment, usually at high cost. Here, furthermore, students' activities and participation are often limited, due to shortage of time, materials and equipment. O n the other hand, in environments such as the school garden, a zoo, farm, village, factory, mining site, urban area, forest, grassland, mountain, desert and the sea there is literally an abundance.

T h e use of such environments in science teaching enhances research attitudes and problem-solving skills on the part of students. For example, the study of acids, which has to be confined mainly to traditional laboratories and textbooks, can be extended to the environment, where students can study acid rain and its impact on nearby forests, lakes and their fish, buildings and monuments .

S o m e ways of using the environment are : (a) to bring appropriate living and non-living materials from the outside environment into the classroom ; (b) to use the school environment itself in relation to science teaching on a long-term basis; (c) to organize field trips and excursions for one to three hours, or a day, to a local zoo, farm, forest, lake, mountain, desert, mining site for bauxite, copper, iron, coal, etc., water or refuse plant, industrial zone, or rich and poor quarter of a city ; (d) to develop individual or group science projects to be carried out by students in urban, rural or industrial settings ; (e) to assign case-studies on local environmental problems with the accent on their causes, effects, solution and prevention, and on their relationship to the

183


learning of science in the classroom ; and (f) to take the whole class for up to a month to a more distant natural environment. For example, in France, primary school students are given this experience through classes de nature. In some countries, such as India and Sri Lanka, secondary school students m a k e extended visits to field study centres and environmental camps. In the United States, week-ends and vacations are often devoted to the study and use of the environment as a laboratory.

Whatever use is m a d e of the environment, the science teacher is the key person and must: (a) have a clear objective and plan in leading science students in an exploration of the environment ; (b) have a good knowledge of the environment to be explored; (c) be a good guide for students in their thinking, observation, data collection, analysis and generalizing; and (d) be able to relate student findings to the science studied, so as to spur further scientific thinking and inquiry. Such competence can be acquired by science teachers through pre-service and in-service environmental education training.

Incorporating environmental questions into science examinations

Often examinations motivate, guide and direct teachers and students in their teaching and learning, so that they tend to exert their best efforts in those areas that they believe will be covered by examinations. Consequently, it is strongly suggested that environmental questions be included in science examinations, to encourage the incorporation of the environmental dimension into science teaching.

Focus of science educators on the incorporation of the environmental dimension into science teaching

Research on various aspects of the environment is undertaken in almost all parts of the world and the findings are reported in numerous national, regional and international journals. Science educators must keep pace with these findings in order to add what is n e w and significant to their science teaching. Furthermore, n e w data and methodologies should be subjects of concern and attention for science education researchers. T h e formation of environmental concepts, environmental education evaluation procedures and techniques for assessing student change of behaviour, attitudes and commitment with respect to the environment need to be researched and the results fed into teaching/learning processes and developed into science education evaluation tools. Similarly, appropriate and effective environmental education

184


training of science teachers, both pre- and in-service, needs to be researched and applied.

Education and communication : n e w directions for nutrition and health education

A number of countries throughout the world have organized and carried out very effective programmes in the field of nutrition and health education, adopting and adapting communication techniques in order to transmit knowledge and information designed to improve nutrition and health-related behaviour.

A growing number of nutrition and health education programmes worldwide have incorporated in their design and implementation techniques of this kind, including use of interpersonal group discussions and the media. All these recent successful nutrition and health educational programmes have relied on a community-based approach for the design of their educational messages and materials : all have focused on changing behaviour and practices as well as knowledge, and all have focused on promoting practical solutions to locally specific nutrition and health-related problems.

A n innovative school-based nutrition education project n o w under way in the Caribbean is attempting to develop a model for incorporating social marketing research, interpersonal communication and use of printed media into formal education.

In Jamaica, the Ministry of Education, in collaboration with Unesco and a bilateral agency, has developed an experimental school-based nutrition education project which integrates nutrition education into the primary school reading syllabus. T h e focal point of the project is to demonstrate that a participatory process involving teachers, parents, local resource people and the Ministry of Education, can be used to develop locally relevant, effective nutrition teaching and learning materials. T h e educational strategy includes social marketing research in the community, design of specific educational messages based on research findings and the development of appropriate printed media such as story-books, comics and action posters. T h e programme's immediate impact will be evaluated in terms of the ability of students to improve their reading skills while at the same time promoting nutrition-related behaviour change.

Seven steps are involved in this community-based behaviour change approach. It begins wich social marketing research which consists of the design, collection and analysis of baseline data on children's reading ability and nutritional understanding, and qualitative research into the dietary attitudes and practices of students and their families.

185


Community-based workshops which apply research findings to the development of teaching/learning materials follow. Different formats of printed media (e.g. story-books and comic books) are designed to test out their relative effectiveness for the transmission of nutrition-specific messages.

Since the project's effectiveness, to a large extent, will depend on the active support of teachers and parents, the third step focuses on interpersonal communication and the establishment of a school/community infrastructure. Special orientation meetings are held for participating teachers and for parents prior to the introduction of the teaching/learning materials into the classroom. Next, teachers integrate the teaching/learning materials into their regular language arts curriculum. Students use the materials in exercises in reading, comprehension, composition, spelling and writing. T h e materials are also used as a basis for discussions about community nutrition problems. Teachers orient students to the nutrition-related tasks outlined in the reading materials.

Out-of-school activities follow, involving tasks carried out in the h o m e and community. Parents are given information about the roles that they can play, and adult media supporting materials, containing information related to the improvement of dietary behaviour, are distributed to families of participating students. F r o m time to time project staff monitor the effect, if any, that the project is having on the nutrition behaviour of m e m b e r s of the community.

A n evaluation specialist assists project staff in designing and administering a survey to assess the extent to which students' reading abilities and nutrition understanding have increased, and to assess project impact on student and family nutrition-related behaviour.

Finally, a national conference will be held at the end of the project to discuss lessons learned and, if appropriate, plan for national and perhaps region-wide expansion.

T h e Unesco Nutrition Education Programme has launched the Nutrition Education Series, and is developing a resource pack for nutrition teaching and learning (Unesco, 1984a, 1984¿, 1985).

Furthermore, as part of Unesco's work to improve tertiary-level training in nutrition and health education, curriculum guidelines are being developed for schools of education, nutrition and public health. These guidelines will provide a framework for the development of training support materials for use at the tertiary level and will also provide a basic reference for the development of in-service training materials for teachers, community workers and media specialists. Pilot projects are n o w under w a y to test out these guidelines and in 1985 workshops were conducted to refine them further.

Unesco recently launched a n e w project at a workshop in Asia. This initiated education, nutrition/health and media policy-makers into a dialogue

186


which built on successful past experiences with the aim of strengthening institutional relationships a m o n g them. A s an element in this project, a video was prepared and previewed at the workshop {The Ministry Needs the Media,

1984). Experiences in recent years reflect a growing need and commi tment to the

use of education and communication as complementary tools for helping solve nutrition and health problems. Face-to-face education is limited by its inability to disseminate information and knowledge a m o n g large numbers of people.

References

CHARLES UNIVERSITY. 1977. Selective Bibliography of the Didactics of Mathematics. Prague, Charles University, Information and Reference Centre of the Pedagogical Faculty.

D E L V A L , Juan. 1983. Crecer y pensar: la construcción del conocimiento en la escuela. Barcelona, Laia Editorial. (Cuadernos de Pedagogía.)

G O T T W A L D , K . 1983. Proceedings of the Second International Seminar on Out-of-School Activities in Chemistry of Secondary School Pupils. Bratislava, Central House of Pioneers and Youth.

H E B E R T , A . ; D U F O U R , C . 1984. Les olympiades internationales de chimie. L'Actualité chimique (Paris), February 1984, pp. 31-4.

ICC (International Co-ordinating Committee for the Presentation of Science and the Development of Out-of-School Scientific Activities). 1982a. Out-of-School Scientific and Technical Education (Brussels), Nos. 18-19.

. 1982¿. Out-of-School Scientific and Technical Education (Brussels), Nos.20-21.

. 1983a. Out-of-School Scientific and Technical Education (Brussels), No. 23.

. 19836. Report of European Round Table on New Trends in Out-of-School Science and Technology Education, Bonn, 6-10 December 1982. Brussels, ICC.

INTERGOVERNMENTAL CONFERENCE O N ENVIRONMENTAL EDUCATION,

Tbilisi (USSR). 1977. Final Report. Paris, Unesco, 1978. (ED/ MD/49.)

The Ministry Needs the Media. 1984. Newton, Mass. , Education Development Center. (Video cassette.)

S T E V E N S , R . A . 1969. Out-of-School Science Activities for Young People. Paris, Unesco.

T A R A S U K , G . S. 1982. A Short History of International Physics Olympiads. Out-of-School Scientific and Technical Education (Brussels, ICC), Nos 18-19, pp. 5-6.

U N E S C O . 1983a. Science and Technology Education and National Development. Paris, Unesco.

187


. 1983*. Second Medium-Term Plan (1984-1989). Paris, Unesco. (4XC/4 Approved.)

. 1983c. Report on Workshop for Key Personnel Concerned with Out-of-School Scientific Activities by Young People, Bangkok, 1982. Bangkok, Unesco Regional Office for Education in Asia and the Pacific (ROEAP).

. 1984a. Easy-to-Make Teaching Aids for Nutrition Teaching-Learning. Paris, Unesco. (Nutrition Education Series, 10.)

. 19846. Educafrica (Dakar, Unesco Regional Office for Education in Africa—BREDA), N o . 10, June.

. 1984c. Manual for the Promotion of Scientific and Technological Activities for Young People. Santiago, Chile, Unesco Regional Office for Education in Latin America and the Caribbean ( O R E A L C ) .

. 1984a1. The Unesco Resource Pack for Nutrition Teaching-Learning; An Introduction to Volume 1. Paris, Unesco. (Nutrition Education Series, 8.)

. 1985. Show and Tell; A Worldwide Directory of Nutrition Teaching-Learning Resources. Paris, Unesco. (Nutrition Education Series.) (Text in English, French, Spanish and Arabic.)

. 1986. Unesco Sourcebook for Out-of-School Science and Technology Education. Paris, Unesco.

UNITED NATIONS CONFERENCE O N THE H U M A N ENVIRONMENT, Stockholm. 1972. Report [of the Conference]. N e w York, United Nations, 1973. (A/CONF.48/14/Rev. l . )

188

[IIJED.85/D.155/A