index [link.springer.com]978-1-4419-0736-3/1.pdf454 index arcotextm, 45, 47 armor, 38, 214,...
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Index
A
Note: The letters ‘ f ’ and ‘t’ following locators denote figures and tables respectively.
AC, see Alternating current (AC)Acid-leached E- and A-glass fabrics, 21–22Acid leaching, 15, 19, 22, 45t, 48, 58Acid-resistant glass fibers, 46t, 48Aerospace–rotors
application, 218critical fitness for use properties, 218–219market trends and future needs, 219
A-glass, 21–22, 24, 45–46, 48, 92, 117–121,199t, 201t, 269, 289, 336–337
A-glass-reinforced composites, 119A-glass variants, 120AGY Holding Corporation, 440Alkali-resistant glass fibers, 45–48
examplesArcoteXTM, 45CemFilTM, 45
reinforcement of cement composites, use,46–47
Alternating current (AC), 180, 433Alumina, Al2O3, 310–313Alumina–borosilicate glass, see E-glass fibersAluminate glass fibers, 11, 13, 45, 60–77Aluminate glass fibers from fragile melts,
60–66downdrawn from supercooled melts
single/bicomponent fluoride fibers, 61single/double crucible process, 60–61
updrawn from supercooled melts, 63faluminate glass fibers, 62hybrid fiber-forming processes, 65–66quaternary calcium aluminate fibers,
64–65tellurite glass fibers, 62
Aluminate glass fibers from inviscid melts,66–77
fiber formation from inviscid jets, 68CLH process, 68
IMS process, 68RJS process, 68
jet formation from inviscid melts, 66–68straight fiber and frozen Rayleigh
waves, 67fAluminosilicate glass fibers, 14t, 99–115, 198,
320, 328Amber chromophore, 288, 326, 424–427
concentration/oxygen partial pressure atdifferent temperatures, 426f
formation and stability of, 427temperature dependence of inten-
sity/absorption coefficient, 426fAmber glass, 231, 246–247, 249, 288, 310,
326, 425–427Amber glass melting, 425–427
amber coloring of glass melts, cause, 425final glass product, dependent factors, 425redox influence in, 426–427See also Amber chromophore
Amorphous alumina vs. single-crystal sapphirefibers, 82–83
Amorphous resinsPC, 166PPO, 166PSU/PESU, 166
Amorphous YAG vs. single-crystal YAGfibers, 83
Annealing point, 23, 201t, 206, 279–280Antistatic agents, 130Aramids, 31, 38, 40, 126, 167, 176, 194, 205,
211–215, 217aromatic polyamide, derived from, 212drawbacks, 213families of
meta-aramid (m-aramid), 212para-aramid (p-aramid), 212
polypara-phenylene terephthalamide,chemical name, 212
F.T. Wallenberger, P.A. Bingham (eds.), Fiberglass and Glass Technology,DOI 10.1007/978-1-4419-0736-3, C© Springer Science+Business Media, LLC 2010
453
454 Index
ArcoteXTM, 45, 47Armor, 38, 214, 216–218ASTM E-glass standard
general reinforcement applications, 93PCB applications, 93
B2O3 and fluorine fluxes, use in, 99in US, role, 93
Atmospheric emissions, limits, 271–272Automotive–belts, hoses, and mufflers
application, 220Chevrolet Corvette body, 220critical fitness for use properties, 220–221market trends/future needs, 221
BBabcock’s model, see Liquidus modelsBackscattered electron images (BEI), 58–59Ballistics, 36, 38, 208, 216–217Baria, BaO, 323Basalt glass, 35, 37, 45–48, 206–210, 233Basalt Fiber & Composite Materials
Technology Development(BFCMTD), 210
BAT, see Best available technologies (BAT)Batch-free times, 308Batch materials, consolidation of, 300–302Batch melting, stages/levels of
level of meso-kinetics, 404level of micro-kinetics, 404local thermochemical reactions, 404overall mass/heat/power/entropy balance of
furnace, 404unified classification
closed-pore stage; reaction foam stage,405
open-pore stage; warming-up stage, 405volume void filling, 405
Batch-related fluctuations in glass melting,415–416
microwave and neutron absorptiontechniques, detection by, 416
Batch-to melt conversion, 386, 400, 404–409BEI, see Backscattered electron images (BEI)Beryllia (BeO), 39, 40, 203, 204Best available technologies (BAT), 271,
274–275, 277–278, 344BFCMTD, see Basalt Fiber & Composite
Materials Technology Development(BFCMTD)
BFS, see Blast furnace slag (BFS)Bicomponent silicate glass fibers
hollow porous sheath/core, 58hollow sheath/core
aircraft design and construction, usein, 57
S-glass fibers vs. E-glass fibers, 57sheath/core and side-by-side, 56solid side-by-side, 58–59
BEI of bicomponent glass fiber, 59fSEI profiles of calcium and magnesium,
59fBingham, P.A., 232, 295, 307, 309, 316,
337, 339Birefringence, 14Blast furnace slag (BFS), 234, 236, 298,
308–309, 318–319, 333BMC, see Bulk Molding Compounds (BMC)Bone bioactive glass fibers, 53Boric oxide, B2O3, 316–318Boron carriers, role in glass melts, 397–399Boron- and fluorine-free E-glass fibers, 29–30Borosilicate glass, 6, 12–16, 21, 23, 25–26,
28–33, 45t, 48–49, 57–58, 60,92–93, 95, 99, 109, 111–113, 120,127, 185, 188, 190, 201, 250, 253,255–256, 262, 276–277, 294, 297,318, 374f
Borosilicate E-glass fibersboron- and fluorine-free E-glass fibers, 30commercial, 29–30with energy-friendly compositions, design
criteria, 31See also Energy-friendly glass fibers,
design ofindustrial specifications, 29
ASTM E-glass specification, 29tBritish Department of Trade and Industry, 438British Glass Institute
project, objective of, 438results of study, 439
BS standards, UK, 93Bulk molding compounds (BMC), 139t,
141–142, 148–149, 156tbatch/continuous process, 148
Buried passives technology, 193“Bushing,” 6, 9–12, 15, 23–28, 41–42, 48–49,
54, 57–58, 66, 68, 82, 95, 98, 100,103, 117, 128–129, 203, 205, 439
CCahn’s mechanism, 359
creation of intrinsic defects, 359Calcia, CaO, 307–309Calcium aluminate glass fiber, quaternary, 62,
64–65, 73potential applications, 65
Index 455
spectral transmission of, 65fstructural and optical fiber properties, 64updrawn from fragile melts, 64t
Carbon fibers, 17, 36–38, 40, 43, 53, 65, 83,169, 210, 212–213
characteristics/properties, 212PAN-based carbon fibers, 212pitch-based fibers, 212process of manufacture, 212
The cell model, 386CemFilTM, 45–47Centrifugal molding, 142, 144–145C-glass variant, 120Chalcogenide glass fibers, 66Chemical durability of glass
definition, 297modeling of SLS glass, 298SiO2 substitution on hydrolytic durability
of SLS glass, effects of, 298fChemical durability, soda-lime-silica glasses,
231, 297–299, 308, 313–314Chinese C- (or CC-) glass, 24, 26t, 34, 46t, 48,
60, 117–118, 120–121Chlorides and fluorides, 322–323Chopped strand mat (CSM), 34, 138–139, 143,
145, 150t, 169Chopped strands, 33, 139–140, 148, 158, 198
DMC reinforcement, use in, 140Classical Newtonian dynamics, 366CLH process, see Containerless laser-heated
(CLH) fiber-forming processClosed-pore stage, 405Coefficient of thermal expansion (CTE), 16,
127t, 182–183, 193–194, 257, 324Colored glasses, 261, 288–289Combustion-related fluctuations, glass melting
flue gas composition, importance, 416gas solubilities/their partial pressures,
correlation, 416Commercial borosilicate E-glass fibers, 29Commercial E-glass products and applications,
33–34Commercial/experimental glass fibers
aluminate glass fibersfrom fragile melts, see Aluminate glass
fibers from fragile meltsfrom inviscid melts, see Aluminate
glass fibers from inviscid meltsglass fiber formation, principles of
fiber-forming processes, generic, 9–10fibers from fragile/inviscid melts, 4t, 11fibers from strong melts/solutions,
10–11
glass melt formation, principles offragile viscous melts, behavior of, 8–9glass melt properties, 4–8inviscid glass melts, behavior of, 9strong viscous melts, behavior of, 8
silica fibers, sliver and fabricspure, see Silica, sliver and fabrics, puretensile strength of high/ultrahigh-
temperature glass, 22tultrapure, see Silica fibers, ultrapure
silicate glass fibersgeneral-purpose, see Silicate glass
fibers, general-purposenon-round, bicomponent and hollow
silicate fibers, 54–59special-purpose, see Silicate glass
fibers, special-purposefrom strong viscous melts, see Silicate
glass fibers from strong viscousmelts
single-crystal alumina fibersalumina and aluminate fibers, future of,
82–83from inviscid melts, 77–82
structure of melts and fibersfiber structure vs. modulus, 12–14fiber structure vs. strength, 14–15from glass melts to fibers, 11–12melt structure vs. liquidus, 12
Composite design and engineeringcomposite mechanical properties
bidirectional (orthotropic)reinforcement, 133–134
levels of study, 131short fibers, 134–137test methods, 137–138unidirectional continuous fibers,
131–132composites for wind turbines
blade design methodologies, 170–172blade-manufacturing techniques,
169–170raw materials, 169
continuous fibers for reinforcement,125–126
E-glass fibers, 127fiberglass manufacturing, 128–129fiberglass size, 129–130products
chopped strands, 140fabrics woven from rovings, 141glass mats, 138–140glass yarn, 141
456 Index
Composite design and engineering (cont.)milled fibers, 140non-woven fabrics, 141rovings, 140
reinforced thermoplastic materials, seeReinforced thermoplastic materials
thermoset composite materialapplications, 142ffabrication process, parameters, 142fillers, 154–155liquid resin processing techniques, see
Techniques, liquid resin processingrelease agents, 155–156thermosetting matrix resins, see Resins,
thermosettingComposites, 17, 22, 31, 34, 37–38, 40, 43–44,
47–49, 51, 54–55, 66, 78, 82, 114,117, 119, 125–126, 129–131, 133,138–142, 146, 152–154, 156, 164,168, 177
Composites for wind turbinesblade design methodologies, 170–172
ASTM D3479/D3039, test standardused, 171
blade design, example of, 170ffatigue mechanism, 171fatigue test data on epoxy matrix/glass
fabric specimen, 172flog–log model, 171S–N regression parameter estimates,
172tblade-manufacturing techniques,
169–170blade components, design, 170RTM, 170VARTM, 170
composite technology, advantages/benefits,168–169
raw materials, 169wind energy park, 168fwind, renewable energy source, 168
Compositional design principles, 91–99Compositional reformulation for reduced
energy use and cost, 92, 98–99,105–107, 112, 117, 119
Compounding process/compound, defined,125–126
Compressive strength, 138, 150t, 213–215,217–218
Conductive DC-arc plasma(s), 433Configurational entropy Sc(T), 394Conradt, R., 385
Container glass, 48, 117, 119, 230–232,234–237, 245–251, 254, 258,261–262, 273, 277, 280, 282–284,288–289, 291, 295, 297–298,303–304, 307, 309, 311, 315–316,318–319, 321, 325, 327–328, 334t,337, 342–343, 413, 415, 419, 423
green container glass, development of, 248fwhite container glass, development of, 247f
Containerless laser-heated (CLH) fiber-formingprocess
mullite composition glass fibers, 70process concept, 68–69YAG glasses and glass fibers, 69–70
Continuous filament-forming process, 128fContinuous glass fibers, 9, 56, 66, 144–145,
160, 202, 215, 439Continuous laminating
continuous liquid resin processingtechnique, 145–146
non-continuous liquid resin processingtechniques, 145t
Continuous updrawing process, 63fCorrosion, refractory
corrosion rate as function of Arrheniusfunction, 293
corrosion tests, importance, 293downward drilling, 293by molten glass, key factors, 293ZrO2/zircon refractories, 294t
corrosion loss as function oftemperature and glass composition,295f
Noyes–Nernst equation, 294Coupling agents, 130, 155Cracking, 47, 134–136, 171Crimp effect, 141Crystalline reference system (c.r.s.), 386,
389t, 408Crystal, 7, 11, 13–14, 65–66, 68, 70, 77–83,
98, 119, 229, 230, 233, 235, 237,242, 251, 259–261, 281–286, 313,317, 320, 323, 367f, 368, 370, 377,388, 448
Crystallization/devitrification, 7, 12EDG process, 14
CSM, see Chopped strand mat (CSM)CTE, see Coefficient of thermal expansion
(CTE)Cullet, 302–304
effect, 236–237foreign cullet, 236in-house cullet, 236, 256
Index 457
optimization, tool for minimizingSEC, 332
recycling, ecological advantages,236, 415
Curing agents, categoriescatalytic, 150coreactive, 150
DDavy process, 62, 64DC, see Direct current (DC)De-bonding, 135, 136Debye model, 373Debye temperature, 361, 365, 370, 373Defense–hard composite armor
application, 216–217critical fitness for use properties, 217iron triangle for armor systems, 217fmarket trends and needs, 218
Deformation ratio, 55Delta temperature, 4, 8–9, 12, 24, 30t, 36,
49, 68, 98, 100–109, 111–114,116–117, 119–121
Density, 231, 299Design of energy-friendly glass fibers, 91
environmental regulations and emissioncontrol, 92
industry standards and specifications,92–93
ASTM E-glass standard D-570–00, 93tDesign requirements, soda-lime-silica glass,
268–269Devitrification, 7, 12, 23, 61, 233, 265,
281–286, 309, 327–328, 339, 341,433, 439
D-glass, 49–50, 60, 92, 186t, 188–191,199–201
compositional improvements,challenges/problems
boron volatility, 188glass melting, 188hollow filaments, 189homogenization, 188limited manufacturing options, 189PCB-related difficulties, 189poorer forming behavior, 189
limitations, 190–191Dielectric constant (Dk), 3, 16–17, 33–34,
49–53, 57, 112, 179–180, 186–189,369, 445
performance of PCB, vital factor, 180Dielectric dissipation factor, 181Dielectric loss (Df), 49, 180–181, 190
DIN standards, Germany, 93Diode lasers, mid-infrared, 423Direct current (DC), 26–27, 180, 433–434,
441, 450tDMC, see Dough molding compound (DMC)DOE, see US Department of Energy (DOE)DOE research project (2003–2006), 440–450
energy efficiency vs. throughputenergy balance, 449–450energy efficiency, 448
glasses melting, results/implications, 444trials, 444
plasma glass melting, technical challengesof, 442–443
plasmelt melting system, experimentalsetup of, 440–441
energy efficiency, 443melter stability, 443melter throughput, 443purge gas costs, 443torch life and stability, 442–443
synthetic minerals processing implications,447–448
‘cullet’ (quenched glass), 448synthetic minerals processing(batching
with oxides), 448Dolomite, 29, 156t, 235, 239t, 245–246,
251, 262–265, 300, 304, 307–310,334–336, 339–340, 342, 399t,400–408, 432
Double-crucible melts spinning process, 61fDough molding compound (DMC), 139t, 140
pressure molding application, 140Downward drilling, 293Dry spinning process, 9, 11, 15, 18–22
acrylic fibers, fabrication of, 19
EEconomics, 230, 341–343ECR-glass, 24, 26t, 45, 60, 92, 99, 114–116,
120–121ECR-glass variants, energy- and eco friendly,
114–116corrosion-resistant ECR-glass, commercial,
114EDG, see Edge-defined film-fed growth (EFG)
processEdge-defined film-fed growth (EFG) process,
14, 77–79process versatility, 78sapphire fibers, growth of, 78
EFG process, see Edge-defined film-fed growth(EFG) process
458 Index
E-glass fibers, 6–8, 12–14, 16, 19, 20–34,36–38, 43, 45–52, 54, 57–58,60, 64, 72–73, 75–76, 92–93, 95,99–114, 116t, 119, 127, 183–188,190–191, 198, 201–203, 205–206,208–209, 211t, 213, 215, 220,222, 276–277, 294–295, 316, 318,387–388, 391–392, 394–395, 397,406–407, 437, 444–449
AR coating, benefits, 47–48ASTM E-glass standard D-570–00, 93t
general reinforcement applications, 93PCB applications, 93, 127
composition, 185definition, 127products and applications, 33–34properties and fiber structures
electrical bulk properties, 33tmechanical properties, 31physical properties, 32–33, 127t
textile industry, categories, 185See also Borosilicate E-glass fibers
E-glass-reinforced composites, 119E-glass variants with 2–10% B2O3,
energy-friendlyeffect of boron at equal delta temperatures,
113quaternary SiO2-Al2O3-CaO-B2O3 phase
diagram, 111trend line design of, 111–113
Einstein coefficient (kE), 75Eirich Intensive Mixer, 444Elastic modulus (E), 70, 178, 181–182, 186,
203, 206, 208, 213–214, 218alumina, effect on, 203–204BeO additions, effect on, 203methods for improving glass fiber modulus,
203tM-glass, high-modulus fiberglass, 204rare earth oxides, effect on, 204specific modulus (E sp), equation, 204
Electrical properties, 289–291Electrochemical oxygen sensors, 419Electronics, 38, 83, 175, 180, 191–192,
194, 445Electrostatic precipitators (EPs), 275, 329Elongation, 31, 35–36, 126–127, 132, 151,
161t, 201t, 201f, 203, 208–209,212–213, 296
Emission control systems, 92Emission spectroscopy, 421–422Energy consumption vs. glass throughput, 449fEnergy efficiency vs. throughput, 448–450
energy balance, 449–450energy efficiency, 448–449
Energy-friendly glass fibers, design ofaluminosilicate glass fibers
ECR-glass variants, see ECR-glassvariants, energy- and eco friendly
E-glass variants with <2% B2O3,99–111
E-glass variants with 2–10% B2O3,
111–113compositional reformulation for reduced
energy use and cost, 92, 98–99,105–107, 112, 117, 119
designing new compositions, principles,91–99
compositional, energy, andenvironmental issues, seeDesign issues of energy-friendlyglass fibers
trend line design, see Fiberglass (new)compositions, trend line design of
design requirementscommercial glass compositions, 269environmental legislation, compliance
with, 268standardization of glass compositions,
criteria, 268environmental issues
atmospheric emission limits, 269, 272tpollution prevention and control,
see Pollution prevention/control,eco-friendly glasses
SEC, 269–271fundamental glass properties
chemical durability, 297–299conductivity and heat transfer, 286–291density and thermo-mechanical
properties, 299devitrification and crystal growth,
281–286interfaces, surfaces, and gases, 291–296viscosity–temperature relationship,
279–281glass reformulation methodologies
benefits and pitfalls, 341–343research requirements, 343–344worked examples and implementation,
330–341SLS glasses, design of
alumina, Al2O3, 309–313baria, BaO, 323batch processing, preheating, and
melting, 300–302
Index 459
boric oxide, B2O3, 316–318calcia, CaO, 307–309chlorides and fluorides, 322–323cullet, 302–304economics of batch selection, 300fenergy-saving technologies, 270lithia, Li2O, 315–316magnesia, MgO, 309multivalent constituents, 324–327nitrates, 329–330potassia, K2O, 313–315recycled filter dust, 329silica, SiO2, 304–305soda, Na2O, 305–307strontia, SrO, 324sulfate, SO3, 318–321water, H2O, 321–322zinc oxide, ZnO, 323–324
soda–lime–silica (S–L–S) glass fibersA- and C-glass compositions, 117–119
Energy losses in plasma melting, 450tEnthalpy function, 357, 359–365, 377Enthalpy of fusion (H fus), 386Enthalpy of vitrification (H vit), 386Entropy and viscosity, glasses/glass melts
Adam–Gibbs plot for reference E-glass,395f
configurational entropy Sc(T), 394Entropy of fusion (Sfus), 386Entropy of vitrification (Svit), 386Epoxy (EP) resins, 144, 146, 148, 150–151,
169, 182, 194characteristics of, 151hardener, impact on cured resin, 151
EP resins, see Epoxy (EP) resinsEPs, see Electrostatic precipitators (EPs)
FFabrics, 15–23, 33–34, 44, 48, 55f, 57, 61, 141,
143–146, 150–153, 169, 170–172,176–177, 181–182, 184, 188,190, 192–193, 210, 217–218, 275,277–278, 329
Fabrics woven from rovings, 141Faraday constant (F), 419Fatigue, 57, 140t, 151, 164, 169, 171–172,
218–220Fiber cross section technology, 54Fiber-forming melts, crystallization rates of, 8fFiber-forming processes
generic, 10fdry spinning, 9, 11melt spinning, 9
Fiber-forming temperature (log 3 FT)in design of new fiberglass compositions,
95–98MgO and TiO2, impact on, 103
Fiber-forming viscosity (FV), 4, 6, 18, 52, 68Fiberglass, 4, 6, 8, 12, 15, 24f, 26–31, 33–34,
44, 48–49, 77, 91, 92, 94–99,120t, 126, 128–130, 133–134,139–141, 151–152, 158–159, 161,163, 167–170, 172t, 175, 176–179,180–186, 188–189, 191–194, 198,204, 207, 209–210, 212–213,215–222, 279, 284, 304, 336, 437,439, 444–445, 450
manufacturingcontinuous filament-forming process,
128fsize, 129–130
functional groupings in, 130fprovides lubrication, 129thermal degradation prevention, by
additives, 130Fiberglass (new) compositions, trend line
design ofcommercial and experimental, 120tcompositions, energy use, and emissions
addition/removal of flux, 99compositional reformulation, 99
glass databases and compositional models,94
melt properties requireddelta temperature, 98fiber-forming and liquidus
temperatures, 95–98melt viscosity/melt temperature,
relationship, 96fternary SiO2-Al2O3-CaO system, phase
diagram of, 97fprinciples/aim, 94–95
Fiberglass yarn, fabric, and laminate boardsprocess steps of manufacture, 176f
Fiberization, 27, 128, 188, 395, 438–439Fiber pullout, 135Fiber-reinforced composites (FRC), 40,
131, 142, 154, 164, 171, 210,218–219, 289
comparison of properties of variety ofhigh-performance fibers, 211t
Fiber rupture, 135ruptured specimen, 136f
Fibers/melts, structure offiber structure vs. modulus, 12–14
effect of alumina on, 13t
460 Index
Fibers/melts, structure of (cont.)fiber structure vs. strength, 14–15
effect of composition on tensilestrength, 14t
spin orientation, effects, 14surface flaws/non-uniformities, effects,
14from glass melts to fibers, 11–12melt structure vs. liquidus, 12
energetic/environmentally friendlyfiberglass, design of, 12
Fiber structurevs. modulus, 12–14vs. strength, 14–15
Fiber weave effect (FWE), 184Fictive temperature (Tf), 202Filament-forming process, continuous, 128fFilament winding, 140, 142, 144, 146Fillers, 140, 147, 154–155, 156t, 183–184
characteristics of, 156tfinal composite, characteristics, 155ideal filler, criteria, 154inorganic/organic, 154magnesium oxide, use in SMC, 155matrix resin/filler, reqirements for bonding,
155organo-functional silanes, used
in, 155Flame visualization, techniques, 423Flammability, 150–153, 166, 178–179,
215, 217Flat glass, 230–231, 236, 242–245, 250,
262, 273, 278, 284, 298, 303,310, 316–319, 321, 325, 327–328,336–337, 413
Flexural modulus, 131, 138, 150tFluoride fibers, single/bicomponent, 61Fluorine and boron-free A-glass, 117Fluorine-free C-glass, 117–119Fluorophosphate glass fibers, 66Flux
definition, 99examples, 99, 114
Fragile viscous meltsbehavior of, 8–9contents, 3
FRC, see Fiber-reinforced composites (FRC)Fulcher curve, 4, 6f
of borosilicate and boron-free E-glassmelts, 6f
Furnace periscope, 423FV, see Fiber-forming viscosity (FV)FWE, see Fiber weave effect (FWE)
GGel coat, curing liquid, 143
purpose of use in molding, 143Glass
composition, importance, 127low CTE component, 183viscosity–temperature relationship, 127
Glass compositional familiesD-glass, compositional improvements,
188–191challenges/problems, 188–189limitations, 190–191
E-glass, improvements, 184–188boron-free E-glass, 186challenges/limitations, 187–188E-glass specification as per ASTM
D-578–00, 185timproving dielectric properties,
186–187The Industry Standard, 185–186textile industry, categories, 185
Glass databases and compositional models, 94Glass (energy-friendly) fibers, design
requirementscommercial glass compositions, 269
SLS glass compositions, 269tenvironmental legislation, compliance
with, 268standardization of glass compositions,
criteria, 268Glass fiber formation, principles of
fiber-forming processes, generic, 9–10fibers from fragile/inviscid melts, 11
single-crystal sapphire/YAG, examples,11
fibers from strong melts/solutions, 10–11silica glass fibers, example, 11
Glass fiberswith bone bioactive oxide compositions,
53–54with high chemical stability, 46t
acid-resistant glass fibers, 48alkali-resistant glass fibers, 45–48chemical resistance of glass fibers,
44–45with high densities/dielectric constants,
50–51with low dielectric constants, 49–50with super- and semiconducting properties,
53with very high dielectric constants, 51–53
Glass fibers, commercial/experimentalaluminate glass fibers
Index 461
glass fibers from fragile melts, 60–66glass fibers from inviscid melts, 66–77
glass fiber formation, principles offiber-forming processes, generic, 9–10fibers from fragile/inviscid melts, 11fibers from strong melts/solutions,
10–11glass melt formation, principles of
fragile viscous melts, behavior of, 8–9glass melt properties, 4–8inviscid glass melts, behavior of, 9strong viscous melts, behavior of, 8
silica fibers, sliver, and fabricspure, 19–23ultrapure, 15–19
silicate glass fibersformation from strong viscous melts,
see Silicate glass fibers from strongviscous melts
general-purpose, see Silicate glassfibers, general-purpose
non-round, bicomponent and hollowsilicate fibers, 54–59
special-purpose, see Silicate glassfibers, special-purpose
single-crystal alumina fibersalumina and aluminate fibers, future of,
82–83from inviscid melts, 77–82
structure of melts and fibersfiber structure vs. modulus, 12–14fiber structure vs. strength, 14–15from glass melts to fibers, 11–12melt structure vs. liquidus, 12
Glass fiber strength, 14t, 198–203Griffith equation for calculation of stress,
200single-fiber tensile strength for differnt
glass fiber compositions, 201fspecific strength (σsp), equation for, 202theoretical strength, Orowan’s expression,
199types, 202
Glass (industrial) making, principles ofcullet effect, 236–237demands on the glass melt, 228–231
chemical resistivity, higher, 229color demands, 228iron content, impact on color of glass,
228legislative requirements, 229production cost, low, 228workability, 229
economics, 228melting costs, 228raw material costs, 228
glass refining, 237–240meltability, parameters
calculation of glass properties, factorsfor, 231t
calculation of viscosity factors for, 233tdecreased melting temperature, uses,
232furnace design and charging system,
232glass composition, 232particle size of raw materials, 232raw material selection, 232
raw materials, choice of, 235–236workability, 233–235
definition, 233Glass mats, 138–140Glass mat thermoplastic (GMT), 157,
159–160Glass melt formation, principles of
fragile viscous melts, behavior of, 8–9glass melt properties, 4–8inviscid glass melts, behavior of, 9strong viscous melts, behavior of, 8
Glass melting and fiber formation, 3–15See also Glass fibers,
commercial/experimentalGlass melting technology
enthalpy functions of one-componentsystems, analysis of
pre-melting range/molar specific heatcapacity, 361–365
theoretical preliminaries, 359–361expansion of solids and melts, cause,
369–375dilatometer curve of a borosilicate
glass, 374fLennard–Jones potential energy of an
atom with another atom, 370flowering temperature, effects, 371thermal volume expansion, expression,
373glass formation, criteria for, 375–380glass melt/glass product, properties of,
414–417batch-related fluctuations, see
Batch-related fluctuations in glassmelting
combustion-related fluctuations, seeCombustion-related fluctuations,glass melting
462 Index
Glass melting technology (cont.)constant chemical composition, criteria
to achieve, 414oxidation state, impact on, 415tparameters, 414process-related fluctuations, 416–417related quantities, 414
glass transformation range, effects incrystallization, slow down of, 368electron system decoupling, 369ESR/NMR signals, modification, 368relaxation effects, parameters, 369
mathematical modeling/control ofproperties, role in, 413–414
melting and glass transformation, 365–368electronic transitions, effect on,
366–367nucleation and crystal growth, 368scheme, 367f
melting criteriacreation of intrinsic defects, Cahn’s
mechanism, 359Lindemann’s criterion, 356–357melting temperatures, predictions, 357one-component system, example, 366f
modulus of compression of chemicalelements, 375–376
monitoring properties using in situ sensors,418
emission spectroscopy, 421–422LIBS, 422redox measurement, 418–419viscosity, 418voltammetric sensor, see Voltammetric
sensormonitoring species in combustion space
using in situ sensorscombustion efficiency optimization,
423environmental measurements, 422–423
motivation, 355–356Kauzmann paradox, 356“the mysterious glass transition,”
Langer, 356multi-component systems, extension to,
381quality optimization, constraints
ecological, 414economic, 414energetic, 414
stability control, examplesamber glass melting, redox control of,
see Amber glass melting
melting with high portions of recycledglass, 423–424
trials, 444–447Glass melting, thermodynamics of
batch-to-melt conversionbatch melting, stages of, 404–405heat demand of, 405–407phase stability diagram for simplified
E-glass composition, 408freaction path, modeling of,
405–407, 409tglasses/glass melts
chemical potentials/vapor pressures ofindividual oxides, 391–393
entropy and viscosity, 394heat content of glass melts, 388–390industrial glass-forming systems,
thermodynamic properties, seeThermodynamic properties,industrial glass-forming systems
individual raw materials, role ofboron carriers, 397–399dolomite and limestone, 400–403sand, 396–397
Glass-melting viscosity, 232Glass melt properties, 4–8, 413, 417–422Glass melt stability, 413–427Glass properties, fundamental
chemical durability, 297–299conductivity and heat transfer, 286–291
electrical properties, 289–291specific heat capacity, 286thermal conductivity/optical properties,
287–289density and thermo-mechanical properties,
299devitrification and crystal growth,
281–286liquidus models, 284–286methods of avoiding devitrification,
282–284ternary SiO2−CaO–Na2O system, phase
diagram for, 283finterfaces, surfaces, and gases, 291–296
chemical durability, 297–299density and thermo-mechanical
properties, 299refining, 291–292refractory corrosion, 293–296surface energy, 296See also Refining
viscosity–temperature relationship, 280fmethods of measuring, 279
Index 463
viscosity models, 281viscosity set points for SLS glass, 279t
Glass refining, 237–240Glass reformulation methodologies, 330–344
benefits and pitfalls, 341–343examples and implementation
batch constrained reformulation,333–335, 338t
component/parameter checklist for SLSglass, 331t
compositionally constrainedreformulation, 331–332, 334t
other industrial trials andimplementation, 339–341
unconstrained reformulation, 337–339physical properties/parameters as a
function of reformulation, 333tprinciples, 332research requirements, 343–344
Glass reinforced plastics (GRP), 143Glass softening point, 206Glass transition temperature (Tg), 4, 16, 23, 34,
101–102, 165–167, 368, 374, 382,386, 407–408
Glass volatilization, 188, 254, 276–278, 281,289, 292–293, 301, 318, 326, 329,415t, 435, 447
Glass yarn, 48, 141, 176, 181, 184, 186,189, 220
Global warming, 273, 343GMT, see Glass mat thermoplastic (GMT)Gonterman, R.J, 431–451Green glass melting, 424Griffith equation, 200
HHand Lay-Up (HLU), 143
GRP production, use in, 143Hausrath, R.L., 197–222HDI, see High density interconnects (HDI)HDT, see Heat deflection temperature (HDT)Heat content of glass melts, 388–390Heat deflection temperature (HDT), 166Heat of formation of glass, 385, 406Heat demand of melting, 405–407Heat transfer (HT), 434–435, 437High density interconnects (HDI), 192, 193High-intensity DC-arc plasmas, technology of
conductivedirect contact of particles of matter, 434
Joule heatingJoule’s first law, 436ohmic heating, 436
Ohm’s law, 436SI unit of energy (J), 436unit of power (Watt), 436
radiantin glass melting, 437
High-modulus–high-temperature glass fibers,39–40, 39t
High-modulus (HM) glass fibers, 13, 35,38–39, 204
Heat-resistant polymers, 166–167High-strength–high-temperature glass fibers
process and products, 34–38properties and applications, 38
High-strength (HS) glass fibers, 34–36,197–222
characteristicscompositional ranges (wt%), 198telastic modulus, 203–205strength, see Glass fiber strengththermal stability, 205–206
competitive material landscapecarbon fibers, 212polymer fibers, 212–214
continuous glass fibers, advantagescompressive strength, 215flammability or oxidation resistance,
215low cost, 215strength and modulus, 215thermal stability, 215
glass compositional familiesHiPer-texTM, 209K-glass, 209properties, 201tR-glass, 208S-glass, 197, 206–208S-1 GlassTM, 209
markets and applicationsaerospace – rotors and interiors,
218–219automotive – belts, hoses, and mufflers,
220–221defense – hard composite armor,
216–218high-strength fiber market, overview,
216findustrial reinforcements – pressure
vessels, 221–222US Patent 3,402,055 by Owens Corning,
198“High-temperature” polymers, definition, 166
properties of, effect of fiberglassreinforcement on, 167t
464 Index
HiPer-texTM, 209, 222HLU, see Hand Lay-Up (HLU)Hoffmann, H.J, 355–381Hollow filament, 181, 186, 189HS4 glass, 207–208HT, see Heat transfer (HT)Hybrid fabric constructions, 184Hybrid fiber-forming processes, 65–66
IIdeal mixing of complex components, model
of, 386ILSS, see Interlaminar shear strength (ILSS)Impact strength, 138, 160, 162IMS process, see Inviscid melt spinning (IMS)
processIndustrial glasses
compositions, examplescontainer glass batch charge, examples
of, 262–265perspectives, 261
compositions ofcolored glasses, 260container glass, 244–249flat glass, 242–243history, 240–241lead crystal, 258–260lead-free utility glass, 250–252production costs, vital factor, 227technical glass, 252–258viscosity, effect on, 232
industrial glass making, principles ofcullet effect, 236–237demands on the glass melt, 228–231economics, 228glass refining, 237–240meltability, 231–233raw materials, choice of, 235–236workability, 233–235See also Glass (industrial) making,
principles ofIndustrial reinforcements – pressure vessels
application, 221–222critical fitness for use properties, 222market trends and future needs, 222
Industry E-glass specifications, 29, 185–186Inhibitors (or retarders), 149Injection molding technology, 157In situ sensors
for glass melting, 418ffor monitoring glass melt properties,
418–422advantage of, 419
for monitoring species in the combustionspace, 422–423
principles applied in sensors, measuring,417t
Institute for Printed Circuits (IPC), 192Interconnect Technology Research Institute
(ITRI), 191Interlaminar shear strength (ILSS), 138–139
short span flexural test, 138International Organization for Standardization
(ISO), 137–140, 297dynamic testing of fiberglass-reinforced
composites, standards for, 140tmechanical testing of fiberglass-reinforced
composites, standards for, 139tInternational Technology Roadmap for
Semiconductors (ITRS), 191Inviscid glass melts
behavior of, 9contents, 4
Inviscid melt spinning (IMS) process, 68,70–76
mechanism of jet solidification, 73–76inviscid calcium aluminate jets,
chemical stabilization/properties of,75–76
metal fibers formation in a reactiveenvironment, 70–72
oxide glass fiber formation in a reactiveenvironment, 72–73
IPC, see Institute for Printed Circuits (IPC)ISO, see International Organization for
Standardization (ISO)ITRI, see Interconnect Technology Research
Institute (ITRI)ITRS, see International Technology Roadmap
for Semiconductors (ITRS)
JJapanese consortium project
degree of vitrification, 440melting devices
an RF plasma apparatus, 440oxygen burner apparatus, 44012-phase AC arc, 440
Johns-manville, 437–438, 440Joule heating, 190, 434, 436–437
Joule’s first law, 436Ohm’s law, 436SI unit of energy (J), 436unit of power (Watt), 436
Joule, James Prescott, 436Joule’s first law, 436
Index 465
KKauzmann paradox, 356Kevlar, 34, 212–213
para-aramid, 212K-glass, 207t, 209“Knee,” 134“Knuckles,” 141, 184Krieger–Dougherty equation, 409
LLakatos models, 281Laminate, 32, 33, 57, 132–134f, 139f, 143,
150–152, 169, 171, 176–178,180–185, 189, 193–194
Laser absorption spectroscopy, 423Laser-heated float zone (LHFZ) method, 53,
77–82Laser-heated pedestal growth (LHPG) process,
70, 77–82high Tc superconducting fibers, 81–82single-crystal fibers, growth of, 79–81
Laser-induced breakdown spectroscopy(LIBS), 422
Lawton, E.L., 125–172LCP, see Liquid Crystal Polymer (LCP)Lead crystal, 258–260Lead-free utility glass, 250–252Lead glass, 51–52, 55, 232, 257, 259–260Lewis acids/bases, 150LFT, see Long Fiber Thermoplastic (LFT)L-glass, 186t, 189, 193LHFZ method, see Laser-heated float zone
(LHFZ) methodLHPG process, see Laser-heated pedestal
growth (LHPG) processLIBS, see Laser-induced breakdown
spectroscopy (LIBS)Limestone, 235, 239t, 245–246, 251, 253–254,
263–265, 300–301, 304, 307–308,334–336, 340–342, 400–404,406–408, 432, 444, 448
Lindemann, 357Lindemann’s criterion for glass melting, 357Liquid crystal polymer (LCP), 167
lyotropic/thermotropic, 167Liquid resin processing techniques, 142–148Liquidus models, 284–286, 338Liquidus temperature (LT)
crystal formation at, 6in design of new fiberglass compositions,
96soda-lime-silica glass, 231, 281, 286, 307,
309, 313, 317–318
Lithia, Li2O, 315–316Lithium ion batteries, 99Littleton softening point, 264, 279“Loewenstein, private communication (1997)”,
117Log (viscosity), see Glass-melting viscosityLong Fiber Thermoplastic (LFT), 157,
159–160, 216fdirect (D-LFT), 160granulated (G-LFT), 160
Longobardo, A.V., 175–194Low weight-reinforced thermoplastic (LWRT)
mats, 160Lyotropic/thermotropic LCPs, 167
MMagnesia, MgO, 309–310Mass spectrometry, 73, 423Matrix failure, 135Mechanical properties, composites
bidirectional (orthotropic) reinforcement,133–134
levels of study, 131short fibers, 134–137test methods
compressive strength, 138flexural strength and modulus, 138impact strength, 138shear strength, 138tensile strength and modulus, 137–138
unidirectional continuous fibers, 131–132Meltability, 232–233Melting temperature (Tm)
mathematical definition, 357properties, 357
Melt spinning process, 11, 15, 34, 66,70–71, 76
Melt temperature and linear viscosity,relationship, 7f
Microwave circuitrydielectric dissipation factor of PCB, criteria
for design of, 181Microwave/ neutron absorption techniques,
416Milled fibers, 33, 140Mod ratio, 54–55
nylon ribbons/fibers, effect on, 55Modular/skull melting, 431–433
glass melting, 431skull melting, 431–432
disadvantage, 432Modulus of elasticity (E), 126, 131, 198Molybdenum, 41, 205, 437, 439, 441, 447
466 Index
Muller-Simon, H., 292, 413–427Mullite composition glass fibers, 70Multi-axial fabrics, 141Multi-component systems, 381, 386
NNatural gas (NG), 26, 38, 221, 275, 416NBO, see Non-bridging oxygens (NBO)NEDO, see New Energy and Industry
Technology DevelopmentOrganization (NEDO)
NE-glass, 186t, 189–191, 193Nernstian equation, 419Network forming (NWF) oxides, 305Network modifier (NWM) cations, 305New Energy and Industry Technology
Development Organization(NEDO), 439
Newtonian fluid, 75, 128, 281Nomex R©, 212
meta-aramid, 212Non-bridging oxygens (NBO), 305, 307Non-round, bicomponent and hollow silicate
fibersbicomponent silicate glass fibers
hollow porous sheath/core, 58hollow sheath/core, 56–57sheath/core and side-by-side, 56solid side-by-side, 58–59
fabrication of, 55fglass fibers with non-round cross sections
processes and structures, 54–55products and applications, 55–56
Non-transferred-arc plasmas, 434fNon-woven fabrics, 141
bidirectional, 141crimp effect, 141multi-axial, 141unidirectional, 141
Noyes–Nernst equation, 294Nucleation and crystal growth, 368, 379
OOffline flue gas analysis, 422Offline/online flue gas analysis, 422Ohmic heating, see Joule heatingOhm’s law, 436Olefin copolymers, cyclic, 184One component systems, 356, 358–365, 369,
375, 378–382Online flue gas analysis, 422
mass spectrometry used in, 423Open-pore stage, 405“Oxidation state,” 414
Oxide (individual), reactivity ofevaporation reactions from glass melts,
392tfactors, 391Gibbs energies G in kJ/mol of oxides in
equilibrium, 392tmolar mass factors for calculation of
equilibrium constants, 393tOxides of nitrogen (NOx ), 273–275Oxides of sulphur, SOx, 275–276Oxygen and concentration sensor, combined,
417–418, 420fuse in industrial glass melts, 419
Oxygen partial pressure, 414–419, 423–427Nernstian equation, emf calculation by, 419
Oxynitride glasses, 41, 43–45, 203t, 205
PPA, see Polyamide (PA)Particulates, 276–278PBT, see Poly(butylene terephthalate) (PBT)PC, see Polycarbonate (PC)PCB, see Printed circuit boards (PCB)PCB glass fibers, 93, 120PCB, glass fibers for
electrical aspectsdielectric constant, 179–180dielectric loss, 180–181hollow filaments, 181polarization of a dielectric, 180fvelocity equation for a PCB laminate,
180fiberglass’ role in PCB construction,
177–179fiberglass/resin properties used in FR4
laminate board, 178tPCB, design criteria, 177–178
glass compositional familiesD-glass, compositional improvements,
188–191E-glass, improvements, 184–188
PCB market, future needs ofboard and yarn makers, impact on,
192–194electronics manufacturer’s roadmap,
191–192environmental regulations, 194fiberglass use, importance, 194HDI manufacture, design criteria,
192–193lead-free processing, 194operating frequency range as a function
of board layers, 192frequirements and implications, 176–177
Index 467
fiberglass yarn/fabric/laminate boards,process of manufacture, 176f
structural aspectselastic modulus, 182mechanical strength, 182thermal expansion, 182–183upper use temperature, 183–184weave and fabric construction, 184
Permittivity, 179–181PESU, see Polyethersulfone (PESU)PET, see Poly(ethylene terephthalate) (PET)PF resins, see Phenolic (PF) resins3-phase electric melters, typical, 437Phenolic (PF) resins, 152, 217
characteristics of, 152high flammability resistance/low smoke
emission, 152open mold applications, 152
Phonon system, 369Plasma melter, 433, 439, 441, 443–445,
447–448, 451See also Modular/skull melting
Plasma melting technology/applicationsDOE research project (2003–2006),
440–450acknowledgments, 440energy efficiency vs. throughput,
448–450glasses melted: results/implications,
444–447plasma glass melting, technical
challenges of, 442–443plasmelt melting system, experimental
setup of, 440–442synthetic minerals processing
implications, 447–448high-intensity DC-Arc plasmas, technology
of, 433–437conductive, 434–435Joule heating, 436–437radiant, 435–436
history ofBritish glass institute, 438Japanese consortium project, 439Johns-manville, 437Plasmelt glass technologies, LLC,
438–439industrial applications, best-fit, 450modular/skull melting, concepts of,
431–433plasma-melted glasses, chemical analyses
of, 446tPlasma melt process, experimental, 26–27
application, 27skull-melting concept, benefits, 27vs. conventional glass furnace technology,
26Plasmelt coupled transferred-arc melter, 441fPlasmelt Glass Technologies, 27
add-on refiner stage, 439United States Department of Energy
(DOE), 438Plasmelt-melted E-glasses vs. standard E-glass,
chemistry of, 444tPlasmelt plasma melting system, 441
anode torch, 441molybdenum orifice, 441torch position, 441
Poisson’s ratio, 127t, 182, 375Pollution prevention/control, eco-friendly
glassescarbon dioxide
sources of emission, 273furnace design, 271–272
furnace designs, BAT, 272toxides of nitrogen (NOx))
generation as a function of furnacetemperature, 274f
generation mechanisms, 273–274global warming, cause, 273NOx control, primary/secondary
techniques, 274–275oxides of sulfur (SOx )
sources of emissions, 275SOx control/reduction, techniques, 275
volatilization and particulatesdust emissions from glass furnaces,
comparison of, 276tfurnace pull rate/temperature on
particulate emissions, effects of, 278glass composition/temperature/
pressure, effects on, 276particulate formation/emission control,
BAT, 277particulates, sources, 277volatilized mass loss as a function of
temperature, 277tPolyacetal (POM), 165Polyamide (PA), 140, 157, 159–161, 164,
166–167, 212Polybenzobisoxazole (PBO) fiber, 211t, 214
high-performance fiber, 214zylon, example, 214
Poly(butylene terephthalate) (PBT),160–161, 164
Polycaprolactam (PA 6 or Nylon 6), 161, 164
468 Index
Polycarbonate (PC), 161, 166Polycondensation reaction of ultrapure silica
fibers, 18Polycrystalline fibers
fiber FP, 13nextel 440, 13nextel 480, 13safimax, 13
Polyester resin, 141, 143, 146–151, 154, 169characteristics of, 150tproperties of polyester laminates, 150t
Polyethersulfone (PESU), 166Poly(ethylene terephthalate) (PET), 145,
155, 164Poly(hexamethylene adipamide) (PA 66 or
Nylon 66), 161, 164Polymer fibers, 54, 198, 210, 212–215Poly(phenylene oxide) (PPO), 166Polypropylene (PP), 140, 159–162, 164–165Polysulfone (PSU), 53, 166Polyurethanes (PUR), 129, 144, 146, 148,
151, 153applications, 153characteristics of, 153
POM, see Polyacetal (POM)Potassia, K2O, 313–315Power, 436PP, see Polypropylene (PP)PPO, see Poly(phenylene oxide) (PPO)Pre-impregnated fabrics (Prepregs), 146, 152,
170, 177components/function of laminate prepreg,
178fPressure vessels, 38, 144, 208, 216f, 221–222Printed circuit boards (PCB), 29t, 33, 38, 49,
93t, 175–194Printed wiring boards (PWBs), see Printed
circuit boards (PCB)Products, glass fiber
chopped strands, 140fabrics woven from rovings, 141glass mats, 138–140
chopped strand mat, 138–139continuous strand mat, 138
glass yarn, 141milled fibers, 140non-woven fabrics, 141rovings, 140
PSU, see Polysulfone (PSU)Pultrusion, 138, 140, 142, 145–146, 149t, 222PUR, see Polyurethanes (PUR)Pure silica sliver and fabrics
acid-leached E- and A-glass fabrics
process, 21products and properties, 21–22value-in-use and applications, 22
from aqueous silicate solutionsprocess, 20, 20fproducts and properties, 20–21value-in-use and applications, 21
QQuartz fibers, 16, 17, 22, 48Quasi-chemical model, 386Quaternary SiO2-Al2O3-CaO system
eco-/energy-friendly E-glass compositions,110f, 110t
from eutectic to commercial compositions,102–103
first-generation fluorine- and B2O3-freeE-glass, 102t, 104f
fluorine- and boron-free E-glass with <1%Li2O, 106–108
energy-friendly E-glass compositionswith 0.9% Li2O, 108t
Li2O as replacement for Na2O, effects,107f
fluorine- and boron-free E-glass with≤1.5% TiO2, 104–106
design of, 106tfluorine-free E-glass with 1.5% B2O3,
108–109energy-friendly E-glass compositions
with ≤1.3% B2O3, 109tfluorine-free E-glass with ≤1.5% B2O3 and
<1% Li2O, 109phase diagram of, 102–111quaternary eutectic with regard to MgO,
103–104
RRapid jet solidification (RJS) process, 68
amorphous fiberglass ribbons, 77amorphous metal ribbons, 76–77products and applications, 77
Rare earth oxides, 204Raw materials, role in glass melts
boron carriers, 395–397, 399tbinary system CaO–B2O3, phase
diagram of, 398liquidus lines of binary systems, phase
diagrams of, 398fphase relations of Na–Ca–B–O–H
minerals, 400fdolomite and limestone, 400–403
Index 469
CaCO3−CaMg(CO3)2−CaFe(CO3)2
system, one/two/three-phaseequilibria of, 401f
standard heat of formation H f ofdolomite from elements, 401t
two-step decomposition behavior ofdolomite, 402f
sandimpurity levels (wt%) in selected sand
qualities, Europe/Asia, 396tkinetics of sand dissolution,
394–395, 397fRayleigh waves, 66–68, 72, 74REACH, see Registration, evaluation,
and authorization of chemicals(REACH)
“Redox state,” 238, 405, 414–415, 423,425–426, 445
Refiningalternative methods of, 292alternative refining agents, 318–320,
324–326, 329–330behaviour, 237–240, 318–320removal of bubbles, mechanisms, 291Stokes’ law, buoyancy effects by, 291
Refining, alternative methodsalternative refining agents, 292alternative refining gases, 292physical refining methods, 292
Reformulated glass compositions, 98–101,104–118, 262–265, 330–341
Refractory corrosion, 293–296Registration, evaluation, and authorization of
chemicals (REACH), 399Reinforced composites, 40, 44, 114, 119, 125,
131, 133, 140t, 142, 154, 164, 210,213, 219–221
Reinforced plastics, 125, 139–140Reinforced Reaction Injection Molding
(RRIM), 144Reinforced Thermoplastic Compounds (RTP),
158–159fiberglass-reinforced thermoplastic
compounding, extruder for, 158ffilament diameter/fiber length, relativity,
159fReinforced thermoplastic materials
injection molding technology, 157semifinished materials based on
thermoplastics, 158–167amorphous resins, 165–166GMT, 159–160heat-resistant polymers (HT), 166–167
LCP, 167LFT, 159–160mechanical properties, 160–163RTP, 158–159semicrystalline resins, 164–165
Reinforcement, bidirectional (orthotropic),133–134
bidirectional reinforced laminate, 133finduced unidirectional strain in, 134f“knee,” 134
Reinforcing fibers, 31–32, 34, 43, 56, 73, 78,82, 125–126, 131, 142, 144, 148,159, 164
properties, 126Relative machine speed (RMS), 279
of Russian SLS container glass, 280tRelative permittivity, see Dielectric
constant (Dk)Release agents, 155–156Remotely coupled transferred arc, 437,
440–441Renewable energy, source
wind, 168Resins
definition, 126thermosetting
EP resins, 150–151PF resins, 152PUR, 153reinforcement with glass fibers,
property trends for, 154tSI resins, 153–154techniques, initiators/accelerators used
in, 149tUP resins, 148–149VE resins, 151
See also individual resinsResin transfer molding (RTM), 142–144,
149t, 170Resistive heating, see Joule heatingResorcinol formaldehyde latex (RFL), 220Restriction of hazardous substances (RoHS),
194impact on PCB fabrication, 194
RFL, see Resorcinol formaldehyde latex (RFL)R-glass, 35, 37, 38, 198–201, 203, 205–209,
222, 445produced by Vetrotex, 208–209vs. S-glass, 207–208
RJS process, see Rapid jet solidification (RJS)process
RMS, see Relative machine speed (RMS)
470 Index
RoHS, see Restriction of hazardous substances(RoHS)
Rovingsassembled rovings, 140direct draw rovings, 140
3R process, 275See also Oxides of nitrogen (NOx )
RRIM, see Reinforced Reaction InjectionMolding (RRIM)
RTM, see Resin Transfer Molding (RTM)RTP, see Reinforced Thermoplastic
Compounds (RTP)Rule of mixtures, 131–132, 182–183
SSaphikon, 13Sapphire fibers, growth of, 78Schaeffer, H.A., 413–427SCR, see Selective catalytic reduction (SCR)SEC, see Specific Energy Consumption (SEC)Secondary electron image (SEI), 58–59Seebeck coefficient, 419SEI, see Secondary electron image (SEI)Selective catalytic reduction (SCR), 275
See also Oxides of nitrogen (NOx ))Selective non-catalytic reduction (SNCR), 275
See also Oxides of nitrogen (NOx ))Self-reinforcing polymers, see Liquid Crystal
Polymer (LCP)Semiconductor industry association (SIA), 191Semicrystalline resins
PA, 164PET/PBT, 164POM, 165PP, 164–165properties of, 165t
Sensorsdefinition, 414for environmental measurements, 422–423high-temperature heat resistance, feature
of, 414for optimizing combustion efficiency, 423
control of air/fuel or oxygen/fuel ratio,423
flame visualization, techniques, 423laser absorption spectroscopy, 423mass spectrometry, 423
See also individual sensorsS-glass, 7, 8f, 13, 16, 23–25, 27, 31, 35–37,
42, 48–50, 57, 60, 64t, 92, 101, 198,207–209, 212–215, 217, 445
S-1 glass, 207–209, 222S-2 glass R©, 198, 200, 202–208, 212–215
Shear strength, 136, 138–139Shear stress, 131, 137Sheath/core vs. side-by-side bicomponent
fibers, 56Sheet Molding Compounds (SMC), 141–142,
147–149, 152–153, 155–156, 169SMC process, flow of materials in, 147f
Sheridanite, 310Short fibers, random, 134–137
critical length, equation, 136fiber/critical length, relativity, 137reinforcing efficiency vs. fiber length, 137fresponse to strain, 135fstages of fracture, 135
Short span flexural test, 138SIA, see Semiconductor industry association
(SIA)Sialons, 43Silanes, 130, 155Silfa yarn, 20Silica, SiO2, 304–305Silica fibers, ultrapure
from sol–gelsprocess, 18products and properties, 18–19value-in-use and applications, 19
from strong viscous meltsprocess, 15–16products and properties, 16–17value-in-use and applications, 16–17
Silica, sliver and fabrics, pureacid-leached E- and A-glass fabrics
process, 21products and properties, 21–22value-in-use and applications, 22
from aqueous silicate solutionsprocess, 20products and properties, 20–21value-in-use and applications, 21
Silicate glass fibers, 8, 11, 16, 23–59, 64–65Silicate glass fibers from strong viscous melts
commercial melt process, 23–26boron-free CC-glass, use in, 24glass fibers formed by, 26twinders/direct-drawing
winders/choppers, formation, 25fexperimental plasma melt process, 26–27
application, 27skull-melting concept, benefits, 27vs. conventional glass furnace
technology, 26glass fiber drawing, modeling of, 28strong viscous melts, critical properties, 23
Index 471
Silicate glass fibers, general-purposeborosilicate E-glass fibers, 28–31E-glass products and applications, 33–34E-glass properties and fiber structures,
31–33Silicate glass fibers, special-purpose
designations of, 34glass fibers with bone bioactive oxide
compositions, 53–54glass fibers with high chemical stability,
44–48glass fibers with high densities and
dielectric constants, 50–51glass fibers with low dielectric constants,
49–50glass fibers with super- and semiconducting
properties, 53glass fibers with very high dielectric
constants, 51–53high-modulus–high-temperature glass
fibers, 39–40high-strength–high-temperature glass
fibers, 34–38ultrahigh-modulus glass ceramic fibers,
40–44Silicone (SI) resins, 153–154
characteristics of, 153Single-crystal fibers, 70, 77–83Skew phenomena, 184Skull melting, 27, 431–433SLS glass, see Soda-lime-silica (SLS) glassSMC, see Sheet Molding Compounds (SMC)Smrcek, A, 259SNCR, see Selective non-catalytic reduction
(SNCR)Soda, Na2O, 305–307Soda-lime-silica (SLS) glass, 12, 15, 116–119,
229–351A- and C-glass compositions, 118t
fluorine and boron-free A-glass, 117fluorine-free c-glass with 5% B2O3,
117–119limitation, 119
thermal conductivity of, 288fviscosity-temperature (η-T ) curve for, 280f
Soda-lime-silica (SLS) glass,composition/design of
alumina, Al2O3, 309–313compositions of aluminous raw
materials, 311teffect of BFS on energy and fuel
consumption, 312f
effect on liquidus temperature of SLSglass, 313f
effects on chemical durability of SLSglass, 314f
effects on glass properties, 311–313raw materials, 309–311
baria, BaO, 323batch processing, preheating, and melting,
300–302batch consolidation, forms, 301SEC based on cullet content, 303fstages of melting, 300
boric oxide, B2O33 effects on glassproperties, 315–316
raw materials, 316calcia, CaO
effects on glass properties, 308–309raw materials, 307–308
chlorides and fluorides, 322–323cullet, 302–304economics of batch selection, 300fenergy-saving technologies, 270lithia, Li2O
effects on glass properties, 315–316raw materials, compositions
of, 313, 315tmagnesia, MgO
effect on liquidus temperature of SLSglass, 308f
effects on glass properties, 309fraw materials, 309
multivalent constituentscolorants and refining agents, 324–326effects on physical properties, 326–327
nitrates, 329–330potassia, K2O
effects on glass properties, 314–315raw materials, 313
recycled filter dust, 329silica, SiO22 effects on glass properties,
303raw materials, 304–305
soda, Na2Oeffects on glass properties, 308–309molar enthalpy of decomposition at 296
K, 306fraw materials, 305–307
strontia, SrO, 324sulfate, SO3, 318–321water, H2O, 321–322zinc oxide, ZnO, 323–324
Soda lime silicate glass, reaction path of, 409tSolid electrolyte sensors, zirconia-based, 418
472 Index
Solid/liquid, difference betweenby Born, 357Deborah number, concept of, 358See also Glass melting technology, melting
criteriaSpecial-purpose glass fibers, 49–54Specific Energy Consumption (SEC), 269–271,
289, 303f, 332energy efficiency, 269–271energy-saving technologies in SLS glass
furnaces, 268–269, 271ffor SLS glass furnaces, average, 270f
Specific heat capacity, 286–287, 356, 358,361–366, 368, 373
Specific modulus (Esp), equation, 204Spray deposition, 140, 143
liquid resin processing technique, 143Stages of fracture, thermoplastics
cracking, 135de-bonding, 135fiber pullout, 135fiber rupture, 135matrix failure, 135
Standard (glass) transformation temperature,Tg, 368, 374f
Stefan–Boltzmann constant (T ), 287Stokes’ law, 291
buoyancy effects described by, 291Strain (ε), 131
magnification, 134Stress, kinds of, 131Strong melts vs. fragile melts, 4Strong viscous melts, behavior of
in continuous commercial process, 7critical properties of, 23in stationary process, 7
Strontia, SrO, 324Structure of melts and fibers, 11–15
fiber structure vs. modulus, 12–14fiber structure vs. strength, 14–15from glass melts to fibers, 11–12melt structure vs. liquidus, 12
Styrene–butadiene rubbers, 147Sulfate, SO3, 318–320Superconducting fibers, high Tc, 81–82Synthetic fibers, 126, 212Synthetic minerals, 447–448Synthetic minerals processing, 448
TTechnical glass, 229, 231, 233, 236, 242,
253–258Techniques, liquid resin processing
centrifugal molding, 144–145continuous laminating, 145–146filament winding, 144HLU, 143non-continuous liquid resin processing
techniques, 145tpre-combined materials
BMC, 148pre-impregnated fabrics (Prepregs), 146SMC, 147–148
pultrusion, 145RRIM, 144RTM, 143–144spray deposition, 143
Technora R©, 212Tellurite glass fibers, 62Temperature, upper use, 183–184Tensile modulus, 17t, 127t, 131, 138, 150t,
152t, 161, 165t, 167t, 213–214Tensile stress, 131, 198–200Ternary SiO2-Al2O3-CaO system
high-temperature applications, use in, 101phase diagram of, 97f, 100–102ternary compositions around eutectic,
98t, 100ttopography of, 97f
Tetraethylorthosilicate (TEOS) sol–gels, 15, 18T-glass, 207–208, 445Thermal conductivity, 17t, 57, 82, 127t, 181,
202, 287–289, 299, 333t, 405Thermal expansion, 16, 32t, 127t, 150t,
178–183, 213, 231, 255, 257, 299,305, 307–308, 313–314, 316–317,323–324, 327, 359–360, 368–373,386, 401
CTE, 182and resin content, relativity, 183f
Thermal expansion coefficient, 299, 308, 316,327, 359, 360f, 371, 373, 386, 401
Appen factors for calculation of, 386Thermocouples, role/function, 417Thermodynamic properties, industrial
glass-forming systemsmulti-component systems, models
the cell model, 386Gibbs phase rule, oxide components,
385, 387tmodel of ideal mixing of complex
components, 386quasi-chemical model, 386thermodynamic equations, 387–388
Thermoplastics resinsstages of fracture
Index 473
cracking, 135de-bonding, 135fiber pullout, 135fiber rupture, 135matrix failure, 135
Thermosetting matrix resins, 148–153Thermosetting vs. thermoplastic resins, 141TLiq models, 285Torch life/stability, 442–443Transferred-arc plasmas, 435fTraveling solvent zone melting (TSZM), 82Trend line design, 11, 94–99, 100–101,
103–104, 107–109, 111–114,117–120
Trilobal glass fibers, 55fTSZM, see Traveling solvent zone melting
(TSZM)Twaron R©, 212
UU-glass, 207–208UHMWPE, see Ultra high molecular weight
polyethylene (UHMWPE)Ultrahigh-modulus (UHM) glass ceramic
fibersexamples
Ca–Mg–Si–Al–O–N fiber, 42oxynitride fibers, 43fSi–Al–O–N glass fibers, 42tY–Si–Al–O–N fiber, 42
process and productsoxygen formation, 41silicon formation, 41silicon oxidation, 41
properties and applications, 43–44Ultra high molecular weight polyethylene
(UHMWPE)drawbacks
low upper use temperature, 213–214poor compressive strength, 213–214
Spectra and Dyneema, UHMWPE fibers,214
Ultrapure silica fibersfrom sol–gels
process, 18products and properties, 18–19value-in-use and applications, 19
from strong viscous meltsprocess, 16–17products and properties, 16–17value-in-use and applications, 16–17
Unidirectional continuous fibersrule of mixtures, 131–132
strain effect in, 132fstress–strain diagram, 133f
Unsaturated Polyester (UP) resins, 143–149,151, 154, 169
cross-linking reaction in, 148cobalt complexes, accelerators, 149organic peroxides, initiators, 148
UP resins, see Unsaturated Polyester (UP)resins
US Department of Energy (DOE), 438, 440
VVacuum infusion resin transfer molding
(VARTM), 170–171Van der Woude, J.H.A., 125–172VARTM, see Vacuum infusion resin transfer
molding (VARTM)VE resins, see Vinyl ester (VE) resinsVFT equation, see Vogel-Fulcher-Tammann
(VFT) equationVinyl ester (VE) resins, 144–146, 151
choice of hardener, criteria for adjustingcharacteristics of composites, 152t
composite systems, characteristics of, 151Viscosity models, 281Viscosity of Newtonian fluids
VFT equation for, 281Viscosity–temperature (η–T) curve
for SLS glass, 280fViscous melts
contents, 3fragile/strong, 8–9
Viscosity models, 233, 281Vogel-Fulcher-Tammann (VFT) equation, 281Volatilization, 276Voltammetric sensor, 419–421
current/potential curve of green containerglass, 420f
polyvalent element concentration/peakcurrent, proportionality, 419, 421f
polyvalent elements, detection of, 420in situ/wet chemical analysis, sulfur sensor
data by, 421fsquare-wave voltammetry
oxygen partial pressure measurements,420
Volume void filling, 405
WWater, H2O, 321–322Wallenberger, F.T., 10, 16, 65, 71, 74, 96–97,
104–105, 110, 114, 118, 125,205, 338
474 Index
Waste Electrical and Electronic Equipment(WEEE), 194
Waste gas treatment plantscontrol of SOx emissions, use in, 275made of EPs, 275
Weave and fabric construction, 184FWE, 184
WEEE, see Waste Electrical and ElectronicEquipment (WEEE)
Weinstein, M.A., 431–451Wind turbines, composites for
blade design methodologies, 170–172ASTM D3479/D3039, test standard
used, 171blade design, example of, 170ffatigue mechanism, 171fatigue test data on epoxy matrix/glass
fabric specimen, 172flog–log model, 171S–N regression parameter estimates,
172tblade-manufacturing techniques, 169–170
blade components, design, 170RTM, 170VARTM, 170
composite technology, advantages/benefits,168–169
raw materials, 169wind energy park, 168fwind, renewable energy source, 168
Wollastonite melting, 304, 448Working range index (WRI), 280, 284WRI, see Working range index (WRI)
YYAG glasses and glass fibers, 69–70Yarn, 16, 17t, 20, 21, 24, 33, 44, 48, 54–55, 57,
98, 136, 141, 150t, 176, 181, 184,186, 189, 192–194, 198, 210, 220
Young’s modulus, 182, 197, 199–203, 205,208t, 299, 375
See also Elastic modulusYttria-stabilized zirconia, 419
oxygen ion conductor, 419
ZZinc Oxide, ZnO, 323–324Zybek Advanced Products, 448Zylon, 211t, 214–215