INDOOR AIR QUALITY ASSESSMENT, AIRBORNE

MICROBIAL IDENTIFICATION, AND PREVALENCE OF

SICK BUILDING SYNDROMES AT SELECTED PRIMARY

SCHOOLS IN PAHANG

BY

MOHD HIZRRI BIN ARIFIN

A thesis submitted in fulfilment of the requirement for the

degree of Master of Science (Biotechnology)

Kulliyyah of Sciences

International Islamic University Malaysia

JULY 2019

ii

ABSTRACT

In average, children in Malaysia spend six to eight hours of their day time in schools

and may have been exposed to various indoor air pollutants inside classrooms. Children

inhale more air pollutants per kilograms of body weight, thus they are more prone to

illness caused by air pollutants as compared to adults. Therefore, this study was

conducted to assess IAQ characteristics in the classroom of 3 different selected primary

schools in Pahang (SKBB, SKT, SKIM) during two different periods of monsoon

season (Southwest Monsoon, (SW) and Northeast Monsoon, (NE)). Considering also

occupancy effects of the classrooms, the IAQ parameters (temperature, relative

humidity (RH), air velocity, particulate matter (PM), Total Bacteria Count (TBC) and

Total Fungal Count (TFC)) were assessed. This study also aimed to identify airborne

bacteria and fungi species within classrooms environments in those area. Bacteria and

fungi species identifications were done using 16S and 18S rRNA gene sequence

analysis respectively. The parent-assisted questionnaire used in this study was derived

from Industry Code of Practice (ICOP) on Indoor Air Quality, 2010 to measure the

prevalence of SBS among school children. As results, temperature, RH, air velocity and

PM had a significant difference between all schools (p < 0.05). Temperature and RH

always exceeded ICOP 2010 limit at all schools during both season. Indoor to outdoor

ratio (I/O) for most of parameters exceeding 1, while the strongest negative correlation

between parameters was observed between RH and Temperature (r < - 0.853). The

strongest positive correlation between parameters was observed between TSP and

PM10 (r < 0.914). This study also found that Staphylococcus sp. and Bacillus sp. were

predominant bacteria species within the classrooms compound. Aspergillus sp. were

predominant fungi species at all schools. Prevalence of ophthalmic symptoms was

higher than respiratory symptoms and other symptoms at all schools. Occurrence of

“dizziness”, “eyes irritation” and “irritated stuffy nose” had a significant association

with all schools selected in this study (p < 0.05). The findings had revealed that IAQ

parameters in primary schools were affected by the surrounding environments in

accordance with intensities of anthropogenic activities around the school area. The

results also reflected that student presence and activities in the classrooms had

influenced on IAQ parameters. Poor classroom conditions affected thermal comforts of

students, in which subsequently had triggered prevalence of SBS symptoms among the

school children.

iii

خلاصة البحثABSTRACT IN ARABIC

يقضي الأطفال في ماليزيا ست إلى ثماني ساعات في المتوسط من وقتهم اليومي في المدارس

الفصول الدراسية. يستنشق الأطفال وربما يعرضون لملوثات مختلفة للهواء الداخلي داخل

المزيد من ملوثات الهواء الداخلي لكل كيلوغرام من وزن الجسم، وبالتالي هم أكثر عرضة

للأمراض الناجمة عن ملوثات الهواء الداخلي مقارنة بالبالغين. ولذلك أجري هذا البحث

فة دارس ابتدائية مختلجودة الهواء الداخلي في الفصول الدراسية في ثلاثة م لتقييم خصائص

( خلال فترتين مختلفتين من موسم SKBB ،SKT ،SKIMمختارة في ولاية باهانغ )

الرياح الموسمية )الرياح الموسمية الجنوبية الغربية، والرياح الموسمية الشمالية الشرقية(.

ةبعد مراعاة تأثيرات إشغال الفصول الدراسية تم تقييم مؤشرات درجة الحرارة، والرطوب

النسبية، وسرعة الهواء، والجسيمات الجزيئية، وإجمالي عدد البكتيريا، وإجمالي عدد

الفطريات. هدف هذا البحث أيضًا إلى تحديد أنواع البكتيريا والفطريات المحمولة هوائيا في

بيئات الفصول الدراسية في تلك المناطق. أجريت عملية التعرف على أنواع الميكروبات

للبكتيريا و 16Sل تسلسل جينات الأحماض النووية الريبوزية الريبوسومية باستخدام تحلي

18S للفطريات. تم اشتقاق الاستبيان المجاب بمساعدة الوالدين المستخدم في هذه الدراسة

لقياس 2010المتعلق بجودة الهواء الداخلي لعام (ICOP) من قواعد الممارسة الصناعية

لقة بين أطفال المدارس. أظهرت النتائج أن درجات الحرارة، متلازمة المباني المغ انتشار

والرطوبة النسبية، وسرعة الهواء، والجسيمات الجزيئية كان بينها فروق كبيرة بين جميع

ICOP 2010(. وتجاوزت درجة الحرارة والرطوبة النسبية حدود p<0.05المدارس )

الخارج في معظم المؤشرات تجاوزت في جميع المدارس في كلا الموسمين. نسبة الداخل إلى

ودرجة الحرارة ، بينما لوحظ أن أقوى علاقة سلبية بين المعلمات كانت بين الرطوبة النسبية1

(r <-0.853وكان أقوى ارتباط إيجابي بين المؤشرات بين .) TSP و PM10 (r

ة واع السائد(. وجد هذا البحث أيضا أن المكورات العنقودية والعصويات كانت الأن0.914>

للبكتيريا داخل الفصول الدراسية، وكانت الرشاشيات النوع السائد للفطريات في جميع

المدارس. كان معدل انتشار أعراض العيون أعلى من انتشار الأعراض التنفسية والأعراض

الأخرى في جميع المدارس. كان حدوث "الدوخة" و "تهيج العينين" و "انسداد الأنف

(. p > 0.05بطا بشكل كبير مع جميع المدارس المختارة في هذه الدراسة )المتهيج" مرت

كشفت النتائج أن مؤشرات جودة الهواء الداخلي في المدارس الابتدائية تأثرت بالبيئات

المحيطة بها وفقاً لكثافة الأنشطة البشرية في منطقة المدرسة. عكست النتائج أيضًا أن وجود

أثرت ل الدراسية قد أثرت على معايير جودة الهواء الداخلي.الطلاب وأنشطتهم في الفصو

ظروف الفصول الدراسية السيئة على وسائل الراحة الحرارية للطلاب، والتي أدت فيما بعد

.بين أطفال المدارس متلازمة المباني المغلقة إلى انتشار أعراض

iv

APPROVAL PAGE

I certify that I have supervised and read this study and that in my opinion, it conforms

to acceptable standards of scholarly presentation and is fully adequate, in scope and

quality, as a thesis for the degree of Master of Science (Biotechnology).

…………………………………..

Mohd Shukri bin Mohd Aris

Supervisor

…………………………………..

Mohd Faez bin Mohd Sharif

Co-Supervisor

…………………………………..

Norhidayah binti Abdull

Co-Supervisor

I certify that I have read this study and that in my opinion it conforms to acceptable

standards of scholarly presentation and is fully adequate, in scope and quality, as a thesis

for the degree of Master of Science (Biotechnology).

…………………………………..

Mardiana binti Mohd Ashaari

Internal Examiner

…………………………………..

Juliana binti Jalaludin

External Examiner

This thesis was submitted to the Department of Biotechnology and is accepted as a

fulfilment of the requirement for the degree of Master of Science (Biotechnology).

…………………………………..

Mardiana binti Mohd Ashaari

Head, Department of Biotechnology

This thesis was submitted to the Kulliyyah of Sciences and is accepted as a fulfilment

of the requirement for the degree of Master of Science (Biotechnology).

…………………………………..

Shahbudin bin Saad

Dean, Kulliyyah of Sciences

v

DECLARATION

I hereby declare that this thesis is the result of my own investigations, except where

otherwise stated. I also declare that it has not been previously or concurrently submitted

as a whole for any other degrees at IIUM or other institutions.

Mohd Hizrri bin Arifin

Signature ...................................................... Date .........................................

vi

COPYRIGHT PAGE

INTERNATIONAL ISLAMIC UNIVERSITY MALAYSIA

DECLARATION OF COPYRIGHT AND AFFIRMATION OF

FAIR USE OF UNPUBLISHED RESEARCH

INDOOR AIR QUALITY ASSESSMENT, AIRBORNE

MICROBIAL IDENTIFICATION, AND PREVALENCE OF SICK

BUILDING SYNDROMES AT SELECTED PRIMARY

SCHOOLS IN PAHANG

I declare that the copyright holders of this thesis are jointly owned by the student

and IIUM.

Copyright © 2019 Mohd Hizrri bin Arifin and International Islamic University Malaysia. All rights

reserved.

No part of this unpublished research may be reproduced, stored in a retrieval system,

or transmitted, in any form or by any means, electronic, mechanical, photocopying,

recording or otherwise without prior written permission of the copyright holder

except as provided below

1. Any material contained in or derived from this unpublished research may

be used by others in their writing with due acknowledgement.

2. IIUM or its library will have the right to make and transmit copies (print

or electronic) for institutional and academic purposes.

3. The IIUM library will have the right to make, store in a retrieved system

and supply copies of this unpublished research if requested by other

universities and research libraries.

By signing this form, I acknowledged that I have read and understand the IIUM

Intellectual Property Right and Commercialization policy.

Affirmed by Mohd Hizrri bin Arifin

……..……..…………… …………………..

Signature Date PAGE

vii

DEDICATIONS

This thesis is dedicated to Ma, arwah Ayah, Ummi, Abah, and all family members for

endless supports and prayers along this journey.

To my wife, Nur Akmal bt Ismail for never ending encouragement and motivation in

completing this journey. I pass the baton to you.

To Dr Shukri, Kak Mary, Hazrin, and Syida, the honorary members of #teamshukri

for infinite assistance, inspiration, and aid through thick and thin of this roller coaster

ride. We all did it!

To all friends and colleagues who has become a part of this great journey

(Biomed101, Team FYP Ceria, PGKOSS, Team SP (Radicare), and SHE Department

(Medivest)).

viii

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

In the name of Allah the Most Beneficent and the Most Merciful, Alhamdulillah, praise

to Allah for His Blessings and Mercy; I would not be able to successfully complete this

thesis on time. I would like to acknowledge people that helped, guided and inspired me

throughout my thesis completion.

I wish to express my deepest appreciation to my supervisor Asst. Prof Dr. Mohd

Shukri bin Mohd Aris for his advices and patiently guiding me to accomplish my thesis

whose help, guidance, knowledge and critiques, I managed to present the thesis

accordingly within the time given. Infinite thanks also to Kak Maryam Zahaba, Hazrin

Hadi, and Shahida Nazri for always being a great and supportive team members.

Not forgotten my heartfelt appreciation to my supportive family, (Ma, Ayah, Ummi,

Abah, and all family members) without them my thesis would not have been possible.

The inspiring words to be a researcher had encouraged me to passionately fulfil my

thesis. Thanks also to my wife, Nur Akmal bt Ismail, it such a great feeling to have a

great people besides me all the time to share my happiness and sadness.

Last but not least, thank to every single person who have provided assistance at

various occasion and help me to complete my research. The shared, fun and difficult

moment will always be treasured. May Allah bless all of you.

ix

TABLE OF CONTENTS

Abstract .................................................................................................................... ..ii Abstract in Arabic .................................................................................................... ..iii Approval Page .......................................................................................................... ..iv Declaration ............................................................................................................... ..v

Copyright Page ......................................................................................................... ..vi Acknowledgements .................................................................................................. ..viii Table of Contents ..................................................................................................... ..ix List of Tables ........................................................................................................... ..xiii

List of Figures .......................................................................................................... ..xv List of Abbreviations ............................................................................................... ..xvii List of Symbols ........................................................................................................ ..xix

CHAPTER ONE INTRODUCTION ................................................................... ..1 1.1 Background of the Study ........................................................................ ..1 1.2 Statement of the Problem........................................................................ ..3

1.3 Purpose of the Study ............................................................................... ..5 1.4 Research Objectives................................................................................ ..5 1.5 Research Questions ................................................................................. ..5

1.6 Theoretical Framework ........................................................................... ..7 1.7 Research Hypotheses .............................................................................. ..8

1.8 Significance of the Study ........................................................................ ..9

CHAPTER TWO LITERATURE REVIEW ...................................................... ..10 Part One: Introduction of IAQ ...................................................................... ..10

2.1 Brief History On Indoor Air Quality (IAQ) and Its Importance ............ ..10 2.2 The Vulnerable Populations ................................................................... ..11 2.3 IAQ Definitions and Standards ............................................................... ..12 2.4 Nature, Sources, and Health Effects of IAQ Pollutants .......................... ..16

2.4.1 Physical Components .................................................................... ..16 2.4.1.1 Air Temperature ............................................................... ..16 2.4.1.2 Relative Humidity (RH) ................................................... ..16 2.4.1.3 Air Velocity ...................................................................... ..17

2.4.2 Chemical Components .................................................................. ..18

2.4.2.1 Carbon Dioxide................................................................. ..18 2.4.2.1.1 Nature of Pollutant ................................................... ..18

2.4.2.1.2 Sources of Occurrence ............................................. ..18 2.4.2.1.3 Health Effects........................................................... ..18

2.4.2.2 Carbon Monoxide ............................................................. ..19 2.4.2.2.1 Nature of Pollutant ................................................... ..19 2.4.2.2.2 Sources of Occurrence ............................................. ..19

2.4.2.2.3 Health Effects........................................................... ..19 2.4.2.3 Ozone ................................................................................ ..20

2.4.2.3.1 Nature of Pollutant ................................................... ..20

x

2.4.2.3.2 Sources of Occurrence ............................................. ..20

2.4.2.3.3 Health Effects........................................................... ..20 2.4.2.4 Volatile Organic Compounds (VOCs) ............................. ..21

2.4.2.4.1 Nature of Pollutant ................................................... ..21 2.4.2.4.2 Sources of Occurrence ............................................. ..22 2.4.2.4.3 Health Effects........................................................... ..22

2.4.2.5 Formaldehyde ................................................................... ..23 2.4.2.5.1 Nature of Pollutant ................................................... ..23

2.4.2.5.2 Sources of Occurrence ............................................. ..23 2.4.2.5.3 Health Effects........................................................... ..24

2.4.2.6 Particulate Matter (PM) .................................................... ..24 2.4.2.6.1 Nature of Pollutant ................................................... ..24 2.4.2.6.2 Sources of Occurrence ............................................. ..25

2.4.2.6.3 Health Effects........................................................... ..25

2.4.3 Biological Components ................................................................. ..26

2.4.3.1 Bacteria ............................................................................. ..26 2.4.3.1.1 Growth Factors and Common Genera ..................... ..26 2.4.3.1.2 Health Effects........................................................... ..26

2.4.3.2 Fungi ................................................................................. ..27

2.4.3.2.1 Growth Factors and Common Genera ..................... ..27 2.4.3.2.2 Health Effects........................................................... ..27

2.5 Sick Building Syndrome (SBS) .............................................................. ..28 Part Two: Indoor Air Quality in Schools ...................................................... ..30 2.6 IAQ Assessments in Schools in Relation to Seasonal Variations .......... ..30

2.7 IAQ Assessments in Schools in Relation to Schools’ Background

Area ........................................................................................................ ..34

2.8 IAQ Assessments in Schools in Malaysia .............................................. ..37 2.9 Common Bacteria and Fungi in Indoor Environment ............................ ..40

2.10 IAQ Impacts on Children’s Health ....................................................... ..42

CHAPTER THREE PHYSICAL IAQ AND PM ASSESSMENT IN THREE

SELECTED SCHOOLS IN PAHANG ................................................................ ..44 3.1 Introduction............................................................................................. ..44 3.2 Materials ................................................................................................. ..44

3.2.1 List of Chemicals .......................................................................... ..44 3.2.2 List of Instruments and Apparatus ................................................ ..45 3.2.3 List of Disposable Items ............................................................... ..45

3.3 Methodology ........................................................................................... ..45 3.3.1 Description of Background Locations .......................................... ..45 3.3.2 Sites and Sampling Point Description ........................................... ..55 3.3.3 Assessment of IAQ Parameters ..................................................... ..57

3.3.3.1 Physical IAQ Parameters Assessment .............................. ..57 3.3.3.2 Assessment of chemical parameters (PM) ........................ ..58 3.3.3.3 Biological IAQ Parameters Assessment ........................... ..58

3.3.3.3.1 Medium Agar and Plate Preparation ........................ ..58 3.3.3.3.2 Airborne Microbial Sampling .................................. ..59 3.3.3.3.3 Bacterial Count and Isolation ................................... ..59

3.3.4 Statistical Analysis ........................................................................ ..60 3.3.5 Quality Assurance/ Quality Control (QA/QC) .............................. ..60

xi

3.4 Results and Discussion ........................................................................... 62

3.4.1 Seasonal Comparisons on IAQ Parameters .................................. 62 3.4.2 Differences of IAQ Parameters in Relation to School

Locations, Buildings Occupancy, and Indoor-Outdoor

Interactions ................................................................................... 66 3.4.3 Correlations between IAQ parameters .......................................... 89

3.5 Conclusion .............................................................................................. 93

CHAPTER FOUR IDENTIFICATIONS OF BACTERIA AND FUNGI

SPECIES IN SCHOOLS’ ENVIRONMENT ...................................................... 95 4.1 Introduction............................................................................................. 95 4.2 Materials ................................................................................................. 96

4.2.1 List of Chemicals .......................................................................... 96

4.2.2 List of Instruments and Apparatus ................................................ 97

4.2.3 List of Disposable Items ............................................................... 97

4.3 Methodology ........................................................................................... 98 4.3.1 Description of Microbial Morphology .......................................... 98

4.3.1.1 Colony Morphology ......................................................... 98 4.3.1.2 Microscopic Morphology ................................................. 99

4.3.2 16S Ribosomal RNA Gene Analysis ............................................ 100 4.3.2.1 Genomic DNA Extraction ................................................ 100

4.3.2.2 Agarose Gel Electrophoresis ............................................ 100 4.3.2.3 Polymerase Chain Reaction (PCR) ................................... 101 4.3.2.4 DNA Sequencing and Oligodeoxyribonucleotide

Synthesis .............................................................................. 101 4.3.2.5 Sequence Alignment and Phylogram Construction .......... 102

4.4 Results and Discussions .......................................................................... 102 4.4.1 Identification of Isolated Bacteria and Fungi Species .................. 102

4.4.2 Phylogenetic Tree Analysis and Source of Isolation, and

Pathogenicity of Isolated Microorganisms ................................... 108 4.5 Conclusions ............................................................................................ 117

CHAPTER FIVE PREVALENCE OF SBS AMONG STUDENTS IN

THREE SELECTED SCHOOLS ......................................................................... 118 5.1 Introduction............................................................................................. 118 5.2 Methodology ........................................................................................... 118

5.2.1 Instrument: Structured Questionnaire and Ethical Approval ........ 118

5.2.2 Study Population and Operational Definition ............................... 118 5.2.3 Sample Size Calculation ............................................................... 119 5.2.4 Sampling Method .......................................................................... 120 5.2.5 Data Analysis ................................................................................ 120

5.2.6 Quality Assurance/ Quality Control (QA/QC) .............................. 95 5.3 Results and Discussions .......................................................................... 122

5.3.1 Characteristics of Respondents ..................................................... 122

5.3.2 Impacts of Classrooms’ Conditions Toward Children. ................. 123 5.3.3 Prevalence of SBS Symptoms Among School Children .............. 126 5.3.4 Prevalence of SBS Between Three Schools .................................. 129

5.4 Conclusions ............................................................................................ 129

xii

CHAPTER SIX RESEARCH SUMMARY AND RECOMMENDATIONS ... 130 6.1 Overall Discussions ................................................................................ 130 6.2 Overall Conclusions................................................................................ 134

6.3 Future Work and Recommendation ........................................................ 136

REFERENCES ...................................................................................................... 139

APPENDIX A: SAMPLING ACTIVITES AND RESEARCH

EQUIPMENTS ....................................................................................................... 154 APPENDIX B: STATISTICAL ANALYSIS ....................................................... 156 APPENDIX C: PERCENTAGE SIMILARITY OF ISOLATES AND

SOURCE OF ISOLATION (BACTERIA AND FUNGI) .................................. 166

APPENDIX D: ETHICAL APPROVAL ............................................................. 177 APPENDIX E: STRUCTURED QUESTIONNAIRE ........................................ 180

APPENDIX F: PUBLISHED ARTICLES AND ACCEPTED

MANUSCRIPT ...................................................................................................... 190

xiii

LIST OF TABLES

Table 2.1 The Range and Limit Concentrations for Acceptable IAQ

15

Table 2.2 Classification of Indoor Organic Pollutants (Maroni et al.,

1995)

23

Table 2.3 Summaries on IAQ Studies in Schools in Relation to Seasonal

Variation.

34

Table 3.1 List of Chemicals.

44

Table 3.2 List of Instruments and Apparatus.

45

Table 3.3 List of Disposable Items.

45

Table 3.4 Details on Monitored Parameters, Methods, Sampling

Duration, and Sampling Site.

48

Table 3.5 Overview of the Selected Primary Schools’ Characteristics.

57

Table 3.6 Comparisons of IAQ Parameters according to season of

Sampling.

63

Table 3.7 Statistical Test (Comparisons of IAQ Parameters according to

Schools’ Location).

87

Table 3.8 Occupied/Non-Occupied Ratio of PM Concentrations

between Schools.

88

Table 3.9 Correlation between IAQ Parameters during DS Season

(Occupied).

90

Table 3.10 Correlation between IAQ Parameters during WS Season

(Occupied).

91

Table 4.1 List of Chemicals.

96

Table 4.2 List of Instruments and Apparatus.

97

Table 4.3 List of Disposable Items.

97

Table 4.4 Universal Primer used in the Study.

101

Table 4.5 Example of Isolated Bacteria Colonies across DS and WS. 105

xiv

Table 4.6 Example of Isolated Fungi Colonies and Their Cell

Morphology.

106

Table 4.7 Genera and Species Identification of Isolated Bacteria

Colonies.

107

Table 4.8 Genera and Species Identification of Isolated Fungi Colonies.

108

Table 5.1 Respondents Distribution According to School during Dry

Season (DS).

122

Table 5.2 Respondents Distribution According to School during Wet

Season (WS).

123

Table 5.3 Impacts of Classrooms’ Conditions towards the Children

during Dry Season (DS).

124

Table 5.4 Impacts of Classrooms’ Conditions towards the Children

during Wet Season (WS).

124

Table 5.5 Prevalence of SBS Symptoms during Dry Season (DS).

126

Table 5.6 Prevalence of SBS Symptoms during Wet Season (WS).

127

Table 5.7 Prevalence of SBS during Dry Season (DS).

129

Table 5.8 Prevalence of SBS during Wet Season (WS).

129

xv

LIST OF FIGURES

Figure 1.1 Theoretical Framework of the Study

7

Figure 3.1 Sampling Locations of Three Selected Schools in Pahang.

50

Figure 3.2 Aerial View of SKIM (3°49'07.2"N 103°17'53.0"E).

51

Figure 3.3 Aerial View of SKBB (3°57'37.6"N 103°22'52.3"E).

52

Figure 3.4 Aerial View of SKT (3°58'07.6"N 102°21'03.2"E).

53

Figure 3.5 Research Flowchart.

54

Figure 3.6 Sampling Points at SKIM.

55

Figure 3.7 Sampling Points at SKBB.

56

Figure 3.8 Sampling Points at SKT.

56

Figure 3.9 Mean Air Velocity ± SD Measured in the Indoors (Occupied

and Non-Occupied Period) and Outdoor (Occupied Period).

68

Figure 3.10 Mean Temperature ± SD Measured in the Indoors (Occupied

and Non-Occupied Period) and Outdoor (Occupied Period).

69

Figure 3.11 Mean RH ± SD Measured in the Indoors (Occupied and Non-

Occupied Period) and Outdoor (Occupied Period).

70

Figure 3.12 Mean CO2 ± SD Measured in the Indoors (Occupied and

Non-Occupied).

71

Figure 3.13 Mean TBC ± SD Measured in the Indoors (Occupied and

Non-Occupied Period) and Outdoor (Occupied Period).

74

Figure 3.14 Mean TFC ± SD Measured in the Indoors (Occupied and Non-

Occupied Period) and Outdoor (Occupied Period).

75

Figure 3.15 Mean TSP ± SD Measured in the Indoors (Occupied and Non-

Occupied Period).

78

Figure 3.16 Mean PM10 ± SD Measured in the Indoors (Occupied and

Non-Occupied Period)

79

xvi

Figure 3.17 Mean PM2.5 ± SD Measured in the Indoors (Occupied and

Non-Occupied Period).

80

Figure 3.18 Mean PM1 ± SD Measured in the Indoors (Occupied and

Non-Occupied Period).

81

Figure 4.1 Molecular Phylogenetic Analysis by Maximum Likelihood

Method.

109

Figure 4.2 Molecular Phylogenetic Analysis by Maximum Likelihood

Method.

114

xvii

LIST OF ABBREVIATIONS

ASHRAE American Society of Heating, Refrigerating and Air-

Conditioning Engineers

BC Before Century

Cd Cadmium

Cr Chromium

CFU Colony-forming Unit

CH4 Methane

CO Carbon monoxide

COHb Carboxyhemoglobin

CO2 Carbon dioxide

DNA Deoxyribonucleic Acid

DOE Malaysian Department of Environment

DOSH Department of Safety and Health

DS Dry Season

EMSD Electrical and Mechanical Services Department

EU European Union

Fe Ferum

FeNO Fraction of Exhaled Nitric Oxide

HIV Human Immunodeficiency Virus

HKAQO Hong Kong Air Qualities Objectives

HVAC Heating, Ventilation, and Air Conditioning

IAQ Indoor Air Quality

ICOP on IAQ 2010 Industrial Code of Practice on Indoor Air Quality 2010

IREC IIUM Research Ethical Committee

NA Nutrient Agar

NaOH Sodium Hydroxide

NE North East

NEA National Environmental Agency

NO Nitrogen oxides

NO2 Nitrogen dioxides

MCL Maximum Composite Likelihood

O2 Oxygen

O3 Ozone

OSHA Occupational, Safety, and Health Act 1994

xviii

PAHs Polyaromatic Hydrocarbons

Pb Lead

PCR Polymerase Chain Reaction

PDA Potato Dextrose Agar

PM Particulate Matter

POM Particulate Organic Compound

QA Quality Assurance

QC Quality Control

RH Relative Humidity

SAS IAQ Surface Air System Indoor Air Quality

SBS Sick Building Syndrome

SKBB Sekolah Kebangsaan Balok Baru

SKIM Sekolah Kebangsaan Indera Mahkota

SKT Sekolah Kebangsaan Teh

SMACNA Sheet Metal & Air Conditioning Contractors’ National

Association

SO2 Sulphur dioxide

SW South West

SVOCs Semivolatile Organic Compounds

TBC Total Bacterial Count

TFC Total Fungi Count

THI Temperature Humidity index

TSP Total Suspended Particle

TVOCs Total Volatile Organic Compounds

UFP Ultra-fine Particle

USA United States of America

USEPA United States Environmental Protection Agency

UV Ultra Violet

VOCs Volatile Organic Compounds

VVOCs Very Volatile Organic Compounds

WHO World Health Organisation

WS Wet Season

Zn Zinc

xix

LIST OF SYMBOLS

% Percentage

°C Degree Celcius

AM Ante Meridiem

cfm Cubic Feet per Minute

CFUm-3 Colony Forming Unit per Meter Cube

g Gram

m2 Metre Square

m3 Metre Cube

ms-1 Metre per Second

PM Past Meridiem

PPM Part per Million

ugm-3 Micro-Gram per Meter Cube

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CHAPTER ONE

INTRODUCTION

1.1 BACKGROUND OF THE STUDY

Over the past 50 years, there has been rapid interest regarding Indoor Air Quality (IAQ)

issues. Buildings such as homes, schools, clinics, hospitals, offices and others private

or public buildings are supposedly built to protect human from extreme outdoor

pollutants. Interestingly, indoor environment is proved to be more polluted as compared

to outdoor environment (Sundell, 2004). Coincidence, development of materials and

products for indoors usage such as televisions and computers, mechanical and electrical

appliances, plastic items, synthetic substances, and scented cleaning agents are made

abundant (Weschler, 2009). These materials release chemicals substances, such as

unreacted monomers, solvents and additives into the indoor environment that later will

be altered by interactions with human activities in indoor environment (Weschler,

2009). Since most of the people spend approximately 90% of time inside those

buildings, pollutants may be trapped or developed inside and become highly

concentrated. Instead of protecting people from outdoor pollutants, current indoor

environment is possessing threats to occupants’ health (Burroughs & Hansen, 2011;

Sundell, 2004).

These problems are the major reasons for ventilation system are being

introduced. Most of discussions on IAQ are closely related to ventilation system of the

buildings that are known to improve poor IAQ (DOSH, 2010). By diluting and

removing the indoor air pollutants generated from the indoor environment, the

ventilation system can produce more comfortable and healthy indoor environment to

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building occupants (Sundell, 2004). Theoretically, indoor air can be defined as air

within a building, including air inside a room and also air that have been removed from

a room by ventilations (DOSH, 2010). According to ASHRAE, (1999), the acceptable

indoor air quality is when air inside the building doesn’t have harmful concentrations

of known contaminants, as determined and declared by competent personnel, and when

80% or more of building occupants are satisfy with the indoor air conditions.

The important IAQ components that are known consist of physical components

(relative humidity (RH), temperature, and air velocity) and chemical components

(benzene, formaldehyde, carbon monoxide, (CO), carbon dioxide, (CO2), polycyclic

aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs), volatile organic compounds (VOCs), and particulates

matters, (PM)), as well as, biological components such as bacteria and fungi. (DOSH,

2010;WHO, 2010). All IAQ components are important to be assessing because all of

them can cause threat to occupants’ health and comfort. High temperature and RH are

known to effect thermal comfort of buildings occupants (Ismail et al., 2010; WHO,

2010). CO and CO2 can cause headache, nausea and also memory losses to occupants

(USEPA, 1991; WHO, 2010). While other chemical components such as formaldehyde

and VOC may cause eye and respiratory irritation as well as cancer if the occupants are

expose frequently at long period of time (USEPA, 1991; WHO, 2010). PM and

biological components are important to be assess as they can cause several types of

allergic reactions (USEPA, 1996; WHO, 2009).

Furthermore, evidence also suggests that poor IAQ can reduce productivity,

performance and motivation of building occupants. The building owners also may

suffer loss in their business if they have to make major renovation and remediation to

counter IAQ problems in their buildings. Apart from that, it is also responsibility of the

employer or building owner to ensure safe and healthy workplace for their workers or

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building occupants (Weschler, 2009; WHO, 2010). Shockingly, it has been established

that, there are 1.5 million deaths occurred every year that are related to poor IAQ due

to indoor combustions of solid fuels in low-income countries (WHO, 2009). In middle

income countries, it has been suggested that poor IAQ was contributing factor to health

risk. The available data also demonstrated that, women, children and elderly people

were the most susceptible people in this globally emerging problem (WHO, 2009 ;

2010).

1.2 STATEMENT OF THE PROBLEM

This study focused on IAQ in primary schools as schools are one of the vital social

infrastructures in a community where children spend most of their times. Alves et al.,

(2015), mentioned that learning spaces are the second most important indoor

environments after homes. In Malaysia, children spend average of 6 to 8 hours at

schools (Mohd Sofian & Ismail, 2012). According to USEPA, (2009) the pollutant

levels in indoor school facilities are 2 to 5 times higher than the outdoors. It may rise

respiratory symptoms and illnesses as children are vulnerable to air pollutants due to

relatively greater inhalation of air volume than adults that led to greater fractional

deposition in airways, immature immune system, greater food intake and rapid growth

(Mohd Hussin et al., 2011; Nur Azwani et al., 2015; USEPA, 1995).

The IAQ level in schools may be even worse due to higher occupant density, the

wide and varied range of indoor emission sources (art and science supplies), insufficient

ventilation rates, poor maintenance, increased usage of cleaners or chemically

formulated products (Alves et al., 2013; Franklin, 2007; Pegas et al., 2011). Failure to

overcome the IAQ problems in the schools will accelerate the deterioration of school

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buildings and equipment. Consequently, it will affects both teacher and student’s health,

comfort and performance (Gilliland et al., 2001; Mohai et al., 2011).

Over the past two decades, a rapid increase in urbanization in Malaysia degrades

the level of air quality. Nur Aida et al., (2014) suggested that preschool children in urban

area are highly vulnerable to indoor air particles compared to those from the rural area.

Study at school located in Selangor concluded too that urban area preschools have

higher carbon monoxide, PM10 and PM2.5 as compared to the rural area (Chua et al.,

2015). Most of bacteria in some other school environment are human pathogens. It has

been revealed that the predominant type of culturable bacteria isolated in indoor air is

Gram positive cocci. Study by Hurtado et al., (2014) found that the total amount of

Gram positive bacteria at school area in Mexico is higher than Gram negative bacteria.

This group includes Staphylococcus and Streptococcus, which can be causative agents

of throat and respiratory and air-associated infection (D’Arcy et al., 2012; Hurtado et

al., 2014).

To highlight, studies reporting both indoor and outdoor pollutants behaviour and

its chemical composition in elementary schools are still lacking (Almeida et al., 2011;

Pegas et al., 2011). Researches on the composition of school dust especially bacterial

constituents are insufficient (Liu et al., 2000). The bacterial species in schools must be

investigated to understand their characteristics, behaviour and degree of deadliness. In

addition, Meklin et al., (2005) agreed that the cellular mechanisms of the health effects

and the causative exposing agents are poorly understood. Failure to solve the problems

of IAQ can increase short and long-term health effects among the students, teachers and

school staffs. It later on creates uncomfortable learning environment and induces more

absenteeism in educational settings.

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1.3 PURPOSE OF THE STUDY

This study aims to measure physical IAQ components, biological contaminants and

selected chemical components (TSP, PM10, PM2.5 and PM1)) at three selected schools

in Pahang which are located in different background area (residential, industrial and

rural area). Another purpose of this study is to measure the prevalence of sick building

syndrome (SBS) among primary schools’ children at three selected schools in Pahang.

1.4 RESEARCH OBJECTIVES

Throughout the study, data will be analysed to answer specific objective of this study.

The specific objectives include:

1- To measure IAQ parameters level with acceptable range/limit set by

Industrial Code of Practice on IAQ, 2010 (ICOP on IAQ, 2010).

2- To assess the differences in IAQ parameters level in relation to seasons of

sampling, background area, and the level of occupancy of three selected

school buildings.

3- To isolate and identify airborne bacteria and fungi in schools’ environment.

4- To measure the prevalence of SBS among children in three selected school

buildings.

5- To measure the correlation between IAQ parameters in three selected

primary schools.

1.5 RESEARCH QUESTIONS

1. Are there IAQ parameters measured that exceeded acceptable limit/range

set by ICOP on IAQ, 2010?