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Incongruence between implicit and self-attributed achievement motives
and psychological well-being: The moderating role of self-directedness,
self-disclosure and locus of control
Janice Langan-Fox*, Michael J. Sankey, James M. Canty
Faculty of Business and Enterprise, Mail H25, Swinburne University of Technology, P.O. Box 218, Hawthorn, Victoria 3122, Australia
a r t i c l e i n f o
Article history:
Received 12 November 2008
Received in revised form 3 February 2009
Accepted 9 February 2009
Available online 10 March 2009
Keywords:
Achievement motive
Thematic apperception test
Implicit and explicit motives
Self-directedness
Self-disclosure
Locus of control
Life satisfaction
Depression
a b s t r a c t
The current research tested whether negative effects of achievement motive incongruence were moder-
ated by self-directedness, self-disclosure and external locus of control (LOC). It was predicted that the
negative effects (i.e. low life satisfaction and/or high depression) of motive incongruence would be
reduced at: (a) higher levels of self-directedness and self-disclosure; and (b) lower levels of external
LOC. A secondary data analysis was conducted on the Eugene Springfield Community Sample longitudinal
dataset (N= 533) to test these hypotheses. The predicted pattern of results found that, relative to individ-
uals who were congruent in their implicit and self-attributed achievement motives, the negative effects
of motive incongruence were reduced at: (a) higher levels of self-directedness and self-disclosure; and (b)
lower levels of external LOC. The current findings have implications for advancing our understanding of
how psychological well-being can be promoted, particularly for those individuals undergoing clinical
counseling.
2009 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
1. Introduction
Recent research has shown that congruence of implicit and self-
attributed motive systems may lead to a number of positive health
outcomes, such as emotional well-being, life satisfaction, and per-
sonal growth (Brunstein, Schultheiss, & Grassmann, 1998; Hofer &
Chasiotis, 2003; Sheldon & Kasser, 1995). Furthermore, motive
incongruence leads to negative outcomes (e.g.Baumann, Kaschel,
& Kuhl, 2005; Brunstein et al., 1998). Langens (2007) found that
a moderating variable, activity inhibition (AI), neutralized the posi-
tive effects of motive congruence. However, research has just be-
gun to examine whether moderating variables may counteract
thenegativeeffects of motiveincongruence(e.g.Langan-Fox, Canty,
& Sankey, 2008).
The current paper aims to address this issue by: (a) examining
self-directedness, self-disclosure and external locus of control
(LOC) as potential moderators of relationships between motive
incongruence and psychological well-being (i.e. life satisfaction
and depression); (b) advancing the literature on dual motive sys-
tems, particularly with respect to the effects of motive incongru-
ence relating to two dependant variables; and (c) increasing our
understanding of how psychological well-being can be promoted.
Implicit and self-attributed motives represent discrete motiva-
tional systems (McClelland, Koestner, & Weinberger, 1989).
Implicit motives conceptualized as unconscious thoughts and
behavioral tendencies which energize, select, and direct behavior
towards motive congruent goal states (McClelland, 1985) pre-
dict long-term behavioral trends over time (e.g. McClelland &
Franz, 1992). Operating outside conscious awareness, implicit mo-
tives are assessed by operant, fantasy-based methods such as the
thematic apperception test (TAT; Murray, 1943). Self-attributed
motives are consciously accessible thoughts that an individual
has about their behavior, cognitions (McClelland, 1985), and goals
(Brunstein et al., 1998; Langan-Fox, 1991a, 1991b) and may be
assessed directly via self-report questionnaires. The positive ef-
fects of motive congruence may be due to a reduction in anxiety
caused by motive incongruence (Brunstein et al., 1998). However,
motive congruence is not necessarily a sufficient condition for
positive well-being.
Langens (2007) reported that AI neutralized the beneficial
effects of motive congruence due to the restraint of motivational
impulses and emotional responses.Langan-Fox et al. (2008)found
that, relative to congruent individuals, motive incongruent individ-
uals were less likely to report feeling depressed as they increased
in levels of self-directedness. Self-directedness refers to the ability
of an individual to adapt, regulate and control behavior to fit situ-
ations according to their chosen goals and values (Smith, Duffy,
0191-8869/$ - see front matter 2009 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.doi:10.1016/j.paid.2009.02.005
* Corresponding author. Tel.: +61 3 9214 4619; fax: +61 3 9874 1842.
E-mail address:[email protected](J. Langan-Fox).
Personality and Individual Differences 47 (2009) 99104
Contents lists available at ScienceDirect
Personality and Individual Differences
j o u r n a l h o m e p a g e : w w w . e l s e v i e r . c o m / l o c a t e / p a i d
mailto:[email protected]://www.sciencedirect.com/science/journal/01918869http://www.elsevier.com/locate/paidhttp://www.elsevier.com/locate/paidhttp://www.sciencedirect.com/science/journal/01918869mailto:[email protected] -
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Stewart, Muir, & Blackwood, 2005), and can therefore act as a buf-
fer from the negative effects of motive incongruence.
Self-disclosure and external LOC may also negate the detrimen-
tal effects of motive incongruence by reducing anxiety. Self-disclo-
sure refers to individuals verbal communication of personally
relevant information, thoughts, and feelings in order to let them-
selves be known to others (Wei, Russell, & Zakalik, 2005, p.
602). Self-disclosure is influential in promoting life satisfaction(Kahn & Hessling, 2001) and limiting depression (Berg & McQuinn,
1989). LOC that is, the extent to which people believe that they
have control over their own fate (Ng, Sorensen, & Eby, 2006)-can
be differentiated into internal and external beliefs (Rotter, 1966).
Internals believe that they have more control over their own fate
and are therefore more directive in attempting to control their
external environments. External LOC negatively predicts life satis-
faction (Diener & Lucas, 1999) and positively predicts depression
(Benassi, Sweeney, & Dufour, 1988).
As an extension to Langan-Fox et al. (2008), we propose that:
Hypotheses 1 and 2: nAch, self-attributed achievement motive
(SAM) and self-directedness will interact, such that, relative to con-
gruent individuals, incongruent individuals will demonstrate a
stronger(H1) positive relationship between self-directedness and
life satisfaction, and (H2) negative relationship between self-
directedness and depression. Hypotheses 3 and 4: nAch, SAM and
self-disclosure will interact, such that, relative to congruent indi-
viduals, incongruent individuals will demonstrate a stronger(H3)
positive relationship between self-disclosure and life satisfaction,
and(H4)negative relationship between self-disclosure and depres-
sion.Hypotheses 5 and 6: nAch, SAM and external LOC will interact
to predict life satisfaction and depression, such that, relative to
congruent individuals, incongruent individuals will demonstrate
a stronger(H5)negative relationship between external LOC and life
satisfaction, and (H6) positive relationship between external LOC
and depression.
2. Methods
2.1. Participants and procedure
The first author was given access to The Eugene-Springfield
Community Sample (Goldberg, 2008; see Acknowledgments).
For the sub samples (N= 533) used in the present analyses, the
age ranged between 18 and 83 (M= 50.92, SD= 12.62). Approxi-
mately 96% were Caucasian, 59% were female, and 58% had college
degrees.
2.2. Measures
2.2.1. Predictor variables
nAch was measured via the administration of a standard set(Langan-Fox, 1991a; Langan-Fox & Roth, 1995; Langan-Fox, Deery,
& van Vliet, 1997; Langan-Fox & Grant, 2006, 2007) of five picture
cues from the TAT (seeSmith (1992)in the spring of 2000: (1) a
ship captain talking to a passenger; (2) a man sitting in an office;
(3) a couple sitting on a bench by a river; (4) two women in a lab-
oratory; and (5) two trapeze artists. Stories by participants were
content coded for nAch and reflected according to Winters
(1991)approach. Interscorer agreement has been shown to be high
(.85; see Winter (1973)). SAM was measured using the 10-item
Ambitious (P3) facet of the Temperament and Character Inventory
Revised (TCI-R; Cloninger, 1999) administered in the spring of
1997. Each item was rated on a 5-point scale (1 =definitely false
to 5 =definitely true). An example item is I am a very ambitious
person. The TCI-R has been shown to have high reliability (Jylh& Isomets, 2006).
2.2.2. Moderator variables
Self-directedness was measured using the 40-item Self-Direct-
edness character domain of the TCI-R. An example item is Most
people seem more resourceful than I am (reverse coded). Self-dis-
closure was measured using the six item Attachment/Openness
(RD3) facet TCI-R. An example item is I like to discuss my experi-
ences and feelings openly with friends instead of keeping them to
myself. External LOC was measured with the Powerful Others andChance subscales (each containing 8 items) ofLevensons (1981)
24-item LOC Scale, administered in the summer of 1998. An exam-
ple item is My life is determined by my own actions. The reliabil-
ity of the scale was .81.
2.2.3. Criterion variables
Life satisfaction was assessed using the five-item Satisfaction
with Life Scale (Diener, Emmons, Larsen, & Griffin, 1985) adminis-
tered in the summer of 2001. Each item was rated on a 7-point
scale (1 =strongly disagree to 7 =strongly agree). An example item
is In most ways my life is close to ideal. The internal consistency
of the scale was high (Cronbachs a= .88). Depression was mea-sured using the eight item N3 subscale of the NEO Personality
Inventory Revised (NEO-PI-R;Costa & McCrae, 1992) administered
in the summer of 1994. This scale measures the tendency of indi-viduals to experience depressive affect or mood and may therefore
be regarded as a relatively stable measure of depression. Each item
is rated on a 5-point scale (1 =strongly disagree, 5 =strongly agree).
An example item is Sometimes I feel completely worthless.Costa
and McCrae (1988)have reported ana coefficient of 0.84 and a 6-month testretest reliability of 0.80 for the NEO-PI-R trait depres-
sion scale.
The time sequence of the measured variables was as follows:
depression (summer, 1994), SAM, self-directedness, self-disclosure
(spring, 1997), LOC (summer, 1998), nAch (spring, 2000), life
satisfaction (summer, 2001). The longitudinal manner in which
criterion and predictor measures were administered is not consid-
ered to be a major limitation of the current study given prior
research which supports the temporal stability of the measuredvariables (Cloninger, Svrakic, & Przybeck, 2006; Cummins, 1998;
McClelland et al., 1989; McCrae & Costa, 1994, 2003; Wu, Chen,
& Tsai, 2009).
3. Results
Table 1 shows the correlations between the key predictor,
mediator, and criterion variables.
A hierarchical regression analysis predicting life satisfaction
was performed to test H1, withnAch, SAM, self-directedness, age,
sex and education entered in the first step, followed by the three
two-way interaction terms in Step 2, and the three-way interaction
in Step 3 (Cohen, Cohen, West, & Aiken, 2003). Following a recom-
mendation by Aiken and West (1991), predictor variables werestandardized before their interaction term was calculated. The pre-
dicted three-way interaction was significant, b= .12, seb = .05,
DR2 = .01, DF(1, 470) = 6.02, p < .05 (seeTable 2).
To further probe the three-way interaction, slope difference
tests were applied (Dawson & Richter, 2006) (seeFig. 1). As sug-
gested by Dawson and Richter (2006), one standard deviation
above and below the mean were chosen as high and low levels
of respective variables. The joint influence of high nAch and low
SAM was associated with a stronger relationship between self-
directedness and life satisfaction than the combination of lownAch
and low SAM, t= 2.26,p< .05. In addition, lownAch and high SAM
demonstrated a stronger relationship than lownAch and low SAM,
t= 3.37, p < .01.
H2was tested via a second hierarchical regression analysis pre-dicting depression, withnAch, SAM, self-directedness, age, sex and
100 J. Langan-Fox et al. / Personality and Individual Differences 47 (2009) 99104
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education entered in the first step. The predicted three-way inter-
action was significant, b= .67, seb= .23, DR2 = .01, DF (1, 470) =
6.02, p< .05 (seeTable 2). The joint influence of low nAch and high
SAM was associated with a stronger relationship between self-
directedness and depression than low nAch and low SAM,
t= 2.06, p < .05. High nAch and low SAM also showed a stronger
relationship than high nAch and high SAM, t= 2.07, p< .05 (see
Fig. 1).
H3was tested with a hierarchical regression analysis predicting
life satisfaction, with nAch, SAM, self-disclosure, age, sex, and
education entered in the first step. The predicted three-way
interaction was significant, b= .15, seb= .06, DR2 = .01, DF
(1,470) = 6.74,p< .05 (seeTable 3). The joint influence of high lev-
Table 1
Zero-order correlations among primary variables of interest.
1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. 9.
1.nAch
2. SAM .02
3. Age .05 .09
4. Education .09* .07 .00
5. Sex .02 .12** .03 .20**
6. Self-directedness .09 .22** .13** .15** .07 7. LOC (external) .02 .14** .01 .06 .01 .45**
8. Self-disclosure .09 .04 .02 .02 .22** .20** .12**
9. Depression .05 .17** .16** .10* .13** .55** .30** .02
10. Life Satisfaction .10* .15 .08 .16** .02 .39** .26** .12** .47**
Note:Correlations are Pearson product-moment correlations. p < .05; p < .01; SAM = self-attributed achievement motive; LOC = locus of control.
Table 2
Hierarchical regression analysis ofnAch, SAM, age, sex, education and self-directed-
ness on life satisfaction and depression.
Life satisfaction Depression
b SEb b b SEb b
Step 1
nAch .06 .05 .05 .12 .25 .02SAM .08 .06 .06 .32 .25 .05
Age .00 .00 .02 .04 .02 .09*
Sex .02 .11 .01 2.03 .51 .16***
Education .07 .03 .09* .07 .15 .02
Self-directedness .46 .06 .36*** 3 .3 4 .25 .54***
Step 2
nAch SAM .05 .06 .04 .02 .26 .00
nAch Self-directedness .04 .05 .08 .07 .24 .01
SAM Self-directedness .09 .05 .08 .02 .23 .00
Step 3
nAch SAM Self-directedness .12 .05 .11* .67 .23 .12**
Note:Life satisfactionR2 = .17 for Step 1:DR2 = .00 for Step 2: DR2 = .01 for Step 3.
DepressionR2 = .34 for Step 1:DR2 = .00 for Step 2: DR2 = .01 for Step 3.
(ps< .05) p< .05; p< .01. p< .001; SAM = self-attributed achievement motive.
7
8
9
10
11
12
13
14
15
16
Low Self
Directedness
High Self
Directedness
Depression
(1) High nAch,
High SAM
(2) High nAch,
Low SAM
(3) Low nAch,
High SAM
(4) Low nAch,
Low SAM
3.7
3.9
4.1
4.3
4.5
4.7
4.9
5.1
5.3
Low Self
Directedness
High Self
Directedness
LifeSatisfaction
(1) High nAch,
High SAM
(2) High nAch,
Low SAM
(3) Low nAch,
High SAM
(4) Low nAch,
Low SAM
Fig. 1. Moderating influence of self-directedness on relationships between implicit and SAM, life satisfaction and depression.
Table 3
Hierarchical regression analysis ofnAch, SAM, age, sex, education and self-disclosure
on life satisfaction and depression.
Life satisfaction Depression
b SEb b b SEb b
Step 1
nAch .08 .06 .06 .27 .29 .04
SAM .19 .06 .15** 1.04 .29 .17***
Age .01 .00 .07 .08 .02 .17***
Sex .08 .12 .03 1.32 .61 .11*
Education .11 .04 .14** .21 .18 .06
Self-disclosure .14 .06 .11* .24 .29 .04
Step 2nAch SAM .04 .06 .03 .12 .31 .02
nAch Self-disclosure .04 .06 .03 .15 .30 .02
SAM Self-disclosure .07 .06 .05 .19 .29 .03
Step 3
nAch SAM Self-disclosure .15 .06 .12* .77 .29 .13**
Note:Life satisfactionR2 = .07 for Step 1: DR2 = .00 for Step 2: DR2 = .01 for Step 3.
DepressionR2 = .08 for Step 1:DR2 = .00 for Step 2: DR2 = .02 for Step 3.
(ps< .05) p< .05. p< .01. p< .001; SAM = self-attributed achievement motive.
J. Langan-Fox et al. / Personality and Individual Differences 47 (2009) 99104 101
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els ofnAch and low levels of SAM was associated with a stronger
relationship between self-disclosure and life satisfaction than the
combination of lownAch and low SAM,t= 2.06,p< .05. In addition,
low nAch and high SAM showed a stronger relationship than low
nAch and low SAM, t= 2.88, p < .01 (seeFig. 2).
H4 was tested via a hierarchical regression analysis predicting
depression, with nAch, SAM, self-disclosure, age, sex, and educa-
tion entered in the first step. The predicted three-way interaction
reached significance, b= .77, seb= .29, DR2 = .02, DF (1,
439) = 7.13, p < .01 (seeTable 3).
The joint influence of high levels ofnAch and low levels of SAM
were associated with a stronger relationship between self-disclo-
sure and depression than low nAch and low SAM, t= 2.13,
p< .05. HighnAch and low SAM was also associated with a stron-
ger relationship than highnAch and high SAM,t= 2.33,p< .05 (seeFig. 2).
H5was tested with a hierarchical regression analysis predicting
life satisfaction, withnAch, SAM, LOC, age, sex and education en-
tered in the first step. The predicted three-way interaction reached
significance, b= .07, seb= .03, DR2 = .01, DF(1, 455) = 7.45, p < .01
(seeTable 4). The joint influence of high levels ofnAch and low lev-
els of SAM was associated with a stronger relationship between
13
13.5
14
14.5
15
15.5
16
16.5
17
17.5
18
Low Self-
disclosure
High Self-
disclosure
Depression
(1) High nAch,
High SAM
(2) High nAch,
Low SAM
(3) Low nAch,
High SAM
(4) Low nAch,
Low SAM
3.5
3.7
3.9
4.1
4.3
4.5
4.7
Low Self-
disclosure
High Self-
disclosure
LifeSatisfaction
(1) High nAch,
High SAM
(2) High nAch,
Low SAM
(3) Low nAch,
High SAM
(4) Low nAch,
Low SAM
Fig. 2. Moderating influence of self-disclosure on relationships between implicit and SAM, life satisfaction and depression.
Table 4
Hierarchical regression analysis of nAch, SAM, age, sex, education and LOC on life
satisfaction and depression.
Life satisfaction Depression
b SEb b b SEb b
Step 1
nAch .08 .06 .06 .23 .28 .04
SAM .14 .06 .11* .84 .28 .14**
Age .01 .00 .07 .07 .02 .16**
Sex .15 .12 .06 1.23 .57 .10*
Education .10 .03 .13** .27 .17 .07
LOC .18 .03 .15** .96 .15 .28***
Step 2
nAch SAM .06 .06 .04 .04 .29 .01
nAch
LOC
.04 .03
.06
.04 .14
.01SAM LOC .02 .03 .04 .02 .14 .01
Step 3
nAch SAM LOC .07 .03 .12** .27 .13 -.09*
Note:Life satisfactionR2 = .11 for Step 1:DR2 = .01 for Step 2: DR2 = .01 for Step 3.
DepressionR2 = .15 for Step 1:DR2 = .00 for Step 2: DR2 = .01 for Step 3.
(ps< .05) p< .05. p< .01. p< .001; SAM = self-attributed achievement motive;
LOC = locus of control.
3.2
3.4
3.6
3.8
4
4.2
4.4
Low LOC
(external)
High LOC
(external)
LifeSatisfaction
(1) High nAch,
High SAM
(2) High nAch,
Low SAM
(3) Low nAch,
High SAM
(4) Low nAch,
Low SAM
13
14
15
16
17
18
19
Low LOC
(external)
High LOC
(external)
Depression
(1) High nAch,
High SAM
(2) High nAch,
Low SAM
(3) Low nAch,
High SAM
(4) Low nAch,
Low SAM
Fig. 3. Moderating influence of external LOC on relationships between implicit and SAM, life satisfaction and depression.
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self-directedness and life satisfaction than lownAch and low SAM,
t= 2.54, p< .05. Low nAch and high SAM were also associated
with a stronger relationship than low nAch and low SAM,
t= 2.06, p < .05.
H6 was tested via a hierarchical regression analysis predicting
depression, withnAch, SAM, LOC, age, sex, and education entered
in the first step. The predicted three-way interaction was signifi-
cant, b=
.27, seb= .13,D
R
2
= .01,D
F (1, 427) = 4.04, p< .05 (seeTable 4).
Analyses revealed no significant slope differences. However,
trends were in a similar direction to those of self-directedness
and self-disclosure, with the joint influence of low levels ofnAch
and high levels of SAM being associated with a stronger relation-
ship between LOC and depression than the combination of low
nAch and low SAM, t= 1.37, n.s. (seeFig. 3).
4. Discussion
Recent research has shown that associations between motive
congruence and well-being may be moderated by self-directedness
and AI (Langan-Fox et al., 2008; Langens, 2007). The current re-
search extends these findings, showing that motive incongruence
may be moderated by self-directedness, self-disclosure and exter-
nal LOC to influence levels of psychological well-being. Three un-
ique contributions to the literature have been made, with the
current paper: (a) examining self-directedness, self-disclosure
and external LOC as potential moderators of relationships between
nAch and SAM incongruence, and psychological well-being; (b)
advancing research on the effects of motive incongruence relating
to two dependant variables; and (c) increasing our understanding
of how psychological well-being can be promoted, particularly
for motive incongruent individuals.
Building on research by Langens (2007), the current paper
found self-directedness, self-disclosure and external LOC to neu-
tralize the negative effects (i.e. low psychological well-being) of
motive incongruence. Furthermore, the current findings substanti-
ate previous research by Langan-Fox et al. (2008) which foundself-directedness to moderate the relationship between motive
incongruence and depression (measured with the Center for Epide-
miologic Studies Depression scale;Radloff, 1977) The fact that the
current findings revealed a similar pattern of interaction despite a
different measurement of depression provides evidence for the
validity of the hypothesized assumption.
WhileLangens (2007)demonstrated that congruence of implicit
and SAMs was related to a more positive mood for participants low
in AI, the current study found that different types of motive
(in)congruence were uniquely associated with psychological
well-being. Specifically, it was found that for those possessing
low levels of bothnAch and SAM (i.e. congruent absence individ-
uals; cf. Bing, LeBreton, Davison, Migetz, & James, 2007), psycho-
logical well-being remained relatively unchanged throughoutdifferent levels of the three moderators relative to motive incon-
gruent individuals. Incongruent individuals wellbeing is increased
due to the mechanisms by which self-directedness, self-disclosure
and external LOC reduce anxiety. This is especially so compared
with congruent absence individuals due to a main effect of SAM
on well-being. It is therefore critical to explicate the type of
(in)congruency when considering the moderation of motive
(in)congruency on wellbeing. The present study is the first to
empirically clarify and substantiate this theoretical distinction
(e.g. see Bing et al. (2007), Borstein (1998, 2002), Langens and
McClelland (1997)) in the context of the moderation of motive
(in)congruency effects on well-being.
In summary, our findings suggest that personality development
may reduce vulnerability to poor psychological well-being bydecreasing anxiety caused by motive incongruence. Future re-
search should be directed towards further examining the interplay
between various implicit and self-attributed motives (e.g. affilia-
tion; seeSchler, Job, Frhlich, and Brandsttter (2008)) on health
and wellbeing outcomes, as well as other potential moderators of
these relationships. One limitation of the current study is that
our findings do not allow inferences about causal processes under-
pinning the relationship between our measured variables. For
example, a specifically designed longitudinal study needs to beconstructed to allow researchers to empirically test the notion that
self-directedness acts as a mechanism to protect against the nega-
tive effects of motive incongruence (i.e. low psychological well-
being). From a clinical perspective, the research may serve to in-
crease practitioners awareness of the mechanisms that lead to
low psychological well-being. Long-term studies with the potential
for causal investigation should thus direct future research in this
area.
Acknowledgements
We would like to gratefully acknowledge Professor Lewis R.
Goldberg for his generosity in giving access to the Eugene-Spring-
field Community data set to the first author, and also to Maureen
Barkley at the Oregon Research Institute for providing files for
analysis.
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