indian highways vol.41 8 aug 13

8/19/2019 Indian Highways Vol.41 8 Aug 13

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The Indian Roads Congress

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Founded : December 1934

IRC Website: www.irc.org.inJamnagar House, Shahjahan Road,

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Edited and Published by Shri Vishnu Shankar Prasad on behalf of the Indian Roads Congress (IRC), New Delhi. The responsibility of the

contents and the opinions expressed in Indian Highways is exclusively of the author/s concerned. IRC and the Editor disclaim responsibility

and liability for any statement or opinion, originality of contents and of any copyright violations by the authors. The opinions expressed in the

papers and contents published in the Indian Highways do not necessarily represent the views of the Editor or IRC.

VOLUME 41 NUMBER 8 AUGUST 2013

CONTENTS ISSN 0376-7256

INDIAN HIGHWAYSA REVIEW OF ROAD AND ROAD TRANSPORT DEVELOPMENT

Page

2-3 From the Editor’s Desk

4 Advertisement Tariff

5 CSIR-CRRI Training Programmes for the Year 2013-14

6 Engineering Challenges on Controlling Road Accident (Case Study)

Nandanandan Das

14 Damaging Effects of Super Single Tyres : An International Experience

Abhishek Mittal and Sunil Bose

26 Laboratory Performance Evaluation of A Ready-To-Use Patch Mix

Abhishek Mittal, P.K. Jain and Amit Kumar 35 Improvement in Properties of Subgrade Soil by Using Pond Ash and Chemical Additive

B.M. Pati l and K.A. Patil

42 Effect of Purity of Lime on Strength and Durability of Soil-Lime Mixes

Uma Arun, V.K. Kanaujia, Alok Ranjan, R.K. Swami and Sudhir Mathur

50 Good Environmental Management Practices : Case Study & Review of Tree Transplantation for Highways Project in India

Arijit Choudhury, Raj Kumar Sing and V.K. Ganju

62 Errata to IRC:112-2011 'Code of Practice for Concrete Road Bridges'

70 Obituary

71-72 Circular Issued by MORT&H

73 Tender Notice of PWD B&R Gurgaon Circle

74 Tender Notice of NH Circle Kanpur

75 Tender Notice of NH Tirunelveli

76 Tender Notice of NH Circle Lucknow

77 Tender Notice of NH Circle Bareilly




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2 INDIAN HIGHWAYS, AUGUST 2013

Dear Readers,

In the budget for the current year provides for creation for regulator for the road infrastructure

sector. This is a much needed requirement to accelerate further the developmental efforts in

this crucial infrastructure sector.

The experience of private sector nanced projects in the road sector during about last one

and a half decade is a mix bag of success and failures. The issues and aspects involved in the

road sector have their own complexities and the same gets more compounded when for thesame issues multi-organization participation is involved. As of now both school of thoughts

exists i.e. one which supports the creation of regulator for the road infrastructure sector and

the other does not support for the same. However, the need of the hour is to take a more

pragmatic and positive approach for the betterment of this sector.

A number of infrastructure sector have witnessed creation of regulatory organizations

which includes the power sector, telecom sector, port sector, etc. The commonality as a

result of these regulatory authorities has been in the areas of public/consumer satisfaction,

enhanced public condence and conducive environment for more investment. The biggestenabling condition which gets created on account of regulator in a sector is the creation of

level playing eld between the private and public so that the two become apparently equal

partners in the developmental model.

The need for the regulator in the road infrastructure sector is felt may be because of

managing the policy framework & guidelines as well as implementation/execution of

contractual agreements by the same road owning authorities/organizations. This situation is

more pronounced when the issues related to toll (including policy framework and collection

with monitoring issues), maintenance of level of service, parity of users, safety as well as

satisfaction of road users, technology/techniques choices, use of public money, etc. get

raised.

In private nanced road projects, these issues coupled with the issues related to land

management including land acquisition and other related clearances matters in a road project

suggests for a dedicated organization keeping in view that the concession period in such

projects are for long duration ranging from 12 to 30 years.

From the Editor’s Desk

ROAD SECTOR REGULATOR – A NEED


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EDITORIAL

INDIAN HIGHWAYS, AUGUST 2013 3

The contractual conicts especially related to assessment of performance across the various

parameters of the stakeholders involved in the project, extension of time or imposition of

penalties on any account are some of the areas which requires timely and relevant solutions

to keep the sector in a robust health. It is not out of place to mention that as per the decisiongiven by Hon’ble Supreme Court in the matter of ‘Today Homes & Infrastructure Limited

Versus Ludhiana Improvement Trust’, the arbitration clause will survive even if the main

agreement between the two parties are void. The long duration private sector nanced

projects in the road infrastructure sector have some inherent risk factors especially related

to assumption of trafc, input cost, tariff, etc. which are also dependent on overall economic

condition and the prediction about overall economic scenario and economic growth rate for

next 12 to 30 year time frame which is not a very easy affair.

The eventualities arising in such scenario and keeping in view the need of not only assetcreation and asset preservation in the road sector but also for optimizing the resources as

well as creating conducive condition for continuous fund ow may support the need of

setting up an independent road regulator which should be independent of executing and

policy making road owning authorities.

“Kindness is the language which the deaf can hear and the blind can see ”

“ Mark Twain”

Place: New Delhi Vishnu Shankar Prasad

Dated: 23rd July, 2013 Secretary General


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CSIR-CRRI TRAINING PROGRAMMES FOR THE YEAR 2013-2014

TITLE OF THE COURSE DURATIONWITH DATES

COURSEFEE

+ 12.36 % S.T.

COURSECOORDINATOR

A. PAVEMENT ENGINEERING & MATERIALS

Design, Construction and Maintenance ofFlexible Pavements

02-06 Sep., 2013 Rs. 8000/- Dr. P.K. Jain

Rigid Pavements: Design, Construction &Quality Control Aspects

18-22 Nov., 2013 Rs. 8000/- Sh. J.B. Sengupta

Pavement Evaluation Techniques and theirapplications for Maintenance andRehabilitation

16-20 Dec. 2013 Rs. 8000/- Sh. K.Sitaramanjaneyulu

B. ROAD DEVELOPMENT PLANNING &MANAGEMENT

International Course on Dissemination ofHDM-4

16-27 Sep. 2013 Rs.30,000/- Dr. Divesh Tiwari

Geo-Spatial Technology (GIS, GPS, RS etc)for Road and Transportation

06-09 Jan. 2014 Rs. 10, 000/- Dr. B.K. DuaraiSh. A. Mohan Rao

C. GEOTECHNICAL ENGINEERING

Geotechnical and Landslide Investigationsfor Highway Projects

21-25 Oct. 2013 Rs. 8000/- Dr. Kishor Kumar

D. BRIDGES & STRUCTURES

Bridge Design and Construction 25-29 Nov. 2013 Rs. 8000/- Dr. Lakshmy P.

E. TRAFFIC & TRANSPORTATION PLANNING

Environmental Impact Assessment (EIA) andEnvironmental Clearance Process for Road& Highway Projects

02-05 Dec., 2013 Rs. 10, 000/- Dr. Niraj Sharma

Customized Tailor Made Programmes:

In addition to the above CRRI also organises customized tailor made programmes as per the clients requirements.

Course Fee: The course fee as indicated above is payable in advance by crossed bank draft infavour of “Director, Central Road Research Institute” payable New Delhi.

FOR FURTHER INFORMATION & SENDING NOMINATION CONTACT:

Shri T.K. Amla,Head & Course Organiser,

Information, Liaison & Training,Central Road Research Institute,P.O.CRRI, Delhi-Mathura Road,

New Delhi – 110 025

Phone: 91-11-26921939,Fax: 91-11-26845943, 26830480

Telefax: 91-11-26921939E-mail: [email protected], [email protected]

Website: crridom.gov.in


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TECHNICAL PAPERS


ENGINEERING CHALLENGES ON CONTROLLING ROAD

ACCIDENT (CASE STUDY)

NANDANANDAN DAS*

* Former E-in-C- cum Secretary, Works, Govt. of Odisha

ABSTRACT

It is true that “Death is imminent” for any living being. But Death

due to road accident is maximum for human beings in our country.

This is due to lack of awareness among common people and also

lack of government administration as covered in the various

Paragraphs on Primary Cause of accidents on road. There are

various reasons for occurring road accident in the country. If all

the concerned authorities and the people, in general are careful

and sincerely adopt the principles of road safety and abide by it,

then the road accidents can be avoided. Author has taken care

of all most all points considering from various angles and cited

here for control of accidents in reality. He has put forth various

means about safety on road as per actual performances duringhis long experience on different types of road projects. The topic

“Controlling road accident-Road accident-Over view” put forth

by Er Nandanandan Das, was critically discussed and approved

by technical experts of works department of Government of

Odisha during 2001. These have been circulated to all engineering

departments as ideal guide as per the recommendation of the

committee. Lot of methods for prevention of accidents have been

codied by IRC for implementation but author has cited here in

totality, considering the reasons of accidents and suitable remedies

in general. These cover even measure existing IRC codes. These

may be further analyzed and detailed for covering better safety on

road accidents.

1 INTRODUCTION

Role of road net work system in the Country is known

to every body. Development of road system counts

towards the development of the country. Now a lot of

efforts have been taken for improving the road network

system in the country. The speed of the vehicle can be

maintained on road at 100 km/hr. There are sizeable

increase of vehicles on transportation system in the

country after independents.

It is noticed either road in bad condition or in good

condition, accidents occur frequently. In our country

trafc is mixed type. Different types of vehicles

such as cycles, rickshaws, auto rickshaws, motor

bikes, cars, tractors, trucks, buses, long tailors, even

pedestrians etc are allowed to pass on the road.

That means road network system of India should be

adopted, considering all these factors of mixed trafcs.

Generally road accidents are occurred due to various

reasons. When any accident occurs, people think, it

is by chance or desire of God but there is particular

cause for each and every accident. If cause of each

accident is known then the remedies for these can be

adopted to avoid accidents.

It is observed although the speed of vehicle is more

than 140 km/hr in most of the developed countries, the

accidents are less. Whereas, although speed of vehicles

is less in India, the number of accidents are more. Due

to accident, there is a lot of damage of personal and

national property, which also leads to human loss. The

places where repeated accidents occur, are known as

BLACK SPOT areas. If the types of accidents are

known and remedial measures are taken suitably as

antidote to treatment then, the lot of accidents can be

avoided.

Primary Causes of Accidents on Road

● Due to bad driving.

● Due to drowsiness of driver.

● Due to mechanical trouble of vehicle.

● Due to carelessness by the trafc.

● Due to sudden entry of cattle, goats and

other animals.

● Due to lack of civic sense of the trafc.

● Due to alcoholic & drug affect by drivers

and pedestrians.

● Due to defectiveness of road or

deciencies in road systems.


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TECHNICAL PAPERS


2 REASONS OF ACCIDENTS AND

REMEDIES IN DETAIL

2.1 Due to Bad Driving

Many accidents are occurred due to driving of

vehicles by the inexperienced drivers. Therefore, it is

very much necessary to issue driving licenses, after

proper driving tests. In no case driving licenses should

be issued without proper driving test. In this respect

both transport authorities and the drivers should

maintain awareness because their slight slackness in

this respect, will create a loss of life & property. In

some countries in Europe the driving is one regular

study like technical course.

2.2 Due to Drowsiness of Driver

Many a time due to long driving, mostly after taking

food, the driver feels fatigue, relaxed and drowsiness,

which becomes the cause of accidents. When the driver

feels drowsiness, he should take tea, brittle and should

take rest for some time, before driving further.

On consultation with the police authorities, it has

been noticed that in some particular time & area, the

repeated accidents are occurred i.e. black spot areas,although there is no visibility of technical defects on

road system. These are due to driving after taking food,

feeling drowsiness after particular time. Locating

such type of spots, the resting places, which should

be provided on the side of road for taking rest by the

drivers.

2.3 Due to Mechanical Trouble of Vehicle

Generally the vehicles are not checked up or repaired

periodically in our country for which usually accidents

are occurred due to mechanical problems. Therefore,

acts should be formed for periodical check up for all

vehicles. Periodical maintenance certicate should

be obtained & produced whenever required by the

R.T.O & police authority. It should be ensured that

there should not be any slackness or irregularity while

issuing such certicates.

2.4 Due to Careless Driving by the Driver

Many time the drivers drive the vehicles carelessly and

become over condent, for which a lot of accidents

are occurred. In our country, Everybody wants to go

rst. Therefore, when one nds a little gap between

two vehicles, a driver tries to push in between, for

which most of the accidents are occurred. These types

of accidents can be avoided only by strict awareness

of the drivers. During driving of vehicles, the drivers

should not use mobile phones, If It is very much

required to use phone, it is advisable to stop the vehicle

on side for using the mobile phone. In no case the

driver should be unmindful, superuous and careless

during driving. In developed countries, generally the

one driver gives indication to the other driver to gorst. Therefore, although the vehicles in countries like

France, German, America and many other countries

move very fast, the accidents are very less in compare

to our country.

2.5 Due to Sudden Entry of Cattle, Goats and

Other Animals

At times when vehicles are moving fast, lot of

accidents are occurred due to sudden entry of goats,

dogs, cows, cats, bulls with ghting, child, cyclists,even other vehicles & running of the person without

locating the trafc from the both sides. In developed

countries generally grills, safety barriers, and guard

rails etc are provided to check against such type of

accidents. In those countries bulls, cows, goats and

dogs etc do not move on the road like our country.

These animals are dealt separately. Sudden entry to

the road is never advisable. For this awareness among

the people is very much required.

2.6 Due to Lack of Civic Sense of the Trafc

Generally many accidents occur due to lack of civic

sense. So civic of road trafc should be introduced

from the primary education of the child, to increase

awareness for use of road. The principles of movement

of trafc in India are to keep to the left side of the road.

Any fast moving vehicle while overtaking, should

move on the right of the front vehicle, provided the


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front vehicle has given indication to pass. When two

vehicles are coming from different directions, the 3rd

vehicle should not try to enter in between the gap.

Many a time if a truck is moving from one side and

bus is coming from other side, scooter or cyclist triesto pass in between the gap for which accident happens

on the road. This is only because of the impatience

of the driver to go rst. Many cycle riders carelessly

during riding, face accidents. To go fast some motor

cycle riders move on the road zigzag way from one

side to other side of the road locating gap in between

the vehicles, create situation of accident. Many a

times some friends move together on the road and they

obstruct the road trafc for which many accidents also

occur. They should move on the footpath at the left

side edge as per the trafc rule. Therefore, the drivers

should follow the trafc rule & indications which are

given on the road side sign board. The sign boards on

the roadside indicate the drivers to move as per the

situation of road.

The drivers of different vehicles, moving on the

road in same direction, should follow some safe

distances in between their vehicles and the vehicles

in front, in order to avoid collision, if front vehicle

applies brake in unavoidable circumstance. This gap

is known as braking distance. This braking distance

depends on different types of vehicles with different

speeds moving of the road. This type of breaking

distance can be indicated on the side of road by the

trafc authorities to grow awareness on the people.

These types of activities will reduce the possibility of

accident.

In Paris and border of Italy there was an accident

of burning of a petrol bunker on 24th March 1999

inside a tunnel (11.6km) in “Mont Blanc”. Due to this

there were 39 death and 10 cars with 23 lorries were

damaged. Subsequently it was codied to maintain

the safe distance of 100m in between the front and

rear vehicle in side the tunnel.

When both the gates are closed in any railway level

crossing, it is usual practice to cover both side lanes

on both sides of gates by the trafc. These are due to

lack of common sense of drivers. For this unnecessary

jam is created after opening of the gates. In developed

countries, the drivers follow the trafc rule strictly.

In India suppose by chance any vehicle becomes out

of order and stuck on the road, usually both lanes

are covered with both way trafc, for which jam is

created. These are all due to lack of common sense

and awareness. In this case the trafc on left side lane

should be used and other side should be left vacant for

in coming of other side vehicles to avoid jam.

2.7 Effect of Alcoholic and Drugs on Drivers and

Also Pedestrians

On principle, none should drive the vehicle after taking

alcohol or drug. One must realize any accident occurs

due to one’s such activities, it is harmful to individualas well as to all. Similarly a drunkard while moving on

the road may loose his sense and meet accident, so the

pedestrians must not move on the road as drunkard or

using drug. Police must be very much active to check

on the matter and take immediate action over it. Driver

should always remember that the life of passengers

and the vehicles depends on his type of driving.

2.8 Due to Deciency or Defectiveness of

Construction of Road System

Major accident are occurred due to defect of road or

deciency of road construction system. Generally

about the 60% accidents are occurred due to deciency

in road system. These type accidents happen due

to technical ignorance or by the negligence of the

concerned engineers during execution of road work. If

any accident occurs, general opinion of the common

people are that these happen by chance or it is desire

of God.

The road network system is different, location wise.The road system of Odisha is not same as Darjeeling,

Shimla, even Rajasthan. Such difference on road

system depends on longitude, latitude, forest area,

hilly area, desert, coastal area, water logging area,

cyclone and ood affected area etc. Actually the road

policy of Indian Roads Congress is adopted all though

the country. The constructional method of road system

should be adopted as per the situation and environment


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TECHNICAL PAPERS


all over the country. Some precautionary measures on

road accidents have been adopted in real practice in

the State of Odisha. The same have been cited here in

detail item wise.

PARTICULAR METHODS FOR AVOIDING

ACCDIENT ON ROAD

2.8.1 Where in any town or market area, road and

the road side land are mostly in same level for which

random entry of cross trafc like cyclist, motor cyclist,

running of different persons on road cross wise create

accident on the road. It is suitable to provide grill or

Pedestrians Guard Rail (PGR) to restrict the random

entry of the trafc. Another method for separating

the road from the road side land, provision of V-type

drains are recommended. These will restrict the sudden

entry of cross trafc to the road. This will minimize

the accident on road. A typical section vide Fig.1 -As

road safety measure:-

Fig. 1

The drain should continue from the formation edge

of the road. Guard posts should be xed to identify

the edge of road. Due to such type of drain, accident

also minimize in town, market and village areas. It

restricts the random entry of trafc from the adjacent

land or locality to road directly. At restricted places

passage should be provided for entry of local trafc.

The Hume pipe culverts may be provided in suitable

locations with sufcient width so that the trafccoming from the outer to inner side of road can see the

trafc from the both ways on the main road. This was

adopted in places like Kansbahal, Jalan petrol pump,

Rajgangpur, Jharsuguda, Vedabyas etc and found

success in Sambalpur - Rourkela road.

There are three types of advantages for adopting such

V- type of drain.

2.8.1.1 This type of drain acts as prevention of

accidents

2.8.1.2 During rainy days due to rise of water table

inside the ground, generally there is ingress of water

from neighboring land to inside of the road and there

will be vertical action of water pressure under bottom

of road. Provision of Such type of drain acts as cutoff

between road and side land. This has been adopted

practically in Sambalpur –Rourkela road (SH-10) and

found successful.

2.8.1.3 This drain also carry the storm water from the

road and also from road side land. Therefore, road is

better maintained.

2.8.2 Mostly in curve and junction of road, the clearsight distance is to be maintained. Therefore, any

structure or plantation of tree should not be there

inside of the curve because these obstruct the sight

distance, that means there will not be clear vision

either during running and over turning. The building

and plants may be in outer side of the curve.

2.8.3 Humps of the road create inconvenient for the

ow of trafc. At times the humps are of abnormal size

for which many accidents occur. Humps are provided

for checking the speed of vehicle. These are mostlynear any road crossing and school area. Generally in

many locations, the humps are provided on road due

to repeated accidents, already occurred. If one tries

to nd causes of accident, it would be noticed that

there must be one cross road connecting the main

road. The reasons of accident may due various causes,

such as Cross road meet the main road in steep grade,

there must be lot of structures, betel shops and trees at

turning places, which obstruct the sight distance. The

trafc coming from the cross road, meet accident on

the main road for which generally humps are provided

on the main road to avoid such accident. A typical

road junction as per Fig. 2 is suggested as remedial

measure. There should be curve entry from connecting

road to main road. There should not be any obstacles

on the curve side to have proper sight distance. Instead

of providing humps on main road, rumblers should be

provided at a distance of 10m as per the standard and


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TECHNICAL PAPERS


that should be on the cross road. The rumblers should

be extended from edge to edge on connecting road.

No cross trafc should enter the main road with high

speed. Rather these trafc should be cautious while

entering to main road.

Fig. 2

Therefore the level of connecting road should be

maintained as per the level of edge of main road,

providing proper camber on the leveled part of such

road for a length of 15 meters and after which road

should negotiate with exiting road in grade. To provide

such type of junction on the road, all the engineeringdepartments of government of Odisha have been

intimated as an ideal guide to restrict the accident.

Author had given lot of proposals on improvement on

road to CGM, NHAI during 2005, it is very much well

coming that the very typical method have already been

adopted in small road crossing in the road system.

2.8.4 Changing the direction of road in closer interval

should be avoided to minimize the accident.

2.8.5 Due to carelessness in providing transition

between the curve and straight edge of the road near

Sundargad in SH-10, there were a lot of accidents.

Therefore, transition should be as per the proper

design and proper super elevation should be provided

in transition portion. Lacking of proper slope in transit

portion has caused lot of accident as experienced.

2.8.6 Direct grade should not be ended on the junction

of the road and also approaches of bridges and culverts,

rather suitable grade can be adopted after maintaining

the leveled approaches for a length of minimum 15m.

Generally it is noticed that the joint of culvert and

starting of approach of road is settled, for which

lots of accidents and inconvenience on movement of

trafc are occurred. This is due to under compaction

of approach near abutment. The earth work from the

rst layer and in subsequent layers should be bent

vertically towards abutment so that the compaction by

roller can be made properly on the edge of abutment.

The typical section as per Fig.3, indicates the method

of compaction layer wise.

Fig. 3

2.8.7 During improvement of Rourkela and

sambalpur road, lots of road furniture such as sign

board, delineators, e.t.c were put on the side of road.

These items were very precious, as per international

standard. It was observed that after some days the roadfurniture were stolen and broken by the miscreants.

These furniture were visible at night. But after stolen

of materials, the cheap type of furniture were used for

which the position of furniture were not visible during

night. Therefore number of accidents increased. These

should be insured against theft and damage.

2.8.8 Super elevation should be provided as per the

design of curve. The slope of Super elevation should be

from inner to outer edge of the curve. Super elevation

on curve part of road, was inner edge of curve toouter edge of carriage way and outer shoulder was in

camber in Sambalpur- Rourkela road. Therefore, there

were lot of accidents, while crossing of third vehicle

on the upper shoulder by chance. This was rectied on

the remedial measure in road accident in the state of

Odisha. Of course providing slope from inner to outer

edge in curve part of road has been codied in IRC


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TECHNICAL PAPERS


standard. Such type of slope should be maintained

in transition part also. Providing the slope in super

elevation depends on type of curve with it’s radius

of curvature. Due to non provision of proper super

elevation in any curve there is possibility of accident.Guard posts should be provided in curve and transition

part of the road which will indicate the existence of

curve.

2.8.9 It is desirable to have road side plantation,

therefore it is always advisable to retain one side trees

of the road at the time of widening the road.

2.8.10 If the number of curves are more in closer

interval, the possibility of road accidents increase.

More number of curves increase the length of road.

For which the time period covering the more length of

road increases and also the maintenance expenditure

becomes more. It is seen generally roads are improved

on existing road which are having number of curves to

avoid land acquisition. On the other hand, comparing

the cost, improvement of existing road with more

number of curves to new straight road with land

acquisitions may be more. Therefore, only unavoidable

curves should be allowed during improvement of

road.

2.8.11 It was experienced that the delineators used

in Sambalpur- Rourkela-SH-10 were no doubt very

much welcoming but these were stolen and damaged

due to activities of miscreants later on. The fruitful

purpose of proving delineator was unsuccessful and

more number of accidents occurred. Subsequently

these were replaced by guard posts with reecting

paint. Therefore, guard posts may be used in place of

delineators as per the situation.

2.8.12 When the road is passing through congested

area, grill on both side of road may be provided to

restrict random entry of cross trafc. If more width

of land is available, the main road can be elevated

above 1m height and service road on both sides can

be provided to allow local trafc as grade separator.

This will reduce jam and will be economical.

2.8.13 Sudden rise and fall of road vertically creates

accident. Step should be taken to avoid it.

2.8.14 Odisha is one ood and cyclone affected area.

During 1999 due to super cyclone and ood, most of

the roads were submerged in water and roads were

damaged. Therefore, height of road should always be

higher than the H.F.L. The bridges and culverts shouldhave sufcient vantage to accumulate ood discharge.

This will minimize ood on road. It is experienced

during cyclone of 1999 that the falling of trees on the

road created problem for transportation of essential

communities. Even falling of big plants damage the

electric and phone lines. Therefore, plantation of

small verities of trees of maximum height 5m should

be planted at 3m away from edge of road formation,

so that the falling of trees by cyclone will not obstruct

the trafc nor create any hindrance for transportationof essential commodities. The electric and phone lines

should be always away plantation line.

2.8.15 It is not desirable to plant the fruit bearing trees

near side of the road. Because the people generally

will be interested to use different means to get fruits

for which there will be disturbance of the movement

of trafc. Small verities of trees like Akashiya,

Krusnachuda, Baula, Karanja, small verities of Neem

and such other similar type of plants of height within

5m should be planted at a distance of 3m from road.Same variety of plants should not be planted for a

longer stretch. Because this may create monotony to

driver while moving on the road for a longer stretch.

This monotony at time creates accident. Therefore, it

is advisable to plant trees of same variety for a stretch

of three kilometers maximum, by which the monotony

on driving will be minimized.

2.8.16 Due to lack of proper maintenance of road, in

many places, the shoulders on both sides of carriage

way, are washed out which create pot holes andundulation on shoulder and creates level difference

on road. This becomes cause of accident. Therefore,

care should be taken to level the shoulders with proper

camber by using earth or morrum and compacting by

roller properly.

2.8.17 The width of road should be maintained same

through out to avoid accident.


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2.8.18 It is seen that there are trees, electric line,

phone line etc. on the road within road formation edge

for which lots of accidents are occurred. Therefore,

such type of any structure should not on road.

2.8.19 In two lane road, having heavy movement oftrafc and if there is availability of sufcient width

of road, then the road should be made four lane

with provision of median as per the design standard.

Since there will be ow of trafc from both of sides

separately, accident can be avoided.

2.8.20 Road side light arrangement should be made

for proper vision at night. Now a days the lighting

arrangement by solar energy system can be used for

illumination at night.

2.8.21 The existing narrow bridges and culvertsshould be widened and extra lanes may be provided

to accommodate the present trafc. While proceeding

from wide road to narrow bridges and culverts guard

posts at intervals should be xed to indicate the narrow

approach toward the bridge. Reecting paints should

be marked on the guard post, So that this will be

visible at night. Road also be painted with reecting

marking. These indicate the border of carriage ways.

2.8.22 Generally it observed due to parking of different

vehicles, such as trucks, buses, cars, tractors and motor

cycle on the road, trafc congestion is created, which

is also cause of accident. Therefore, suitable parking

places should be provided at interval to avoid such

problems.

2.8.23 In our country there are mixed trafc such as

cyclist, rickshaw, motor bike, tempo, tractor, truck,

bus etc. Therefore, road marking with different

indications should be made to segregate the different

trafcs. Pedestrians should walk on foot path only.

2.8.24 Lot of accidents are occurred due to advisement

hoarding in different places of road. This diverts theattention of drivers. Therefore, the hoarding may only

be provided where these will not divert the attention

of drivers.

2.8.25 It is observed in many places the black toping

part of road is found very smooth. It is due to excessive

contents of bitumen in bituminous layer. During hot

season due to melting of bitumen huge bleeding on

the road surface is found. It seems as if road is in very

good condition. Due to smoothness of road there is

less friction effect on vehicle on the road. So at the

time of requirement of brake the vehicle slips and at

time meets with accident. When there is slight rain, themoisture contain on the road acts as viscous, therefore

the vehicle looses friction effect and tends to meet

accident. Author had experienced of one such type of

accident in NH-6 near Chhatabar, Odisha in similar

principle. Precautionary measures should be taken to

avoid use of excess of bitumen during construction of

road.

2.8.26 Accidents in hilly areas is usual matter, since

most of the hilly roads are narrow and not as per the

design standard. Therefore, the hilly roads should

be properly design to avoid such accident. The welltrained drivers should be allowed to move in such

hilly area.

2.8.27 Besides engineering measures, there is a need

for trafc regulation and proper education of the road

users. The driving silence system should be more

rigorous. Facility should be provided for imparted

proper training to the drivers. Registration to only

road worthy vehicles should only be renewed.

2.8.28 Trafc regulation should be strictly introduced

in educating the lower age group to develop civicssense in general.

3 CONCLUSIONS

An analysis of accident data indicates that not only

driver’s fault but also public carelessness is mainly

responsible for the majority of the accidents and

fatalities. Studies undertaken abroad have revealed

that reduction in accidents to the extent of 20 percent

is possible by taking recourse of proper engineering

measures through planning, design, construction and

maintenance of roads. An accident prone spot i.e.

black spot areas may be identied and separate fund

may be created out of the motor vehicle taxes for

improvement of the accident prone spots.

Proper and detailed data on accidents are not available

in our country. It is being collected by police from

their view point. The transport department collects

accident statistics involving their transport corporation


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vehicles. Therefore, a separate Road safety cell,

consisting of Engineer, Police, Transport, Local

representative, Concerned NGOs, should be created.

The name of the cell may be named as “NATIONAL

INTEGRATED ROAD SAFETY CELL” (NIRSC).They should be responsibility for collecting and

analyzing data of all accidents and making specic

recommendations for averting accidents. To reduce

frequency of accidents, the data regarding type of

accidents (i.e. motorized or non-motorized), specic

months and days of accidents, maximum types of

vehicles involved, reason of accident, fatality rate,

difference in occurrence of road accidents before and

after creation of Trafc Aid Post if any, etc. may be

collected from accident prone location. Since, the

geometric design of the highway has a direct effect onaccident rate both in terms of number and severity, the

design of various road elements like vertical prole,

horizontal alignment, cross sectional features should

take in to account the road safety measures.

Author had experienced in working in Daitary to

Paradeep port (Express way project) in Odishafrom 1965 to 1975 and in charge of Sambalpur to

Rourkela road, ADB project from 1996 to 1999.

The above possible data have been arrived out of

long experience and many are found successful on

execution. All possible efforts have been made to

cover the possibility of accidents. Further detailing

in many points are required to overcome some type

of accidents. Little care during execution can avoid

many accidents. In India the road policy is adopted as

per guide line of IRC. There are still lots of data yet

to be included in IRC standard, which have not beenreported by experienced engineers.


15/81


DAMAGING EFFECTS OF SUPER SINGLE TYRES : AN

INTERNATIONAL EXPERIENCE

ABHISHEK MITTAL* & DR . SUNIL BOSE**

* Scientist, Flexible Pavement Division

** Scientist & Head (Retd.), Flexible Pavement Division

ABSTRACT

Super single tyres are becoming popular in various countries

abroad because of the several advantages offered by such tyres

over dual wheel tyres. However, on the other hand, they have

become a matter of great concern for highway engineers because

of more damaging effect on the pavements by such super single

tyres. Super single tyres induce higher contact stresses on the

pavements and thus reduce the life of the pavements. There have

been many studies worldwide to assess the damaging effects

caused by use of such tyres on the pavements. Many AcceleratedPavement Testing (APT) programs are using super single tyres in

their research studies. This paper discusses about effects of super

single tyres compared to dual wheel tyres based on the studies

conducted worldwide.

1 INTRODUCTION

The use of “wide base” or “super single” tyres in

lieu of the conventional dual wheel conguration has

become increasing commonplace in USA, Canada,

South Africa and Europe. The reasons provided bythe tyre manufacturers for the increased popularity of

these tyres include lower rolling resistance, reduced

dead weight, reduction in fuel consumption, small total

contact area, improved riding qualities, off-the-road

mobility, and a high-load front axle capacity. Super-

single tyres induce higher contact stresses, which

might be two times the ination pressure, resulting

in more adverse effects on the pavement structure.

This high contact stress can cause high stresses inthe deep pavement layer, which is likely to damage

the subgrade layer. Therefore, it becomes necessary

to evaluate the destructive effect of trucks utilizing

this type of tyre with that induced by the conventional

dual wheel conguration. Many studies have been

conducted across the world in this regard. This paper

captures all this information and discusses the effects

of super single tyre compared with the effects caused

by the conventional dual wheel tyres.

Fig. 1 Examples of Dual Tyre Assembly and

Wide Base Single Tyre

2 REQUIREMENTS FOR GROSS VEHICLE

WEIGHTS AND AXLE WEIGHTS

As per the notication of Ministry of Road Transport

and Highways, Government of India, the maximum

gross vehicle weight and maximum safe axle weight for

various vehicle categories and axle load combinationsare given in Table 1.

Central Road Research Institute, New Delhi


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Table 1 Specication of Maximum Gross Vehicle Weight and Maximum Safe Axle Weight[1]

Transport Vehicles Category Maximum Gross Vehicle

Weight

Maximum Safe Axle Weight

I. Rigid Vehicles

(i) Two Axle

Two tyres on front axle

Two tyres on rear axle

12.0

6 tonnes on front axle

6 tonnes on rear axle

(ii) Two Axle

Two tyres on front axle, and

Four tyres on rear axle

16.2


10.2 tonnes on rear axle

(iii) Three Axle

Two tyres on front axle, and

Eight tyres on rear tandem axle

25.0


19 tonnes on rear tandem axle

(iv) Four Axle

Four tyres on front axle, and

Eight tyres on rear tandem axle

31.0

12 tonnes on two front axle


II. Semi-Articulated Vehicles

(i) Two Axle Tractor

Single Axle Trailer

Tractor :

2 tyres on front axle

4 tyres on rear axleTrailer :

4 tyres on single axle

26.4



10.2 tonnes on single trailer axle

(ii) Two Axle Tractor

Tandem Axle Trailer

Tractor :


4 tyres on rear axle

Trailer :

8 tyres on tandem axle

35.2



19 tonnes on tandem axle

(iii) Two Axle Tractor

Three Axle Trailer

Tractor :



Trailer :

12 tyres on 3 axles

40.2



24 tonnes on 3 axles


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TECHNICAL PAPERS



Weight


(iv) Three Axle Tractor

Single Axle Trailer

Tractor :



Trailer :

8 tyres on single axle

35.2


19 tonnes on rear axle

10.2 tonnes on single axle

(v) Three Axle Tractor

Tandem Axle Trailer

Tractor :



Trailer :


44.0



19 tonnes on tandem axle

III. Truck-Trailer Combinations

(i) Two Axle Truck

Two Axle Trailer

Truck :



Trailer :

4 tyres on front axle4 tyres on rear axle

36.6



10.2 tonnes on front axle10.2 tonnes on rear axle

(ii) Three Axle Truck

Two Axle Trailer

Truck :


8 tyres on rear tandem axle

Trailer :



45.4

(restricted to 44.0 tonnes)



10.2 tonnes on front axle


(iii) Three Axle Truck Three Axle Trailer

Truck :



Trailer :



45.4(restricted to 44.0 tonnes)




19.0 tonnes on rear tandem axle


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TECHNICAL PAPERS



Weight


(iv) Three Axle Truck

Three Axle Trailer

Truck :



Trailer :



54.2

(restricted to 44.0 tonnes)




19.0 tonnes on rear tandem axle

3 TYRE SIZE DESIGNATION

Four types of tyre size designation methods have been

provided in IS:15636-2005[2]

. The naming schemeis standardized and uniform among manufacturers.

As a result, the classication offers much useful

information.

A tyre may be designated as : 208/80 R 15 LT/C

108/104 J, Where,

208 = nominal section width code

80 = nominal aspect ratio

R = Radial (D if Diagonal)

15 = nominal rim diameter code

LT/C = Vehicle Category (Light Truck/

Commercial)

108/104 = Load Index (Single/Dual)

J = Speed Symbol

An explanation of the above terms is given below[2] :

(a) Nominal section width code : A number

representing linear distance between the outsides

of the sidewalls of an inated pneumatic tyre,excluding elevations due to labelling (marking),

decoration or protective bands and ribs.

(b) Nominal aspect ratio : It is hundred times

the number obtained by dividing the number

expressing the section height by the number

expressing the nominal section width, both

dimensions expressed in the same units.

(c) Nominal rim diameter code : A number to

represent the diameter of the rim on which a

tyre is designed to be mounted.

(d) Load index : One or two numbers (higher

number is for single application and lower

number for dual) which indicate the load the

tyre can carry in single and dual operation at

the speed corresponding to the associated speed

category and when operated in conformity with

the requirements governing utilization specied

by the manufacturer.

(e) Speed symbol : Speeds, indicated by a symbol,

at which the tyre can carry the load indicated bythe associated load-capacity index or maximum

rated load.

The nomenclature of tyre has been presented in

Fig.2. It should be noted that the tread width of a

tyre is less than the section width. This fact is

important, as the impact of the tyre to the pavement is

generally accepted to be determined by the footprint

width and not by the nominal section width. For radial

tyres, the footprint width of a tyre generally equals

the tread width (except for strongly over-inated or‘under-loaded’ conditions when the footprint width

may be less). Similarly, the outer diameter of the tyre

is not only determined by its rim diameter, but also

by its sidewall height, indicated by its aspect ratio

and width. This too is important, since the outer tyre

diameter is one of the factors inuencing the footprint

length, together with the wheel load and ination

pressure [3].


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TECHNICAL PAPERS


Fig. 2 Nomenclature of Tyre[2]

Different tyre sizes and dimensions can be found on

different axles of trucks and tractors on the one hand

and trailers and semitrailers on the other hand. The

various tyre sizes have been provided in[2] for Trucks,

Buses and Trailers. Only single and dual congurations

are currently being used in India. “Wide base” or

“Super single” tyres have not yet reached the Indian

market. But looking at the world-wise use of such

wide base tyres and the benets for the trucks from

such tyres, it is expected that wide base tyres would

soon enter the Indian market.

4 CONTACT AREA OF TYRES

Contact area is an important consideration from the

point of view of pavement design. It is necessary to

know the contact area between tyre and pavement,

so that the axle load can be assumed to be uniformly

distributed over the contact area. Inputs to mechanistic

models of design require the shape of the loaded area

to be dened, and this is generally assumed to becircular. More advanced models, capable of accepting

different areas, are now available, but are not yet

commonly used in pavement design methods.

Not only the size of the contact area is important, but

also its shape. There will be differences in stresses in

the pavement between e.g. a wide and short contact

area, a square area, a circular area, or a narrow and long

area (all having equal area size and vertical contact

stress). Therefore, the distance between the tyres of a

dual assembly (and the absence of such distance for a

wide base single) will also inuence the stresses in the

pavement, as this distance widens the area over whichthe load is distributed.

The size of the contact area depends on the contact

pressure (Huang, 1993). In the multi-layered elastic

theory, the tyre contact area is assumed to be circular.

However, the actual contact area of a truck tyre can

be assumed to be composed of a rectangle and two

semi-circles (Fig.3). The contact area of a super-single

tyre is larger in the transverse direction than in the

longitudinal direction, contrary to what is typically

observed for a conventional dual tyre (Kim, 2008).Fig. 4 shows the imprints of the contact areas of a

Super Single Tyre (SST) and Conventional Dual Tyre

(CDT) (Viljoen, 1982).

Fig. 3 Contact Area for Dual Tyres (a) Actual Area and (b)

Equivalent Area (Huang, 1993)

Fig. 4 Comparison of Measured Contact Imprints

(Viljoen, 1982)

(SST – Super Single Tyre, CDT – Conventional Dual Tyres)

Many researchers, in the past, have either assumed

that the contact area is circular or used the equivalent

contact area shown in Fig.3(b) when analyzing


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TECHNICAL PAPERS


pavement loading. The contact area is calculated using

the following equation:

Ac = = 0.5227L2

where Ac is the equivalent contact area, which can be obtained by dividing the load on tyre by the tyre

pressure. For 425/65R22.5 super single tyre, the

contact area is shown by the dotted lines shown in

Fig.3(b), in which the ratio of width to length is

1:0.85 (Kim, 2008).

5 CONTACT STRESS OF TYRES

When a tyre load is applied to the pavement surface,

three contact stress components are generated:

vertical, transverse (or lateral), and longitudinal.

Vertical contact stress is a direct function of the tyre’s

loading and ination pressure, whereas transverse

and longitudinal shear stresses are associated with

bending of the tyre as it is deformed from its normally

toroidal shape at the tyre–road interface (Kim, 2008).

Multilayered elastic theory assumes a uniform contact

stress, equal to the ination pressure. However,

this is not correct. DeBeer et. al. (1997) indicted

that for thin asphaltic road (


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load carried by the tyre remains constant the effect

of increasing ination pressure is to produce higher

contact stresses due to the reduction in contact area.

As previously mentioned, the effect of these higher

contact stresses is more signicant at the surface ofthe pavement since they diminish with depth[10]. High

tyre pressures necessitate high-quality materials in

the upper layers of the pavement, but the required

total depth of pavement is not affected appreciably

by tyre pressures. On the other hand, for a constant

tyre pressure, an increase in total load increases the

vertical stress for all depths[11].

De Beer et al. (1997) reported that tyre ination

pressure predominantly controls the vertical contact

stresses on the pavement at the tyre centre, whereas the

tyre load controls those at the tyre edges. Their analysis

indicated that during instantaneous overloading/

underinated conditions, the maximum Strain Energy

of Distortion (SED) in the asphalt surfacing occurs

close to tyre edges. Under instantaneous uniform

vertical stress conditions, the SED is within the asphalt

surfacing at the tyre centre[12].

7 DEFLECTION STUDIES UNDERCONVENTIONAL DUAL AND SUPER

SINGLE TYRES

A study[13] has been conducted to monitor transient

relative deection and permanent deformation in

pavement layers under conventional dual tyres and

wide base tyres using Multi Depth Deectometers

(MDD). The deection measurements were made on

two in-service asphaltic concrete pavement sections.

Section 1 has a HMA thickness of 38.1 mm (1.5 inch)

and a crushed limestone base course thickness of254 mm (10 inch) overlaying a sandy clay subgrade,

whereas Section 2 has a HMA thickness of 177.8 mm

(7 inch), a crushed limestone base course thickness of

355.6 mm (14 inch) and a 152.4 (6 inch) lime stabilized

subbase overlaying a sandy clay subgrade. The dual

tyres used in the study were 11R22.5, inated to 0.827

MPa (120 psi) (cold) and the wide base singles were

425/65R22.5, inated to 0.896 MPa (130 psi) (cold).

Deections at various depths within the pavement

structure caused by each loading condition under the

two tyre types were recorded at truck speeds ranging

from approximately 6.4 to 88.5 kmph (4 to 55 mph).The signicant ndings of the study are described

below :

● Higher deections were measured under

the wide base single tyres.

● The maximum deection under the wide

base single tyre generally occurs under

the tyre centreline, whereas the maximum

deection under dual tyres occur under

either of the tyres.

● Under similar test conditions, wide base

single tyres are 2.8 times more damaging

than dual tyres on Section 1 (thin pavement

section) and 2.5 times more damaging on

the Section 2 (thick pavement section)

for a speed of 55 mph.

● The tensile strains in the asphalt layer for

Section 1 under wide base single tyres

are about 1.5 times higher than those for

dual tyres. This indicates that the wide base single tyres produce more surface

cracking than the standard dual tyres.

Another study[14] conducted to compare the destructive

effect of wide base tyres and the standard dual wheel

conguration selected transient pavement deection

and surface tensile strain as the two criteria for

evaluating destructive effect. Pavement deection

measurements were obtained with Benkelman Beam

and at three locations, with Linear Variable Differential

Transducer (LVDT) gages. It was concluded thatusing maximum pavement deection as a criterion,

the destructive effect of a wide base tyre with single-

axle loading of 53.4 kN (12,000 lbs) equals or exceeds

that of a dual-wheel conguration at an axle loading

of 80 kN (18,000 lbs). This equivalency, however,

is subjected to a certain degree of variation with

pavement temperature.


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8 STUDIES ON DAMAGING EFFECTS OF

WIDE BASE TYRES

In 1989, Federal Highway Administration (FHWA)

initiated a research program to assess the impact of

wide base single tyres on exible pavement response

and performance. The study was conducted at FHWA

Accelerated Pavement Testing Facility. The tyres

used in the study were dual 11R22.5 and a single

425/65R22.5. The results of the research[15] show that

425/65R22.5 wide base single tyre was signicantly

more damaging to conventional exible pavements

than traditional 11R22.5 dual tyres. For the same load

and tyre pressure, the wide base single tyre produced

higher vertical compressive strains in all layers of the

pavement, and higher tensile strains at the bottom of

the asphalt concrete layer. These increased strains

translate into greater rutting (upto 2.4 times more)

and greater fatigue damage (upto 4.3 times more)

for pavements trafcked with the wide base single

tyre. For the pavements included in the experiment,

the wide base single tyre produced ruts which were

approximately twice as deep as those from the dual

tyres, and the fatigue life of pavements trafcked

with the single tyre was approximately 25% of thatobtained under the dual tyre loading.

Another study[16] was conducted by California

Department of Transportation for the analytical

evaluation and comparison of the effects of wide-

base tyres and conventional dual tyres under realistic

loading conditions using a computer program called

CIRCLY that uses multilayered elastic theory. The

loading cases considered consisted of (a) non-uniform

vertical stresses only and (b) non-uniform vertical

stresses accompanied by non-uniform inward shearstresses. These inward shear stresses develop from

inward lateral tread movement caused by the side-

wall deection within the contact area. Both loading

cases were assumed to be applied over circular contact

stresses. Three axle congurations were studied with

both wide base tyres and dual tyres. The maximum

legal axle loadings analyzed were : 89 kN for single

axle, 151 kN for tandem axle having 1.22m spacing

between axles and 151 kN for the tridem axle having

1.22m spacing between the axles. The performance

criteria chosen was tensile strains (for fatigue life

determination) and strain energies of distortion (failurecriteria) within the surface layer. The study indicates

that wide base tyres produce 15 to 40 % higher critical

strain values than dual tyres, and 30 to 115 % higher

critical strain energy of distortion values depending

on the axle conguration. It also indicates that when

inward shear forces are considered in the analysis

these percentages shoot up sharply. This indicates that

ignoring the shear stress effects leads to overestimating

the life of the surface layers under actual conditions

of contact stresses. The study also concludes that adenitive tyre load limit does not exist that will enable

one to reliably predict the pavement effects from

wide-base tyres compared with dual tyres under any

axle conguration. However, it also suggests that if a

tyre load limit is required for wide-base tyres it should

be substantially less than values that are typical for

dual tyres. Limits between 60 and 80 N/mm (350 and

450 pounds/inch) are suggested.

Another Study[17] conducted at the LINTRACK

accelerated load testing facility indicates that therutting was more for standard wide single tyre

385/65R22.5 when compared with the standard dual

tyre 315/80R22.5. Also the rutting behaviour becomes

unstable after 20,000 load repetitions for wide single

tyre 385/65R22.5, where as for the standard dual

tyre 315/80R22.5, the rutting behaviour was stable

even after 20,000 load repetitions. Similar results

have been reported in[18] with the difference that the

rutting behaviour under the standard wide single tyre

385/65R22.5 have been reported as stable.

Another study[19] conducted at the Australian

Accelerated Loading Facility (ALF) on stabilized

sandstone material reported that rutting under 50 kN

wide single tyre was approximately 2.2 times that

under the 80 kN dual-wheel load.

Hugo[20] reported in his paper that wide-based single

tyres resulted in 1.0 to 2.4 times more rutting than dual


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tyres with majority of rutting in the aggregate base.

Fatigue cracking with wide base tyres is approximately

4.0 times more than dual tyres.

Kim (2008) reported that under elastic-plastic

conditions, super-single tyres induce larger permanent

strains in the pavement layers than conventional

tyres. Rutting damage factors for super-single tyres

compared with dual tyres range from 3.5 to 3.6 and

fatigue damage factor range from 4.9 to 7.6.

Another study[21] was conducted to study the rutting

resistance of different types of binder based on various

laboratory tests and experiments on the circular track

of Laboratorie Central des Ponts et Chaussees (LCPC),

France. The bitumen types used for the wearing course

in the study were a straight-run, conventional 50/70

grade bitumen, an SBS-polymer-modied bitumen,

the Shell Multigrade bitumen, and a hard asphalt

traditionally used for high-modulus asphalt concrete

(EME). The experiment on LCPC’s circular track was

carried out on a pavement consisting of four sectors

constructed with the four different bitumen types.

Both dual and wide single wheels were used in the

study. It was concluded that axles with wide single

wheels are more aggressive than dual wheels. It was

also concluded that the rutting also depends on thetype of asphalt mix, and the more sensitive the asphalt

mix is to rutting, the more pronounced the effect

seems to be.

Another study[22] conducted at the New Zealand’s

CAPTIF also indicates 92% more rutting by wide base

single tyres compared to the conventional duals.

Huhtala et. al.[23] conducted a comparative study

of behaviour of wide base tyres and dual tyres on

bituminous pavements. The uneven distribution of

load on both the dual tyres was also considered in

the study. The uneven load was simulated by tyre

pressures. It was concluded that wide base tyres are

more aggressive than dual tyres by a factor of 2.3 –

4.0 in ideal conditions for dual tyres, whereas wide

base tyres are more aggressive by a factor of 1.2 – 1.9

if they are compared to the most common dual tyres.

Within wide base tyres there were differences found

by a factor upto 1.6 and within wide base tyres wider

tyres are less aggressive.

9 LOAD EQUIVALENCY FACTORS FOR

VARIOUS WIDTHS OF SINGLE TYRES

A study was conducted [24] to develop equivalent wheel

load factors for dual tyres on single axles and 25.4 cm

(10 inch), 30.5 cm (12 inch), 35.6 cm (14 inch), 40.6

cm (16 inch) and 45.7 cm (18 inch) wide single tyres

on single axles for both rigid and exible pavements.

The following relationship was used to develop the

equivalent wheel-load factors :

Fi = N

18 / N

i

Where,

Fi = equivalent wheel load factor, 80 kN

(18-kip) dual tyre, single axles

N18

= repetitions to a serviceability index of

2.5 for an 80 kN (18-kip) dual tyre, single

axle load; and

Ni = repetitions to a serviceability index of 2.5

for the axle load being evaluated

The pavement sections analyzed were 76.2 mm, 152.4

mm and 241.3 mm (3, 6 and 9.5 inch) of asphalt

concrete pavement on 203.20 mm (8 inch) of crushed

aggregate base. A resilient modulus of 2758 MPa

(400,000 psi) and a Poisson’s ratio of 0.3 was assumed

for asphaltic concrete layer. A Poisson’s ratio value of

0.4 was assumed for the crushed aggregate base and

for the resilient modulus the following relationship

developed based on repeated load triaxial testing was

used.

MR = 2843θ0.6

Where,

MR = resilient modulus, psi, and

θ = bulk stress, psi (σ1 + 2σ3 in the triaxial

test)

The fatigue distress model used in the study is

given below for predicting the number of repetitions


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TECHNICAL PAPERS


resulting in fatigue cracking equal to or less than 10

percent of the wheelpath :

Log Nf = 15.947 – 3.219 log (ε/10-6) – 0.854 log

(E*/103)

Where,

Nf = repetitions to failure

ε = maximum tensile strain at the bottom of

the asphalt bound layer, and

E* = resilient modulus, psi

The load equivalency factors developed for a typical

asphalt concrete pavement are given in Table 2.

Table 2 Trafc Equivalency Factors for Single Axles with Single Tyres,

Asphalt Concrete Pavement, and Structural Number (SN) = 4

Axle

Load

(kN)

Equivalent 80 kN Dual Tyre, Single-Axle Loads

Single Tyre Width

10 inch 12 inch 14 inch 16 inch 18 inch

44.5 0.6309 0.4790 0.3731 0.2969 0.24050

53.4 1.0286 0.7809 0.6082 0.4840 0.3921062.3 1.5549 1.1805 0.9195 0.7317 0.59277

71.2 2.2243 1.6887 1.3153 1.0466 0.84793

80.1 3.0502 2.3157 1.8038 1.4353 1.16279

89.0 4.0458 3.0715 2.3925 1.9038 1.54232

97.9 5.2237 3.9658 3.0891 2.4580 1.99136

106.8 6.5962 5.0077 3.9007 3.1038 2.51455

115.7 8.1750 6.2064 4.8343 3.8468 3.11643

124.6 9.9718 7.5705 5.8969 4.6923 3.80141

133.4 11.9979 9.1087 7.0951 5.6457 4.57379142.3 14.2643 10.8293 8.4353 6.7121 5.43778

151.2 16.7818 12.7406 9.9241 7.8968 6.39749

160.1 19.5610 14.8505 11.5675 9.2045 7.45695

169.0 22.6123 17.1670 13.3719 10.6403 8.62014

177.9 25.9458 19.6978 15.3432 12.2089 9.89093

An analysis of the above Table indicates that for

the same axle load, as the width of the single tyre

decreases, the equivalency factor increases which

indicates more damage. As the axle load increases, the

equivalency factor also increases. The data from this

study showed that single tyres can be as much as 25

times more damaging than dual tyres as the axle load

increases and the tyre width decreases. However, the

damaging effect is dampened by the increase in the

width of the single tyres.

The same results have been produced by another

study[25], which states that the damage due to wide

tyres under 9000 kg would be 12 - 13 times more

damaging than the damage caused by dual tyres under

similar loading.

10 THE BEGINNING OF ACCELERATED

PAVEMENT TESTING (APT) PROGRAM

IN INDIA

India has recently embarked on its Accelerated

Pavement Testing (APT) Program with the


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TECHNICAL PAPERS


procurement of a Heavy Vehicle Simulator (HVS)

from M/s Dynatest Inc., USA. The HVS Mark IV Plus

was procured by Central Road Research Institute, New

Delhi in 2010 and has been established as a National

Test Facility. The HVS unit was procured with dual

wheels tted on the Carriage Unit. However, most

of the APT programs worldwide are being run with

super single/wide base tyres because they cause more

damage to the pavements compared to the dual wheels

conguration. Therefore, it is suggested that the Indian

APT program should also include super single tyres

in their research program and compare the damaging

effects of such tyres relative to the conventional dual

tyres for the various types of the pavement sections

used in India.

11 CONCLUSIONS

The paper describes a brief review of the studies done

worldwide on the comparison of super single tyres and

dual tyres and their damaging effects on the pavement.

Though super single tyres offer many advantages for

the trucking industry, they are, in fact, more damaging

to the pavements. For this reason, it is suggested that

the APT program at CRRI should be run with the super

single tyres instead of dual tyres. Also, the Equivalency

factors for the damaging effects of super single tyres

should be developed for Indian conditions. With the

growth in the market share of super single tyres in

trucking applications worldwide and the possible

expectation that such tyres would soon Indian market,

it is very much needed that a prediction of accurate

pavement damage quantication associated with super

single tyres be made for Indian conditions through the

use of Accelerated Pavement Testing Facility (APTF)

available at CRRI.

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

The authors thankfully acknowledge Director, Central

Road Research Institute, New Delhi for his kind

permission to publish this paper.

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Maximum Safe Axle Weight”, Notication S.O. 728 (E)

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for Commercial Vehicles – Diagonal and Radial Ply –

Specication”, Bureau of Indian Standards, New Delhi,

2007

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4. Huang, Y.H., “Pavement Analysis and Design”, Prentice-

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pavement design”, Canadian Journal of Civil Engineering,

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tyre”, Unpublished Technical Report RP/24/82, National

Institute for Transport and Road Research, CSIR, South

Africa, June 1982.

7. De Beer, M., Fisher, C., and Jooste, F.J. 1997,

“Determination of pneumatic tyre/pavement interface

contact stresses under moving loads and some effects

on pavements with thin asphalt surfacing layers”,

Proceedings, 8th International Conference on Asphalt

Pavements, University of Washington, Seattle,

Washington, pp. 179–227, 10–14 August 1997.

8. Myers, L.A., Roque, R., Ruth, B.E., and Drakos, C.,

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cracking and rutting”, Transportation Research Record

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Council, Washington D.C., pp 175–184, 1999.

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properties signicant to pavement damage”, Vehicle-Road

Interaction, ASTM STP 1225, B.T. Kulakowski, Ed.,

American Society for Testing and Materials, Philadelphia,

pp 52-63, 1994.

10. Blackman, D.I., Halliday, A.R., and Merrill, D.B., “Effects

of tyre type, ination pressure and load on contact area

and pavement performance”, Unpublished Project ReportPR/IP/66/00, Transport Research Laboratory, June 2000.

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Design”, Second Edition, John Wiley & Sons Inc., 1975.

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“Signicant Findings from Full-Scale Accelerated Testing

– A Synthesis of Highway Practice”, NCHRP Synthesis

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13. Akram, T., Scullion, T., Smith, R.E., and Fernando, E.,

“Estimating damage effects of dual versus wide base tyres

with multidepth deectometers”, Transportation Research

Record, 1355, pp 59-66, 1992.

14. Zube, Ernest and Forsyth, Raymond, “An investigation

of the destructive effect of otation tyres on exbile

pavement”, Highway Research Record Number 71,

Highway Research Board, Washington D.C., pp 129-150,

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15. Bonaquist, Ramon, “An Assessment of the Increased

Damage Potential of Wide Based Single Tyres”,

Proceedings, Volume 3, 7th International Conference on

Asphalt Pavements, 1992.

16. Perdomo, Dario and Nokes, Bill, “Theoretical Analysis

of the Effects of Wide-base tyres on exible pavements

under CIRCLY”, Transportation Research Record 1388,

Transportation Research Board, National Research

Council, Washington D.C., pp 108 – 119, 1993.

17. Houben, L.J.M., Visser, A.F.H.M., and Dommelen, A.E.

Van, “Summary of LINTRACK research into rutting

of Asphalt Concrete Test Pavement 1998/1999”, Joint

research program of Delft University if Technology

and Ministry of Transport, Pubic Works and Water

management, September 1999.

18. Houben, L.J.M., Visser, A.F.H.M., and Dommelen, A.E.

Van, “Summary of LINTRACK research into rutting

of Asphalt Concrete Test Pavement 1999/2000”, Joint

research program of delft University if Technology

and Ministry of Transport, Pubic Works and Water

management, November 1999.

19. Yeo, Richard E.Y. et. al., “The performance of in-situ

stabilized marginal sandstone pavements”, Proceedings,

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Testing, Reno, Nevada, October 18 – 20, 1999.

20. Hugo, F., “Accelerated Pavement Testing Overview

– Comfort, Concerns, Constraints and Challenges”,

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Pavement Testing, Minneapolis, Minnesota, September

26 – 29, 2004.

21. Corte, Jean Francois, Brosseaud, Yves, Simoncelli, Jean

Pierre, and Caroff, Gilbert, “Investigation of Rutting of

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1436, Transportation Research Board, National Research

Council, Washington D.C., pp 28 – 37, 1994.

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211-217, June 28 – july 2, 1992.

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LABORATORY PERFORMANCE EVALUATION OF

A READY-TO-USE PATCH MIX

ABHISHEK MITTAL*, DR . P.K. JAIN** AND AMIT K UMAR ***

* Scientist

** Chief Scientist and Head

*** Technical Assistant

ABSTRACT

Potholes have always been a problem for highway maintenance

organizations because their repair is costly, time-consuming and

do not last long. Potholes always compromise road safety. For

this reason, the agency must repair potholes as soon as it becomes

aware of them. Patching is the common method used to repair

potholes. It is well known that the major cost of patching lies

in preparing and placing the patch rather than the cost of the

patching materials. Therefore, it is desirable that the process of

patching should be simple and use good quality cold mix materials

to make patches last long. For this reason, the repair of heavily

trafcked roads and highway pavements can be done effectivelyand efciently using the ready-to-use patching mixes. The present

paper describes the laboratory testing done on one such ready-mix.

The laboratory testing indicates that the various properties of the

ready-mix such as stability, bond strength, moisture susceptibility

and retained stability have been found satisfactory and meeting

the requirements as per the available specications, suggesting

that the material may be used for repair of potholes and utility

cuts.

1 INTRODUCTION

Roads are the permanent assets built at huge capital

investment for the safe and efcient movement of

goods and passenger trafc. However, the intended

purpose of the roads would not be fullled if it is not

maintained properly. Poor road conditions not only

invite public criticism but also cause huge loss to the

nation in terms of excessive usage of fuel and time.

Unfortunately, every time a vehicle has to slow down

or stop and then accelerate again, due to poor road

conditions, lead to wastage of expensive fuel. Add to

this the wear and tear of every vehicle due to such

poor road conditions and the losses suddenly become

mind-boggling. Therefore, the timely and routine

maintenance of roads by the respective agencies

becomes essential. Funding for rehabilitation and

overlay of these pavements is not likely to keep up

with the demand, requiring more agencies to use the

most cost-effective methods when patching distressed

areas. These patches will also be expected to survive

longer and carry more trafc.

To the road user, pot holes are one of the most

visible and annoying forms of bituminous pavement

deterioration. Potholes have always been a problem for

highway maintenance enormous proportions during

cold, wet periods of the year, when pothole repair is

made more difcult because of adverse weather and

the large number of potholes that seem to appear at

one time.

It is well known that the major cost of patching lies in

preparing and placing the patch rather than the cost of

the patching materials. Therefore, it is desirable that

the process of patching should be simple and use good

quality cold mix materials to make patches last long.

The cold mixes are composed of liquid bitumi

indian highways vol.41 8 aug 13

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