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Tools and Resources for Inclusive Education: Teacher training toolkit Handicap International, 2014

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Inclusive practices in the classroom

1. Welcoming Classrooms 2. The role of the teacher 3. Different learning styles 4. Understanding different viewpoints 5. Evaluating learning 6. Teaching spaces 7. Positive discipline 8. Child to Child approach


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1. Welcoming Classrooms

An inclusive classroom is a welcoming and friendly classroom in which children are stimulated to learn, and where values such as mutual respect and shared responsibility are important. Creating a welcoming and friendly classroom is not only the responsibility of the teacher. Children should be actively involved in creating a welcoming classroom as it is important that they have a sense of ownership of the classroom. The following practical ‘measurements’ or ‘activities’ teachers can undertake, together with their pupils, to make their classroom a place in which everybody feels welcome and valued. Example classroom activity 1: Children are paired up, and are asked to find out more about their partner by asking questions such as ‘how old are you’, ‘what do you like’, ‘what is your favourite food’, etc. They must use the answers to present their partner to the rest of the class. The presentation can be done by the use of a poem or songs.

Example classroom activity 2: The teacher asks questions and children write their answers on a piece of paper that will be collected by the teacher. The teacher reads out loud the answers and children have to guess who the teacher is talking about. Questions could be ‘what is your favourite colour’, ‘how old are you’, ‘how many brothers and sisters do you have’, etc. Getting to know each other It is not only important for the teacher to know his/her pupils, but also for the children to get to know each other. At the start of a new school year the teacher should make time for activities where the children and teacher get to know each other better. This does not have to take a lot of time, but will give a chance to the children to say something

Expected outcomes: • Participants know some strategies to make their classroom welcoming

and friendly and can put them into practice. • Participants understand how to involve children in making the

classroom welcoming to all


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about themselves, and in which they can tell the teacher what they like or what they don’t like; what they are good at or not so good at. Doing this as a group activity will also give children with an impairment the chance to express their needs. At the same time, the activities will show children that everybody is different and that each individual has needs and strengths which are equally important and must be respected by others. The children will also learn that in spite of our differences; we are more alike than different. Choosing classroom rules

In the ‘traditional’ classrooms rules are often imposed by the teacher and pupils have to obey. They are not involved in elaborating the classroom rules, and rules are the same for all classes within the same school. In an inclusive classroom the classroom rules are decided in collaboration with the pupils at the start of the school year. By involving the children in this process, a sense of ownership and responsibility is created among the children. Children should also determine the consequences for not respecting the rules. It is important that consequences are fair and relevant. If children are actively involved deciding the rules and consequences; chances are that they will respect and accept them better then when they are imposed on them. Teachers will notice that children will come up with the same rules as they had in mind. If there is another rule that the teacher wants to add, it should be raised during the discussion by asking the children “do you think … is allowed?” It is important to remind that even though each classroom may have their own rules; the children still need to abide to the general rules of the school.

Some practical guidelines:

• The same classroom rules should apply to all children including those with disabilities. For example: the rule “we don’t talk during the lesson” tells children what not to do, but does not tell them what they can do. A more positive way of phrasing this rule is “we listen when somebody is talking”.

• The rules should be written in a ‘positive way’ telling children what they should do, not what they are not allowed to do.

• The classroom rules can be written on a big paper which can be decorated by the children and displayed on the classroom wall.

• Children can ‘sign’ the classroom rules by writing their name under it and making it an official contract.

• The rules can be made more visual by posting drawing that illustrates the rule in the classroom. Children can draw the picture or make a cartoon.

• Classroom rules should be displayed in the classroom for all to see. • Children can copy the rules in their notebooks, and can be brailed for children

with a visual impairment.


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• For children with severe learning disabilities, behavioral problems or autism, it might be difficult to understand all those rules at once. The teacher could simplify the rules without changing the content and write them on a paper that they can keep with them or make up symbols and hand signs.

• A ‘reward system’ to encourage positive behavior can be created. When the child has completed 4/5 tasks and stayed focused throughout, they receive a reward, such as 10 minutes play time with a favourite toy/game. Colour in a spot, or make a tick, each time they complete one task.

Reward Chart

Routine activities Routine activities such as small games and songs can be used to start the day, as a transition between two lessons, or to end a part of the day. The activities make it clear for children that one activity is ending, and that another one will start, giving them the chance to release some energy or to re-energise between two lessons. Another way of creating routine activities in the classroom is to use certain teaching methods at a certain time of the day. For example, children could do group work in the morning, which is then followed by individual work. In the afternoon, teachers could use more concrete materials to engage the children actively in lessons. Children often feel more secure when they know what will happen. The structure is especially important for children with autism or learning disabilities. It should be kept in mind that for some children it might be very confusing if the daily routine activities are changed without telling them beforehand. Simple visual timetables can help:

Reading Lunch Football


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Sharing responsibilities The teacher can handover certain classroom tasks to the children so that they share responsibility. Every learner should get a turn and tasks can be done in pairs for children who need more support. It is important that individual abilities are taken into account, and that tasks can be adapted if necessary. Examples of tasks that could be given to the children are:

• Distributing and collecting materials • Marking attendance • Keeping records • Helping new students to find their way around the school • Organising small activities between lessons • Cleaning the blackboard • Sweeping the floor

To visualise the tasks a ‘chore chart’ can be made that is displayed on the classroom wall. The chart should display the different days of the week with the various tasks that need to be carried out by the children. Names of the children can be written on individual reusable cards which can be stuck next to the task to indicate which day there are going to do which task. The tasks on the chart need to be represented by using both text and pictures. A nice looking classroom A tidy and attractive classroom is a pleasure to work in. A teacher can make the classroom nicer and inviting by displaying teaching material and the learners’ work on the wall or around the classroom in an organised way. The ‘feel’ of the classroom also depends on the way the seating and storage is arranged. The teachers should ask the children how they would like to decorate the classroom and give them the responsibility of keeping the classroom. Encouraging learners A good teacher encourages and support children in their learning. The performance of a child depends greatly on the relationship they have with their teacher. Children need to feel supported by their teacher and need to feel that the teacher believes in their abilities. Unfortunately, many teachers give negative rather than positive comments such as “look how many answers you got wrong “or “You are not a good student.” These negative comments do not tell the children what they should do and can easily destroy the child’s


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self-esteem. In order to create a productive and friendly atmosphere in the classroom, teachers should take time to think about how they can give constructive feedback to children and provide positive reinforcement. Examples of encouraging words and actions include:

• Acknowledging effort even if the work is not up to standard • smiling and a positive attitude • giving a thumbs-up or pat on the shoulder • displaying the work • Praising the child verbally e/g/ saying, “well done”.

There is more information about positive reinforcement in further topics.

Further reading:

• UNESCO (2004) Embracing diversity: Toolkit for creating Inclusive, Learning-Friendly Environments. Bangkok: UNESCO Bangkok.

• UNICEF (2009) Child Friendly Schools Manual. USA: UNICEF • Raising Voices (2009) The good school toolkit. Kampala: Raising

voices. http://www.raisingvoices.org/children/good_school_toolkit.php

http://www.raisingvoices.org/children/good_school_toolkit.php�


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2. The role of the teacher

Preparation: Select and print images on ‘learner-centered’ and ‘teacher-centered’ behaviours. Instructions:

• Divide participants into small groups and give each group a copy of the images

on ‘learner-centred’ and ‘teacher-centred’ behaviours. • Explain to participants that they have to ‘make sense’ of the pictures and identify

the type of behaviours represented in the left-hand column (‘teacher-centred’) compared to the ones in the right-hand column (‘learner-centred’).

• After a few minutes, ask each group to explain their interpretation of one or two

pictures.

• Afterwards, during the plenary discussion, explain that in the inclusive and participatory classroom there is a shift from a ‘teacher-centered’ to a ‘learner-centered’ model.

• The process of teaching and learning becomes very important. Describe how you

used it for this activity.

For example, you could have given them a text to read about the different behaviours but you preferred to use pictures and asked them to ‘make sense’ of them.

Expected outcomes: • Teachers will understand the difference between traditional teaching

and facilitation of learning. • Teachers will understand the difference between learner-centred and

teacher-centred behaviours • Teachers will take up the role of facilitator in their classroom


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The process itself was important, not only their final answers. You can ask them how they would adapt and use this technique and think of different examples of teaching the same content in different ways.

• Explain that the teacher contributes to the holistic development of the child, by

allowing them to learn on their own.

• Ask participants what holistic development means. After getting comments, explain that it is possible to talk about different types of development, but that it is crucial to combine all the different aspects together, and think about “the whole child”. In other words, all aspects of the child’s skills, character, personality, abilities and difficulties should be considered at the same time.

• The role of the teacher is to be a facilitator and to guide children as they learn. This is the overall aim of a learner-centred teacher. It is not about the teacher listening to their own voice, and wanting all the children to sit quietly and obediently as they speak!

• It is true that a child needs to learn to sit and listen to the teacher, but if true learning is to happen, that child also needs to engage with the topic being taught and truly understand it. This can only happen if the teacher is able to respond to the learner’s needs, and guide them to discover the topic, by group work, giving exercises and examples, and demonstrating concepts using objects/ pictures and real life examples wherever possible. This is a truly learner-centred teacher!


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3. Different Learning Styles

Activity 1

• Ask participant to think about which teaching methods were used : o When they were at primary school o When they were studying to become a teacher o During this current training o When they are teaching in their classrooms.

• Ask participants to share their answers and write them on the board • Ask participants which of the given teaching methods helped them to understand

and learn better.

Activity 2

• Explain different ways of learning by using the different types of intelligence. • Present the names of the different types of intelligence • Present the definitions of each type of intelligence but in a different order. Ask

participants to link the definition to the right type of intelligence. • Ask participants if they have an idea of what type of intelligence they use the

most in learning.

Activity 3

• Put the different types of intelligence on the wall across the room. Give participants cards describing one particular way of learning.

• Ask participants to go and stand next to the corresponding type of intelligence that they think they have, and explain why.

Expected outcomes: • To help participants to reflect on their own way of learning • To help participants reflect on children’s learning • Participants will understand each individual learns in different way • Participants will understand the importance of using different teaching

methods


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Activity 4

• Divide participants in groups. • Give each group a subject of a lesson. Ask participants to search for different

teaching activities for each of the types of intelligence. • Different subjects could be: the first three letters of the alphabet, multiplication by

10, the 7 continents of the world, and different types of animals…


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4. Understanding different viewpoints

Material: Viewpoints / A ball

Activity 1 Preparation: Put on side of the training room a sign saying “agree”. On the other side of the room a sign “disagree”. Instructions:

• Ask participants to go to the middle of the room. • Tell them you are going to read out loud a quote or a sentence related to inclusive

education and disability and that they will have to decide if they agree or not. Tell them to move to the side of the room with the corresponding sign. People who are not sure about their answer can stay in the middle.

• Explain to participants that there are no good or wrong answers. It is important they do not follow the others as they might be asked to justify their opinion according to where they are standing. They will be allowed to move during the discussion of each statement if issues arise that challenge their original opinion.

• Read each sentence out loud and give people some time to consider their opinion and take their position.

• When participants make their choice and have moved to the sides of the room, ask one person from each group to explain why he or she agrees or not.

• Repeat this with other statements. • Make sure you have a co-facilitator who can take notes of the answers and of the

discussions that follow. • Facilitate a debriefing after the activity to discuss the issues upon which there

was consensus, and also discuss issues that divided the group.

Expected outcomes: • Participants take position towards issues related to inclusive education

and they can motivate their opinion. • For participants to discuss / debate about inclusive education with a

focus on disability • For trainers to check participants’ understanding.


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Activity 2 Preparation: Arrange chairs in a circle (enough for all the participants). Instructions:

• Explain that each participant should throw the ball to someone new. When they throw the ball they should give one idea or reason why inclusive education is important, or give an advantage of inclusive education.

• Each participant should try to share a new idea or example. • As facilitator, write each of these ideas or reasons on the board. • Once all ideas have been recorded, invite the participants to group together those

ideas which are similar and give a title to each group. Activity 3 Preparation: Copy the two viewpoints (see below) for the participants. Put a sign “A” on one side of the room, sign “B” on the other side of the room. • Viewpoint A - In every society across the world there will always be some children

who have special needs. These children have particular problems that prevent them from learning and developing like other children. These children need special teaching in response to their problems. It is best to teach children with similar problems together. Separate special schools are the best places to meet the special needs of these children. Teachers need extra training to be able to teach these children.

• Viewpoint B - Every child has different learning needs. Any child may experience difficulties in school. Such difficulties can point to ways in which teaching can be improved. These improvements lead to better learning conditions for all children. The child is not the problem. The education system is the problem. Every child is an individual. Teachers need to be flexible so they can meet the needs of every child in their class, whatever difficulties they have.

Instructions: • Ask participants to read silently the two viewpoints towards education for children

with disabilities and ask them to decide which one they agree with the most. • Tell trainers to go stand at the side of the room according to which viewpoint they

have chosen. • Ask persons from both groups to motivate their opinion, and let participants

debate. If participants change their opinion, they can change sides. • There are no good or wrong answers! As a trainer, you should not take a position.


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5. Evaluating learning

As mentioned earlier, evaluating learning is a continuous process and informs learning and teaching. The teacher can decide how to prepare lessons and what teaching strategies to use. The information can be gathered through formal or informal assessments. Formal assessments include standardised tests, state exams and tests or tasks drawn-up by the teacher. Assessment can be done in an informal way by observing the child, by listening to what the child says, by looking at the work the child does and asking the child questions. All the information gathered through assessment will help teachers to plan their teaching according to individual needs. The following information should be gathered:

• What does the child know and what can the child do?

• What does the child not know?

• What can he not do?

• What is the child interested in?

• What are the child’s everyday experiences?

• What is his or her preferred learning style?

Expected outcomes:

• Participants will differentiate different types of evaluation of learning • Participants will understand the importance of evaluating learning • Participants will know how to adapt evaluations to specific needs of

children with disabilities.


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Different ways to evaluate learning Assessment type Purpose Examples Continuous assessment To know what the child

knows, understands and can do. To follow up the learning and see the child’s progress.

Teacher makes observations during tasks and exercises and judges about how well the child is doing. What has the child learned? What did he understand well?

Evaluation Overall judgement of the child’s learning based on continuous assessment at the end of semester, term or year

After a certain period, for example at the end of the term, the teacher can use his observations from the continuous assessment to formulate a more global evaluation of the child'

Testing Usually comes at the end of the topic to find out what learner has learned – mostly related to theoretical knowledge. These are usually written and take place at the end of year or cycle. The feedback on the exam is a grade with little to know constructive feedback on how to improve.

Wide range of questions: multiple-choice, true-false, essays, matching

Assessment tasks To find out what learners know and can do. Teacher is checking to see if learners have met objectives of lessons. Children often learn a lot from good assessment tasks

writing story, making model, solving problems, role play


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Possible adaptations to make for children with specific needs Impairment / challenge Adaptation Rationale Hearing impairment

• Reduce the penalty for spelling.

• Exemption from learning a 2nd or 3rd language.

• Have difficulty hearing subtle differences in sounds such as ‘b’ and ‘p’ and often struggle with literacy.

• They should not be penalised for incorrect spelling if the objective of the lesson is to understand a topic in science.

Low vision

• Give extra time according to the severity of their sight e.g. 15min extra per hour.

• Increase the size of the font and use more spacing.

• Use simplified drawings with high contrast colours.

• Let the child use the assistive devices they are accustomed to using.

• It takes longer for the child to read text and interpret pictures.

• Improve visibility.

Blind Braille users

• Extra time or break the test up into parts.

• Convert text into Braille or use a reader and a scribe.

• Bigger space to work • If the child uses

screen-reading software and can type properly, let them use a computer.

It takes longer to Braille and answer and extra space is needed for the equipment.

Physical impairment

• Allow regular breaks in between and

Sitting for a long time is uncomfortable and child


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allocate extra time accordingly.

• If the child writes slowly allow extra time or provide a reader and scribe.

• If the child has difficulties with writing caused by reduced motor skills you could let the child respond to questions orally and write his answers yourself, or ask an assistant to write down what the child says.

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might need to be catheterised or go to the toilet.

Intellectually challenged/learning difficulties

• Simplify the language and use pictures to enhance understanding.

• Use more practical than written tasks.

• Provide and reader and scribe.

• Give extra time and add regular breaks.

• Enlarge the font and use clear spacing.

Children with learning difficulties often find it very difficult to process language, both verbal and written, and it is important to test their understanding of the concepts they are learning (e.g. in maths or science) rather than the language that is being used.

Speech difficulties (for example a child with Cerebral Palsy)

• Limit oral exams, but give the possibility to write the answers.

• Use pictures, objects, or text-cards the child can point at.

It is important that the child is being tested for their ability in the subject, rather than their ability to talk (or write) about the subject.


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6. Teaching spaces

Teaching spaces refer to the physical space where the learning activities are organised such as classrooms. But teaching does not always have to happen in the classroom. Depending on the subject or the activity that is planned for, teaching can be organised outside. For example; a biology lesson about soil or trees can best be illustrated outside. Outside there is often more space to move around. Different teaching styles do require different teaching spaces or different physical classroom arrangements. The physical arrangement of a classroom will not, by itself, guarantee effective learning and teaching, but can enhance it significantly. The physical arrangement of the classroom can influence student’s behaviour and learning. The classroom arrangement should take into account the following:

• learning goals • teaching method • distractions • furniture • individual needs (e.g a child with low vision should be seated at the front of the

class) Everybody is familiar with the ‘traditional’ setting of a classroom in which children’s desks are set in rows and are facing the blackboard which is in front of the classroom as is the teachers’ desk. This layout does not promote exchange between children or does not encourage active participation. Attention is directed to the teacher, and to what is written on the blackboard. The teacher is shown by the circle below.

Expected outcomes:

• Participants will understand how the classroom layout can influence participation and learning

• Participants can plan for small changes in their classroom


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To encourage active and participatory involvement of the children in their learning there is a need to step away from the traditional classroom lay out. A few examples: Children sitting in groups: Ideal for working in group, children can easily follow instructions of the teacher, and can see all members of their group. There is space in the middle of the table to display work for all to see. The group can discuss more easily with minimal disturbance to the other groups. Children sitting in half a circle: This setting is useful when the teacher or learner wants to give a presentation, role-play, demonstration or lead a discussion with the whole class. The children can see the easily see the focal person and blackboard. Children sitting in a circle: This position is good for big group discussions, for certain games, demonstrations, etc. The teacher can also be in seated in the circle.


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When choosing a physical arrangement of the classroom teachers should keep in mind the following questions:

• Can all children, including those who are using a wheelchair, easily enter the classroom?

• Can all children, including those who are using a wheelchair, easily move around in the classroom?

• Does the seating position play to the strengths of a child with an impairment and take into account other special need?

Remember to plan the time needed to re-arrange the class for different activities. You can ask the children to help move the table and chairs. This will help them take responsibility for making the classroom more pleasant and develop a sense of ownership. In the beginning, the children might find the task or rearranging the class strange and it might cause some restlessness, but be assured that they will settle into the new way of working. The lighting of the learning space can greatly influence learning and participation, especially for children with sensory impairments. The child with poor eyesight should be positioned in a way that makes the board most visible. For, example a child who is far sighted would benefit from sitting to the back of the class, while a child with sight in the left eye only might prefer sitting to the right of the class. The glare in the classroom should be minimised for children with hearing impairments to increase visibility of the speaker or signer. A dark classroom might keep the room cool in summer, might an overly dark classroom can create a sombre mood or decrease visibility. Other visibility issues to consider include:

• the contrast on the blackboard • the print and contrast of posters, labelling and signage • marking of hazardous material

Audibility In large classes, the background noise level can be very distracting, especially for children with learning difficulties, ADHD and hearing impairments. Using curtains and the flooring can help to absorb background noise. You can use rubber balls on the feet of tables and chairs can reduce shuffling noise. Encourage teacher to be creative about using paint, curtains, mirrors, carpets and scrap material creatively to enhance the visibility, audibility and the layout of the class. Ask the participants to give suggestions.


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7. Positive discipline

Discipline is a big area of concern for teachers. Every day, teachers have to deal with children in their classroom, who might not always be listening to what they say or able to settle in the classroom. Certain children might disturb the lesson, they may not behave in the way the teacher wishes, and they might refuse to do what is asked of them. Teachers try to correct the ‘bad behaviour’ by using different disciplinary measures and more often than not children will respond positively for at least a short time. Recurrent unwanted behaviour is a more challenging issue for teachers. Certain children continue to behave badly despite several warnings and punishment from their teacher. These children are often labelled as having ‘behavioural difficulties’, without anyone investigating the true causes behind the behaviours. So, do those children really have behavioural difficulties, or could the problem lay with the teacher? Perhaps the discipline methods are ineffective or the teacher does not know and understand the child well enough to support their learning style? In fact, most children in the classrooms do not have behavioural difficulties which teachers can’t handle, so time should be taken to look at what the causes are of these difficulties, in order to respond to them in an adequate and positive way. First discuss the existing disciplinary methods that are used in their classroom. Try to identify the teachers’ reactions towards certain behaviours, and the response from the child. Make the distinction between ‘punishment’ and ‘discipline’ to illustrate why the current disciplinary methods used are not very successful and sustainable.1

1 UNESCO, ILFE specialised booklet n°1 – positive discipline in the classroom

Many teachers confuse discipline with punishment.

Expected outcomes:

• Participants understand the difference between punishment and discipline,

• Participants be able to describe and put into practice positive discipline,

• Participants understand the causes of challenging behaviour and how they can effectively respond to it.


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The following explanations will help to clarify the difference: Punishment = An action or penalty that is imposed on a person for breaking a rule or showing incorrect aims to control behaviour through negative means such as using verbal reprimands and disapproval severe physical or emotional pain as in corporal punishment. Discipline = Teaching the child how to obey rules or code of behaviour. Discipline aims to develop a child’s behaviour, by letting them understand their own behaviour, taking initiative, being responsible for their choices and respecting themselves and others. Punishment focuses on the misbehaviour and does not help the child to behave better in the future. Discipline is when the child takes responsibility for his own behaviour and he is taught how to behave better in the future. It helps children to2

• learn from their behaviour :

• make better choices • prevent situations in which bad behaviour occurs • stop a certain behaviour • understand there are consequences for their behaviour

Discipline is3 Punishment is: : Giving children positive alternatives

Being told what NOT to do

Acknowledging or rewarding efforts and good behaviour

Reacting harshly to misbehaviour

When children follow rules because they are discussed and agreed upon

When children follow rules because they are threatened or bribed

Consistent, firm guidance Controlling, shaming, ridiculing Positive, respectful of the child Negative and disrespectful of

the child Physically and verbally non-violent

Physically and verbally abusive and aggressive

2 Training manual HI IE Indonesia 3 Positive discipline in the inclusive, learning-friendly classroom : a guide for teachers and teacher educators. ILFE toolkit – specialized booklet 1, UNESCO Bangkok (2006), p.25


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Positive discipline steps While punishment is a single act, positive discipline is a four-step process that recognizes and rewards appropriate behaviour in the following manner: • Step 1: The appropriate behaviour is described: “Everyone quieten down now,

please.” • Step 2: Clear reasons are provided: “We are going to start our mathematics

lesson and everyone needs to listen closely.” This means that quietening down quickly will show respect for others. It is a good example of treating others as you would like them to treat you.

• Step 3: Acknowledgement is requested: “Do you see why quietening down is so

important?” Now we can all get on with the lesson and it’s going to be fun! • Step 4: The correct behaviour is reinforced: eye contact, a nod, a smile, an

extra five minutes of play time at the end of the day, extra credit points, having a success mentioned in front of the class or school.Social recognition is the greatest award. When rewards are used, they should always be immediate and small, yet gratifying.

This process is effective for individual children. Moreover, for those of you who are working in large classes, it can also be effective for groups of children. The “trick” is to make the children feel they are on a “winning team” (being the class as a whole) and to praise each child’s efforts in being a good team member.

Remember, catch students doing the right thing and reward them immediately. This is the core of positive discipline. Challenging behaviour Children do not ‘plan’ to misbehave. They do not misbehave to make teachers’ work difficult. When they do misbehave, usually they do it for a reason. Some of the most common reasons for misbehaviour are:4

• the work is to easy or too difficult for the child

• the work is not interesting, the child is bored • the teaching methods are not responding to the child’s learning style • the expectations are not clear or are unreasonable • the child has low self-esteem, or cannot communicate well with others

4 ILFE booklet positive discipline p39


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• the child is hungry and tired • the child has come from a bad experience at home that morning (or in general) • The child may experience physical discomfort e.g. worms, constipation.

All these reasons may cause the child to be discouraged to participate in the classroom. By misbehaving they are actually communicating to the teacher one of the above reasons. Only they are not saying it explicitly. A first step in managing ‘challenging behaviour’ is for the teacher to find out what the reason is for the child’s behaviour, in order to respond to it in an adequate way. Another ‘cause’ of ‘misbehaviour’ can be that the child is not feeling appreciated and valued by the teacher or by the other children. If children feel ‘ignored’ or ‘excluded’ they might try to get attention by misbehaving. Whether or not certain behaviour is been repeated will depends a lot on the immediate reaction and feedback a child gets. Behaviour is strongly controlled by the consequences and depending on whether the consequence is negative or positive for the child, the behaviour will decrease or increase. This is true for misbehaviour but also for good behaviour. Too often bad behaviour is encouraged because teachers are not aware that they are actually reacting with a positive consequence for the child. Also it happens a lot that teachers want to end the situation as quickly as possible in order to continue the lesson and very often this is done by sending the child away. For a child who is, for example, having a lot of difficulties with maths, and wants to avoid being in a situation where everybody can see his ‘failure’, he will probably prefer to be sent out of the classroom to spare the embarrassment of saying the wrong answer.


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It is very important that children know the exact consequences to different behaviours. In this way, they will realize that they are influencing the response. Behaviour contracts Behaviour contracts can help children to control their own behaviour. It is a one page contract stating specific behaviours agreed on by the teacher and child. It outlines the steps to be taken by the teacher and child to ensure the behaviour, as well as rewards and consequences. The contract will also stipulate the duration of the contract and review dates.

Positive consequence

for the child Negative consequence for the child x

Bad behaviour A positive consequence to bad behaviour might look negative for the teacher, but is positive for the child because he ‘gets what he wants’. This will make that bad behaviour will increase.

Bad behaviour is followed by a negative consequence for the child. His bad behaviour is discouraged, therefore it will decrease.

Good behaviour Good behaviour will increase if followed by a positive consequence, if it is rewarded.

If good behaviour is ignored or not enough rewarded, children will seek attention in any other way by for example misbehaving. Good behaviour will decrease.


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Examples of Positive Reinforcement at work!

• Each child has a picture which is cut into 5 pieces, like a jigsaw. Each day that they managed to follow the rules, they are allowed to glue one of the pieces on their paper. At the end of the week, their picture will be complete! The teacher can write a nice message on the back and give it to the child to take home for the parents to see.

• You could also make jigsaws out of cardboard, and paint a nice pattern on the top. Give a child a piece of the jigsaw each day, or lesson, when they have followed the rules. Once they have completed the jigsaw they are allowed to take it home, or they could receive another treat such as extra playtime.

A child may not be encouraged to behave well if there is no positive consequence and recognition for their efforts, especially for children with severe behavioural difficulties. Positive reinforcement will sustain and increase good behaviour.

Further reading:

• UNESCO (2006) ILFE specialized booklet 2 - Positive discipline in the inclusive, learning-friendly classroom: a guide for teacher and teacher educators. Bangkok: UNESCO.

• UNESCO ILFE specialized booklet 3 – Teaching children with disabilities in inclusive settings. Bangkok: UNESCO

• Dipak Naker, Sekitoleko D. (2009) The good school toolkit: Positive discipline – creating a good school without corporal punishment. Kampala: Raising Voices. www.raisingvoices.org

• Raising Voices (2009) Cartoon booklet – Good school toolkit: What is corporal punishment – what is positive discipline. Kampala: Raising Voices. www.raisingvoices.org

• Montreuil N., MagerotteG. (1993) Pratique de l’intervention individualisée. Bruxelles: De Boeck.

http://www.raisingvoices.org/�

http://www.raisingvoices.org/�


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8. Child to Child approach

Very often, children know each other far better than the teacher and children are more aware of the difficulties their peers face. The Child-to-child approached is therefore used in inclusive education to capitalise on the knowledge and influence children have on each other. Originally, the child-to-child approach was developed in the health sector. School-aged children learnt about a health problem and took action to protect the health and well-being of other children. The child-to-child approach links children’s learning in or out school with their lives at home and in the community. Knowledge that is relevant and understandable is more likely to result in a change in behaviour and action. The approach gives children new knowledge and skills, better understanding of what they are doing and makes learning more interesting. The child-to-child matrix shows what role children can play and how they can actively participate within education5

:

• older children can help younger ones • children can help others of the same age • child can pass on the message and take action in their families and communities.

5 Child-to-child – an international network promoting children’s participation in health and development, brochure

Expected outcomes:

• Participants understand what is meant by the ‘child-to-child approach’ • Participants know different child to child activities


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As child-to-child is an approach to education, there is no ‘right’ way of introducing it. There is not a set of content and principles. One of the goals of the child-to-child approach in inclusive education is to help children without disabilities to understand children with disabilities, be their friends, include them in their games and help them to overcome difficulties and become more self-reliant. Through the child-to-child approach children without disabilities can:

• Gain awareness of different impairments and what it might be like to be disabled. The teacher can organise small ‘simulation activities’ in which children may in part experience some of the challenges children with an impairment might face.

• Learn that although a child with a disability may have difficulties doing some things, he may be very good in other things.

• Think of ways they can help children with disabilities to feel welcome, take part in their play, schooling and other activities and manage to do things better

• Become the friends and defenders of any child who is different or has special needs

It is very important to understand that child-to-child approach is not about:

• children being asked to act as loudspeakers for adults • children being used to do things adults do not want or should do • richer children helping the poorer ones • a few children being put into positions of authority over their peers (e.g. “little

teachers”). It happens too often that child-to-child activities are conducted in ways that do not include children with disabilities in central or leading roles. Too often the activities are ‘about’ children with disabilities instead of ‘with’ them. Sometime it is useful to tackle a problem in the school such as dirty toilets that do not directly relate to disability. Make sure that all children are actively involved when using the child-to-child approach and that everybody is seen as an equal and valued partner in education. In Child-to-Child activities, the teacher acts as a facilitator The teacher introduces the topic through a story or by describing a case study. Then the teacher guides a discussion with the children. The questions asked by the teacher could relate to what different children would do if they were in a similar situation; exploring the underlying cause of the problem and coming up with viable solutions. In general, the teacher wants to encourage the children to reflect, research, act, reflect again and adapt their action accordingly. Children can then mindfully serve as change agents and support each other in the classroom.


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Some examples of child-to-child activities

• Peer tutoring Peer tutoring means that two children work together during a lesson. The two children assist each other in their learning by explaining content to each other, asking questions on the content, discussing the content together Peer tutoring is helpful in large classes for learners who need one-on-one coaching. The teacher needs to give the lesson, and during tutoring time, one child explains the work to another child and can ask questions to see if they understand. It is very useful to pair children with impairments with a learner who understands them and can explain things in the way they learn best. In some classes hearing learners who can sign are paired up with deaf learners. It is paramount that the teacher thinks carefully about who to pair up in order to get the desired outcome. One child might need a peer to help him focus, while another might need someone to explain in their mother-tongue. Other advances of peer tutoring are the following:

o Children can talk about what they learn, practice and read/write about it. o They can ask questions without the fear of being embarrassed in front of the

whole class. o They can know immediately if the answer is correct or not. o They have someone to help and encourage to finish the work. o The explanation is given in the language or level of language that they

understand. The following practical steps could help the teacher to use peer tutoring in an effective way:

o The teacher should explain and demonstrate peer tutoring to the children and give them time to practice before doing it ‘for real’.

o Children should be taught good tutor behaviours (e.g. how to tell partner that the answer is wrong; how not to get angry when being told that the answer is wrong and practice these behaviours.

o Children should know how to keep track of their partner’s answers and their own. o The teacher needs to make sure children have adequate materials i.e. adapted to

their abilities to prevent frustration and new information to prevent boredom. o All children should be given the chance of being a tutor, even if the subject is

challenging to them as it will help them gain more confidence. o Make peer tutoring fun, like a game, and remember to praise the children for their

efforts. You may even like to reward the peer tutors with a certificate or similar reward.


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• Buddy system When using the buddy system, children without disabilities can be paired with children with disabilities, so they can help each other, if needed. Possible activities include:

o pushing the wheelchair o carrying bags and books o helping to get to the toilet o guiding a child with a visual impairment in school o Walking to and from school with a child who might have difficulties to remember

the way. Remember help should never be forced on a child with a disability and neither should a child be forced to help. The buddy system can also be used to pair new children with more experienced children, who will help the child to find his or her way around the school.

• Circle of friends The ‘circle of friends’ is a method used to activate peer support around a child with special needs that has joined a class. The children will welcome get to know the new member of the class by including them in activities both in and out of school. To set up a circle of friends, the teacher could tell children in the classroom that a new child will be joining the group soon and can ask who wants to join the ‘circle of friends’. All members of the circle should have a small meeting during which the teacher could give more information about the new child. The teacher can ask the children how they think they can do things together and how they can overcome difficulties they might meet. The ‘circle of friends’ may even visit the new child at home. The new child will be surrounded by the ‘circle of friends’. The aim is that they will continue to spend time together and to do things together. It is important that those ‘meetings’ stay informal and children should be free to tell their story.

Further reading:

• Child to child: A resource book Part 1 – implementing the child to child approach, the child to child trust (1992, updated in 1994) London

• Nothing about us without us – David Werner • Disabled village children – David Werner • Child to child: a practical guide. Empowering children as active

citizens. London: CtC • INEE – supporting learners with disabilities p.30-32

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