incongruence between implicit and self-attributed achievement motives

7/21/2019 Incongruence Between Implicit and Self-Attributed Achievement Motives

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Incongruence between implicit and self-attributed achievement motives

and psychological well-being: The moderating role of self-directedness,

self-disclosure and locus of control

Janice Langan-Fox*, Michael J. Sankey, James M. Canty

Faculty of Business and Enterprise, Mail H25, Swinburne University of Technology, P.O. Box 218, Hawthorn, Victoria 3122, Australia

a r t i c l e i n f o

Article history:

Received 12 November 2008

Received in revised form 3 February 2009

Accepted 9 February 2009

Available online 10 March 2009

Keywords:

Achievement motive

Thematic apperception test

Implicit and explicit motives

Self-directedness

Self-disclosure

Locus of control

Life satisfaction

Depression

a b s t r a c t

The current research tested whether negative effects of achievement motive incongruence were moder-

ated by self-directedness, self-disclosure and external locus of control (LOC). It was predicted that the

negative effects (i.e. low life satisfaction and/or high depression) of motive incongruence would be

reduced at: (a) higher levels of self-directedness and self-disclosure; and (b) lower levels of external

LOC. A secondary data analysis was conducted on the Eugene Springfield Community Sample longitudinal

dataset (N= 533) to test these hypotheses. The predicted pattern of results found that, relative to individ-

uals who were congruent in their implicit and self-attributed achievement motives, the negative effects

of motive incongruence were reduced at: (a) higher levels of self-directedness and self-disclosure; and (b)

lower levels of external LOC. The current findings have implications for advancing our understanding of

how psychological well-being can be promoted, particularly for those individuals undergoing clinical

counseling.

2009 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.

1. Introduction

Recent research has shown that congruence of implicit and self-

attributed motive systems may lead to a number of positive health

outcomes, such as emotional well-being, life satisfaction, and per-

sonal growth (Brunstein, Schultheiss, & Grassmann, 1998; Hofer &

Chasiotis, 2003; Sheldon & Kasser, 1995). Furthermore, motive

incongruence leads to negative outcomes (e.g.Baumann, Kaschel,

& Kuhl, 2005; Brunstein et al., 1998). Langens (2007) found that

a moderating variable, activity inhibition (AI), neutralized the posi-

tive effects of motive congruence. However, research has just be-

gun to examine whether moderating variables may counteract

thenegativeeffects of motiveincongruence(e.g.Langan-Fox, Canty,

& Sankey, 2008).

The current paper aims to address this issue by: (a) examining

self-directedness, self-disclosure and external locus of control

(LOC) as potential moderators of relationships between motive

incongruence and psychological well-being (i.e. life satisfaction

and depression); (b) advancing the literature on dual motive sys-

tems, particularly with respect to the effects of motive incongru-

ence relating to two dependant variables; and (c) increasing our

understanding of how psychological well-being can be promoted.

Implicit and self-attributed motives represent discrete motiva-

tional systems (McClelland, Koestner, & Weinberger, 1989).

Implicit motives conceptualized as unconscious thoughts and

behavioral tendencies which energize, select, and direct behavior

towards motive congruent goal states (McClelland, 1985) pre-

dict long-term behavioral trends over time (e.g. McClelland &

Franz, 1992). Operating outside conscious awareness, implicit mo-

tives are assessed by operant, fantasy-based methods such as the

thematic apperception test (TAT; Murray, 1943). Self-attributed

motives are consciously accessible thoughts that an individual

has about their behavior, cognitions (McClelland, 1985), and goals

(Brunstein et al., 1998; Langan-Fox, 1991a, 1991b) and may be

assessed directly via self-report questionnaires. The positive ef-

fects of motive congruence may be due to a reduction in anxiety

caused by motive incongruence (Brunstein et al., 1998). However,

motive congruence is not necessarily a sufficient condition for

positive well-being.

Langens (2007) reported that AI neutralized the beneficial

effects of motive congruence due to the restraint of motivational

impulses and emotional responses.Langan-Fox et al. (2008)found

that, relative to congruent individuals, motive incongruent individ-

uals were less likely to report feeling depressed as they increased

in levels of self-directedness. Self-directedness refers to the ability

of an individual to adapt, regulate and control behavior to fit situ-

ations according to their chosen goals and values (Smith, Duffy,

0191-8869/$ - see front matter 2009 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.doi:10.1016/j.paid.2009.02.005

* Corresponding author. Tel.: +61 3 9214 4619; fax: +61 3 9874 1842.

E-mail address:[email protected](J. Langan-Fox).

Personality and Individual Differences 47 (2009) 99104

Contents lists available at ScienceDirect

Personality and Individual Differences

j o u r n a l h o m e p a g e : w w w . e l s e v i e r . c o m / l o c a t e / p a i d
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Stewart, Muir, & Blackwood, 2005), and can therefore act as a buf-

fer from the negative effects of motive incongruence.

Self-disclosure and external LOC may also negate the detrimen-

tal effects of motive incongruence by reducing anxiety. Self-disclo-

sure refers to individuals verbal communication of personally

relevant information, thoughts, and feelings in order to let them-

selves be known to others (Wei, Russell, & Zakalik, 2005, p.

602). Self-disclosure is influential in promoting life satisfaction(Kahn & Hessling, 2001) and limiting depression (Berg & McQuinn,

1989). LOC that is, the extent to which people believe that they

have control over their own fate (Ng, Sorensen, & Eby, 2006)-can

be differentiated into internal and external beliefs (Rotter, 1966).

Internals believe that they have more control over their own fate

and are therefore more directive in attempting to control their

external environments. External LOC negatively predicts life satis-

faction (Diener & Lucas, 1999) and positively predicts depression

(Benassi, Sweeney, & Dufour, 1988).

As an extension to Langan-Fox et al. (2008), we propose that:

Hypotheses 1 and 2: nAch, self-attributed achievement motive

(SAM) and self-directedness will interact, such that, relative to con-

gruent individuals, incongruent individuals will demonstrate a

stronger(H1) positive relationship between self-directedness and

life satisfaction, and (H2) negative relationship between self-

directedness and depression. Hypotheses 3 and 4: nAch, SAM and

self-disclosure will interact, such that, relative to congruent indi-

viduals, incongruent individuals will demonstrate a stronger(H3)

positive relationship between self-disclosure and life satisfaction,

and(H4)negative relationship between self-disclosure and depres-

sion.Hypotheses 5 and 6: nAch, SAM and external LOC will interact

to predict life satisfaction and depression, such that, relative to

congruent individuals, incongruent individuals will demonstrate

a stronger(H5)negative relationship between external LOC and life

satisfaction, and (H6) positive relationship between external LOC

and depression.

2. Methods

2.1. Participants and procedure

The first author was given access to The Eugene-Springfield

Community Sample (Goldberg, 2008; see Acknowledgments).

For the sub samples (N= 533) used in the present analyses, the

age ranged between 18 and 83 (M= 50.92, SD= 12.62). Approxi-

mately 96% were Caucasian, 59% were female, and 58% had college

degrees.

2.2. Measures

2.2.1. Predictor variables

nAch was measured via the administration of a standard set(Langan-Fox, 1991a; Langan-Fox & Roth, 1995; Langan-Fox, Deery,

& van Vliet, 1997; Langan-Fox & Grant, 2006, 2007) of five picture

cues from the TAT (seeSmith (1992)in the spring of 2000: (1) a

ship captain talking to a passenger; (2) a man sitting in an office;

(3) a couple sitting on a bench by a river; (4) two women in a lab-

oratory; and (5) two trapeze artists. Stories by participants were

content coded for nAch and reflected according to Winters

(1991)approach. Interscorer agreement has been shown to be high

(.85; see Winter (1973)). SAM was measured using the 10-item

Ambitious (P3) facet of the Temperament and Character Inventory

Revised (TCI-R; Cloninger, 1999) administered in the spring of

1997. Each item was rated on a 5-point scale (1 =definitely false

to 5 =definitely true). An example item is I am a very ambitious

person. The TCI-R has been shown to have high reliability (Jylh& Isomets, 2006).

2.2.2. Moderator variables

Self-directedness was measured using the 40-item Self-Direct-

edness character domain of the TCI-R. An example item is Most

people seem more resourceful than I am (reverse coded). Self-dis-

closure was measured using the six item Attachment/Openness

(RD3) facet TCI-R. An example item is I like to discuss my experi-

ences and feelings openly with friends instead of keeping them to

myself. External LOC was measured with the Powerful Others andChance subscales (each containing 8 items) ofLevensons (1981)

24-item LOC Scale, administered in the summer of 1998. An exam-

ple item is My life is determined by my own actions. The reliabil-

ity of the scale was .81.

2.2.3. Criterion variables

Life satisfaction was assessed using the five-item Satisfaction

with Life Scale (Diener, Emmons, Larsen, & Griffin, 1985) adminis-

tered in the summer of 2001. Each item was rated on a 7-point

scale (1 =strongly disagree to 7 =strongly agree). An example item

is In most ways my life is close to ideal. The internal consistency

of the scale was high (Cronbachs a= .88). Depression was mea-sured using the eight item N3 subscale of the NEO Personality

Inventory Revised (NEO-PI-R;Costa & McCrae, 1992) administered

in the summer of 1994. This scale measures the tendency of indi-viduals to experience depressive affect or mood and may therefore

be regarded as a relatively stable measure of depression. Each item

is rated on a 5-point scale (1 =strongly disagree, 5 =strongly agree).

An example item is Sometimes I feel completely worthless.Costa

and McCrae (1988)have reported ana coefficient of 0.84 and a 6-month testretest reliability of 0.80 for the NEO-PI-R trait depres-

sion scale.

The time sequence of the measured variables was as follows:

depression (summer, 1994), SAM, self-directedness, self-disclosure

(spring, 1997), LOC (summer, 1998), nAch (spring, 2000), life

satisfaction (summer, 2001). The longitudinal manner in which

criterion and predictor measures were administered is not consid-

ered to be a major limitation of the current study given prior

research which supports the temporal stability of the measuredvariables (Cloninger, Svrakic, & Przybeck, 2006; Cummins, 1998;

McClelland et al., 1989; McCrae & Costa, 1994, 2003; Wu, Chen,

& Tsai, 2009).

3. Results

Table 1 shows the correlations between the key predictor,

mediator, and criterion variables.

A hierarchical regression analysis predicting life satisfaction

was performed to test H1, withnAch, SAM, self-directedness, age,

sex and education entered in the first step, followed by the three

two-way interaction terms in Step 2, and the three-way interaction

in Step 3 (Cohen, Cohen, West, & Aiken, 2003). Following a recom-

mendation by Aiken and West (1991), predictor variables werestandardized before their interaction term was calculated. The pre-

dicted three-way interaction was significant, b= .12, seb = .05,

DR2 = .01, DF(1, 470) = 6.02, p < .05 (seeTable 2).

To further probe the three-way interaction, slope difference

tests were applied (Dawson & Richter, 2006) (seeFig. 1). As sug-

gested by Dawson and Richter (2006), one standard deviation

above and below the mean were chosen as high and low levels

of respective variables. The joint influence of high nAch and low

SAM was associated with a stronger relationship between self-

directedness and life satisfaction than the combination of lownAch

and low SAM, t= 2.26,p< .05. In addition, lownAch and high SAM

demonstrated a stronger relationship than lownAch and low SAM,

t= 3.37, p < .01.

H2was tested via a second hierarchical regression analysis pre-dicting depression, withnAch, SAM, self-directedness, age, sex and

100 J. Langan-Fox et al. / Personality and Individual Differences 47 (2009) 99104


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education entered in the first step. The predicted three-way inter-

action was significant, b= .67, seb= .23, DR2 = .01, DF (1, 470) =

6.02, p< .05 (seeTable 2). The joint influence of low nAch and high

SAM was associated with a stronger relationship between self-

directedness and depression than low nAch and low SAM,

t= 2.06, p < .05. High nAch and low SAM also showed a stronger

relationship than high nAch and high SAM, t= 2.07, p< .05 (see

Fig. 1).

H3was tested with a hierarchical regression analysis predicting

life satisfaction, with nAch, SAM, self-disclosure, age, sex, and

education entered in the first step. The predicted three-way

interaction was significant, b= .15, seb= .06, DR2 = .01, DF

(1,470) = 6.74,p< .05 (seeTable 3). The joint influence of high lev-

Table 1

Zero-order correlations among primary variables of interest.

1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. 9.

1.nAch

2. SAM .02

3. Age .05 .09

4. Education .09* .07 .00

5. Sex .02 .12** .03 .20**

6. Self-directedness .09 .22** .13** .15** .07 7. LOC (external) .02 .14** .01 .06 .01 .45**

8. Self-disclosure .09 .04 .02 .02 .22** .20** .12**

9. Depression .05 .17** .16** .10* .13** .55** .30** .02

10. Life Satisfaction .10* .15 .08 .16** .02 .39** .26** .12** .47**

Note:Correlations are Pearson product-moment correlations. p < .05; p < .01; SAM = self-attributed achievement motive; LOC = locus of control.

Table 2

Hierarchical regression analysis ofnAch, SAM, age, sex, education and self-directed-

ness on life satisfaction and depression.

Life satisfaction Depression

b SEb b b SEb b

Step 1

nAch .06 .05 .05 .12 .25 .02SAM .08 .06 .06 .32 .25 .05

Age .00 .00 .02 .04 .02 .09*

Sex .02 .11 .01 2.03 .51 .16***

Education .07 .03 .09* .07 .15 .02

Self-directedness .46 .06 .36*** 3 .3 4 .25 .54***

Step 2

nAch SAM .05 .06 .04 .02 .26 .00

nAch Self-directedness .04 .05 .08 .07 .24 .01

SAM Self-directedness .09 .05 .08 .02 .23 .00

Step 3

nAch SAM Self-directedness .12 .05 .11* .67 .23 .12**

Note:Life satisfactionR2 = .17 for Step 1:DR2 = .00 for Step 2: DR2 = .01 for Step 3.

DepressionR2 = .34 for Step 1:DR2 = .00 for Step 2: DR2 = .01 for Step 3.

(ps< .05) p< .05; p< .01. p< .001; SAM = self-attributed achievement motive.

7

8

9

10

11

12

13

14

15

16

Low Self

Directedness

High Self

Directedness

Depression

(1) High nAch,

High SAM

(2) High nAch,

Low SAM

(3) Low nAch,

High SAM

(4) Low nAch,

Low SAM

3.7

3.9

4.1

4.3

4.5

4.7

4.9

5.1

5.3

Low Self

Directedness

High Self

Directedness

LifeSatisfaction

(1) High nAch,

High SAM

(2) High nAch,

Low SAM

(3) Low nAch,

High SAM

(4) Low nAch,

Low SAM

Fig. 1. Moderating influence of self-directedness on relationships between implicit and SAM, life satisfaction and depression.

Table 3

Hierarchical regression analysis ofnAch, SAM, age, sex, education and self-disclosure

on life satisfaction and depression.


b SEb b b SEb b

Step 1

nAch .08 .06 .06 .27 .29 .04

SAM .19 .06 .15** 1.04 .29 .17***

Age .01 .00 .07 .08 .02 .17***

Sex .08 .12 .03 1.32 .61 .11*

Education .11 .04 .14** .21 .18 .06

Self-disclosure .14 .06 .11* .24 .29 .04

Step 2nAch SAM .04 .06 .03 .12 .31 .02

nAch Self-disclosure .04 .06 .03 .15 .30 .02

SAM Self-disclosure .07 .06 .05 .19 .29 .03

Step 3

nAch SAM Self-disclosure .15 .06 .12* .77 .29 .13**

Note:Life satisfactionR2 = .07 for Step 1: DR2 = .00 for Step 2: DR2 = .01 for Step 3.


(ps< .05) p< .05. p< .01. p< .001; SAM = self-attributed achievement motive.

J. Langan-Fox et al. / Personality and Individual Differences 47 (2009) 99104 101


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els ofnAch and low levels of SAM was associated with a stronger

relationship between self-disclosure and life satisfaction than the

combination of lownAch and low SAM,t= 2.06,p< .05. In addition,

low nAch and high SAM showed a stronger relationship than low

nAch and low SAM, t= 2.88, p < .01 (seeFig. 2).

H4 was tested via a hierarchical regression analysis predicting

depression, with nAch, SAM, self-disclosure, age, sex, and educa-

tion entered in the first step. The predicted three-way interaction

reached significance, b= .77, seb= .29, DR2 = .02, DF (1,

439) = 7.13, p < .01 (seeTable 3).

The joint influence of high levels ofnAch and low levels of SAM

were associated with a stronger relationship between self-disclo-

sure and depression than low nAch and low SAM, t= 2.13,

p< .05. HighnAch and low SAM was also associated with a stron-

ger relationship than highnAch and high SAM,t= 2.33,p< .05 (seeFig. 2).

H5was tested with a hierarchical regression analysis predicting

life satisfaction, withnAch, SAM, LOC, age, sex and education en-

tered in the first step. The predicted three-way interaction reached

significance, b= .07, seb= .03, DR2 = .01, DF(1, 455) = 7.45, p < .01

(seeTable 4). The joint influence of high levels ofnAch and low lev-

els of SAM was associated with a stronger relationship between

13

13.5

14

14.5

15

15.5

16

16.5

17

17.5

18

Low Self-

disclosure

High Self-

disclosure

Depression

(1) High nAch,

High SAM

(2) High nAch,

Low SAM

(3) Low nAch,

High SAM

(4) Low nAch,

Low SAM

3.5

3.7

3.9

4.1

4.3

4.5

4.7

Low Self-

disclosure

High Self-

disclosure

LifeSatisfaction

(1) High nAch,

High SAM

(2) High nAch,

Low SAM

(3) Low nAch,

High SAM

(4) Low nAch,

Low SAM

Fig. 2. Moderating influence of self-disclosure on relationships between implicit and SAM, life satisfaction and depression.

Table 4

Hierarchical regression analysis of nAch, SAM, age, sex, education and LOC on life

satisfaction and depression.


b SEb b b SEb b

Step 1

nAch .08 .06 .06 .23 .28 .04

SAM .14 .06 .11* .84 .28 .14**

Age .01 .00 .07 .07 .02 .16**

Sex .15 .12 .06 1.23 .57 .10*

Education .10 .03 .13** .27 .17 .07

LOC .18 .03 .15** .96 .15 .28***

Step 2

nAch SAM .06 .06 .04 .04 .29 .01

nAch

LOC

.04 .03

.06

.04 .14

.01SAM LOC .02 .03 .04 .02 .14 .01

Step 3

nAch SAM LOC .07 .03 .12** .27 .13 -.09*

Note:Life satisfactionR2 = .11 for Step 1:DR2 = .01 for Step 2: DR2 = .01 for Step 3.


(ps< .05) p< .05. p< .01. p< .001; SAM = self-attributed achievement motive;

LOC = locus of control.

3.2

3.4

3.6

3.8

4

4.2

4.4

Low LOC

(external)

High LOC

(external)

LifeSatisfaction

(1) High nAch,

High SAM

(2) High nAch,

Low SAM

(3) Low nAch,

High SAM

(4) Low nAch,

Low SAM

13

14

15

16

17

18

19

Low LOC

(external)

High LOC

(external)

Depression

(1) High nAch,

High SAM

(2) High nAch,

Low SAM

(3) Low nAch,

High SAM

(4) Low nAch,

Low SAM

Fig. 3. Moderating influence of external LOC on relationships between implicit and SAM, life satisfaction and depression.



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self-directedness and life satisfaction than lownAch and low SAM,

t= 2.54, p< .05. Low nAch and high SAM were also associated

with a stronger relationship than low nAch and low SAM,

t= 2.06, p < .05.

H6 was tested via a hierarchical regression analysis predicting

depression, withnAch, SAM, LOC, age, sex, and education entered

in the first step. The predicted three-way interaction was signifi-

cant, b=

.27, seb= .13,D

R

2

= .01,D

F (1, 427) = 4.04, p< .05 (seeTable 4).

Analyses revealed no significant slope differences. However,

trends were in a similar direction to those of self-directedness

and self-disclosure, with the joint influence of low levels ofnAch

and high levels of SAM being associated with a stronger relation-

ship between LOC and depression than the combination of low

nAch and low SAM, t= 1.37, n.s. (seeFig. 3).

4. Discussion

Recent research has shown that associations between motive

congruence and well-being may be moderated by self-directedness

and AI (Langan-Fox et al., 2008; Langens, 2007). The current re-

search extends these findings, showing that motive incongruence

may be moderated by self-directedness, self-disclosure and exter-

nal LOC to influence levels of psychological well-being. Three un-

ique contributions to the literature have been made, with the

current paper: (a) examining self-directedness, self-disclosure

and external LOC as potential moderators of relationships between

nAch and SAM incongruence, and psychological well-being; (b)

advancing research on the effects of motive incongruence relating

to two dependant variables; and (c) increasing our understanding

of how psychological well-being can be promoted, particularly

for motive incongruent individuals.

Building on research by Langens (2007), the current paper

found self-directedness, self-disclosure and external LOC to neu-

tralize the negative effects (i.e. low psychological well-being) of

motive incongruence. Furthermore, the current findings substanti-

ate previous research by Langan-Fox et al. (2008) which foundself-directedness to moderate the relationship between motive

incongruence and depression (measured with the Center for Epide-

miologic Studies Depression scale;Radloff, 1977) The fact that the

current findings revealed a similar pattern of interaction despite a

different measurement of depression provides evidence for the

validity of the hypothesized assumption.

WhileLangens (2007)demonstrated that congruence of implicit

and SAMs was related to a more positive mood for participants low

in AI, the current study found that different types of motive

(in)congruence were uniquely associated with psychological

well-being. Specifically, it was found that for those possessing

low levels of bothnAch and SAM (i.e. congruent absence individ-

uals; cf. Bing, LeBreton, Davison, Migetz, & James, 2007), psycho-

logical well-being remained relatively unchanged throughoutdifferent levels of the three moderators relative to motive incon-

gruent individuals. Incongruent individuals wellbeing is increased

due to the mechanisms by which self-directedness, self-disclosure

and external LOC reduce anxiety. This is especially so compared

with congruent absence individuals due to a main effect of SAM

on well-being. It is therefore critical to explicate the type of

(in)congruency when considering the moderation of motive

(in)congruency on wellbeing. The present study is the first to

empirically clarify and substantiate this theoretical distinction

(e.g. see Bing et al. (2007), Borstein (1998, 2002), Langens and

McClelland (1997)) in the context of the moderation of motive

(in)congruency effects on well-being.

In summary, our findings suggest that personality development

may reduce vulnerability to poor psychological well-being bydecreasing anxiety caused by motive incongruence. Future re-

search should be directed towards further examining the interplay

between various implicit and self-attributed motives (e.g. affilia-

tion; seeSchler, Job, Frhlich, and Brandsttter (2008)) on health

and wellbeing outcomes, as well as other potential moderators of

these relationships. One limitation of the current study is that

our findings do not allow inferences about causal processes under-

pinning the relationship between our measured variables. For

example, a specifically designed longitudinal study needs to beconstructed to allow researchers to empirically test the notion that

self-directedness acts as a mechanism to protect against the nega-

tive effects of motive incongruence (i.e. low psychological well-

being). From a clinical perspective, the research may serve to in-

crease practitioners awareness of the mechanisms that lead to

low psychological well-being. Long-term studies with the potential

for causal investigation should thus direct future research in this

area.

Acknowledgements

We would like to gratefully acknowledge Professor Lewis R.

Goldberg for his generosity in giving access to the Eugene-Spring-

field Community data set to the first author, and also to Maureen

Barkley at the Oregon Research Institute for providing files for

analysis.

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