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I M P L E M E N T A T I O N

O F T H E

B E I J I N G P L A T F O R M

F O R A C T I O N

A U S T R A L I A N G O V E R N M E N T

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UN Division for the Advancement of WomenTwo UN Plaza, Room 1216NEW YORK, NY 10017

IMPLEMENTATION OF THE BEIJING PLATFORM FOR ACTION: AUSTRALIAN GOVERNMENT RESPONSE

I am pleased to provide the Australian Government’s response on the implementation of the BeijingPlatform for Action.

The Australian Government has a proud record in the measures it has introduced to support opportunityand choice for women throughout the Australian community - measures which cross the range of criticalareas identified under the Beijing Platform for Action.

The Australian Government’s sound economic policies, taxation reform and increased help for parentsand carers are delivering concrete benefits to women in all walks of life. These measures support andadvance the status of women.

The number of women in our paid workforce is at a record high, and women are closing the earnings gapwith men. More young women are in education and training than ever before.

Women in community and volunteer activities, and those in paid work or undertaking study have accessto record levels of child care.

Reforms to superannuation are helping more women to plan for a secure retirement.

The Government is delivering on better health services for rural women and more research into women’shealth needs.

The Government recognises that Australia’s extensive cultural diversity requires specialised measures tomeet the concerns of women from these backgrounds and has introduced a range of initiatives to promotea harmonious Australia.

Indigenous women are benefiting from measures to address family violence in a holistic manner,employment assistance and improved quality of, and accessibility to, legal services.

I am especially proud of the Commonwealth’s national leadership in the prevention of domestic violence,building on the stand taken by the Prime Minister on national gun laws. Every Australian womandeserves to live in safety and free from fear.

Women’s needs and aspirations are as diverse as our Australian community. The Australian Governmentrecognises this and has continued to respond with sound policies and programmes for all Australian women.

JOCELYN NEWMAN

PARLIAMENT HOUSECANBERRA ACT 2600

cc Secretary-GeneralUnited Nations

A: Women and Poverty 33

B: Education and Training of Women 3377

C: Women and Health 6611

D: Violence Against Women 9955

E: Women and Armed Conflict 112211

F: Women and the Economy 113333

G: Women in Power and Decision-Making 115599

H: Institutional Mechanisms for the 118811Advancement of Women

I: Human Rights of Women 119999

J: Women and the Media 221199

K: Women and the Environment 223333

L: The Girl Child 224477

A U S T R A L I A N G O V E R N M E N TR E S P O N S E T O T H E Q U E S T I O N N A I R EO N I M P L E M E N T AT I O N O F T H EB E I J I N G P L AT F O R M F O R A C T I O N

C O N T E N T S

W O M E N

A N D

P O V E R T Y

The persistent and increasing burden ofpoverty on women.

C R I T I C A L A R E A O F C O N C E R N

AC H A P T E R

3

4 I m p l e m e n t a t i o n o f t h e B e i j i n g P l a t f o r m f o r A c t i o n

1. Review, adopt and maintainmacroeconomic policies anddevelopment strategies thataddress the needs and efforts ofwomen in poverty.

2. Revise laws and administrativepractices to ensure women’sequal rights and access toeconomic resources.

3. Provide women with access tosavings and credit mechanismsand institutions.

4. Develop g e n d e r - b a s e dmethodologies and conductresearch to address thefeminisation of poverty.

O V E R V I E W

Economic security is essential toproviding women with the ability tomake choices about how they want tolive their lives. Historically, however,women have had less access toeconomic opportunities and resourcesthan men and less opportunity to live totheir full potential through access toeducation and paid employment. Mostwomen’s life patterns continue to bedifferent from those of men. Manywomen have primary responsibility forcaring for children, the elderly and the sick.

This means that significantly morewomen than men have disrupted workpatterns and take on part-time and

casual jobs. In addition, women live, onaverage, longer than men but generallyhave less access to superannuation orother economic resources for theirretirement. Some groups of women,such as Indigenous women, womenescaping domestic violence, soleparents and older women, havedifficulty gaining financial security.

The Australian Government alsorecognises that women’s capacity toachieve financial security depends onaccess to education and training, jobs,superannuation and affordable childcare, equal pay, a fair division of familyresponsibility and adequate incomesecurity. A wide range of innovativemeasures has been implemented toachieve these goals. In addition,women’s financial security has beenimproved by the AustralianGovernment’s economic reforms whichhave resulted in high economic growth,low inflation, rising employment, higherwages, lower taxes and increasedpensions for aged women and lone parents.

The Australian Government ispursuing policies to prevent povertyand break the cycle of welfaredependence through early interventionand assistance to women (and men)affected by homelessness, domesticviolence, drug abuse, familybreakdown, unemployment or othercrises. It is delivering measures whichboth respect and support individual

S T R AT E G I C

O B J E C T I V E S

I m p l e m e n t a t i o n o f t h e B e i j i n g P l a t f o r m f o r A c t i o n 5

women’s (and increasingly, men’s)choices to undertake full-timeparenting or caring responsibilities fora period, while improving financialincentives and practical assistance forindividuals to pursue paid employmentwhere they are capable of doing so.

Australia has recorded a gradualdecline in the extent and incidence ofpoverty over recent years. TheAustralian Government’s policies andprogrammes, many of which givespecial emphasis to women, havecontributed to higher living standardsand lower levels of inequality.

S T R AT E G I CO B J E C T I V E

1. Review, adopt and maintainmacroeconomic policies anddevelopment strategies thataddress the needs and efforts ofwomen in poverty.

E C O N O M I C R E F O R M S

The Australian Government hasundertaken a series of reforms thathave strengthened Australia’seconomic foundations and deliveredsome of the best economic outcomessince the 1960s. The key pillars ofreform have been the deregulation ofthe financial system, the strengtheningof the monetary policy framework and significant improvements in the operation of product and labour markets.

These reforms have helped create oneof the most dynamic and productiveeconomies in the western world andbrought increased benefits to allAustralians. The Australian economy isgrowing very strongly, with a growthrate of 4.4% in 1998-99, the lowestinterest rates since the 1960s and thelowest unemployment rate in ten years.Australia also has the lowest netgovernment debt to GDP ratio of anyOECD country and the lowest level ofindustrial disputes in 86 years. Such astable economy provides a secureenvironment and benefits for allAustralians, with better affordability ofhome ownership, secure employmentand higher standards of living.

The Australian Government’s newtaxation system (to commence July2000) will ensure that 80% ofAustralians have a marginal income taxrate of no more than 30 cents in thedollar, compared to only around 30% ofAustralians at present. The new taxsystem will reduce effective marginaltaxation rates (poverty traps) for manyrecipients of means tested payments,including families, sole parents andpensioners, many of whom are women.

Shoring-up the country’s economicfoundations is also fundamental to thecapacity of Australian governments totake action in other areas, includingmeeting obligations to the


disadvantaged. It has enabled theAustralian Government to maintain orincrease spending in many areas ofrelevance to women in genuine needsuch as child care assistance andincome support payments.

S O C I A L R E F O R M S

The Australian Government has alsointroduced far-reaching reforms in thesocial arena, building a strong bedrockof social foundations to better assist those who are most vulnerable in society to secure economic independence.

The Australian Government hasdeveloped a progressive new approach– called ‘social coalitions’ – to tackletoday’s critical social problems, suchas poverty and high unemployment.Taking a key leadership role, theAustralian Government is fosteringpartnerships between all levels of government, the business and community sectors, families and individuals.

Under this approach, the AustralianGovernment continues to providefinancial and other support for those ingenuine need but also workscollaboratively with other key players tocombat entrenched social problems attheir source. This strategy seeks tobuild a series of localised approachesthroughout the community and to focusmainly on prevention rather than cure.

This holistic approach taps into the

community spirit, and promotes the

concept of personal responsibility for

individuals and groups, including

businesses to work with governments

to tackle social problems. The

Australian Government is encouraging

leading edge businesses to give back to

the community, from which they derive

their profit.

W E L F A R E R E F E R E N C E

G R O U P

The Australian Government is

conducting a major review of

Australia’s welfare system to find ways

of assisting people who are

disadvantaged. The aim of the review is

to strike a better balance between the

Government’s ongoing commitment to

maintain a strong welfare safety net,

and its responsibility to develop policies

and strategies that will allow all

Australians to participate fully in the

workforce where they are able. A high-

level Reference Group, with

representatives from the community

sector, business, academia and

government, is providing advice to the

Government and will submit a report by

June 2000 that will enable the

Government to develop a Green Paper

on welfare reform. The Reference

Group submitted an Interim report to

the Government in 2000.


W E L F A R E R E F O R M P I L O T S

Welfare Reform Pilots are beingdeveloped in response to the InterimReport on Welfare Reform. The aim ofthe pilots is to test ways to link peoplemore effectively with available servicesand encourage them to make the most opportunities for economic and social participation.

The Mature Age Participation Pilot willtrial a new approach to mature agedpeople without jobs. It will test theextent to which certain groups of olderworking age unemployed people facebarriers to greater economic and socialparticipation and explore the feasibilityand effectiveness of a range ofapproaches to assist older people to bemore active in work and community life.

The Workless Families Assistance Pilotwill test approaches to facilitateeconomic and social participationamongst workless families with schoolage children.

Y O U T H P AT H WAY S A C T I O NP L A N T A S K F O R C E

A Youth Pathways Action Plan Taskforceis examining ways to improve thesupport provided to young people duringtheir transition to independence, and tostrengthen pathways for young peoplewho do not, or are not likely to, gostraight from school to furthereducation and training or full-timeemployment. Recommendations will be

made on the scope and direction of aYouth Pathways Action Plan to improveoutcomes for young people bystrengthening existing pathways,improving early intervention assistance,helping those in crisis situations toquickly move out of them andstrengthening families’ and thecommunity’s capacity to help young people.

The Taskforce includes representativesfrom the community, business andacademic sectors, as well as both Stateand Commonwealth Governments,reflecting the emphasis the AustralianGovernment places on the need forbroad community partnerships tostrengthen pathways for young people.A report will be provided to theAustralian Government in June 2000.


2. Revise laws and administrativepractices to ensure women’sequal rights and access toeconomic resources.

U N E M P L O Y E D W O M E N

Women’s unemployment has decreasedsignificantly since 1995. Women’sunemployment (seasonally adjusted)was 6.8% in April 2000 after falling to anine-year low of 6.6% in January 2000– a significant decrease from 8% in 1995.


The Australian Government providesservices to assist unemployed womenreturn to the paid workforce. Theseinclude Job Network employmentservices; the Jobs, Education andTraining Programme for women withchildren and sole parents; and the newReturn to Work Programme to assistpeople who have been out of theworkforce for more than two years forparenting or caring; and the NewEnterprise Incentive Scheme forassistance for unemployed people toestablish a small business.

See also:

■ The ‘Equal pay for work of equalvalue’ section in F: Women and theEconomy.

■ F: Women and the Economy fordetails on New Enterprise IncentiveScheme under the Women in SmallBusiness sections.

M U T U A L O B L I G AT I O N

In 1997, the Australian Governmentintroduced measures to increase socialparticipation by unemployed peoplethrough Mutual Obligation. Thisinitiative provides more unemployedpeople with the opportunity to enhancetheir self esteem and job prospects,and encourages them to givesomething back to the communitiesthat support them.

Under Mutual Obligation requirements,jobseekers aged 18-24 and unemployed

for six months, or 25-34 andunemployed for 12 months, arerequired to undertake suitableactivities, in addition to looking forwork. These activities includeGovernment funded programmes suchas literacy/numeracy training, Work forthe Dole and Green Corps programmesto help improve skills as well asvoluntary work, part time employmentor education/training. Womenjobseekers are well represented inthese activities.

The Work for the Dole Programmegives unemployed people theopportunity to increase their skills andconfidence while working on projectsthat are of lasting value to their localcommunity. Free childcare places aremade available for participants withdependent children, if required.

See also:

■ Green Corps Programme section in

K: Women and the Environment.

■ The Literacy and NumeracyProgramme section in B: Educationand Training.

E M P L O Y M E N T A S S I S T A N C E

The Australian Government funds a

wide range of employment assistance

measures to assist unemployed people.

These measures take account of the

special needs of some groups

of women.


J O B N E T W O R K

The Australian Government has introduced amajor reform to the delivery of employmentservices to unemployed Australians throughJob Network. Job Network is a nationalnetwork of more than 300 private, communityand government organisations that specialisein finding jobs for unemployed people,particularly those who are long-termunemployed.

The new competitive arrangements offerjobseekers a greater choice of organisations tohelp them find a job. Job Networkorganisations are paid for the results theyachieve and this provides the strongestpossible incentive to ensure the highest levelof service and outcomes for jobseekers.

Employment services are directed to thosepeople most disadvantaged in the labourmarket who have been identified as being ableto be assisted under Intensive Assistance.Many jobseekers benefit from the new jobmatching arrangements, while otherjobseekers may need job search training orIntensive Assistance before they can find andretain a job. Intensive Assistance providesindividually tailored help to jobseekers who arelong-term unemployed or are assessed asbeing at high risk of becoming long-termunemployed. Time out of the workforce forparenting or caring is recognised as a factor inassessment of client needs.

A range of Job Network services is available tojobseekers who are not in receipt ofunemployment benefits – many of these arewomen. These services include access to

touch screens, computers, facsimiles,

photocopiers, telephones and assistance

in the preparation of resumes and

interview techniques.

In 1998, job matching assistance was extended

to be available to all jobseekers who work less

than 15 hours a week. This measure is

particularly beneficial to women who work

part-time. In addition, carers returning to the

workforce after two or more years absence

and who are not on allowances – mainly

women – also have access to job

search training.

Job Network organisations offer flexible and

tailored assistance to jobseekers, including

those with special needs. Currently, almost

30% of Job Network providers offer specialist

services to disadvantaged jobseekers and

there are 14 Job Network outlets (out of some

1400) with expertise in providing services

specifically to women. Seven of these outlets

also provide services targeted at sole parents.

Job Network is monitored to ensure that

disadvantaged groups in the community,

including women, continue to receive an

equitable share of available employment

services. Women currently comprise almost

40% of all registered jobseekers.

See also:

■ The Jobs Pathway Programme in B:

Education and Training of Women for

details on assistance to ‘at risk’

school leavers.

1 0 I m p l e m e n t a t i o n o f t h e B e i j i n g P l a t f o r m f o r A c t i o n

O T H E R A S S I S T A N C E F O RJ O B S E E K E R S

The Community Support Programme(CSP) provides assistance of $31million (in 1999-2000), to unemployedpeople facing barriers such as drug andalcohol addiction, homelessness, long-term unemployment and psychiatricproblems, to help them gain a job. In1999, 31% of recipients were women.

The Partner Allowance is a paymentmade available to provide adequateincome for partners of income supportrecipients who face barriers to findingemployment because of their previouslimited participation in the workplace.

The Mature Age Allowance ($365.25million in 1999-2000) is a payment forlong-term unemployed people aged 60or over, but below Age Pension age.The Allowance recognises thedifficulties faced by older people infinding work. Women comprise 7.3% ofrecipients. For further information onincome support for older persons, seethe ‘Retirement income support’section below.

The Job Placement, Employment andTraining Programme (JPET)($14 million in 1999-2000) assistsstudents and unemployed young peopleunder 21 years, who are homeless or atrisk of becoming homeless, toovercome problems which preventthem from maintaining stableaccommodation and entering into

full-time education, training oremployment. Several projectsspecifically target young women. The‘Girlstorey’ project deliverscounselling, support, advocacy andreferral and training courses to womenwho were homeless or at risk ofbecoming homeless, unemployedrefugees, wards of State, offenders orearly school leavers. In 1999, around40% of clients were women.

The Career Counselling Programme($7.8 million over four years, 1998-99 to2001-02) is designed to help peopleestablish or redefine their employment,education and training goals anddevelop career management, researchand decision making skills.Professional counsellors, informedabout labour market opportunities,take a pro-active approach to assistpeople set or redefine theiremployment, education and traininggoals. This involves helping eligibleparticipants identify and match theirgoals, interests and abilities; look atthe range of jobs available in their areaof interest; plan a strategy to get workin their chosen field and develop arealistic understanding of the world ofwork. In 1999, women comprisedaround 48% of participants in theprogramme.

See also:

■ The ‘Income Security’ section below for details on reforms to income support that addresswomen’s unemployment.

I m p l e m e n t a t i o n o f t h e B e i j i n g P l a t f o r m f o r A c t i o n 1 1

P A I D M AT E R N I T Y L E AV E

A Maternity Allowance ($201 million in1999-2000) is paid to families who areeligible for Family Allowance,regardless of the woman’s workforceparticipation prior to the birth of thebaby. It assists with the direct andindirect costs associated with the birthof a child.

See also:

■ The ‘Maternity Leave’ section in F:Women and the Economy, for moredetails on this measure.

R E T U R N I N G T O W O R K

Many women who have taken time outof the workforce due to parenting orcaring commitments face difficultiesreturning to the workforce due to loss of skills and connections with the workplace.

The Jobs, Education and TrainingProgramme (JET) ($3.15 million in1999-2000) is a voluntary programmeaimed at improving the financialcircumstances of eligible clients byassisting with skill development and/oraiding their entry into the workforce.JET recognises that there are a numberof major barriers that may affect theability of sole parents and some othercarers and parents to join the paidworkforce. JET assesses and helpspeople overcome these barriers byproviding structured assistance whichincludes development of a plan toachieve labour market readiness,access to education, training and

employment assistance, referrals togovernment and community services,and child care assistance.Approximately 90% of clients arewomen (June 1998).

The Return to Work Programmeprovides assistance to people who wantto return to the workforce after aprolonged absence. For details on thisprogramme see the ‘Balancing workand family responsibilities’ section in F:Women and the Economy.

I N C O M E S E C U R I T Y

Income security is a vital part of areliable safety net and support systemfor Australians in need. The AustralianGovernment provides income supportfor people who cannot provideadequately for themselves for reasonssuch as age, disability, unemploymentor caring responsibilities. Specialemphasis has been given to theposition of women and children in manygovernment programmes. TheAustralian Government has alsorecently begun the process ofaddressing inadequacies in thedistribution of superannuation onmarriage breakdown, which hasparticularly affected the incomesecurity of women for many years.

The Australian Government’s recentreforms to the income support systemhelp to address women’sunemployment by providing muchbetter financial incentives for the


spouses of unemployed men to

get work. The reforms

include restructuring assistance to

unemployed couples to introduce

individual payments and income

testing arrangements.

The Newstart and Youth Allowanceprovide a means tested, non-

contributory, publicly funded welfare

safety net for unemployed people in

genuine need. The Newstart Allowance($5.535 billion in 1999-2000) ensures

that unemployed men and women

receive an adequate level of income and

participate in activities designed to

assist their employment prospects. In

1999, women made up approximately

30% of Newstart clients.

The Youth Allowance ( $1.8 billion in

1999-2000) provides incentives to job

seekers under 18 years of age to find

work or remain in training or education,

yet still provides a safety net when

needed. In 1999, women made up

52.2% of Youth Allowance clients.

Many women not seeking to enter the

workforce also have access to a range

of income support payments. These

include the partner allowance for older

women without recent workforce

assistance, the disability pension and

payment for carers payments

(the majority of carers in Australia

are women).

S T R O N G E R FA M I L I E S A N DC O M M U N I T I E S S T R AT E G Y

The Australian Government’s StrongerFamilies and Communities Strategy($240 million from 2000-2001 to 2003-2004) is establishing new partnershipsto strengthen families andcommunities. The Strategy recognisesthat the best solutions are developedlocally in partnership with others –local organisations, volunteers,businesses, communities, families,individuals and all levels of government.

This Strategy will enhance theeffectiveness of early intervention andpreventative programmes, and provideinformation to service providers,families and the wider communityabout the availability of theseprogrammes. The key themes aremarriage and relationships, earlychildhood, parenting and balancingwork and family, with recognition of the special challenges facing rural families.

The Strategy focuses on the various lifestages of families and their differentneeds through these stages, with anemphasis on preventative measuresincluding marriage education. It willdevelop a framework that willincorporate family and communityapproaches to prevent familybreakdown and better link existingprogrammes across all levels of government.


The wide range of initiatives that arebeing funded to support the Strategy willenhance the economic independence ofmany women with families.

The key measures are:

■ The Stronger Families Fund ($40 million from 2000-2001 to 2003-2004) will encouragecommunities to develop new andbetter ways to strengthen families,with an emphasis on early childhoodand parenting. Projects will beestablished in a significant numberof communities across Australia tohelp build knowledge about howcommunities can develop earlyintervention and preventionapproaches that work in supportinglocal families.

■ The Early Intervention, Parentingand Family Relationship Initiative($47.3 million from 2000-2001 to2003-2004) will provide services andactivities such as parenting support,playgroups, marriage andrelationship education and parentingskills training. It will also providefamily counselling with a focus onregional Australia and support forlegal, medical and otherprofessionals in their support for families.

■ A package of measures ($65.4 million from 2000-2001 to2003-2004) to improve families’ability to access and choose child

care that meets their needs. Themeasures support parents inbalancing paid work, education,community activities and parentingresponsibilities through flexible andresponsive child care. Shift workers,families working non-standardhours and those with a sick child orwho live in rural areas withoutaccess to care will particularly gainthrough this initiative. Additionalfunding will be provided toencourage the establishment ofchild care centres in rural areaswhere there is a recognised need.

■ A national Longitudinal Study ofAustralian Children ($6.1 millionfrom 2000-2001 to 2003-2004). Thisstudy will be an invaluable tool in thedevelopment of government policyon early childhood and effectiveearly intervention and preventionstrategies in the areas of health, education, child care andfamily support.

■ The Potential Leadership in LocalCommunities initiative ($37.1 millionfrom 2000-2001 to 2003-2004) willidentify and support potentialcommunity leaders who live insocially disadvantaged areas largelyoutside industry and governmentstructures. Measures includeleadership programmes for new and emerging leaders, a youth cadets programme, a nationalleadership conference andnetworking activities.


■ A National Skills DevelopmentProgramme for Volunteers($15.8 million from 2000-2001 to2003-2004) will assist peopleinvolved in volunteer work to buildskills and celebrate the InternationalYear of the Volunteer. Volunteers willbe able to gain specific skillstraining, such as counselling,working with people with disabilities,interviewing techniques andfinancial management. Themeasure will be especially beneficialto women.

■ The Local Solutions to LocalProblems initiative ($15.4 millionfrom 2000-2001 to 2003-2004) willbring a broad and flexible approachto funding communities to findsolutions to local problems. Localsolutions could include self-helpservices, training, informationtechnology support, convertingunused buildings into communityfacilities, advice services ormentoring programmes.

■ Can Do Community initiative ($5.2 million from 2000-2001 to2003-2004) will showcase Australianbest practice and encourage peopleto participate in community life.

■ A multi-media communicationscampaign ($8 million 2000-2001 to2003-2004) will promote theStronger Families and CommunitiesStrategy and promote localpartnerships that support families in

their communities and workplaces.It will assist to achieve outcomessuch as a reduction in familybreakdown and family violence,crime, suicide and drug dependency.

FA M I LYA S S I S TA N C E

The Australian Government has astrong commitment to providingopportunity and choice for women withfamilies. Family assistance payments,targeted at primary carers (mainlywomen), assist families and help toalleviate poverty. This providesincreased choice to women withdependent children – whether theychoose to work full or part time or to beout of the paid workforce for a periodwhile caring for children.

Levels of assistance for families havebeen increased in areas such as childcare, health, education, familyrelationship support and youth issues.Funding of more than $7.3 billion isprovided to family assistance (excludingFamily Tax Assistance and Child CareAssistance), as well as more than $1 billion a year in assistance for childcare subsidies for parents (mainlywomen) in employment or training or athome. See also the ‘Child Care’ sectionbelow for further details on assistancefor families.

Family Allowance ($6.8 billion in 1999-2000) assists the majority of families(around 76%) with the costs of raising


their children. Payment is directed tothe primary carer, the vast majority ofwhom are women. The rate isdetermined by the level of familyincome and assets, and the numberand ages of dependent children.Additional payments are available if thefamily is renting privately, if the parentis a lone parent, if the family is large orif there are multiple birth childrenunder six years of age.

The Australian Government’s newtaxation system, from 1 July 2000, willincrease payments to families withdependent children and minimisepoverty traps by reducing high effectivemarginal taxation rates for low incomewomen and those returning to the paid workforce.

Access to Health Care Cards (HCC) hasbeen extended to foster carers ofchildren who receive Family Allowance.Foster carers will be issued with a HCCfor foster children, providing fosterchildren were eligible for a HCC whendomiciled with their original family.This recognises the role of foster carersand the health expenses they incur forchildren in their care.

The Australian Government’s taxreform represents one of the most significant social reforms in Australia’s history.

■ Tax reform will provide $12 billion inincome tax cuts each year. It willprovide $21/2 billion of additional

family payments to low and middleincome families annually. Aroundtwo million families will benefit fromhigher income tax free thresholdsand lower taper rates. Women willbenefit from substantial extraincome to help low and middleincome families raise their children,and from changes which reducework disincentives arising from theinteraction of the tax and socialsecurity systems.

■ The primary carer in the family,usually the mother, will be able tochoose how family assistance is paid — as a fortnightly payment, areduction of tax installmentdeductions or as an end-of-yearlump sum.

■ Under Family Tax Benefit changesfrom 1 July 2000, a single incomefamily with two children under 13years earning private income of$28,080 per annum, will receiveFamily Tax Benefit A of $113.34 aweek, plus Family Tax Benefit B of$50.63 a week. This will make theirweekly disposable income includingprivate earnings $610.54.

Since 1995, Australia has progressivelyreformed its assistance to families withdependent children, resulting in asubstantial redirection of assistance forfamilies to the parent with principalparenting responsibilities (mainlywomen). These measures include:


■ integrating a range of payments toassist with the costs of children,which are now paid to women in thevast majority of cases;

■ cashing out the tax rebate fordependent spouses with children(previously paid mainly to men) andredirecting it to the primary child carer;

■ splitting the married rate of theunemployment benefit and payinghalf to the recipient’s partner; and

■ restructuring assistance tounemployed couples and introducingindividual payments and partially individualised incometesting arrangements.

By providing individual entitlements,the income support system recognisesthat traditional notions of dependencyon partners no longer reflect the realityfor most Australian families. Theprovision of fortnightly cash paymentsto the primary carer in the family, asopposed to annual tax assistance to thetaxpayer (usually male in one-incomefamilies), enables women to contributeto the family income.

PA R E N T I N GPAY M E N T

Parenting Payment ($5.8 billion in1999-2000) was introduced in March1998. It is a payment for primary carersof children and can be made to onemember of a couple (or a lone parent)

with dependent children and who is themain carer of the children. Theinitiative provides recipients withrecognition of their parentingresponsibilities, adequate income andopportunities for greater financialindependence. The vast majority ofParenting Payment recipients arewomen (94% in 1999).

The payment has three components:

■ an income support payment to lowincome lone parents (formerlyknown as Sole Parent Pension);

■ an income support payment toparents whose partners arepensioners, allowees or low incomeearners; and

■ an income supplement available topartnered parents with a lowpersonal income (regardless of their partner’s income).

Other measures to assist ParentingPayment recipients to re-enter theworkforce or to improve theirparticipation in income-producingactivities are the Pensioner EducationSupplement and Education andEmployment Entry Payments. Theseare available for targeted groups withinthe Parenting Payment population toassist with their education costs orcosts of entry to the workforce.

C H I L D C A R E

Access to flexible, affordable and highquality child care options is essential to


enable women to work, to study or toparticipate more fully in the broadercommunity. The Children’s ServicesProgramme assists families withdependent children to participate in theworkforce and the general community,by ensuring that child care is affordablefor low and middle income families, andby improving the supply and quality ofchild care.

The Australian Government will spend$5.3 billion on child care over the nextfour years to 2002-2003. This willprovide for the continued growth ofadditional child care places. Thenumber of child care places hasincreased from 269,000 in 1995 to acurrent record high of 430,000.

Measures to provide financialassistance for child care costs to lowincome families include:

■ assistance covering around 70% ofaveraged child care costs isavailable to low income families withtwo children in full-time care;

■ the current Childcare AssistanceScheme ensures child care isaffordable to lower and middleincome families. The Schemesubsidises approved long day childcare centres, family day careschemes, outside school hours careand occasional care services so theycan reduce the fees parents pay. In1999, approximately 300,000 familiesreceived childcare assistance. The

scheme will be replaced by the ChildCare Benefit from 1 July 2000 (see below);

■ improvements to child caresubsidies, to commence from July2000, will include the introduction ofa new Child Care Benefit ($600million from 2000/2001 to 2003/2004)which will provide increased levels ofsubsidy. It will also target extraassistance to low income familiesand families with more than onechild in care; and

■ child care assistance is alsoavailable for women as volunteers inrecognition of the valuable role thatvolunteers play in the community.Child care assistance up to 20 hoursa week is available for the purposesof being involved in volunteeractivities. Volunteer activities whichare undertaken to improve workskills or employment opportunitiessatisfy a work test which allows afamily to claim up to 50 hours childcare assistance in a week. Forexample, a person who works as avolunteer shop assistant in a charityshop with the intention of improvingtheir retail skills would satisfy thework test.

C H I L D S U P P O R T S C H E M E

Separation from a partner can placemany women at risk of poverty.Reliable access to child supportpayments from a former partnerrelieves financial pressure on


unpartnered women caring forchildren. The Child Support Scheme isbased on voluntary agreementssupported by statutory arrangements toassess and collect child supportliabilities where parents cannot agree.

The Scheme aims to ensure thatparents share in the costs of supportingtheir children according to theircapacity and that adequate support isavailable to all children not living with both parents.

Recent changes to child supportinclude the requirement that all formernon-custodial partners make aminimum contribution towards childsupport, even if their only source ofincome is income support.

A S S I S T A N C E F O R C A R E R S

A significant number of olderAustralians and their carers arewomen. Women are the majorbeneficiaries of the AustralianGovernment’s Staying at Home – Careand Support for Older Australianspackage ($280 million over four years).The package includes reforms toincome support for carers witheligibility for the Carer Allowance beingwidened (at a cost of $96.4 million overfour years from 1998-99). This buildson the 29% increase in the rate ofbenefit (from $58.30 to $75.60 perfortnight) that was introduced on 1 July 1998.

To complement this measure, respite

support (around $20 million over four

years 1999-2000 to 2002-2003) has

been extended to carers of young

people with disabilities, who are unable

to access existing State respite care or

assistance provided under

Commonwealth initiatives, and who

have a short term or immediate need

for respite support. An estimated

additional 900 carers (mostly women)

per year will benefit from this measure

which was developed in response to

community concerns for further respite

support for carers of younger people

with profound and severe disabilities.

A S S I S T A N C E F O R W I D O W S

A N D W I D O W E R S A N D

V E T E R A N S A N D T H E I R

FA M I L I E S

The War Widows’ and Widowers’

Pension ($164 million over 1998-99 to

2002-03) is being adjusted to male total

average weekly earnings. The measure

will help protect the living standards

and ensure the financial security of

war widows.

The Residential Care Development

Scheme ($6.8 million in 2000-2001)

assists ex-service and community

based organisations to help veterans

and their widow(er)s access high

quality residential aged care services

and community care packages, address


gaps in service delivery and

complement available services.

Women comprise around a third of the

treatment population of the

Department of Veteran Affairs. A

significant number of women benefit

from improved aged care facilities and

improved access to community care

packages as a result of this initiative.

I N C O M E S E C U R I T Y F O R O L D E R W O M E N

Women make up 65% of Australianscurrently aged over 65. Older womencan be vulnerable to economicdisadvantage as they have generallyhad limited access to education, paidemployment and superannuation orother economic resources for theirretirement. Initiatives are in place toensure the financial security andindependence of older women and toguard them against poverty.

A means-tested, tax funded, non-contributory Age Pension is available towomen who meet minimum residencerequirements. The value of the pensionis legislatively mandated at 25% of totalmale average weekly earnings (indexedtwice a year in line with the ConsumerPrice Index changes). The Age Pensionis currently $372 per fortnight forsingles and $310 each per fortnight forcouples. These adjustments aredesigned to maintain both the real andthe relative value of the Age Pension,providing a basic protection against

poverty. Currently, two-thirds of agepensioners are women.

As part of its new tax system, theAustralian Government will providespecial payments to pensioners andself-funded retirees with income fromsavings. The Aged Persons SavingsBonus will help maintain the value ofsavings and the retirement income ofolder women by providing a one-offbonus of up to $1,000, depending on theamount of savings and total income, toAustralians over 60 years of age. Inaddition, the Self-Funded RetireesSupplementary Bonus will provide up toan additional $2,000 for self-fundedretirees aged 55 and over on 1 July2000. The additional one-off amountwill assist self-funded retirees who donot benefit from the increases in themaximum rates of income support.

A Lump Sum Pension Advance of up to$500, was introduced in July 1996, toassist pensioners to meet unexpectedliving expenses.

Older women in need have beenassisted by the change in the incometest for the Commonwealth SeniorsHealth Card from one based on currentincome to one based on taxableincome. The income limit wasextended from (single) $21,320 to$40,000 and (couple) $35,620 to $67,000.

Compulsory superannuation wasintroduced in Australia in 1992 throughthe Superannuation Guarantee system,


which requires employers to makecontributions on behalf of mostemployees. Today, the majority ofemployees are covered bysuperannuation: 89.7% of female and92.5% of male employees as atDecember 1998.

The Australian Government isenhancing quality residential care($11.6 million from 2000-2001 to 2004-2005) which will assist older women.Women comprise around 70 per cent ofresidents in residential aged carefacilities.

The National Strategy for an AgeingAustralia ($6.1 million from 2000-2001to 2004-2005) will build on theGovernment’s achievements of the 1999International Year of Older Persons.The Strategy will support a ‘whole-of-government’ approach to the ageing ofthe population and includes researchinto mature age employment and thesharing of international expertise indelivering aged care services. Theseinitiatives will improve the quality of lifeof many older women.

See also:

■ The ‘Superannuation’ section belowunder Strategic Objective 3.

Y O U N G W O M E N

Important features of the AustralianGovernment’s social reform agenda areto tackle social problems at their rootsand to focus on prevention – and notjust cure.

The Australis Self Made Girl initiative($100,000 annually) is a partnershipbetween the Australian Government,business and the community. The aimof the initiative is to encourage youngwomen to develop an entrepreneurialapproach to personal finance anddevelop the skills to take care of theirown financial security. Trainingprogrammes are held around Australia,where young women are given theopportunity to work with female rolemodels on various interactive businessactivities. Other features of theprogramme include a business plancompetition and games which teachvarious aspects of making and activelyusing money, in ways other thanspending, as well as operatingconfidently in the world of commerce.Nearly two and a half thousand young women have participated in the programme.

FA M I LY S E P A R AT I O N A N DF I N A N C I A L S E C U R I T Y

The Australian Government recognisesthat many women experience financialdifficulties after separation. A numberof government measures are expectedto assist this group of women. Forexample, a $63 million package ofinitiatives was introduced in the1999-2000 budget to address familyseparation and its consequences and tofocus on family reunion andcounselling. It also includes $11.3


million to establish a national networkof Link-Up centres and $33.3 millionfor counselling and related services.Several of these measures provideinformation and advice to women onincome support and other financialmatters with a view to ensuring theireconomic security.

The Australian Government introducedthe Family Law Legislation Amendment(Superannuation) Bill 2000. Thislegislation will fundamentally reformthe way in which superannuation istreated upon marital breakdown bygiving separating couples the ability todivide their superannuation byagreement, or when they are unable toagree, by court order. This will improvethe long-term financial security of eachmember of a separated couple.

See also:

■ The ‘Family law reform’ section in I:Institutional Mechanisms for the Advancement of Women for additional information on these initiatives.

L E G A L A S S I S T A N C E

Community legal centres arecommunity managed non-profitservices that provide a range ofassistance on legal and related mattersto people on low incomes and thosewith special needs. They are a keycomponent of Australia’s legal aidsystem. They are a distinctive and

effective form of service delivery whichcomplement and extend the servicesprovided by Legal Aid Commissions andthe private profession.

In addition, women’s legal centresprovide a range of services for womenclients, including advice andinformation on legal matters and, insome cases, advocacy and legalrepresentation. These centres also playan important role in referring women toother government and communityservices. There are 11 women’s legalcentres around Australia. Funds arealso allocated to providing legalservices for women through communitylegal centres in eight rural and regional areas.

The Australian Government hasreviewed Aboriginal legal services inNew South Wales, introducing morecompetition through tendering andproviding regionalised legal services.These reforms are currently beingextended to other States andTerritories. As a result of thesereforms, new national standards will beintroduced for Aboriginal and TorresStrait Islander legal services.

The Government has improvedwomen’s access to legal servicesprovided by Aboriginal and Torres StraitIslander Legal Services (ATSILS). It isfunding five Indigenous legal serviceunits specifically designed to provideadvice and legal assistance to women.In addition, a further four family


violence legal service units in high needareas will be funded by the Aboriginaland Torres Strait Islander Commission(ATSIC) and commence service deliveryin 1999-2000. Two and a half milliondollars has been committed in 1999-2000 to fund legal projects forIndigenous women. In addition, ATSILSis now required to arrange and fundprivate legal representation ofIndigenous women in cases of conflictof interest with other clients.

A new national Women’s AdvisoryCommittee will advise the ATSIC Boardof Commissioners on the impact ofpolicies and programmes onIndigenous women.

In addition, the Indigenous Women’sInitiatives Programme ($944,000 in1999-2000) funds projects whichinform women about Indigenouspolicies, programmes or services or which strengthen women’s support networks.

In addition, the Specialist RuralWomen’s Outreach Project ($500,000 in1999-2000) provides funding to assistwomen living in rural and remoteAustralia to better access the legal system.

H O U S I N G

One of the priorities for the AustralianGovernment has been to work with arange of community partners on ways

to help vulnerable people in Australia,especially those on low incomes, thehomeless and those at risk of becoming homeless. The AustralianGovernment’s determination to addressthese critical social problems isreflected in the funding of a wide rangeof programmes and policies over recentyears. Women and their children aremajor beneficiaries of these measures.

The Commonwealth-State HousingAgreement (CSHA) is the AustralianGovernment’s principal strategy toaddress housing needs of low incomepeople who do not have access to homeownership or face difficulties in theprivate rental market. The AustralianGovernment will provide over $4 billionto the States and Territories over thefour-year term of the 1999 CSHA. Themain recipients under the CSHA arethose affected by discrimination inhousing markets, in particularAboriginal and Torres Strait Islanderpeople, women, single parents andtheir children, young people, peoplewith a disability, people with a mentalillness, and people from non-Englishspeaking backgrounds.

The Australian Government alsoaddresses the housing needs of eligiblesocial security recipients in the privaterental market through the provision ofRent Assistance. Rent Assistance is anincome supplement paid to Australianresidents who pay rent above a setthreshold for their situation. Rent


Assistance was paid to more than 1 million recipients in 1998-99 at a costof $1.5 billion. The majority ofrecipients are pensioners, sole parentsand single unemployed people.Approximately two-thirds of allrecipients are women.

The Australian Government hasundertaken a range of reforms totackle youth homelessness. An earlyintervention programme, with $60million funding over the four years1999-2000 to 2003-2004, wasintroduced on 1 July 1999 to assistyoung people and their families wherethere is a risk of youth homelessness.The programme covers about 100services and assists about 12,000young people and families per year.These services are located in a range ofregional, rural and urban areas andaim to develop or improve local youthhomelessness early interventionnetworks, by strengthening theconnections between agencies whichprovide support to young people andfamilies. This programme wasestablished in response to the PrimeMinisterial Youth Homeless TaskforceReport (November 1998).

The Australian Government spendssome $139 million each year on theSupported Accommodation AssistanceProgramme (SAAP). SAAP is a Commonwealth/State sharedprogramme that provides transitionalsupport and accommodation to

homeless people and those at risk of

homelessness, many of whom are

women escaping domestic violence.

SAAP provides related support services

such as counselling, information and

referral to deal with the problems

which lead to homelessness and

assist clients to achieve the maximum

possible degree of self-reliance

and independence.

The 1997-98 SAAP Data Report

found that:

■ 51% of SAAP clients are

women, 17% of whom are

Indigenous women;

■ 32% of SAAP funding was for

agencies targeting single women and

women escaping domestic violence;

■ 12% of assisted SAAP clients are

Indigenous Australians, compared

with their 2% of the population; and

■ 10.3% of the 1,190 SAAP

agencies specifically target

Indigenous Australians.


committed to the renewal of SAAP for

another five years, subject to

negotiation of new agreements with the

States, representing further

expenditure of over $1 billion.

A national evaluation of the

programme in 1998-99 is shaping the

new agreements.


In order to address needs for agedcare services for rural and remoteareas, the Government will spend$5.2 million to improve arrangementsfor planning of residential andcommunity aged care. The review ofarrangements will focus on ensuringthe needs of communities in rural andregional Australia are met in theplanning process. After the review,ongoing support will continue toensure planning takes due account ofrural and remote service provision.

Indigenous men and women generallyexperience a high level ofdisadvantage in terms of their accessto suitable housing, compared toother Australians. Homelessness isaround 20 times more common and overcrowding four times more common than for otherAustralian families.

A range of programmes is beingfunded to improve housing forIndigenous Australians, particularlythose in rural and remotecommunities. In 1998-99, theAustralian Government provided $308million to the two main targetedprogrammes, the Aboriginal RentalHousing Programme and theCommunity Housing andInfrastructure Programme. Morethan 1,000 houses were provided perannum, as well as a similar numberof upgrades, repairs andmaintenance. In addition, theAustralian Army provides urgently

needed health-related infrastructure,including water and seweragesystems, to the most needy remotecommunities, under the ATSIC/ArmyCommunity Assistance Programme.

Indigenous Australians on lowincomes also have access to means-tested concessional home loans fromthe Aboriginal and Torres StraitIslander Commission (ATSIC).Interest on these loans starts at 5%per annum and increases by 0.5% perannum until it reaches the ATSIChome loan rate, which is set at nomore than 1% below theCommonwealth Bank variablehousing loan interest rate. Forfamilies with an income of less than$25,000, a reduced commencing ratemay apply.

The On-Arrival Accommodationinitiative provides initial short-termaccommodation in self containedunits for migrants and refugeesdeemed to be in need of humanitarianresettlement. Associated case co-ordination services help clients,based on an individual assessment ofsettlement needs, to access relevantcommunity services.

The Women at Risk Programmeprovides Australian resettlement forrefugee women and women ‘ofconcern’ to the United Nations HighCommissioner for Refugees and theirdependents, who are in dangerous orvulnerable situations because of thebreakdown of traditional supportmechanisms. This initiative provides


assistance to women who have beentortured, sexually assaulted orotherwise traumatised and inparticular need of settlementassistance. In 1997-98, 543 visas underthe programme were granted,representing 13% of the refugee intake.Major regions included the FormerYugoslavia, Africa and the Middle East.Australia is one of only a small number of countries that conduct such programmes.

The Community Refugee SettlementScheme (CRSS) organises volunteercommunity groups to assist eligiblerefugees to settle during their first 6months in Australia. Assistanceincludes arranging accommodation,encouraging refugees to learn English and providing contact with general migrant and community services. The CRSS givespriority to ‘women at risk’ entrants.


3. Provide women with access tosavings and credit mechanismsand institutions.

S U P E R A N N U AT I O N

The Australian Government recognises

that superannuation is a particular

concern to women. Women on average

live longer than men, often have

fewer opportunities for economic

independence, and frequently have

patterns of paid work which are not

consistent with the models on which

many superannuation schemes and

regulatory arrangements are based.

Recognising the importance ofsuperannuation issues for women, theAustralian Government has introduceda range of progressive reforms whichmake Australian superannuation morecompetitive and suitable to theretirement saving needs of workingwomen and those who take time out ofthe paid workforce.

The Australian Government hasintroduced an 18% income tax rebatefor people who contribute up to $3000to a superannuation fund or retirementsavings account of their ‘at home’ orlow income spouse. It has alsointroduced superannuation choicelegislation and established RetirementSavings Accounts as a low risk, flexibleand fully portable savings optionsuitable for people with intermittentworking patterns, most of whom arewomen. In addition, the Age Pensionmeans test now encourages the take upof retirement income streams.

There are taxation concessionsprovided for superannuation savings atthe contribution stage, the fund earningstage, and when the money is providedfrom the fund. Many people also makevoluntary savings, including voluntarysuperannuation savings; some vehiclesfor voluntary savings are concessionallytreated for taxation purposes.


These measures provide more choiceand opportunity for individuals andtheir families to make tax-effectivesavings for future retirement use. Inthis way, they build on and extend the1992 compulsory superannuationscheme which was introduced tocomplement the age pension systemand ensure that the system remainedfiscally sustainable, particularly inlight of the ageing population. Thecompulsory superannuation scheme,which is intended to increase thecoverage of superannuation acrossthe workforce, is funded by employers(currently 7% of an employee’swages). This will increase in stages,reaching 9% by 2002.

S U P E R A N N U AT I O N A N DD I V O R C E

The Australian Government isreforming superannuation and familylaw to give seperating couples greaterchoice in their financial affairs and toaddress longstanding concerns aboutwomen’s access upon maritalbreakdown to retirement savings builtup in marriage. In April 2000 theGovernment introduced the family lawAmendment (Superannuation) Bill2000 into Parliment. Under this Billcouples will upon marital breakdownfor the first time be able to makeagreements dividing theirsuperannuation interests in whateverproportions they choose. Where

couples cannot agree, the FamilyCourt will be able to dividesuperannuation equitably betweenthe parties. Such agreements andorders will be binding onsuperannuation fund trustees.

The Government is also implementingchanges to enable couples to makebinding financial agreements abouttheir property before or duringmarriage or after separation. The Courts retain the right to set aside these agreements in specified circumstances.


4. Develop gender - basedmethodologies and conductresearch to address thefeminisation of poverty.

M O N I T O R I N GM E C H A N I S M S

Mechanisms have been established toregularly monitor governmentprogrammes and policies for theireffect on poverty, inequality and livingstandards. Gender figuresprominently in the analysis.

The Australian Government conductsresearch into household livingstandards to ensure that assistance isadequate and appropriate for those ingenuine need. This research shows


that income is only one dimension ofneed and that a capacity to purchase acertain level of products is only oneindicator of outcomes. In 1998,independent research was conductedon Budget Standards and the pilottesting results of the Living StandardsSurvey. The results of these studies arebeing used for the ongoingdevelopment of the survey of livingstandards. Measures of financialstress will be added into severalnational regular surveys, which willfurther inform policy development.

W O M E N W I T HS P E C I A L N E E D S

R U R A L W O M E N

The Australian Government is stronglycommitted to ensuring the economicindependence of rural men and women.In recent years, a wide range ofinnovative measures has beenintroduced to help rural communitiesovercome problems arising from therapidly changing global economicenvironment. Many rural communitiesface special problems, such asdeclining rural industries, highunemployment, declining populationand limited access to infrastructureand financial and other services.

Some of the Australian Government’skey initiatives designed to improve theeconomic sustainability of ruralcommunities are:

■ the Agriculture – AdvancingAustralia assistance package ($525million), which will help increase theprofitability, competitiveness andsustainability of the farm sector andassist farmers to be more financiallyself-reliant. Key measures include:the Farm Family Restart Schemeand the Exceptional CircumstancesRelief Payment;

■ the Farm Family Restart Scheme,which is the Government’s keyprogramme for delivering improvedwelfare support to the farm sector,as well as adjustment assistance forfarmers who wish to exit theindustry. The scheme incorporatesseveral key features: access toincome support; professional adviceon the future viability of theirbusiness; and, career counsellingwhere appropriate. Access to re-establishment grants was alsoavailable during the first two years ofthe programme. As at 21 May 1999,women made up 15.7% of thescheme’s clients;

■ Exceptional Circumstances ReliefPayments, which helps meet familyliving costs associated with severedrought and other events that arebeyond the scope of normal riskmanagement, are available toeligible farmers in declaredexceptional circumstances. Thesepayments provide income support,including partner allowance where


applicable, and eligibility forpayments also qualifies farmfamilies for special access to aHealth Care Card and FamilyPayments. Women made up 17.3%of the recipients of this payment asat 21 May 1999;

■ the Rural Transactions CentresProgramme, with funding of $70million over five years, which willhelp small rural communities toestablish centres that provideaccess to transaction servicessuch as banking, post, phone, fax, Medicare Easyclaim and education and training;

■ the Rural Forums AustraliaProgramme which seeks to buildpartnerships between business,community and governments toimprove the economic viability ofrural communities;

■ the Invest Australia package, whichfacilitates sustainable andproductive investment in Australia,including regional areas. To date,150 projects worth $1.9 billion havebeen established in regionalcommunities, creating around3,000 jobs;

■ the Retirement Assistance forFarmers Scheme which provides amajor concession to pension-agedfarmers which enables them totransfer the farm to a youngergeneration and to alleviate poverty

caused by two to three families

earning a living from a single

business. The scheme provides a

three year ‘window-of-

opportunity’, which began on 15

September 1997, for farmers to

transfer up to $500,000 in net farm

assets to the younger generation

and gain immediate access to the

Aged Pension; and

■ the Networking the NationProgramme aims to assist

the economic and social

development of regional Australia

through funding projects which

enhance telecommunications

infrastructure, services and

access. Over $50 million has so far

been allocated, with all

projects inclusive of rural

women and a number specifically

targeting them.

See also

■ G: Power and Decision Making for

details on rural leadership

programmes and for information

regarding the Regional Women’s

Advisory Council

■ B: Eduction and Training of Womenfor details on the Rural YouthInformation Service

■ F: Women and the Economy fordetails on the RegionalEmployment Assistance Programme


I N D I G E N O U S W O M E N

Too many Indigenous women continue tolive in poverty. The AustralianGovernment is strongly committed toenhancing opportunities for Indigenousmen and women to pursue initiativesthat will assist them to achieve economicindependence. Indigenous people havean unemployment rate that is four timesthat of the general population. Lack oflocal employment opportunities and jobskills are two of the main causes. ManyIndigenous Australians live in remoteareas with limited job options.

The Australian Government hasintroduced a number of innovativereforms to help Indigenous peoplemove out of welfare and secureautonomy and financial independence.A discussion paper, Removing theWelfare Shackles, which wasdisseminated widely in the community,outlines a proposal for a newIndigenous organisation, IndigenousBusiness Australia, to promote andparticipate in joint ventures with theprivate sector, encourage job creationand provide business loans, grants andguarantees. The Minister forAboriginal and Torres Strait IslanderAffairs reconfirmed the 1998 electioncommitment to establish IndigenousBusiness Australia in his 1999 budgetstatement “A Better Future forIndigenous Australians.”

The Australian Government provided$402 million for the Community

Development Employment ProjectsScheme (CDEP) in 1998-99. Under thescheme, more than 33,000 unemployedIndigenous people undertookcommunity projects, gaining invaluablework experience and skills that arerecognised in the mainstreamemployment market. The scheme alsoprovides training, enhances self-esteem, acts as a diversion fromsubstance misuse and criminal activityand provides opportunities to increaseincome levels where CDEP’ssuccessfully generate profits.

In 1999-2000, the Australiangovernment’s economic programmesfor Indigenous Australians will providealmost $50 million. The BusinessDevelopment and AssistanceProgramme provides seed funding,training and other support to newlyestablished or expanding businesses.One of the key aims is to promote thedevelopment of businesses to createnew and sustainable jobs forIndigenous men and women. Theprogramme offers low interest loans,as well as business advice andassistance to Indigenous people.

From 1 July 1999, a new IndigenousEmployment Programme wasestablished to provide a package ofmeasures with a particular emphasison private sector employmentopportunities and support forIndigenous small business. A total of$52 million has been set aside in the


Budget for this initiative. Measuresinclude a strategy to encourage ChiefExecutive Officers to recruit and trainIndigenous staff, private sectorstructured training, a nationalprogramme for private sectorcadetships and business preparationand support for Indigenous smallbusiness. The initiative will assist moreIndigenous men and women securegreater economic independence, byassisting them into secure jobs andencouraging them to start their ownbusiness. Indigenous women are likelyto be well placed to take up newopportunities in the growth industry ofIndigenous arts and crafts.

For more information concerningIndigenous women and employment,see the ‘Indigenous women’ section inF: Women and the Economy.

N O N - E N G L I S H S P E A K I N GW O M E N

The Australian Government is providingmore than $1 million during 1998-99under the Community SettlementServices Scheme and IntegratedHumanitarian Settlement Strategy fororganisations to undertake projectswith a specific focus on settlementissues for women from culturally andlinguistically diverse backgrounds.Most of the funding is used for theemployment of welfare or socialworkers providing casework,counselling, information and referral

services to migrant andrefugee/humanitarian entrant womenfrom various target communities.

Funding is also provided for projectbased activities addressing particularwomen’s settlement issues.

Most newly arrived migrants have towait two years after arriving inAustralia before they can access socialsecurity payments, includingunemployment and sickness benefits,student allowances and a number ofother payments. Migrants in the skilledand family stream must have access toenough resources to supportthemselves and their dependents for atleast their first two years in Australia.

In the case of family sponsorship, thesponsor agrees to provide support andassistance to the migrant for a periodof two years. This support includes:

■ support to enable them to attendEnglish Language courses;

■ ensuring they have adequateaccommodation; and

■ providing any necessary financial assistance.

Employer sponsors undertake only toprovide employment to the migrant onentry to Australia, and they are notbound to provide ongoing support.

Migrants in the skilled migrationprogramme with visas in thesubclasses 126 and 123 do not requiresponsorship. Refugees and


Humanitarian entrants are exemptfrom the two year waiting period.Immediate relatives (partners anddependent children) of refugees andHumanitarian entrants are alsoexempt, as long as the relationshipexisted at the time the refugee arrivedin Australia.

New migrants with dependent childrenmay be able to receive FamilyAllowance without being subject to awaiting period, however entrants musthold a permanent visa in order toqualify. Migrants generally haveimmediate access to Medicare.

A payment called Special Benefit maybe payable during the waiting period, ifentrants experience substantialchanges in circumstances that arebeyond their control. These mayinclude breakdown of relationships ordomestic violence. Special Benefit isgranted on a case by case basis.

See also

■ Housing above, and

■ ‘Assistance to refugee women inAustralia’ in E: Women and ArmedConflict for further informationconcerning assistance to refugeewomen in Australia.

INTERNATIONAL AID

The Australian Government’sStatement on aid, Better aid for a betterfuture (1997) identifies poverty

reduction and achievement ofsustainable development as theobjective of Australia’s aid programme.Gender and development is a criticalcross-cutting issue of the Australian Government’s poverty reduction strategy.

The Gender and Development Policy forAustralia’s aid programme, which waslaunched in March 1997, aims tomainstream a gender perspective in aidactivities in all sectors. Mainstreaminga gender perspective into the aidprogramme means ensuring thatwomen, as well as men, are consideredin project implementation. TheAustralian Agency for InternationalDevelopment (AusAID), which isresponsible for the delivery ofAustralia’s aid programme, will spendapproximately $170 million on healthand an estimated $280 million oneducation and training in 2000-2001. Amajor proportion of this expenditure isin areas where women are likely to besignificant beneficiaries.

Aid for bilateral activities incorporatinggender issues as a major componentincreased from $280 million in 1997-98to $331 million in 1998-99. In 1990-00aid funding is expected to reach $497million. An increasing number of aidactivities include gender analysis andgender sensitive consultations to helpensure that measures to promotewomen’s participation and addressgender barriers are taken into account

in the design and implementation of

Australian aid projects.

In addition to bilateral expenditure,

Australia makes a significant

contribution to multilateral

organisations, which support gender

equity. During 1998-99 these

contributions included $352,000 to the

United Nations Development Fund for

Women, $4.6 million to the United

Nations Fund for Children and

$1.68 million to the International

Planned Parenthood Foundation. The

Australian Government also provided

$2.445 million to the World Health

Organisation’s Health Systems and

Community Health Cluster, 70% of

which will be directed to the

Department of Child and Adolescent

Health, 20% to the Safe Motherhood

Programme and 10% to the

Department of Women’s Health.

The Australian Government allocated

$10,000 in 1999-2000, through the

National Women’s NGO Funding

Programme, to UNIFEM Australia Inc

to contribute towards extension of the

International Women’s Day (IWD)

Breakfast Programme across Australia,

including in regional locations. In 2000,

UNIFEM Australia Inc held 26 IWD

fund-raising breakfasts around

Australia and hopes to use funds for

sustainable community projects in

either Indonesia or Vietnam.

In Pakistan, an AusAID communitydevelopment project for rehabilitationof saline and waterlogged land isimplementing a gender strategy toensure that all members of thecommunity equally share benefits fromthe project. In Vietnam, the $15million, four year, Primary Health Carefor Women and Children Project willprovide support for basic health care infive provinces. Men will also benefitfrom this project as their local healthfacilities are upgraded and the health oftheir families improves.

See also:

■ The ‘International Aid’ section in D: Violence Against Women for examples of funding addressing violence against women.

E X A M P L E S O FS TAT E A N DT E R R I T O R YI N I T I AT I V E S

V I C T O R I A

The Victorian Government will developa Forward Plan for Women which willprovide details of strategies beingimplemented to meet the Government’spolicy objectives in making life betterfor women. The four themes of thePlan (representation and equity;education, work and economicindependence; health, well being andcommunity strengthening; and justiceand safety) address the underlyingissues that can contribute to the causesof poverty for women.



W E S T E R N A U S T R A L I A

Western Australia initiated aGovernment/non-government PovertyTaskforce during the International Yearfor the Eradication of Poverty. Womenwere identified as a priority targetgroup for the Taskforce. A major reportwas prepared by the Taskforce togetherwith a government response.Strategies developed include: fundingfor research into key areas includingcommunity attitudes to poverty; aChurchill Fellowship on a poverty issue;a community forum on what thecommunity can do; and a forum givingfeedback on the research findings.

N E W S O U T H WA L E S

The New South Wales Governmentprovides housing assistance to lowincome people - two thirds of newleases are held by women. A SupportedAccommodation AssistanceProgramme provides resources forcommunity organisations to assistwomen in disadvantaged communitiesto develop skills and identify support.

N O R T H E R N T E R R I T O R Y

The Northern Territory Government hasinitiated HomeStart, a first mortgagehome loan designed to assist low tomiddle income earners buy their firsthome. Since its inception in July 1997approximately 25% of all HomeStartborrowers have been single women.

A jointly funded programme by theCommonwealth and Northern TerritoryGovernments provides rentalassistance to low income earnersoccupying private rentalaccommodation while awaiting publichousing. The majority of theserecipients are single women often withdependants. Tenants of public housingin the Northern Territory have their rentdetermined on the basis of income toensure they are not paying adisproportionate share of their incomeon rent so they can maintain anappropriate standard of living.

O B S TA C L E S A N DL E A R N I N GP O I N T S

The feminisation of poverty is lesspronounced in Australia than in manyother countries. Relative povertymeasures between men and womenare affected by numbers of agedpensioners (oftentimes with highhousing assets, but pension level cashincomes), many of whom are women.

Australia’s income support safety netsafeguards against extremes ofabsolute poverty. Progressive reformsto the safety net system have focussedon those in genuine need whileremoving rigid, categorical programmestructures which put individuals at riskwhen circumstances change (forexample, Parenting Payment). At the


same time, the AustralianGovernment is moving to improve thesafety net through mutual obligationsand targeted employment assistance,including Return to Work, whichrecognise individual circumstances,including parenting, and aim toprovide individuals with pathways outof long term welfare dependency.

Women make up the majority ofrecipients of social security transfers.This in part reflects the sizeabletransfers to women from family-directed payments (paid to theprimary carer), as well as flowthrough effects of past education and employment practices on mature aged women with limitedwork experience.

While women’s labour marketincomes have increased, and the gapbetween men’s and women’s averageweekly ordinary time earningsdecreased from 17.1% to 16.3% ofmale earnings between the Mayquarter in 1996 and the Februaryquarter in 2000, there is room forfurther improvement.

Increasingly, market incomes will beaffected by changes in workforce andjob structure including the forces ofglobalisation. The AustralianGovernment’s workplace reforms aredesigned to support stable andsustainable adjustment andemployment and economic growth.

There continues to be a need tocapitalise on these reforms, includingincreased flexibility for work andfamily arrangements.

The financial welfare of manyAustralian women, particularly olderwomen, remains affected by past lowlevels of education and workforceparticipation and careeradvancement. As a result, many olderAustralians, particularly olderwomen, have less financial assetsthan men. Government changes insuperannuation and divorce and moreflexible savings vehicles are designedto address this.

Women make up the majority of agepension recipients. Again, thisreflects past generational experiencewith low levels of participation in thepaid workforce and exclusion fromoccupational superannuationcoverage. The AustralianGovernment’s commitment tomaintain the single rate of pension at25% of male total average weeklyearnings, and other changes to thepension, will protect existing lowincome older women from poverty.However, more time is needed for theGovernment’s superannuationreforms to become fully effective.

While young Australian women arethe beneficiaries of increasingeducation levels (54.7% of Australia’shigher education students and 48.5%


of vocational education and trainingstudents are women) and record levelsof employment, it will take time forthese changes to flow through.Increased emphasis on financialplanning skills for women, especiallyyoung women, and cultural change tobring up the girl child to plan foreconomic security in her own right, arealso needed.

Australian workplaces are starting toaddress issues of work and family tothe benefit of workers with familyresponsibilities, who are primarily, butnot exclusively, women. Until this isthe accepted norm, women continue tobear most of the economic andopportunity cost for career breaks forfull time parenting.

More women than men have workforcebreaks and periods of part time workbecause of their caring role within the family. This affects theirsuperannuation entitlements and thuswomen are more likely than men to relyon benefits for their retirement income.There are large intergenerationaldifferences between women regardingaccess to economic opportunities thatthey have had in the past. The highdivorce rate impacts on the financialsecurity of women.

Financial pressures are particularlyacute for some groups of women,including sole parents and Indigenouswomen. Government measures aim

to provide more secure and

flexible pathways out of long term

welfare dependency.

C O N C E R N S O F W O M E N I N

T H E C O M M U N I T Y

There are concerns that economic

reforms in recent years and trends in

the workplace, such as the increasing

casualisation of work, contribute to the

continuing low socio-economic status

of many women. There is a particular

concern that while economic

advancement is possible for women

under these changes, they are not

uniform for all women. This is also

reflected more generally in what is

seen as a growing gap between ‘haves’

and ‘have-nots’ in Australian society.

More vulnerable groups of women in

society, such as Indigenous woman and

those from a non-English speaking

background, are considered to be at

greater risk of poverty.


F U T U R EC O M M I T M E N T S

Future commitments for women areincorporated above.

In the Australian Government system,new funding commitments arecustomarily announced in the annual Federal Budget. Additionalcommitments may be publiclyannounced in the context of theelection platform or at other occasions.

The Australian Government’s futurebudget commitments for women arecomprehensively outlined inDelivering on our Commitments forWomen, the Budget MinisterialStatement on Women from theMinister Assisting the Prime Ministeron the Status of Women. A copy ofthis Statement has been provided inresponse to Part 2 (Financial andInstitutional measures).

Australia maintains a robust incomesupport safety net to protect womenand men in genuine need, includingthe unemployed, students and youth,parents and sole parents, and olderAustralians. The AustralianGovernment provides cash andtaxation benefits to families with

dependent children, assistance withthe costs of child care and paymentsfor disabled persons and carers.Australia does not utilise socialinsurance systems and thesepayments are publicly funded fromgeneral taxation revenue. Totaltransfer payments account for aboutone-third of Budget outlays and about8% of GDP.

These benefits are augmented by anextensive and increasingly flexibleretirement incomes system andstatutory child support provisions.Specific assistance is also available tolow income families, including womenand sole parents, through publichousing and assistance with privaterental housing, telephones andpharmaceuticals. In combination,these measures help to reduce theincidence of poverty in Australia andto moderate wealth inequalities which may arise from marketincomes alone.

Australia has been at the forefront ofrestructuring income support toseparately recognise the role ofwomen within couple families and ofintroducing appropriate activity andmeans test provisions.

E D U C AT I O N

A N D T R A I N I N G

O F W O M E N


Inequalities and inadequacies in andunequal access to education and training.

BC H A P T E R

3 7


1: Ensure equal access toeducation.

2: Eradicate illiteracy amongwomen.

3: Improve women’s access tovocational training, science andtechnology, and continuingeducation.

4: Develop non-discriminatoryeducation and training.

5: Allocate sufficient resources forand monitor the implementationof educational reforms.

6: Promote life-long education andtraining for girls and women.

O V E R V I E W

Access to education and training is vitalfor women. Education remains the keyto improving economic status in achanging economy and equippingindividuals to achieve their goals andwiden their life choices. A wellfunctioning economy needs a workforcethat fully utilises all its human capital,and promotes skills development andeducation without discrimination on thegrounds of sex.

In recent times, Australiangovernments have introduced initiativesto increase women’s participation ineducation and training. Under theaegis of the national Gender EquityFramework for schools, the NationalStrategy for Vocational Education and

Training and A Fair Chance for All,governments have acted to improveaccess to education and training forwomen. Initiatives have beenimplemented to expand the range ofoptions for women and girls,particularly their access to private schools, apprenticeships and traineeships.

Educational opportunities andoutcomes have continued to growstrongly for women since the mid-1990s. More young women than menundertake the senior years ofsecondary schooling (77.9% for girls,compared to 65.9% for boys). Womenhave made up more than half of allhigher education students in Australiasince 1987, and the proportion offemale students has increased steadilysince that time. The proportion ofwomen entering higher educationincreased from 56.5% in 1995 to 56.9%in 1998. In vocational education andtraining (VET), women have almostreached parity with men (rising from47.2% in 1995 to 48.5% in 1998).Dramatic improvements have occurredin the area of employment basedtraining, with the proportion of womenentering apprenticeships andtraineeships increasing from around25% in 1995 to more than 40% in 1998.

Women have also made significantinroads into several traditional maleareas of study, such as science,engineering and medicine. More

S T R AT E G I C

O B J E C T I V E S

women and girls today are studyingscience, mathematics and technology-based subjects than ever before. In1998, women entering medicalundergraduate courses outnumberedmen for the first time.

Since 1997, the Australian Governmenthas funded a wide range of researchaimed at enhancing women’sparticipation in education, training andemployment. Projects have included:the identification of barriers toeducation, training and employment forgirls and boys and the factors thataffect their post-school outcomes; andwomen’s access to informationtechnologies in education, training and employment.

S T R AT E G I C O B J E C T I V E

1: Ensure equal access to education.

S C H O O L E D U C AT I O N

More young women than men continueon to the senior years of secondaryschooling in Australia. In 1998, thefemale year 12 retention rate was77.7%, compared with 65.9% for males.

Gender Equity: A Framework forAustralian Schools, sets out principlesfor action and strategic directions foreducation systems to move towards inorder to achieve the best outcomes andopportunities for girls and boys.Specific outcomes are provided for

each strategic direction, together witha range of approaches and strategies.Strategic areas include schoolcurriculum, culture and managementpractices to better address differenteducational needs of disparate groupsof girls and boys.

The Schools Work Towards GenderEquity project was funded in the 1996-97 Budget to develop resourcematerials to assist principals andschool staff to investigate their schools’gender equity needs and determineaction that can be taken to bring aboutgender equity reform. The projectprovides a practical and informativeresource to assist schools to addressthe strategic directions of the GenderEquity Framework (see above). Thereport is available on the Department ofEducation, Training and Youth Affairs’website (www.detya.gov.au/schools/publications/genderequity/index.htm).

In line with the AustralianGovernment’s commitment to provideall students with access to a qualityeducation and increase parental choicein schooling, the AustralianGovernment announced new fundingarrangements to come into operation in2001 for non-government schools. Thenew arrangements will be based on ameasure of the socio-economic statusof school communities, derived fromcurrent census data on family andhousehold income, education andoccupation. The new system will give



families, particularly low incomefamilies, greater access to theschooling of their choice, greaterinvestment in education and providemore support for the neediest schools.

The Australian Government provides$17.7 million annually, under theCountry Areas Programme, to helpschools and students in geographicallyisolated areas of Australia. Thismeasure assists parents,administrators and other interestedcommunity members to improve thedelivery of education services toprimary and secondary students livingin rural and remote areas.

The Assistance for Isolated ChildrenScheme (approximately $38 million peryear 2000-01 to 2003-04) helps familiesin rural and remote areas to overcomebarriers to education and meet theextra costs associated with theschooling of their children. The aim ofthe Scheme is to help the families ofstudents who are unable to attend aschool daily because of geographicisolation. A range of allowances areavailable for students who board awayfrom home, for families to set up asecond home and for students who study at home by distance education methods.

FA M I LY A N D L I F EE D U C AT I O N I N S C H O O L S

The health and physical educationstatement and profile for Australianschools also makes specific provision

for learning activities that promote thedevelopment of strategies for forming,maintaining and ending relationshipsand managing changes in roles and responsibilities.

The Australian Government funded thedevelopment of a set of curriculumunits in family studies. The unitsexamine the gender distribution of thevarious roles within families, thehistorical development of familypatterns and structures, and therelationship between family structuresand participation in economic, politicaland social life.

The National Women’s HealthProgramme provided funding for thedevelopment of a special curriculummodule and training manual forteachers to assist them in combatingthe undermining effects of sex rolestereotypes on girls (eg. through selfesteem and confidence-building), indealing with menstruation and relatedissues, and in teaching humanrelationship and communication skills.

The Australian Government providesdirect funding through the FamilyPlanning Programme to selected non-government organisations for a rangeof activities, including education,counselling and clinical services, aswell as nationally accredited trainingfor health professionals. Educationprogrammes are conducted by FamilyPlanning Organisations in primary and secondary schools. Theseprogrammes cover issues such as


relationships, sexuality, responsiblesexual behaviour, health risks andrelated topics.

C I V I C E D U C AT I O N

Discovering Democracy ($18 million1996-2000) is the AustralianGovernment’s Civics and CitizenshipEducation Programme. This initiativeis designed to help all Australianstudents develop the basic knowledge,skills and attitudes they need to engageeffectively in civic life. These materialspromote women’s participation inpublic life and provide role models ofwomen in political and other non-traditional careers.

R E S E A R C H

The Australian Government hascommissioned research to examine thefactors influencing the educationalperformance of both males andfemales in school and their initialdestinations after leaving school.

V O C AT I O N A L E D U C AT I O NA N D T R A I N I N G

See below under Strategic Objective 3.

H I G H E R E D U C AT I O N

In 1998, women made up 55.5% of thetotal higher education population inAustralia. Female commencements inhigher education have increased by39% over the last ten years, whereasmale commencements increased by

only 28.4% during the same period.Female postgraduate students rosefrom 49.9% in 1997 to 50.4% in 1998.

Mature-age women outnumbermature-age men in higher education.In 1998, 40.2% of higher educationstudents were aged 25 years or olderand 53% of these students werewomen. Mature-age women includewomen returning to study after a break,women with children, sole parentsreturning to the workforce and womenimproving their skills. Many mature-age students are admitted throughflexible entry provisions and choose tostudy on a part-time or external basis.

Universities are encouraged to addressthe under-representation of women insome areas at the undergraduate andpostgraduate levels through theprovision of Higher Education EquityProgramme (HEEP) funding. Fundingof $5.64 million was made available toinstitutions in 1999-2000 to assist themin providing appropriate programmesfor equity groups, such as people fromlow socio-economic status background,rural and isolated backgrounds andwomen in non-traditional areas ofstudy or in higher degree courses.HEEP funding is intended to be seedfunding and not intended to cover thefull costs of equity initiatives.

Universities are required to submitannual equity plans to demonstrate theextent to which equity planning andpractice are integrated into their


operations. These equity plansdescribe strategies developed toincrease the participation of equitygroups in higher education. Some innovative strategies for women include:

■ the provision of scholarships forwomen re-entering graduate studywhich recognise the discontinuousparticipation of women in highereducation as a result of their family responsibilities;

■ ‘tracking’ processes to monitor theprogress of women studying in the fields of engineering, maths and computing;

■ information forums for final yearundergraduate women students toencourage them to pursue an academic career;

■ encouragement of female staff,especially those involved inInformation Technology, to leadfaculty student recruitmentactivities; and

■ promotion of curriculum review withgender inclusivity as a major aim.

The Indigenous Support FundingProgramme is providing $22.7 millionin 1999 to higher education institutionsto improve the access and participationof Indigenous men and women. Thekinds of activities provided includestudy skills, personal counselling,provision of study centres, cultural

awareness activities and visits toschools to encourage Indigenousstudents to consider university courses.In 1998 there were 7,789 Indigenousstudents of whom 4,977 (or 64%) wereIndigenous women.

Universities offer course units bydistance mode through Open LearningAustralia. The objectives of OpenLearning Australia are to provideflexible access to tertiary education. Anincreasing number of courses areavailable through this mode of delivery,including undergraduate subjects,graduate programmes and some VET units.

F I N A N C I A L A S S I S T A N C EF O R S T U D E N T S

The Australian Government providesfinancial assistance to students toassist in overcoming financial barriersto education, particularly for studentsfrom low income households.

Many full-time students aged 16 or overreceive financial assistance throughYouth Allowance, AUSTUDY orABSTUDY.

■ Youth Allowance is available topeople aged 16-24 years who areundertaking education or trainingand includes rent assistance, apharmaceutical allowance and aRemote Area Allowance. YouthAllowance has resulted in youngunemployed people returning to


school or vocational traininginstitutes. This is of particularbenefit to rural communities.

■ AUSTUDY is paid to students aged 25years or over whose financialcircumstances are such that withoutfinancial help, full-time study wouldnot be possible. A total of $297.7million is being provided forAUSTUDY in 1999-2000.

■ ABSTUDY is available for IndigenousAustralians, regardless of age.

Women make up more than half of therecipients of Youth Allowance andABSTUDY and around 42% of AUSTUDY clients.

Most tertiary students are required topay the Higher Education ContributionScheme (HECS) charge for theiruniversity studies. The HECS chargecan be paid on enrolment or through adeferred payment arrangementcommencing when the graduate’sincome reaches a certain level.

Post-graduate tertiary students may beeligible for an Australian PostgraduateAward. These awards provide anexemption from HECS, and those withstipend also provide benefits such as aliving allowance.

Y O U N G W O M E N ‘ AT R I S K ’

A wide range of initiatives are underway to identify the barriers, andimprove educational outcomes for

young people ‘at risk’ of not making asuccessful transition to furthereducation or employment.

■ Under the Jobs PathwayProgramme ($22 million in 2000-2001), school leavers not intendingto go on to university are assisted tomake a successful transition fromschool to work through partnershipsinvolving schools, industry and thelocal community. The programmeenables ‘at risk’ male and femalestudents to gain access to a range ofservices, such as information andadvice about VET options andbrokerage assistance to gainemployment placements, includingNew Apprenticeships. In 1998,around 25,000 young school leaversfrom over 1,500 schools acrossAustralia, many of whom werewomen, were assisted under this initiative.

See also:

■ The ‘Returning to work’ section for details on the Job Placement, Employment andTraining Programme in A: Women and Poverty.

E D U C AT I O N A N D T R A I N I N GF O R U N E M P L O Y E D P E O P L E

The Australian Government’s nationaljob creation strategy has created moreopportunities for unemployed people toacquire the necessary skills and


training to compete effectively in thelabour market. An active, properlytargeted labour market programme willhelp those who are trapped in theunemployment spiral through lack ofskills and other factors. It will alsoensure that training for unemployedpeople is, wherever possible, accreditedtraining that leads to more advancedqualifications and is relevant to localemployment opportunities.

See also:

■ F: Women and the Economy fordetails on Job Network and theReturn to Work Programme.


2: Eradicate illiteracy amongwomen.

The 1996 National School EnglishLiteracy Survey found similardifferences in literacy levels betweengirls and boys. The 1998 Literacy andNumeracy Survey found that more thanthree quarters of Year 3 and 5 girls metthe literacy benchmarks for reading andwriting compared to less than two thirdsof boys. These and other studies showthat there are a wide range ofachievement levels between the lowestand highest achieving students, and thatthe difference between boys’ and girls’levels of literacy is greater amongchildren from unskilled and manualoccupation backgrounds than among children from other socio-economic groups.

L I T E R A C Y

In March 1997, Australian ministers foreducation agreed to a National Literacyand Numeracy Goal, That every childleaving school should be numerate,and be able to read, write and spell atan appropriate level. The AustralianGovernment specifically supports theachievement of this goal through theLiteracy and Numeracy Programme(almost $869 million from 1999-2000 to2002-2003). The programme aims tohelp schools measurably improve theliteracy skills of students in the earlyand middle years of schooling.

The Quality Teacher Programme ($77.1million from 1999-2000 to 2002-2003)aims to strengthen the skills of theteaching profession. The programmefocuses on the renewal of teacher skillsand understanding across key learningareas, including literacy and numeracy.

The Workplace English Language andLiteracy Programme (WELL) is an $11.8million programme (1999-2000) thatprovides workers, including non-English speaking background andIndigenous women workers, withEnglish language and literacy skills toenable them to meet the demands oftheir current and future employmentand training needs. WELL projectsassist the delivery of workplace-basedEnglish language and literacy trainingactivities, the development of Englishlanguage and literacy resources andsupport national strategic activitieswithin particular industries, including


the incorporation of language, literacy,and numeracy competencies intoindustry training packages. In addition,the Workplace Communication Project,a component of the WELL programme,supports the integration of languageand literacy competencies into trainingpackages. The programme had 7,400women clients in 1999, orapproximately 37% of the total client numbers.

E N G L I S H A S A S E C O N DL A N G U A G E T R A I N I N G

Funding for the English as a SecondLanguage (ESL) General SupportProgramme is now subsumed withinthe Government’s Literacy andNumeracy Programme. This changerecognises the central importance ofliteracy skills for every child. Withinbroad guidelines, school authoritieshave greater flexibility in administeringand allocating funds according to localpriorities and the needs of individualstudents within the target groups,including students from a non-Englishspeaking background.

In addition to ESL funding under theLiteracy and Numeracy Programme,the Australian Government providessubstantial assistance for newly arrivednon-English speaking students who arecitizens or permanent residents toenable them to participate in intensivelanguage tuition under the English as aSecond Language - New ArrivalsProgramme. A similar programme has

also been introduced for studentswhose first language is an Indigenousone. The programme received funds of$36 million in 1999-2000 and 47.7% ofprogramme participants in 1999 were women.

The Adult Migrant English Programmeprovides English language tuition tonewly arrived adult migrants. Childcare is available if required. Theproportion of women participants in theprogramme was 62% in 1999.

The Advanced English for MigrantsProgramme ($5.34 million in 1999)helps migrant job seekers obtainemployment and overcome individualbarriers to participation in vocationaleducation and training. Coursesprovide advanced English languagetuition and generally have a vocationalfocus, covering a wide range of skilled occupations.

Further assistance is available foryoung job seekers from non-Englishspeaking backgrounds as part of theenhanced mutual obligationsarrangements. Participation in theLiteracy and Numeracy Programmewill be one of the options available toeligible young people aged 18-24 yearsafter having been in receipt ofunemployment payments for sixmonths. The Australian Governmenthas allocated up to 25 per cent ofliteracy and numeracy training placesnationally to job seekers of non-Englishspeaking backgrounds.



3: Improve women’s access tovocational training, science andtechnology, and continuingeducation.

Women in non-traditional areas ofeducation and training are a focus ofgovernment policy. Some of the keypriority areas are engineering,computer science and post-graduateresearch. The Australian Governmentrecognises the importance of womendeveloping appropriate skills in newtechnologies to ensure that there areno gender-based disadvantages,particularly in accessing services and employment.

S C I E N C E A N DT E C H N O L O G Y

In Years 11 and 12, an equal number ofgirls and boys now enrol inmathematics and chemistry. However,fewer girls enrol in the physicalsciences and computing. In VET andhigher education, women continue tobe under-represented in engineering,architecture and computer science.

Effort has been invested in encouraginggirls and women to enter science andtechnology areas of study. Theseefforts include the development ofcurriculum materials, including GenderWork, an education kit addressingissues of gender and work.

The Australian Government has also

established a ‘Women and InformationTechnology Advisory Group for OnlineAustralia’ to develop projects toencourage better access for women tonew technologies.

The Science and TechnologyAwareness Programme supportsactivities to increase women’sawareness and promote education andcareers in science and technology.Projects include a trial of a BestPractice Model for encouraging andsupporting women interested inscience and technology andengineering courses in the vocationaleducation and training sector. Talks byscientists and others are available torural women to educate and inspirewomen about the fundamental role of science in our daily lives and future prosperity.

See also:

■ J: Women and the Media for detailson Online Australia.

V O C AT I O N A L E D U C AT I O NA N D T R A I N I N G ( V E T )

Australia’s National Strategy forVocational Education and Training1998-2000 identifies objectives for thenational VET system, which includeachieving equitable outcomes for allstudents. The strategy supports theNational Women’s VET Strategy thatsets the national direction forgovernments, industry and training


providers to consistently address theneeds of women in policy making,planning, resourcing, implementingand monitoring VET. Increasing thenumber of women completing VETprogrammes across all levels andfields of study is a key objective of the Strategy.

Women’s participation in VET hasincreased steadily since the mid-1990s.In 1998, women made up almost half ofall VET students and more than 40% ofcommencing New Apprenticeships.

S C H O O L T O W O R K

P R O G R A M M E

Under the School to Work Programme,the Australian Government is providingsignificant funding to support VET inschools, with a total of $23 million overfour financial years, ending in June2000. Initiatives include professionaldevelopment for teachers, the deliveryof VET courses in schools by industryand trainers and piloting part-timeNew Apprenticeships in schools wherestudents are able to combine their senior secondary studies with accredited vocational training and paid employment.

A U S T R A L I A N S T U D E N T

T R A I N E E S H I P F O U N D A T I O N

The Australian Student TraineeshipFoundation ($83.3 million from 2000-2001 to 2003-2004) works closelywith industry to support sustainable

school to work transitions for all youngmen and women. An important aim ofthe initiative is to increase theparticipation of school students in VET.

F L E X I B L E D E L I V E R Y

The Australian Government has playeda leading role in promoting lifelonglearning and flexible deliverymechanisms, including distanceeducation. These measures contributeto improving women’s access to VET. In1998, women comprised more than55% of distance students.

VET courses in Australia areincreasingly delivered in many variedlocations, in a variety of modes, such asthrough on-line courses, and have agreater number of entry and exitpoints. The flexible delivery of trainingis very important for women,particularly those with familyresponsibilities, who often requireaccess to training at times andlocations more suited to their specific needs.

National Training Packages provide the

basis for consistency in training and

qualification outcomes and form the

foundation of vocational training. They

are designed to support a range of

learning and career pathways and

flexible combinations of on- and off-

the-job training and assessment to

meet particular enterprise, regional

and individual training needs. All


training packages include guidelines

for the assessment and Recognition of

Prior Learning which enables training

organisations and employers to identify

and formally recognise the skills that

women gain outside formal training.

N E W A P P R E N T I C E S H I P S

The Australian Government’s New

Apprenticeship reforms, involving a

new national system of apprenticeships

and traineeships, offer greater

flexibility and new arrangements

that will improve and expand

training opportunities for women.

These include:

■ the extension of New

Apprenticeships into new industries,

including those with large numbers

of female workers;

■ the commissioning of research to

investigate women’s participation in

New Apprenticeships and to develop

strategies to increase their access

and retention;

■ expanding the provision of part-time

New Apprenticeships including in

traditional male industries and

emerging industries;

■ a publication of an educational

resource to promote young

women’s participation in New

Apprenticeships; and

■ the availability of employer incentivepayments for certain categories ofexisting workers to take up a NewApprenticeship. This provides moreopportunities for existing womenworkers to undertake a NewApprenticeship. Certain categoriesof existing workers, for example, can now attract an employerincentive payment.

The results are already beginning toshow in improved participation rates forwomen – the total number of female newapprentices rose from 32,555 in 1996 to57,000 in 1998 – an increase of 75%.

A number of other measures arefunded by the Australian Government toincrease opportunities for women toundertake New Apprenticeships:

■ additional incentive payments($1000) are paid to employers fortaking on a female apprentice ortrainee in a non-traditionaloccupation; and

■ the New Apprenticeships AccessProgramme ($25.2 million in 1999-2000) provides pre-apprenticeshipand pre-traineeship assistance forpeople who are disadvantaged in thelabour market and requirepreliminary training before they cansuccessfully participate in a NewApprenticeship. Women who areregistered as unemployed orreceiving income support and wish


to enter a non-traditional ‘female’

occupation are eligible for

assistance under this programme.

Approximately one third of

participants are women.

I N D I G E N O U S E D U C A T I O N

D I R E C T A S S I S T A N C E

P R O G R A M M E

The Indigenous Education DirectAssistance Programme provides career

guidance, support and tuition for

students and trainees in need of

additional assistance. This initiative

has helped many Indigenous women

gain entry into VET courses.

See also:

■ Strategic Objective 1 above

for details on the Jobs Pathway Programme.

S M A L L B U S I N E S ST R A I N I N G

In 1999-2000, the Australian

Government will implement new

programmes ($800,000 per annum) to

assist women in small business

through measures to improve the flow

of information on business issues to

women and provide opportunities to

enhance their management skills and

networks. For more details, see the

Small Business Enterprise and CultureProgramme in F: Women andthe Economy.

The Small Business Professional

Development Best Practice

Programme is an action research

programme designed to develop, trial

and implement a range of models to

meet the training needs of small

business and to stimulate the demand

for quality training. Several projects

target small business women, or

industries where there are large

numbers of women workers, to

increase women’s participation in

training and help them expand their

business operations. The Women in

Small Business Mentoring Project, for

example, developed a mentoring

network linking new starters with

experienced business owners to share

knowledge and experience and boost

confidence and success. The network

placed a strong emphasis on improving

skills and participation in on-the-job

training with general business support

and information.

Women’s small business training and

skill development is also being

addressed through nationally

recognised training materials and

self-paced training programmes.

Information on the training products

will be disseminated through on-

line technology, seminars and

printed material.



4: Develop non-discriminatoryeducation and training.

G E N D E R E Q U I T YAWA R E N E S S

During 1998, the AustralianGovernment allocated funding of$100,000 to produce an annotatedbibliography listing resources tocombat violence in schools. This guidewill help school communities to planstrategies and develop trainingprogrammes for teachers and parents.It will be distributed to all Australianschools and is available atwww.detya.gov.au/schools/publications/genderequity on the Internet.

L E G I S L AT I V E F R A M E W O R K

Australia has a robust legislativeframework to ensure that women andparticular groups of women (such asIndigenous women and women with adisability) are not discriminated againstin education and training.

See also:

■ H: Institutional Mechanisms for theadvancement of Women for detailson the Race Discrimination Act(1975), the Sex Discrimination Act(1984) and the Discrimination Act 1992.

■ Strategic objective 1 above fordetails on initiatives to improvewomen’s access to education and training.


5: Allocate sufficient resources forand monitor the implementationof educational reforms.

Robust monitoring and reporting ofeducation and training programmesand outcomes for students, includingthose for particular equity groupsincluding women, is a well-establishedfeature of Australia’s education andtraining systems. Quantitative data onfemale students in schools, VET(including New Apprenticeships) anduniversities is published on an annual basis.

The Australian Government hasallocated substantial resources tomonitor the impact of reforms onwomen. For example, the developmentand implementation of NewApprenticeships has been regularlymonitored to ensure that equity groups,including women, are able to benefitfrom the reforms.

Evaluation and monitoring procedureshave also been significantly enhancedsince 1995. Under the NationalWomen’s VET Strategy, newperformance indicators wereintroduced for women in VET. Acomprehensive report was published in1997 on key VET outcomes for womenacross a wide range of indicators andcovering disadvantaged groups ofwomen including Indigenous women,NESB women, women with disabilitiesand rural women.



6. Promote life-long education andtraining.

Australian governments stronglysupport increasing opportunities forlifelong education and training. Theflexible delivery of training andRecognition of Prior Learning (RPL) areespecially important for women.

F L E X I B L E D E L I V E R Y

The flexible delivery of education andtraining expands opportunities forwomen of all ages to participate ineducation and training. Education andtraining courses in Australia areincreasingly delivered in many variedlocations, in a variety of modes (eg. on-line courses) and have a greaternumber of entry and exit points. Manywomen, particularly those with familyresponsibilities often require access tocourses at times and locations moresuited to their specific needs.

R E C O G N I T I O N O F P R I O RL E A R N I N G

The increased availability of theRecognition of Prior Learning (RPL) isalso particularly beneficial for manywomen. The availability of RPL enableswomen to gain credit for the skills andknowledge acquired through lifeexperiences (eg. through theirvoluntary community work and

household duties) and assists manywomen to move into further trainingafter a career break. RPL is a keypriority for all Australian governmentsand has been supported by a widerange of initiatives. These include theestablishment of skills recognitioncentres, research, and the publicationand dissemination of information andpractical resources to employers,training providers and individuals. RPLis a priority area in the NationalWomen’s VET Strategy and funds havebeen provided for severalimplementation projects.

See also:

■ Strategic Objective 3 above under‘Vocational Education and Training’.

W O M E N I N V E T

The national VET system aims to meetthe needs of the existing workforce sothat workers can upgrade their existingskills or obtain new skills. It also aimsto improve pathways to VET for newentrants to workforce and thosereturning to the workforce. In 1998,students aged over 25 years comprised61% of the total student population inthe VET sector, 51.2% of whom were women.

See also:

■ The Workplace English Languageand Literacy Programme underStrategic Objective 1 above.



National policies for education andtraining give priority to students fromparticular equity groups, includingstudents with a disability, studentsfrom geographically isolated regionsand students from diverse racial andcultural backgrounds. Key policiesinclude the National Strategy forVocational Education and Training1998-2000, the National Women’s VETStrategy and A Fair Chance for All.

The National Women’s VET Strategy,for example, sets the national directionfor governments, industry and trainingproviders to consistently address theneeds of women in policy making,planning, resourcing, implementingand monitoring VET. The Strategytargets particular groups of womenincluding women from different racialand cultural backgrounds, rural andremote women, women with a disabilityand women returning to paid work aftera period of absence.

R U R A L W O M E N

A range of Australian Governmentinitiatives are being implemented thatwill improve rural girls’ and women’saccess, participation and outcomes.

The Education Network Australia(EdNA) is a national frameworkestablished to coordinate the use ofinteractive computer networks acrossthe educational sectors. A key

objective is to improve access toinformation technology by allAustralians, regardless of geographiclocation. EdNA provides informationabout education and trainingopportunities, and also facilitates theflexible delivery of courses. Womenliving in rural areas will benefit fromthe service delivered through EdNA.The EdNA Directory Service can befound at http://www.edna.edu.au. TheAustralian Government’s support forEdNA is provided through theFramework for Open LearningProgramme, a $22.5 millionprogramme in 1999-2000.

The Rural Youth Information Service($750,000 in 1999-2000) provides youngmen and women aged 15 to 25 years inrural and remote communities withaccess to information, advice andreferral to other agencies on education,training and employment mattersincluding income support. Brokersalso provide assistance in negotiatingplacements with employers, includingfor New Apprenticeships.

The Rural and Regional NewApprenticeships Incentive is availableto employers in non-metropolitanareas who employ a New Apprentice inan occupation identified as being inskill shortage. The measure isexpected to provide additionalopportunities for rural women.

The Australian Government hasprovided $250 million over five years to


Networking the Nation to assist theeconomic and social development ofregional, rural and remote Australia.Rural women will be able to takeadvantage of improved communicationsand on-line training as a result of this initiative.

See also:

■ Strategic Objective 1 above for detailson the Assistance for IsolatedChildren Scheme, the Country AreasProgramme and the HigherEducation Equity Programme.


While there have been improvements inthe participation of Indigenous maleand female students in education andtraining, outcomes are still well belowthose of other Australians. In general,however, women tend to have betteroutcomes than men. The AustralianGovernment is undertaking concertedefforts to address barriers and ensurethat Indigenous students achieveequitable and appropriate outcomes ineducation and training.

The Education Strategic InitiativesProgramme ($127.4 million in 1999-2000) and the Education DirectAssistance Programme ($62.5 millionin 1999-2000) aim to achieve equitableand appropriate outcomes forIndigenous men and women.Performance targets, which arenegotiated with education departmentsand education providers, measure

outcomes for literacy, numeracy,school attendance, retention, gradeprogression, Tertiary Entrance Rank,awarding of school certificates and employment.

The Indigenous Education DirectAssistance Programme (IEDA)comprises three elements:

■ Aboriginal Tutorial AssistanceScheme which provides tuition forIndigenous students and traineeswho need extra assistance with their studies;

■ Aboriginal Student Support andParent Awareness Programmewhich aims to break down barriersand establish a forum for productivedialogue between parents ofIndigenous students and theireducators; and

■ Vocational Educational Guidance forAboriginals Scheme which providesseed funding in the key area ofassisting Indigenous people to makedecisions about education andcareer choices.

■ Women make up approximately 50%of clients under IEDA.

Other Indigenous specific measures are:

■ the Indigenous Support FundingProgramme ($22.7 million in 1999-2000) funds universities to supportstudents. In 1998 there were 7,789 Indigenous students, of whom64% were women;


■ the Indigenous ResearchersDevelopment Scheme ($220,000 in2000). Just over half of the existingresearchers funded under theScheme are women; and

■ the Australian National TrainingAuthority (ANTA) Aboriginal andTorres Strait Islander Peoples’Training Advisory Council providesadvice to the ANTA Board on ways toimprove access and outcomes forIndigenous Australians in VET.

In addition, a wide range of mainstreamprogrammes target IndigenousAustralians including the NewApprenticeships Access Programmeand the Higher Education EquityProgramme (see Strategic Objective 1above). In addition, a research projectis examining ways to improvedisadvantaged students’ (includingIndigenous students’) access and outcomes in informationtechnology courses.

See also:

■ Strategic Objective 1 above fordetails on ABSTUDY.

N O N - E N G L I S H S P E A K I N GB A C K G R O U N D W O M E N

There are several programmes toassist women from a non-Englishspeaking background with Englishlanguage skills. See above underStrategic Objective 2 – Eradicating

illiteracy among women for detailsconcerning language programmes for those with English as a second language.

See also

■ Strategic Objective 3 above.

■ The Mutual obligation section in F: Women and the Economy.

■ The ‘Assistance to refugee women inAustralia’ section in E: Women andArmed Conflict.

O L D E R W O M E N

The Australian Governmentcommissioned a research reportentitled Barriers to Training for OlderWorkers as part of its response to theInternational Year of the Older Persons.The purpose of this report is to identifythe barriers (including systemic,personal, family, employment andother barriers) facing workers aged 45years and over and develop innovativeand practical initiatives.

W O M E N W I T HD I S A B I L I T I E S

The Australian National TrainingAuthority’s (ANTA) Disability Forum is anational advisory committee thatprovides advice to the ANTA Board onthe training needs of people with a disability, including women with a disability.

The Australian Government funds theDisabled Apprenticeship Wage Support


Programme which provides weeklywage support to employers forrecruiting a person with a disability asan apprentice. Assistance may also beprovided by way of necessary workplacemodifications or the hire and leasing ofspecial equipment, tutorial assistanceor interpreter services. Theprogramme had approximately 2,800clients in 1998-1999, of whom 12%were women.

Students with disabilities are alsotarget groups of Government-fundedprogrammes and policies, including theNational Strategy for VocationalEducation and Training 1998-2000, theNational Women’s VET Strategy and AFair Chance for All (see above).

See also:

■ Strategic Objective 3 above fordetails on small business training.

■ Strategic Objective 1 above fordetails on the New ApprenticeshipsAccess Programme and the HigherEducation Equity Programme.People with a disability are targetsunder these programmes.

INTERNATIONAL AID

Australia’s aid programme policy oneducation and training recognises thateducation for women and girls iscritical for poverty reduction. Thispolicy was issued in August 1996 withfive priority areas: basic education,vocational and technical education,higher education, institutional

strengthening and distance education.Around 64% of Australia’s bilateraleducation programmes have girls as asignificant focus.

Australia’s aid programme assistswomen’s education through non-formalliteracy projects. Concerted effortshave been made to incorporate literacyprogrammes as part of broadercommunity development or ruralintegrated development projects.

Australia is co-financing a PrimaryEducation Enhancement Project inIndia with UNICEF in which innovativeand community-based awarenessstrategies regarding girls’ overallaccess to education are beingimplemented. These strategies includethe release of girl siblings from child-care responsibilities and thedevelopment of transition schools forworking children.

Australia has provided more than $14million to Papua New Guinea to supportthe development of elementaryvernacular education. The project willassist in the development ofcurriculum, teaching materials,infrastructure and training forapproximately 5,500 teachers tostrengthen the country’s capacity toprovide quality education in the firstthree years of schooling. The projectaims to recruit at least 50% of womenteachers. It will provide regionallybased training and village employment


to overcome the barriers of security

and distance for women. In addition,

the increasing numbers of women

elementary teachers will provide girls

with alternative female role models in

paid employment.



In NSW the TAFE State Programme of

Action for Women has increased

women’s access to TAFE. 55.9% of

distance education students in TAFE in

1997 were women.

V I C T O R I A

The Victorian Government is committed

to ensuring that education is accessible

and affordable to all women. Specific

strategies to meet the educational and

training needs of older women, Koori

women, rural women and women from

culturally and linguistically diverse

backgrounds are being implemented by

Government. The promotion of the

participation of women in non

traditional trades through the provision

of information and facilitation of

partnership projects and public

education will also be undertaken.

The strategies include:

■ lifelong learning initiatives forwomen promoted through ongoingsupport for the University of theThird Age;

■ investigation of the needs of olderlearners to develop an olderlearners policy;

■ professional development activitiesto better support Koori women inTAFE;

■ building two Koori Training Centresto address the needs of localcommunities including the needs ofKoori women; and

■ a review of the current provision ofgender education, and thedevelopment of policy advice andcurriculum strategies to supportschools to provide gender equity ineducation will be undertaken.

A U S T R A L I A N C A P I T A LT E R R I T O R Y

The ACT has developed a strategy toimplement Gender Equity: AFramework for Australian Schools.The Strategy assists schools to developannual action plans to analyse andaddress gender issues. Professionaldevelopment and training for teacherspromotes gender-sensitive education.Vocational education and workexperience programmes includeanalysis of gender perspectives andnon-traditional work patterns.


Q U E E N S L A N D

Queensland has been active in theimplementation of both the NationalAction Plan for the Education of Girlsand since 1997, the National GenderEquity Framework. The nationalFramework indicates a range of priorityareas for action and is linked tonational reporting processes.

Professional development projectsconducted in Queensland schoolsduring 1995/96 include the Racist andGendered Violence Project and acurriculum project called Gender up Front.


The Making Waves project forIndigenous women in broadcasting isaimed at training women to manageand operate programmes andequipment in remote communities.

S O U T H A U S T R A L I A

The South Australian Government hasintroduced Integrated Language andWorkplace Trainer which providestraining for women of non-Englishspeaking background employed in thetextile industry.

T A S M A N I A

Tasmanian data suggests that girls areoutperforming boys in literacyoutcomes. Whilst adult literacyprogrammes in Tasmania do not

specifically target women, in 1998women made up approximately 47% ofall participants in the Adult Literacyand Basic Education programmeconducted by TAFE. Women-onlyliteracy classes for women from diversecultural and linguistic backgroundshave been delivered since 1992.

The Government’s TasmanianImplementation Plan for Women hasbeen developed to implement theNational Women’s VET Strategy. TheState Steering Committee isresponsible for identifying key areas ofneed, including women in informationtechnology, and assisting in thedevelopment and implementation of strategies.

Case management is being trialled forpeople from groups with special needs(including women) as they progressthrough vocational education and training.

The East Coast Pilot Project TrainingBrokerage for Rural Women 1997/1998was a pilot project to: assist women toaccess information about courses theywere interested in; assist women withenrolment procedures; provide initialreturn to study sessions; and providetutorial assistance as required byindividuals. Following the project,there was a 57% increase in femaleenrolments in VET courses from thepiloted municipality between l996 and1997. The pilot is continuing.


The Government funds women’s accesscourses in all regions of the State.These courses assist women who havebeen out of the workforce for asignificant time to return to studyand/or employment. TAFE Tasmania,through its Women’s TrainingConsultant, promotes women’s accessand participation in vocationaleducation and training. The role of theconsultant includes staff developmentin gender-inclusive training and other areas.

Approximately 75% of enrolments inadult education courses in Tasmaniaare women. Funding is also provided toNeighbourhood Houses, usedpredominantly by women, to deliverprogrammes that promote self-esteemand encourage women to participate inlifelong learning.

In 1996 funding was provided to TAFETasmania for the State-wide delivery ofCertificate III in Information Technologyin women-only classes. Women’sinterest in the course was very high andoutcomes were excellent.

In Tasmania, gender equity, with afocus on the education of girls, was apriority for the three year period from1995-1997. Significant extra resourceswere allocated to support theimplementation of the Department’spolicy on gender equity. Seven districtgender curriculum officers wereemployed with central coordination toimprove educational practices inrelation to gender.


W O M E N ’ S C O N C E R N S I NT H E C O M M U N I T Y

Despite an increasing acceptance inthe community of the right of women tohave access to educationalopportunities, there are concerns aboutthe vulnerability of women with pooraccess to education, especiallyIndigenous women and migrantwomen. In addition, high course feesand child care costs can impede accessto education by other women andwomen are likely to carry the burden offees for longer due to lower pay andhigher likelihood of absences from theworkforce. Women in the communityare also concerned that young womencontinue to follow more traditionalfemale career paths and that there needs to be support for women pursuing non-traditional career choices.

C H A L L E N G E S

Gender differences in educationalperformance and attainment havesignificant implications for furthereducation and employment outcomeslater in life. While there have beendramatic improvements across manyareas of education and training, girlsand women are still concentrated in anarrow range of subject areas. Female


students are significantly under-represented in some science andtechnology fields (eg, engineering;some computer science courses) andare heavily concentrated in low skilllevel New Apprenticeships such asthose in hairdressing and clerical.

As with all OECD countries, Australiacontinues to have a gender-segregatedworkforce, with most womenconcentrated in retail sales, service andclerical occupations. Further effortsare needed to encourage culturalchanges in non-traditional workplacesand to build on best practice models to encourage girls to enter new technologies.

One of the key factors in improvingequitable outcomes for women will bethe expansion of structured, nationallyrecognised training opportunities intoareas where high numbers of womenare employed. Another importantobjective will be to encourage women to train for emerging areas of employment.

L E A R N I N G P O I N T S

Over the past decade, Australiangovernments have allocatedsubstantial resources to increasewomen’s participation in non-traditional fields of study. Manystrategies have focused on promotingbroader career options to young womenin schools. Recent research has

suggested that greater efforts need tobe directed towards improving the culture of non-traditionalworkplaces and education and training environments.



In the Australian Government system,new funding commitments arecustomarily announced in the annualFederal Budget. Additionalcommitments may be publiclyannounced in the context of the electionplatform or at other occasions.

The Australian Government’s futurebudget commitments for women arecomprehensively outlined in Deliveringon our Commitments for Women, theBudget Ministerial Statement onWomen from the Minister Assisting thePrime Minister on the Status ofWomen. A copy of this Statement hasbeen provided in response to Part 2(Financial and Institutional measures).

W O M E N

A N D

H E A LT H


Inequalities and inadequacies in andunequal access to health care andrelated services

CC H A P T E R

6 1


Increase women’s access throughoutthe life cycle to appropriate, affordableand quality health care, informationand related services.

Strengthen preventive programmesthat promote women’s health.

Undertake gender-sensitive initiativesthat address sexually transmitteddiseases, HIV/AIDS and sexual andreproductive health issues.

Promote research and disseminateinformation on women’s health.

Increase resources and monitor follow-up for women’s health.

O V E R V I E W

The Australian Government is stronglycommitted to supporting a world classhealth care system that providesuniversally affordable services,including preventative care andpromotes healthy lifestyles. Women, asthe major users of the health caresystem, and recognising that womenstill assume primary responsibility forcaring for other members of theirfamily, are major beneficiaries of theAustralian Government’s reforms.

While primary responsibility for theprovision of health services rests withState and Territory governments, theAustralian Government plays a crucialrole in such areas as health financing,national health policy and planning andmaintaining Australia’s capacity to

meet its international obligations. In1997/98 Australia spent approximately8.4% of its Gross Domestic Productannually on health care.

All Australians have access to freehospital treatment, a doctor of choicefor out of hospital care and subsidisedpharmaceuticals through the nationalhealth insurance programme,Medicare. This universal access tohealth care is complemented byGovernment initiatives, which aim toprevent specific causes of morbidityand mortality and enhance services tobetter meet the needs of specialpopulation groups, including womenand Indigenous Australians. TheAustralian Government is continuing tofund primary health care services andother initiatives to improve the healthand welfare of Indigenous Australians,which remains below that of thegeneral population on most indices.

Australia’s unique National Women’sHealth Policy (1989) continues to besupported by all Australiangovernments, through women-specificand mainstream health programmes.The Australian Government funds anumber of initiatives to promotewomen’s access to health care servicesthat are responsive to their particular needs.

Overall, Australia is one of thehealthiest nations in the world andAustralian women have very good

S T R AT E G I C

O B J E C T I V E S

health compared to those in othercountries. Life expectancy for bothwomen and men is high, with womenexpected to live longer than men.Between 1977 and 1997, female lifeexpectancy at birth increased from 76.9to 81.3 years (compared to male lifeexpectancy that rose from 70.0 to 75.6years). The most recent data availableshows that the maternal mortality ratein Australia is one of the lowest in theworld at 11 per 100,000 live births(1997) and infant mortality is very low at5.0 deaths per 1,000 live births (1998).

Life expectancy for Australia’sIndigenous people has improved overrecent years but still remainssignificantly below that for the generalpopulation, at 56.7 years for men and61.7 years for women (1996). Indigenousinfant mortality rates remain nearly fourtimes that for the general population.

In 1997, the leading causes of mortalityfor women in Australia were circulatorydiseases (43.7%) such as heart attackand stroke, and cancer (24.9%). Breastcancer is the second most commonlydiagnosed cancer in Australian womenafter non-melanocytic skin cancer.Breast cancer is the leading cause ofcancer related-death amongstAustralian women. For Indigenouswomen respiratory disease andmetabolic disorders (eg diabetes) arealso significant causes of death (1997).However, breast cancer rates are loweramongst this group.

To 31 March 1999, an estimated 19,581people in Australia (of whom 1,123 werewomen) had been infected with theHuman Immunodeficiency Virus (HIV).Of these, 8,103 developed AcquiredImmunodeficency Syndrome (AIDS) and5,753 died. Of those who developedAIDS, 342 (4.2%) were women and 225(3.9%) women died. Of peoplediagnosed with HIV infection to 31March 1999, 29 people were in the 13-19 years age group, 4 of whom were women.


Increase women’s access throughoutthe life cycle to appropriate, affordableand quality health care, informationand related services.

A U S T R A L I A N H E A L T H C A R E

S Y S T E M

M E D I C A R E

The Medicare programme providesuniversal access for all Australianresidents to medical and hospitalservices. The objective of theprogramme is to provide medicalservices necessary for health carethrough financial assistance towardsthe cost of these services. Services toin-patients of public hospitals areprovided free of charge. Contributionsare made for medical services inprivate hospitals.



A national, publicly-fundedPharmaceutical Benefits Schemeprovides timely, reliable and affordableaccess for the Australian community tocost-effective medicines.

P R I V A T E H E A L T H I N S U R A N C E

The Australian Government believesthat the private sector is a vitalcomplement to the long-term viabilityof Medicare and the public hospitalsystem, and is taking active and positivesteps to ensure that private healthinsurance is a realistic choice for thosewho wish to use it.

Around 31% of Australians choose totake out private health insurance tocover their care as a patient in a publicor private hospital and ancillaryservices such as physiotherapy, dentaland optical.

In recent years, the AustralianGovernment has taken steps topromote greater choice in health careprovision by making private healthinsurance more affordable for allAustralians. Incentives are offered tolow and middle income earners to takeout or retain their private healthinsurance cover. In addition, theAustralian Government offers a 30%rebate on private health insurance.This measure is beneficial to women asmore women than men take out privatehealth insurance. Coverage for womenrises significantly during child bearingyears (25-39 years) and in the age

groups after 70 years peaking in theover 90 year age group.

Lifetime Health Cover is a new systemof private health insurance thatrequires health funds to offer lifetimerates of hospital cover. People takingout hospital cover early in their liveswill pay lower premiums than thosetaking it out later in life. The newsystem therefore rewards membershiployalty and early joining. Specialprovisions ensure that people aged 65and over on 1 July 1999, the majority ofwhom are women, will not be chargedhigher premiums if they choose to delay taking out private health insurance.

G E N E R A L P R A C T I C E

General practice is the first point ofcontact with the health care system forthe majority of Australians. Generalpractitioners are private practitionerswhose services are largely fundedthrough Medicare. There are around 98million patient contacts with generalpractitioners each year.

A General Practice Strategy to betterintegrate general practitioners into thehealth system and to tackle theimbalances in distribution of generalpractitioners between urban, rural andisolated regions was recently reviewed.The review found that significantprogress had been made andrecommendations of this review will be implemented.


N A T I O N A L P U B L I C H E A L T H

P A R T N E R S H I P

The National Public Health Partnership(NPHP) is a working arrangementbetween the Commonwealth, Statesand Territories to facilitatecollaboration and coordination onnational public health issues.Established in 1996, the NPHP providesa mechanism for supporting thedevelopment of a systematic andstrategic approach to addressing publichealth priorities and to assessing andimplementing new national directionsand major initiatives.

One of these initiatives has been tofocus on improving the developmentand coordination of national strategiesto further enhance their effectivenessand sustainability. Principlessupporting gender and culturalappropriateness are integral elementsof national strategy development and review.

C O M M U N I T Y H E A L T H S E C T O R

Community health centres provideprimary health care to members oflocal communities, particularlymaternal and child health services.This sector also utilises a range of non-government service providers such asIndigenous health services, women-specific health services, familyplanning clinics, and aged personservice providers.

The Australian Government hascommitted $228 million over 4 years toenhance primary health care andstrengthen general practice by bettercoordinating and improving the qualityof health care across Australia. Thisprovides funding for people withchronic illnesses to access services,and assistance to doctors to develop care plans for olderAustralians, including:

over $41 million to establish Carelink -a single point of contact to link homeand community care services, healthprofessionals, general practitioners,carers and individuals to gain easyaccess to community services; and

an extra $25.8 million for coordinatedcare trials to address the health needsof chronically ill or disadvantaged older people.

N AT I O N A L W O M E N ’ SH E A LT H P O L I C Y A N DP R O G R A M M E

N A T I O N A L W O M E N ’ S H E A L T H

P O L I C Y

Australia is one of the few countries inthe world to have a National Women’sHealth Policy. The policy, developed inconsultation with organisations andindividuals, represents the views ofover one million women Australia-wide. The objective of the policy is toimprove the health and well-being ofwomen in Australia and to encourage


the health system to be moreresponsive to the needs of women. Thepolicy identified seven priority health issues:

■ reproductive health and sexuality;

■ health of ageing women;

■ women’s emotional and mentalhealth;

■ violence against women;

■ occupational health and safety;

■ the health needs of women ascarers; and

■ the health effects of sex rolestereotyping on women.

P U B L I C H E A L T H O U T C O M E

F U N D I N G A G R E E M E N T S

The Australian Government providesfunding to States and Territoriesthrough the Public Health OutcomeFunding Agreements. Under theseAgreements, State and Territory healthdepartments make a commitment to allagreed national policies and strategies,including the National Women’s HealthPolicy. Initiatives that are beingimplemented include: innovativeservice delivery models (eg, alternativebirthing centres); services and activitiesrelating to menopause; and counsellingsupport for women victims of domesticviolence. As a result, significantimprovements have been achieved inthe delivery of primary health careservices for women. Innovative servicemodels have been implemented that

have been responsive to women’shealth needs and have influenced themainstream system to improve healthservices for women.

The Australian Government recognises,however, that there is still a need forthe health system to respond moreappropriately to the needs of women.To this end, additional funding isprovided through the Agreements forspecific women’s health initiatives.These initiatives cover national breastscreening, cervical cancer screening,educational activities to prevent femalegenital mutilation and alternativebirthing services (see below).

I N N O V A T I V E P A R T N E R S H I PM O D E L - T H E J E A N H A I L E SF O U N D A T I O N

The Jean Hailes Foundation is anexample of a successful partnershipbetween business, the community andgovernment. The Foundation receivesboth government and non-governmentfunding in order to provide clinical care,research and community education forwomen. The Foundation has linkagesto various organisations from themedical and scientific community,international organisations and thebusiness and general community.

In October 1997, the AustralianGovernment announced funding of $1.5million over 3 years to establish theinfrastructure and to translate women’shealth research, particularly intomenopause, into national communityand doctor education.


A key aspect of the Foundation’s workis the national community and generalpractitioner education programme.The programmes have been wellsupported reflecting a high level ofcommunity and professional need.

Research undertaken by theFoundation includes cardiovasculardisease in women, breast cancer,premenstrual tension, osteoporosisand Asian women, sexuality and well-being and Chinese herbal medicine.

As part of its community educationrole, the Foundation provides a ruraleducation programme aimed atreaching isolated rural women, healtheducation programmes for womenfrom non-English speakingbackgrounds and information kits onwomen’s health issues for thecommunity generally.


2. Strengthen preventive programmesthat promote women’s health.

M A J O R W O M E N ’ S H E A LT HI S S U E S A N D I N I T I AT I V E S

C A R D I O V A S C U L A R D I S E A S E

The leading causes of mortality forwomen in Australia in 1997 werecirculatory diseases (43.7%) such as heart attack and stroke, and cancer (24.9%).

Cardiovascular disease is one of thefive National Health Priority areas andis being addressed through theNational Programme for Health Gains.A major project being funded under thisprogramme is the cardiovasculardisease monitoring centre at theAustralian Institute of Health and Welfare.

B R E A S T C A N C E R

The Australian Government providessubstantial funding for research intobreast cancer, for the early detection ofbreast cancer and for support servicesfor breast cancer patients.

Breast cancer is a major health issuefor women. More Australian womendie from breast cancer than any otherform of cancer. Over 2,600 Australianwomen die from breast cancer everyyear and one in eleven Australianwomen will develop the disease.International research shows that wellcontrolled mammogram screening cansubstantially reduce deaths frombreast cancer. The population ofwomen over 50 who undergo screeningevery two years have a 50% reduction inthe risk of dying from breast cancer.

Australia’s aim is to achieve significantreductions in mortality and morbidityfrom breast cancer by activelyrecruiting and screening women aged50-69 years for early detection of thedisease. The Australian Governmentprovides substantial funding for


research into breast cancer andfor support services for breast cancer patients.

BreastScreen Australia is a nationalbreast screening programme aimed atachieving significant reductions inmortality and morbidity from breastcancer through early detection. Theprogramme provides free screeningand assessment services at two-yearlyintervals to women aged 50-69 years. Ithas a network of dedicated, accreditedScreening and Assessment Services,which offer screening services atapproximately 500 sites acrossAustralia. The national policy is toactively recruit women aged 50-69years for whom there is a demonstratedbenefit from screening. Women over 40are also eligible for biennial screeningthrough the programme.

Over 52,000 women are screenedacross Australia each month.Screening services are provided in amanner that is acceptable to women inthe target age group and is inaccessible, non-threatening andcomfortable environments.

In recognition of the dramatic impactbreast cancer has on women, theAustralian Government is continuing tomaintain and extend its support for breast cancer detection and support initiatives.

The 1999-2000 Budget provided anadditional $4.1 million over four yearsfor specialised support services forwomen diagnosed with breast cancer.

Funding will be used to establish healthcare worker positions in selected sitesacross Australia. These health careworkers will receive specialisedtraining so that they can providesupport and information for womenwith breast cancer. Overseas researchhas shown that outcomes for womenwith breast cancer are improvedthrough the provision of specialisedhealth care services.

The Australian Government allocatedan additional $8.1 million between1999-2000 and 2003-2004 to theNational Breast Cancer Centre. TheCentre is a unique body in Australiathat will continue to improve outcomesfor women with, or at risk of, breastcancer. The Centre is undertaking atrial of multi-disciplinary care forwomen, involving a team of cliniciansworking closely with patients,especially in the management of breast cancer.

Over the last three years, informationdissemination campaigns on breastcancer have been developed to meetthe information needs of women from culturally and linguistically diverse backgrounds.

In October 1999, the AustralianGovernment announced an importantpartnership worth $1.1 million betweenbusiness, the National Health andMedical Research Council and NationalBreast Cancer Centre. The partnershipwill fund key projects such as a publicinformation programme about breast


cancer symptoms, a communications

skills training programme, a breast

health survey and partial funding for

printing costs of consumer resources.

C E R V I C A L C A N C E R

The National Cervical ScreeningProgramme ($256,000 in 1999-2000)

seeks to reduce morbidity and

mortality from cervical cancer. The

national coordinated approach seeks to

integrate all elements of the cervical

screening programme including

recruitment, Pap smear taking and

reporting, diagnosis, treatment and

follow-up procedures.

Consistent with National Health and

Medical Research Council guidelines,

the National Cervical ScreeningProgramme’s policy is that all women

at risk aged between 18 and 70 years

should be routinely screened every two

years. Recruitment strategies for the

programme include nationally

coordinated media campaigns

supported by activities in the States

and Territories such as:

■ working in partnership with general

practitioners,

■ Indigenous health strategies;

■ multilingual campaigns; and

■ working with female nurse

practitioners and other health

workers to ensure that all women in

the target group can access theProgramme.

During 1996-1997 the nationalparticipation in screening was 62.4%for women aged 20-69 years. Thesuccess of the programme can bedemonstrated by the decrease by 34%in the age-standardised death rate forcervical cancer between 1983 and 1996.Almost all this decline is attributable to the National CervicalScreening Programme.

B R E A S T F E E D I N G

Evidence shows that breastfeeding hasa significant positive impact on thehealth of women and children. Inrecognition of this, the AustralianGovernment made a commitmentthrough its policy document, Healththroughout Life, to encouragebreastfeeding awareness with the aimof increasing the rate of breastfeedingin the first six months of life.

The National Breastfeeding Strategy($2 million in 1999-2000) takes a multi-faceted approach that includes familyeducation, employer support, healthprofession education and datacollection. Information disseminationcampaigns on breastfeeding haverecently been developed to meet theinformation needs of women fromculturally and linguistically diversebackgrounds. Other key campaignshave targeted employers to encourage


supportive workplace initiatives forwomen workers who are breastfeeding,health workers and Indigenous women.Two million dollars has been allocatedto the strategy since 1996-1997, withfunding running through to May 2000.

Australia is implementing the WorldHealth Organisation’s InternationalCode of Marketing of BreastmilkSubstitutes. Breastfeeding is promotedand supported in the National Healthand Medical Research Council’s InfantFeeding Guidelines for Health Workers,Dietary Guidelines for Children andAdolescents and the Dietary Guidelinesfor Australians. In addition, theAustralian Government isimplementing a breastfeeding strategythat aims to increase breastfeedingrates, particularly for babies under theage of 6 months. The strategy focuseson a number of areas includingconsumer, health professional andemployer/employee education.

N A T I O N A L I M M U N I S A T I O N

P R O G R A M M E

The National ImmunisationProgramme is a joint programmebetween the Commonwealth and theState and Territory governments thataims to improve Australia’simmunisation coverage rates. TheCommonwealth is responsible forproviding funding for the purchase ofvaccines and the States and Territoriesfund the service delivery components ofthe programme, including purchasing

and supplying vaccines toimmunisation providers.

Key achievements of the programme in1998/99 include:

■ the implementation of measuresunder the Immunise Australia: A SevenPoint Plan, announced in February1997, has resulted in a marked increasein Australia’s immunisation coveragerates. At 30 June 1999, 86.1% ofAustralian children were fullyimmunised, representing an 11.2%increase from 74.9% in March 1997.In 1999-2000 the CommonwealthGovernment will provide approximately$91.8m in funds for immunisation ofchildren and adolescents;

■ Delivering the Measles ControlCampaign over the periodAugust/November 1998. Thecampaign offered a second dose ofmeasles, mumps and rubellavaccine to all primary school agedchildren. A survey conducted afterthe campaign showed that 94% ofchildren aged 6-12 years wereimmune to measles, a rise from 84%before the campaign; and

■ implementing a national InfluenzaVaccine Programme for olderAustralians, which provides freeinfluenza vaccine to all Australiansaged 65 years and over.

The National ImmunisationProgramme has built strong links and


partnerships with generalpractitioners. It also continues to workwith the Office of Aboriginal and TorresStrait Islander Health and the NationalAboriginal Community ControlledHealth Organisation on immunisationissues in Indigenous communities.

P H Y S I C A L A C T I V I T Y

Physical activity is now recognised asan important population health riskfactor and as a preventative factor forall of the current national healthpriority areas. There is growingconcern in Australia at the rise inillnesses directly related to reducedlevels of physical activity.

The Australian Government is providingstrong support for promoting physicalactivity in Australia. The ActiveAustralia initiative aims to encourageand assist all Australians to bephysically active throughout life. Otherinitiatives include a baseline populationsurvey, the development of standardmeasurements and monitoringframeworks, public informationcampaigns and piloting of best practiceintervention models.

Australia has developed a nationalpolicy on women and girls in sport,recreation and physical activity, theNational Policy on Women and Girls inSport, Recreation and Physical Activity1998-2002. The policy focuses on theopportunities and barriers to

participation for women and girls. TheAustralian Government has introduceda national mentor programme forwomen in sport, developed aHarassment-free Sport Contact Officerand Complaints Officer Network andwill hold a National Indigenous Womenin Sport Summit in May 2000.

The Sydney 2000 Olympic andParalympic Games will mark thecentenary of women’s participation inthe Olympic Games. The AustralianGovernment is supporting severalprojects to commemorate this eventand highlight the contribution andachievements of women in sport.These include a women and sport scholarship/exchange betweenAustralia and France, a schools’education package and a majorfunction co-hosted by the Australianand French governments.


3. Undertake gender-sensitiveinitiatives that address sexuallytransmitted diseases, HIV/AIDS andsexual and reproductive health issues.

H I V / A I D S

The Australian Government iscommitted to sustaining Australia’srecord of achievement in relation to itsresponse to the HIV/AIDS epidemic.Australia is widely acknowledged as


having one of the best responses in the world.

The third national HIV/AIDS Strategy1996-97 to 1998-99, Partnerships inPractice, aims to eliminatetransmission of HIV and minimise thesocial impact of HIV infection. Itrecognises the need for coordinatedaction to combat HIV/AIDS, builds onpast successes and reaffirms thecommitment to non-partisan support,partnerships between affectedcommunities, governments at alllevels, and medical, scientific andhealth care professionals.

HIV/AIDS initiatives are covered underthe Public Health Outcome FundingAgreements with States and Territories.Women have been specifically targetedthrough HIV/AIDS education andprevention programmes. Culturallyappropriate sexual health and HIV/AIDSprogrammes are also beingimplemented for Aboriginal and TorresStrait Islander communities within theprimary care setting.

The Australian Government introducedthe Nucleic Acid Testing for FreshBlood Products initiative ($32.1 millionfrom 2000/2001 to 2004/2005). This is anew technology that enables thedetection of the presence of a virus in ablood donation before the donor hasdeveloped antibodies that are detectedby current testing procedures. Thetesting will significantly reduce the risk

of transmission of blood-bornediseases such as Hepatitis C and HIVthrough blood and blood products.

HIV/AIDS is an important aspect of thework of non-government organisationsthat are funded by the AustralianGovernment to improve the sexual andreproductive health of men and womenin Australia. Organisations such as theFamily Planning Association, theAustralian Catholic Social WelfareCommission and Women in Industryand Health, provide a range of HIV/AIDSrelated services, including informationcampaigns, counselling services and testing for sexually transmitted diseases.

F E M A L E G E N I T A LM U T I L AT I O NThe practice of female genitalmutilation (FGM) is strongly opposed bythe Australian Government. Girls andwomen subjected to FGM experiencelong term physiological andpsychological effects including chronicrecurrent infections of the vagina,uterus and urinary tract, sterility, life-long pain, difficulty with menstruationand sexual intercourse, obstetriccomplications and a range ofpsychological disorders.

Although the incidence of FGM is low inAustralia, there have been concernsover the problem because of increasinglevels of migrants from countrieswhere FGM is practiced. The Australian


Government has responded bydeveloping a dual strategy of legislationand education to abolish this practicein Australia and to assist those womenand girls who have already undergonethese harmful practices.

The practice of FGM is in mostcircumstances a criminal offence in allAustralian jurisdictions. Specificlegislation banning the practice existsin all jurisdictions, except Queenslandand Western Australia. The enactmentof legislation was a co-operative effortbetween the Commonwealth, Statesand Territories.

The Australian Government providesfunding to States and Territories underPublic Health Outcome FundingAgreements for educational activitiesto prevent the practice of FGM inAustralia and to assist those womenand girls who have undergone the practice.

See also:

■ ‘Female genital mutilation’ in I: Human Rights of Women.

M AT E R N A L H E A LT H

Australia enjoys a very high standard ofobstetric services and perinataloutcomes which rank amongst the bestin the world, although there are somegroups in the community that faresubstantially less well than themajority. Those with the poorestoutcomes include some migrant

groups, Aboriginal and Torres StraitIslander women and women of lowsocio-economic status.

Efforts to reduce Indigenous maternalmortality and morbidity have includedthe establishment of culturallyappropriate birthing centres (whichalso provide prenatal care), antenatalcare programmes, the training ofIndigenous health workers and anetwork of community-controlledprimary health care services at thelocal level.

See also

■ ‘Rural women’ below for details onthe Mental Health Information for Rural and Remote Australians initiative.

■ ‘NESB women’ below for details on the Promoting Partnerships in NESBWomen’s Mental Health project.

A LT E R N AT I V E B I R T H I N G

The Australian Government continuesits support for the Alternative BirthingServices Programme, first establishedin 1989. Incentive funding is providedto the States and Territories (throughthe Public Health Outcome FundingAgreements) to promote greater choicein birthing for women in the publichealth system and to encourage theestablishment of low interventionbirthing services managed primarily bymidwives. Funding of Indigenouspre-and post-natal birthing services isa high priority of the programme.


The objectives of the programme are to:

■ establish services which are midwifebased; recognise that pregnancy andchildbirth are in the majority ofcases, normal life events requiringminimal intervention; involve womenas active partners; and providecontinuity of care;

■ provide an incentive to States andTerritories to trial models which mayin the longer term become part ofthe standard range of services;

■ encourage States and Territories todevelop appropriate models ofmaternity care for Indigenouswomen with special emphasis onante and post-natal care; and

■ promote awareness andunderstanding of a range of birthingoptions among consumers andhealth care providers.

FA M I LY P L A N N I N G

Under the Family PlanningProgramme, the AustralianGovernment provides funding to selected non-governmentorganisations to provide acomprehensive range of information,education, professional training,counselling and clinical services insexual and reproductive health to theAustralian community. Funding of$12.3 million is being provided to theprogramme in 1999-2000.

Family planning organisations located

around Australia provide a range ofclinical services by doctors and nursesin sexual and reproductive health.These services include advice andprescription/fitting of a range ofcontraception options, pregnancytesting, vasectomies and counsellingservices. These organisations alsoprovide accredited and non-accreditedtraining for doctors and nurses,community education, library servicesand telephone services.

The Australian Catholic Social WelfareCommission administers the NaturalFamily Planning Programme, providingservices in 130 centres located acrossAustralia. Training and accreditationfor teachers of natural family planningare obtained through the AustralianCouncil of Natural Family Planning orthe Ovulation Method Research andReference Centre of Australia.

The Women in Industry and Healthorganisation provides promotionalactivities in sexual and reproductivehealth to women from culturally andlinguistically diverse backgrounds whowork in factories in Melbourne.

Australian women can also visitgeneral practitioners for sexual andreproductive health advice, includingthe prescription of contraceptives.

The Australian Government recognisesthe need to provide safe, affordable andeasily accessible family planningservices that minimise abortion rates.The legal status of abortion in Australiais governed by State and Territory laws.


While abortion remains a criminaloffence in most Australianjurisdictions, the laws have generallybeen interpreted liberally so thathospitals are able to provide abortionservices and specialist clinics exist inmost States and Territories.

In general, women in Australia haveaccess to abortion during the firsttrimester of pregnancy where amedical practitioner is satisfied thatthe continuation of the pregnancy willresult in physical or mental harm to thewoman. The consent of the woman isrequired in all cases. Some States andTerritories also require the consent oftwo physicians or that abortion isperformed in prescribed hospitals only.The cost of abortion services is partiallyrecoverable under the MedicareBenefits Schedule, thereby ensuringthat financially disadvantaged womenhave equal access to termination ofpregnancy services.


4: Promote research and disseminateinformation on women’s health.

N AT I O N A L H E A LT H A N DM E D I C A L R E S E A R C HC O U N C I L ( N H M R C )

The Australian Government over recentyears has given medical research a veryhigh priority. The Australian Governmentfunds the National Health and MedicalResearch Council (NHMRC), which

undertakes a wide range of medicalresearch aimed at improving the healthof all Australians. As well as this, underthe auspices of Aboriginal and TorresStrait Islander Research Working group,an NHMRC sub-subcommittee, targetshealth research relevant to the specificneeds of Aboriginal and Torres StraitIslander peoples.

In 1994, the NHMRC developed aWomen’s Health Strategy andImplementation Plan. A major issueidentified in the plan was the inclusionof women in research, including theirparticipation in clinical trials. The planalso states that research proposals bedesigned to allow consideration ofpotential gender differentials and allowappropriate subgroup analyses bygender where relevant.

In 1999, the NHMRC provided fundingfor 135 research projects and traininggrants, totalling $11.3 million,specifically related to women’s health.This research covered a number ofidentified high priority areas inwomen’s health including breastcancer and physical activity.

In the 1999-2000 Budget, theGovernment announced anunprecedented funding boost for healthand medical research. Over the next sixyears, the annual funding base for healthand medical research through theNHMRC will increase from $165 millionin 1998-99 to more than $350 million perannum in 2004-05.


The Government has also established ahigh level Ministerial Committee toimplement a new strategic plan forhealth and medical research. TheGovernment is keen to promote a socialcoalition between the researchcommunity, industry and government.Options being investigated include thefostering of research fellowshipsthrough partnerships betweenresearch institutions, industry andprivate non-profit organisations.

T H E A U S T R A L I A N

L O N G I T U D I N A L S T U D Y O N

W O M E N ’ S H E A L T H

A major longitudinal study on women’shealth began in 1995. In September1998, following a major review of thestudy that was conducted by leadingresearchers, the Minister for Healthand Aged Care approved the extensionof the funding to the study for another 5years. On the grounds of ensuringscientific merit, the NHMRC was giventhe responsibility of managing thestudy and provides funding of $900,000per annum for the study.

The purposes of this study are toidentify those factors that promote andthose that reduce good health inwomen and to clarify the interactionbetween the health system and thehealth needs of women. The study isdesigned to follow young, mid-age andolder women for up to 20 years. It willcollect information from women in

different ethnicities, taking special

account of the needs of Indigenous

women. This information will help

researchers and policy makers to

explore possible links between health

status and associated determinants as

well as experience of the health system

and health service utilisation.

The results from the study will guide

the implementation of future women’s

health policy and contribute to the

development of better health services

for women and families.

M E N T A L H E A LT H

Through the National Mental HealthStrategy ($28 million over the period

1998-2003), the Australian Government

and State/Territory governments have

jointly endorsed a national framework

for mental health reform. The strategy

is focused on the mental health

requirements of special needs groups

such as people of a diverse cultural and

linguistic background, Indigenous

people, remote and rural people, older

people, women, children and

adolescents. One of the identified

outcomes is the reduction in the

incidence and prevalence of

depression, including postnatal

depression, and associated disability.

In addition, the Australian Government is

funding several initiatives to improve

mental health needs of men and women.


The National Depression initiative($17.5 million from 2000/2001 to2005/2006) aims to destigmatisedepression and get professional help tosufferers more quickly. Depression is aleading cause of illness and disability.It is a major health issue for women, inparticular. More than 500,000 adultAustralian women experiencedepressive illness each year, over 60per cent of all sufferers. Many womenexperience the stigma anddiscrimination caused by a lack ofunderstanding of their illness.

The Government allocated an additional$39.1 million over four years for theFighting Suicide Strategy in the 1999-2000 Budget. This strategy willbuild on the existing National YouthSuicide Prevention Strategy, which hasprovided $6 million to State andTerritory governments for rural andremote counselling services. A priorityarea for action under the strategy issupport for rural and remoteIndigenous communities that have ahigh incidence of suicide.

S M O K I N G

In reaffirming and formalising itscommitment to the development ofstrong and achievable tobacco controlmeasures, Australia has developed theNational Tobacco Strategy 1999 to2002-03. The Strategy is based on aframework of coordinated andcomprehensive national action and

aims to improve the health of allAustralians by eliminating or reducingtheir exposure to tobacco in all its forms.

An important step in theimplementation of the Strategy is thedevelopment of targeted nationaltobacco action plans for the targetedpopulation groups, which includeswomen. One key strategy area willfocus on achieving a decrease in intra-uterine exposure to maternal smoking.

D R U G S

Recent research in Australia showsthat the majority of 17 year olds havetried an illegal drug at least once, andthat the age of first experimentationwith drugs is lowering. Drug misuseamong teenagers can be a majordisruption to families, academicperformance, physical developmentand social integration into the world ofadult life.

The National Drug Strategy is acooperative venture between theCommonwealth and State/Territorygovernments as well as the non-government sector, to minimisethe harmful effects of drug use in Australia.

The National Drug StrategicFramework 1998-99 to 2002-2003,endorsed by Australian governments in

1998, provides a nationally coordinated

and integrated approach to reducing


the harm arising from the use of licit

and illicit drugs including alcohol,

tobacco and pharmaceutical drugs.

The Framework provides broad

strategic directions and principles and

seeks to strengthen and extend

partnerships at all levels and between

all relevant sectors.

The Australian Government has

provided an extra $221 million over four

years for the Tough on Drugs strategy.This builds on the $290 million already

committed, amounting to a ground

breaking commitment to the fight

against drugs.

The Australian Government is funding a

range of initiatives to educate young

people about the harm of drug misuse

and promote abstinence as a healthy

lifestyle choice. These include the

development of the National SchoolDrug Education Strategy ($49.237

million between 1999-2000 and 2002-

2003), new and innovative education

programmes for students, training for

teachers and information campaigns

for parents. Young women and families

will benefit from these initiatives.

N U T R I T I O N

Australia has had a National Food andNutrition Policy since 1992. Currently,a National Public Health NutritionStrategy is being developed and thiswill have a particular focus on

vulnerable groups especially onIndigenous Australians, those of lowsocio-economic status, and those livingin rural and remote areas.

The National Health and MedicalResearch Council has developed threesets of dietary guidelines: one for thegeneral population, one for childrenand adolescents and one for olderAustralians. Eat Well for Life - DietaryGuidelines for Older Australians waslaunched on 17 December 1999 andwill be particularly important forwomen, given the ageing profile of the Australian population.

A number of the guidelines are ofspecial significance for women andgirls; namely the guidelines to eatfoods containing calcium and iron andto encourage and supportbreastfeeding. In recognition of this, anational strategy promoting andsupporting breastfeeding is currentlybeing implemented.

In addition, women planning apregnancy or likely to become pregnantare encouraged to increase their intakeof the B group vitamin folate,particularly in the month before and inthe first three months of pregnancy. Itis recommended that women have adaily intake of 400 micrograms of folateat this time to help ensure the healthydevelopment of the baby’s nervoussystem. This level of folate intake couldreduce the number of neural tube


defects, such as spina bifida, in babies

born in Australia by up to 70%.

Several initiatives have been funded by

the Australian Government to improve

the nutrition of women.

Initiatives include the dissemination of

a comic on folate (targeted at women

from a low socio-economic background

and other ‘hard to reach’ groups, for

whom educational material is not

accessible, and who rarely attend ante-

natal classes), starter packs of folic

acid tablets for women free of charge

and the inclusion of a folate segment

for the Pharmaceutical Society of

Australia’s continuing professional

development programme.

The National Child Nutrition

Programme ($15 million 2000/2001 to

2003/2004) aims to improve the diets of

children aged 0-12 and pregnant

women, especially Indigenous, rural

and remote and socioeconomically

disadvantaged women. Women will

benefit from better knowledge of

nutrition and the right dietary choices

to meet their needs and those of

unborn children. The programme will

improve access to nutritious foods in

local communities and encourage

women to share their new skills and

knowledge through community

programmes about good nutrition.


5. Increase resources and monitorfollow-up for women’s health.

Considerable funding is provided tosupport a world class healthcaresystem in Australia, as outlined in theOverview section above.

As a general rule, all AustralianGovernment (Commonwealth) healthprogrammes are regularly evaluated,including collection of data andassessment of gender impact whererelevant. Evaluations of women’shealth programmes are carried out inclose consultation with keystakeholders and within the frameworkof the National Women’s Health Policy.

The Australian Longitudinal Study onWomen’s Health will produceinformation which is able to begeneralisable to the Australianpopulation of women of the same ageas the three cohorts (18-22; 45-49; 70-74 years).

See Australian Longitudinal Study onWomen’s Health’ above.

W O M E N W I T H

S P E C I A L N E E D S

R U R A L W O M E N

Women living in rural and remote areasexperience particular problems inaccessing personal health and


domestic violence services. Privacyand confidentiality are issues ofconsiderable importance, particularlyfor adolescents.

Healthy Horizons is the Nationalframework for improving the health ofrural, regional and remote Australiansfor the period from 1999 to 2003,developed by the National Rural HealthPolicy Forum with the National RuralHealth Alliance for the AustralianHealth Ministers’ Conference.

Healthy Horizons notes that:

Special attention has been paid to

women’s health in the last decade and

women in rural, regional and remote

areas are gradually obtaining appropriate

services. These services include better

cervical and breast cancer screening and

shelters from domestic violence. The

lack of access to female GPs or female

nurses for some procedures is still an

issue. As the rural, regional and remote

population ages, women will be highly

represented in the older age groups.

Aged care and the reduction of social

isolation will be a significant area of

need.

Younger women with children have

limited access to child care in rural,

regional and remote areas and

consequently have reduced opportunities

for full or part-time work and community

participation. Mental health problems

are of concern and require responses

which include both social support and

medical care.

Women are becoming more active in

community leadership, business,

farming and tourism ventures; and the

health services will be shaped by

their emerging needs and

active participation.

The 2000-01 Budget contained a $562million regional health strategy aimedat improving the health of men andwomen in rural and regionalcommunities. Measures include; anoutreach programme for specialistservices; support for rural doctors,especially those who are newly arrived;and incentives to increase the numberof doctors in rural and regional areas.

The Networking the Nation Programmehas funded a number of significanttele-medicine and tele-healthproposals that will enhance theprovision of health services to womenin regional, rural and remote locations.In particular, the provision and use ofvideo conferencing facilities has thepotential to substantially improve thequality and levels of medical careavailable to rural Australians.

The Regional Health ServicesProgramme aims to improve the healthand well being of people in ruralAustralia by providing a flexible mix andrange of health, aged care and othercommunity services. A total of $42.8million will be provided under the fouryears commencing in 1999-2000 for theestablishment of at least 30 Regional


Health Services in rural communitiesthroughout Australia. An additional 100aged care places, at a total cost ofaround $2 million over four years, willalso be made available as part of this initiative.

A wide range of services will beprovided including women’s health,family planning, domestic violenceprevention, illness and injuryprevention, acute and palliative care,children’s services, communitynursing, aged care, mental health,radiology and immunisation.

In July 1999, the AustralianGovernment introduced a fly-in fly-outfemale general practitioner (GP)service for women living in rural andremote areas who do not currently haveaccess to a female GP. The service willcost $8.2 million over four years from1999-2000. This initiative will increasewomen’s access to primary health careinterventions such as cervical cancerscreening, breast and skin examinationand other preventative health care. It isalso in line with the AustralianGovernment’s strategy of providinggreater choice, recognising that somewomen prefer to receive health servicesfrom a female doctor.

Under the broad umbrella of the

Regional Health Services Programme

are two programmes related to the new

Regional Health Services initiative, the

Multipurpose Services Programme and

the Multipurpose Centres Programme,

which also provide support to increase

flexibility and administrative viability for

services in rural and remote areas.

Under these programmes,

approximately $17 million will

be provided for the 1999/2000

financial year.

The Royal Flying Doctor Serviceprovides aero-medical emergency

retrieval services to men and women in

rural and remote communities. A new

five year agreement was signed in July

1998 for the Australian Government to

provide almost $83 million to the Royal

Flying Doctor Service. This ongoing

funding support will ensure that people

in rural and remote regions continue to

have access to the best aero-medical

emergency retrieval system in the

world and to a range of primary

health services.

Retention payments for long serving

rural GPs, at a cost of around $43.1

million over four years, was introduced

in July 1999. Retention payments

provide an additional incentive for

doctors to continue in rural and remote

areas, assisting communities to hold on

to their already established doctors.

The Mental Health Information forRural and Remote Australians initiativewas introduced in February 1998. Thistelephone-based service provides ruraland remote callers with information


about specific mental illnesses andcontact details for services andorganisations that may be ofassistance. Additional funding of$180,000 was provided in 1999 tofurther develop, enhance and evaluatethe project.

The Australian Government hasallocated $500,000 over four years toupgrade and extend the Bush CrisisLine that provides crisis andcounselling support services forisolated health workers and their families.

The Rural Health Support, Educationand Training Programme funds arange of grants scheme projects toimprove the health of rural and remotecommunities. #Several projects focusspecifically on women’s healthincluding: Training of Rural HealthWorkers in the Administration ofChemotherapy for early Breast Cancer;Safe Birthing-Provision of short courseto Remote Areas of the NorthernTerritory; and Rural and RemoteMidwifery Upskilling Programme.

Farmsafe Australia is an innovativepartnership with local ruralcommunities established to improvethe health and safety and wellbeing ofall people involved in agriculture.Activities aimed at improvingoccupational health and safety arecentred on farm safety action groupsformed within local communities. Thisapproach ensures that farm health and

safety is handled at the farm level, withgovernment support, rather than bylegislation. A typical farm safety groupmay comprise representatives of afarmer organisation, the CountryWomen’s Association, the WorkcoverAuthority and the relevant departmentof agriculture.

I N D I G E N O U S W O M E N The Australian Government has taken aleadership role in establishing aspecific health framework agreementbetween governments at all levels andrelevant community organisations forthe provision of Indigenous healthservices. This aims to improve theaccess of Aboriginal and Torres StraitIslander people to mainstream healthservices; integrate initiatives in theprimary health, environmental healthand infrastructure areas; shift toneeds-based funding of services in consultation with Indigenouscommunities; and develop responses tospecific disease challenges.

The Australian Government is providingfunding of $78.8 million over four yearsto improve Indigenous peoples, accessto comprehensive primary health careservices. This will provide forcoordinated clinical care, populationhealth and health promotion activitiesincluding screening, antenatal servicesand maternal and child health, to facilitate illness prevention, early interventions and effective illness management.


The provision of $20.6 million to extendthe Army/Aboriginal and Torres StraitIslander Commission (ATSIC)Community Assistance Programmewill result in improvements to water,sewerage, power systems, roads,airstrips and the construction andupgrade of community facilities. ATSICwill match funding under this initiativefrom the National Health Strategy,whilst the Army will contributepersonnel and equipment to the joint project. This measure willimprove the health of many Indigenous women.

One of the areas of major focus of theHIV/AIDS Strategy 1996-97 to 1998-99is to prevent an HIV epidemic emergingin Indigenous communities.

W O M E N F R O M A N O N - E N G L I S H S P E A K I N GB A C K G R O U N D

The measurement of success forwomen’s health services is the numberand locations of services maintainedthat are targeted at risk femalepopulations. This includes women fromculturally diverse backgrounds.

Family Planning Organisations, as partof their public education work,undertake community outreach forculturally diverse communities.

Working Women’s Health is fundedunder the Family Planning Programmeto provide a comprehensive range ofinformation, education and training on

family planning and sexual andreproductive health for women, most ofwhom are from culturally diversebackgrounds, working in factories in Melbourne.

The Longitudinal Study in Women’sHealth’s central aim is to identify thosefactors that promote and those thatreduce good health for women. Thestudy includes a sub-study, whichconsists of 3 smaller cohorts includingone of women from the Philippines andone of women from Yugoslav republics.

Funding of $150,000 over 2 yearsthrough the University Department ofRural Health initiative, has beenprovided to fund a female Obstetricianand Gynaecologist in Shepparton toincrease access for women living in theHume region, which includes asignificant number of Muslim womenfrom Iraq.

See also:

■ ‘Nutrition’ section above; and

■ SA initiative for details on thePromoting Partnerships in NESBWomen’s Mental Health project below.

O L D E R W O M E N

Australia’s life expectancy is nowamong the highest in the world and by2041 about one in four Australians or5.7 million people will be over 65 yearsand a third of these over 80 years. Asthe majority of older people in Australia


are women, their needs receiveparticular attention. The Office forOlder Australians, within theCommonwealth Department of Healthand Aged Care, aims to enhance thequality of life of older people.Programmes have been developed toensure older women receiveinformation about changes associatedwith ageing and the range of servicesavailable. The emphasis of theseprogrammes is on promoting choice, toenable each individual to choose therange and mix of services to meet theirown needs.

The National Strategy for an AgeingAustralia is the AustralianGovernment’s long-term, whole-of-government approach to ageing. Thestrategy will provide a framework toaddress the challenges of an ageingpopulation into the 21st century. Thestrategy will develop four majorthemes: independence and selfprovision; world class care; attitude,lifestyle and community support; andhealthy ageing. See A: Poverty formore details.

The Conference for Older Australians,a wide-ranging representative body ofolder people advising the AustralianGovernment, and the Healthy SeniorsInitiative, a grants programmepromoting health and well-being forolder people, are two major initiatives.Funding of $1.5 million was provided tothe Healthy Seniors Initiative in thethree years up to June 1999.

The overall theme for the 1999International Year of Older Persons wasAustralia — towards a society for allages. This provided an opportunity forall Australians to recognise and valuethe contribution of older people as wellas to look at the challenges that lieahead. The Australian Government hascommitted $5.9 million to ensuretangible results and lasting outcomesfor older people and long term culturalchange. The Australian Governmentwill provide an additional $5 million in1999-2000 to extend awareness ofthese objectives, which recognise theimportant role of older people inAustralian society.

From 1 January 1999, the Governmentincreased the income test limits for theCommonwealth Seniors Health Card.Eligibility for the card is now based ontaxable income. Access to the cardhas been made easier through streamlined applications.

H E A L T H I N S U R A N C E

See: ‘Private health insurance’ underStrategic Objective 1 above.

W O M E N A S C A R E R S

A significant number of olderAustralians and their carers arewomen. In 1998, 14% of all women inAustralia were carers of people with adisability or the elderly. 3.4% of allwomen were primary carers.Significantly, higher proportions ofolder women are carers.


The Australian Government hasannounced a major package ofinitiatives to enhance primary care forolder Australians, people with chronicillnesses and those who require arange of different services to supportthem in the community. TheGovernment has allocated $54.4 millionfor general practitioners to work withother health professionals to developcoordinated care plans for people withchronic and complex needs. Olderwomen and women who are paid orunpaid carers will benefit specificallyfrom these initiatives. For example, theAustralian Government will provide$6.6 million over four years to helpprevent falls among older people aged65 and over. This initiative will look atways to reduce the incidence, severityand mortality of falls in both communityand residential care settings, developeducation for community, acute careand residential workers, and pilotprogrammes to reduce the risk of injury.

In the 1999-2000 Budget, the AustralianGovernment has further assistedcarers by expanding the provision ofrespite care support for carers andsimplifying access to communityservices through the establishment ofsingle contact points in each of the 58Home and Community Care regionsacross Australia.

The availability of flexible andresponsive respite care services thatare focused on the carer’s needs has

been identified as a key element inassisting carers to maintain theircaring role.

The National Respite for CarersProgramme was announced in the1996-97 Budget with funding of $36.7million over four years to contribute tothe support and maintenance of caringrelationships between carers and theirdependent family members andfriends. Under this programme, CarerResource Centres have beenestablished in each capital city toprovide carers with information andsupport and Carer Respite Centresoperate in 58 regions across Australiato co-ordinate respite care serviceswhich are appropriate to the carer’s needs.

The programme has significantlyexpanded. The 1998/99 Budgetannounced the Staying at Homepackage which included a further $30.9million over four years to furtherdevelop the network of respite servicesand $10.3 million over four years toprovide additional respite services forcarers of people with dementia. The1999/2000 Budget included $82.2million over four years to further boostrespite care services for carers ofpeople with dementia and othercognitive and behavioural disorders.

See also:

■ ‘Assistance for carers’ in A: Women and Poverty.


H O M E A N D C O M M U N I T Y C A R E

The Home and Community Care (HACC) Programme is a jointCommonwealth/State cost-sharedProgramme. The aim of the HACCprogramme is to provide basicmaintenance and support services toenable frail older people and youngerpeople with disabilities to remain livingin the community and to preventpremature admission to residentialcare. HACC services also assist thecarers of these people. The types ofHACC services available include homemaintenance and modification, as wellas home help, food services, personalcare, community nursing, transportand respite care.

The Commonwealth Government isresponsible for national policy whileState and Territory Governments areresponsible for implementation of theProgramme, including setting fundingpriorities. Since the Programme’sinception in 1985, the Commonwealthhas remained strongly committed toensuring continued growth of the HACCProgramme. In 1985 – 1986 HACCexpenditure totalled $192.184 million.This has grown to $864.8 million in1999-2000 and if the States andTerritories agree to match fully the2000-01 offer of HACC funds, the totaldollars available for HACC will be $930.4 million, of which the Commonwealth is providing $565.4 million.

The HACC Programme is currentlyimplementing many reformcomponents designed to focus deliveryof service to the client, based on need,in an integrated service delivery system.

Amending HACC Agreementsincorporate reforms which will providea basis for the Commonwealth andeach State Minister to jointly agree amechanism for the planning andreporting of the Programme withinRegions and in particular formeasuring the mix and level of serviceswithin Regions.

Carelink Centres will be located in eachof the Home and Community Careregions and will provide a crucial linkbetween the health and communitycare sectors. The aim of CarelinkCentres will be to provide the generalpublic, carers, service providers,general practitioners and other healthprofessionals with a single point ofaccess for information about, andreferral to community services througha single national telephone numberand the establishment of regionalinformation and referral centres.

W O M E N W I T H A D I S A B I L I T Y

The Australian Bureau of Statistics(ABS) conducts a Survey of Disability,Ageing and Carers every five years.The results of the latest available 1998survey, analysed by the AustralianInstitute of Health and Welfare, show19.1% of Australian females reported


having a disability. The three disablingconditions most frequently reportedwere musculo-skeletal disorders otherthan arthritis (20.1%); arthritis (18.3%);and disorders of the ear and mastoidprocess (5.8%).

More females with a disability had aprofound core activity restriction(17.8%) than their male counterparts(12%). According to analysis of thesurvey and population data, bothwomen and men can expect to livenearly 80% of their lives withoutdisability, although women experiencedmore years of severe disability due totheir longer life expectancy.

In March 2000, the Senate of theAustralian Parliament passed aresolution calling on the government toreview the legal, ethical and humanrights mechanisms in place to protectthe rights and interests of thereproductive health of women withintellectual and other disabilities and tocommission research on the practice,effects and implications of thesterilisation of women with intellectualand other disabilities. The Minister forFamily and Community Services,Senator the Hon Jocelyn Newman,formally responded to the resolution,advising that the government, throughher department, was taking a lead rolein coordinating a cross-departmentalresponse to the resolution and that theMinister expected to be able to reportback to the Senate by the end ofNovember 2000.

INTERNATIONAL AID

The Australian Agency for International

Development (AusAID), which is

responsible for the Australian

Government’s overseas aid

programme, gives priority to improving

the health of people in developing

countries. The aid programme focuses

on appropriate, cost-effective health

care services to improve the basic

health of those most in need.

Australia’s aid programme supports

health activities, including population

and reproductive health, as highly cost-

effective ways of reducing maternal,

infant and child death and disability.

The Australian-Government will

continue to focus on women and

children’s health, including family

planning and reproductive health, and

HIV/AIDS as key elements of basic

health aid.

See also

■ ‘International aid’ in D: Violence

against Women for details on

assistance for domestic violence

survivors;

■ ‘female genital mutilation’ in

I: Human Rights of Women; and

■ ‘International activities’ in K: Women

and the Environment for details on

environmental health projects.




The NSW Government has sponsoredthe following initiatives:

■ whole of Government NSW ActionPlan for Women addresses women’shealth and quality of life;

■ women’s health programmes and

funding to government and

non-government services through

the National Women’s Health

Programme ($5.664 m in 1997/98,

equally from the Commonwealth

and NSW);

■ successful development of new

initiatives in the Active Australia

Campaign to increase the number

of women who undertake

regular exercise;

■ approaches to prevent poor bodyimage and disordered eating;

■ network of projects to address all

relevant recommendations from the

National Indigenous Australians

Sexual Health Strategy 1996/97

to 1998/99;

■ the NSW State Plan for Women and

Girls in Sport and Recreation

promotes gender inclusivity in all

aspects of sport and recreation, and

women’s participation in sport,

recreation and physical activity

including piloting child care (1997);

■ the Areas Assistance Scheme

promotes community development

in regions experiencing population

growth/economic stress. In 1998/99

the Scheme funded 17 community

projects to the value of $300,000 that

specifically targeted women;

■ Working with Children and FamiliesPractice Manual provides

information on the Female

Genital Mutilation Joint Response

Team; and

■ the Disability Policy Frameworkprovides a range of services for

people with a disability and their

families, assisting women as clients

of disability services and as primary

carers of people with a disability.

The NSW Government has made the

following future commitments:

■ with cross government input,

developing a NSW strategy for

women’s health, looking at gender

issues affecting women’s health;

■ the Aboriginal Affairs department is

seeking to monitor Aboriginal

women’s health issues arising from

Royal Commission into Aboriginal

Deaths in Custody;


■ initiatives for preventing eating

disorders are under way including an

early intervention model for children

and young people;

■ the Health Department is addressing

the cultural needs of Indigenous

women in relation to HIV, sexually

transmitted diseases and sexual

health;

■ NSW Health Department and the

Commonwealth joint cervical

screening programme. Currently,

57.3% of women have regular

biennial Pap tests;

■ new health services for women are

being funded during 1998/99,

including $29 million to improve

access to breast screening and

cancer treatment; and

■ the NSW Healthy Ageing Frameworkenables all agencies to make their

services and programmes more

responsive to the needs of

older people.

V I C T O R I A

The Victorian Government is developing

a Women’s Health Strategy which will

be released in 2001. The development

will include reviewing and building on

previous consultations with women

across Victoria. The issues of Koori

health, lesbian health, women in prison

and post prison and occupational

health and safety will be subject of

further research and community

consultation. The Strategy will be

based on a social model of health and

will incorporate a life cycle and health

gain approach.

A U S T R A L I A N C A P I T A L

T E R R I T O R Y

The ACT Department of Health andCommunity Care funds a number ofgovernment and non governmentservices for women. They include: theWomen’s Health Programme,incorporating breast screening,cervical screening and the Women’sHealth Service which targets womenaffected by violence and also provides‘well women clinics’. The nongovernment organisation, Women’sCentre for Health Matters, providesinformation and resources on women’shealth. Other health initiatives thattarget women are the Migrant HealthUnit and the Bilingual CommunityEducation Programme.

Q U E E N S L A N D

The Queensland Government isparticipating in the National Women’sHealth Programme to maintain fundingto Women’ s Health Centres. Theprogramme promotes primary healthcare for issues such as reproductivehealth and sexuality, ageing, violenceagainst women, occupational health


and safety and the health needs ofwomen as carers. In addition,Queensland Health has allocatedfunding for the broad implementationof the National Women’s Health Policyin the future.

The Queensland Government isdeveloping the Queensland Women’sHealth Outcome Plan that will focus oneight broad priority areas designated bywomen and covering those conditionswhich cause most illness and mortalityin women.

The Queensland Office of Women’sPolicy is developing the EatingDisorders Project which is focused onbody image and disordered eating. Theproject will coordinate a range ofstrategies to target prevention, earlyintervention and treatment fordisordered eating.

A range of services to assist parentsand families in Queensland, includingthe Early Intervention and ParentingSupport Initiative, are being expandedand offer free parenting programmesfrom 30 locations across the state.


The Western Australian Government’sfirst Two Year Plan for Women madethe following commitments:

■ to improve women’s health throughsix agencies focusing on a networkof women’s health services;

■ increased participation by women insport and recreation;

■ mental health services;

■ making sexual assault servicesmore available; and

■ strategies to reduce alcohol anddrug abuse.

In the Western AustralianGovernment’s second Two Year Planthe Health Department of WesternAustralia committed to work inpartnership with the Women’s PolicyDevelopment Office to bring togetheragencies with an interest in improvingwomen’s health to implementcollaborative initiatives. Specificinitiatives include:

■ increased access to health servicesfor disadvantaged women;

■ maintenance of health informationservices including a free call servicefor rural women;

■ increase in recruitment strategiesfor breast and cervical cancerscreening rates;

■ support for women in their caregiving roles;

■ financial support for respite care services;

■ improved nutrition strategies forAboriginal women and low income women;

■ promotion of healthy lifestyle choices;

■ addressing mental health needs; and

■ improving information and advicethrough tele-call, tele-health andother electronic mediums.



In some centres health workers haveworked with Aboriginal organisations toensure that women have access to theirtraditional birthing and post-natalpractices within hospitals. A pilot“shared care” programme betweenKatherine Hospital and a localAboriginal Health Service has been instituted.

In Darwin two houses have been madeavailable as a Hospital AccommodationService. These are in close proximity tohospitals and provide affordable shortterm accommodation for women andtheir families from rural and remoteareas. They can be accessed, forexample, by those with sick children,with partners in hospital, requiringassessment and/or procedures orwomen awaiting the birth of their baby.

Free mammogram screening andassessment centres have beenestablished and a relocatable screeningunit is making annual visits to somemajor centres for the early detection ofbreast cancer in women.


The South Australian Government hassponsored the following initiatives:

development of a policy framework forgood practice in women’s health andwell-being - a major collaborativeproject involving women consumers,health workers, health serviceproviders, researchers and theDepartment of Human Services and

Regional Health Services. Seven RuralRegional Women’s Health and Well-Being Plans were developed within thegeneral framework of women’s healthand well-being. The plans areinformed by extensive research in eachregional and rural area and highlightpriorities and key areas fordevelopment by particular regions overthe next five years;

■ Outwork: Reaching an InvisibleWorkforce report that providesinformation, education and trainingmaterials on occupational healthand safety and industrial rights andresponsibilities. The report hasbeen widely distributed;

■ “Health and Violence AgainstWomen” is a collaborative projectaimed at developing effectiveservices for women of non-Englishspeaking backgrounds. The projectinvolved two main strategies:

■ the establishment of four supportgroups, each based in acommunity health centre andtargeting different culturalcommunity groups;

■ the training of facilitators to liaisewith their identified communitiesto encourage women to join thegroups and their subsequentliaison with community healthcentre staff to arrange activitiesfor their group and to document progress.


The project has achieved significantsuccess as a model of best practice andwas the recipient of a 1997International Commonwealth Award forExcellence in Women’s Health.

■ The Balancing Work and FamilyResponsibilities Project whichencourages agencies to identifyemployee needs to reduce stresscaused by competing pressures onemployees (usually women) of familyresponsibilities in addition to work; and

■ The Promoting Partnerships inNESB Women’s Mental Healthproject aimed to improve services toNESB women with mental healthneeds. The project developed bestpractice in organisationalapproaches to transcultural issues.It also fostered partnerships withtwo metropolitan agencies and onerural agency, as well as co-workingwith each agency on a range ofstrategies to achieve betteroutcomes for NESB women clients.

OBSTACLES ANDLEARNING POINTS

C O N C E R N S O F W O M E N I NT H E C O M M U N I T Y

There are concerns that the significantgains achieved in awareness about keywomen’s health issues are not yet

matched in support to women’s healthservices more generally. In particular,there are concerns that women bearthe responsibility for taking on roles ascarers for people with disabilities andolder persons at great personal cost.Community-based health care needs toremain a priority especially forIndigenous communities whichcontinue to suffer high rates of infantmortality and lower life expectancy.

C H A L L E N G E S

While there have been majoradvancements in women’s health since1995, there is still a need for the healthsystem to respond more appropriatelyto the particular needs of women.Further research needs to beundertaken to understand the factorsaffecting women’s health.

Improving women’s access toappropriate maternal health careservices and reducing the incidence ofbreast cancer, cervical cancer,anorexia, osteoporosis and depressionare important challenges for the future.Another on-going challenge is toaddress the need to increase women’sparticipation in decision-making in thehealth system, both as consumers andhealth providers. Some groups ofwomen, such as Indigenous women,older women and women in ruralcommunities, experience social andeconomic disadvantage whichadversely affects their health.


There are currently 2.3 million peoplein Australia over 65 years, with womenexpected to outlive men. As thisdemographic rapidly swells, thechallenge will be to ensure this groupremains fit and healthy into older age.Research shows that growing older is apositive experience for mostAustralians, presenting new anddiverse opportunities for many people.Many Australians are choosingincreasingly active lives as they growolder. Programmes which support thehealth and well-being of these older people will be intrinsic to maximisingthe opportunities of older age.

In a multicultural society, whichincludes Indigenous people, Australia’sresponses to specific health issuesneed to be culturally appropriate.There are some categories of peoplewithin Australia who require specialattention to facilitate health and well-being.

Chronic diseases take a number ofyears to develop, therefore healthpromotion and disease preventionactivities are most beneficial if theyoccur over a person’s lifetime. TheAustralian Government is committed toencouraging people to adopt healthylifestyles from an early age.




The Australian Government’s futurebudget commitments for women arecomprehensively outlined in Deliveringon our Commitments for Women, theBudget Ministerial Statement onWomen from the Minister Assisting thePrime Minister on the Status ofWomen. A copy of this statement hasbeen provided in response to Part 2(Financial and Institutional measures).

9 5

V I O L E N C E

A G A I N S T

W O M E N


Violence Against Women

DC H A P T E R


1: Take integrated measures toprevent and eliminate violence againstwomen.

2: Study the causes and consequencesof violence against women and theeffectiveness of preventive measures.

3: Eliminate trafficking in women andassist victims of violence due toprostitution and trafficking.

O V E R V I E W

Violence and the threat of violenceagainst women and girls is afundamental violation of human rights.It is also a form of discrimination thatprevents women from achieving fullsocial and economic equality.

Working towards eliminating violenceagainst women remains a majorpriority for all Australian governments.The States and Territories have themajor responsibility for legislating andproviding programmes and services.The Australian Government plays astrong leadership role and works co-operatively with the States andTerritories to eliminate violence againstwomen in all its forms, in the context ofits commitment to women’s humanrights and to ensure that all Australianslive in a safe society.

Physical and sexual assault andattempted assault are criminaloffences under Australian State andTerritory law. All States and Territorieshave domestic violence and anti-

stalking legislation and most haveenacted legislation expressly banningfemale genital mutilation, except wherethe practice is dealt with in otherexisting legislation.

In recent years, the AustralianGovernment’s approach has focussedon fostering a cooperative approachwith the States and Territories and thebusiness and community sectors.While recognising and supportingAustralia’s crisis services, currentinitiatives also place an increasedemphasis on prevention and early intervention.

The Australian Government’s strongcommitment against violence is reflected in the following recent achievements:

■ the establishment of a nationalcoordinated campaign to prevent andaddress domestic violence, thePrime Minister’s PartnershipsAgainst Domestic Violence, which is backed by a substantialcommitment of more than $50 million in Commonwealthgovernment funding;

■ the creation of the $21 millionNational Crime PreventionProgramme to build upon the workof the $13 million NationalCampaign Against Violence and Crime;

■ legal reforms including:

- historic national gun controllegislation introduced in 1996 anda national gun buy-back scheme

S T R AT E G I C

O B J E C T I V E S

under which 643,000 firearmswere surrendered;

- the continuing development andadoption of a best practice modelfor criminal laws dealing withviolence, including those forms ofviolence most experienced bywomen; and

- laws to prohibit the traffickingand sexual exploitation of womenand girls;

■ controls on the portrayal of violencein the media and the internet,including through the work of theMinisterial Council on Violence inthe Media; and

■ innovative measures to prevent andaddress domestic violence andactions through legislation and thejustice system to prohibit violenceagainst women in all its forms and tolessen the risk of its incidence.These reforms have laid thegroundwork for a national approachto responding to and preventingviolence against women.

S T R AT E G I CO B J E C T I V E S

1: Take integrated measures toprevent and eliminate violence against women.

D O M E S T I C V I O L E N C ESince 1995, the Australian Governmenthas embarked on significant newinitiatives to integrate efforts to preventand eliminate domestic violence.

In November 1997, the AustralianPrime Minister, the Hon John HowardMP, convened the National DomesticViolence Summit. Heads ofGovernment agreed to work together inPartnerships Against DomesticViolence to prevent domestic violenceacross Australia. The National Summitwas the first time that heads of Australian governments had come together to speak out against domestic violence.

The initiative is intended to developinnovative preventative approaches andtest best practice, incorporating co-operative work at Commonwealth,State and Territory level. TotalCommonwealth spending onPartnerships Against DomesticViolence will be in excess of $50 millionover the 1997-98 to 2002-03 period.

The first phase of Partnerships AgainstDomestic Violence was underpinned by$25.3 million of Commonwealthfunding for the period June 1997 toJune 2001. $12 million of this is forinnovative State, Territory andCommonwealth projects to address andprevent domestic violence, and$13.3 million for projects byCommonwealth agencies.

The priority areas for phase one ofPartnerships are:

■ helping adults to break patternsof violence;



■ helping children and young people tobreak the cycle of violence between generations;

■ working with the community to educate against violence;

■ protection of people at risk;

■ information and best practice on what works in responding to and preventing domestic violence; and

■ helping people in rural and remote communities.

To date, Partnerships has funded 95projects to address the needs of a widerange of people including women andchildren, men, youth and older people.National projects developedcollaboratively by Commonwealth,State and Territory governmentsinclude: community education; nationalcompetency standards for workersdealing with those affected by domesticviolence; information for women withdisabilities; the effect of domesticviolence on older women; andshow-casing of key learnings emergingfrom the projects to encourage bestpractice. Projects by specificCommonwealth agencies includeprojects for children and young peopleat risk, relationship supportprogrammes for men, and advocacyservices for Indigenous women andchildren experiencing violence.

The National Domestic ViolencePrevention Workshops for Young

People project is part of thePartnerships initiative. The projectaims to identify best practice models todeliver outcomes for domestic violenceprevention for young people in terms ofraised community awareness andchanged behaviour of victims, childwitnesses and perpetrators.

State and Territory Partnershipsprojects include demonstrationprojects concerning children affectedby domestic violence, perpetrators ofdomestic violence, issues for rural andremote areas and Indigenous familyviolence. See ‘State and Territory’initiatives below for more details.

A Partnerships communication strategyhas been developed to ensure that theknowledge arising from the initiative isincorporated into practice. Thestrategy comprises a Partnerships’newsletter, the dissemination ofpublications and research summaries,a website and showcasingPartnerships’ projects. Showcasinginvolves a series of nationalconferences on priority themes, bestpractice state and regional workshopsand information sessions at relevantconferences and seminars held byprofessional groups.

Building on the success ofPartnerships, the AustralianGovernment committed a further $25million in the 1999-2000 Budget for asecond phase of the initiative to runfrom 1999 to 2003.


The second phase of PartnershipsAgainst Domestic Violence, launched inOctober 1999, will consolidate the key learnings from the demonstrationprojects and pursue the following activities:

■ Community leadership measures totap into the potential of churches,charities and other majorinstitutions by their participation ona high level taskforce that willfocus on how they can play a more powerful leadership role in advocating against domestic violence;

■ Community education ($10 million):a broad national communityawareness campaign to focus on keyissues such as the harm done tochildren by domestic violence andthe need for perpetrators to takeresponsibility for their violence;

■ Australian Domestic and FamilyViolence Clearinghouse ($1 million):information on domestic violenceand best practice outcomes will bedisseminated, complementing thedrive to forge better links at policyand local service delivery levels;

■ Children affected by domesticviolence ($5 million): will focus onprevention and early interventionwork to improve the wellbeing ofchildren who witness domesticviolence. Based on results fromPartnerships phase 1 projects, this

will develop appropriate andpractical interventions with childrenand young people at risk to reducethe intergenerational transmissionof violence and better integratepolicies and programmes of domestic violence and child protection services;

■ Perpetrators of domestic violence($3 million): will build on theoutcomes of the national forum onprogrammes for perpetrators ofdomestic violence convened by theCommonwealth Minister for Justiceand Customs in May 1999 andprovide assistance withinfrastructure support, such asstandards development andevaluation; and

■ $6 million for the implementation ofpractical, grassroots projects tostrengthen Indigenous communityefforts to address family violence.

In November 1997, the Prime Ministerlaunched Business Against DomesticViolence to enable corporate Australiato work with their employees and thecommunity to address and preventdomestic violence.

The key achievements of BusinessAgainst Domestic Violence include:

■ Western Mining CorporationResources Ltd provided $50,000 to anAboriginal health servicescorporation in Kalgoorlie to

1 0 0 I m p l e m e n t a t i o n o f t h e B e i j i n g P l a t f o r m f o r A c t i o n

undertake a comprehensive domesticviolence community awarenessprogramme in the goldfields region ofWestern Australia;

■ in December 1999, the WestfieldFoundation donated $45,500 toCentacare Newcastle to fund campsfor boys aged between 7 and 15years who have experienceddomestic violence, physical or sexualabuse or who have demonstratedextreme acting out or violentbehaviour. It is anticipated that sixcamps will be held over a twelvemonth period;

■ the development of a network oflocal brokers comprising women’snon-government sector partners,Zonta International and theAustralian Federation of Businessand Professional Women. Theseorganisations are using theirextensive local networks to raiseawareness of domestic violence andto engage local professionals toprovide “in kind” assistance orsponsor a prevention project. This isbeing done in tandem withpartnerships with larger corporations;

■ work in progress with a majorAustralian company for theproduction of a domestic violenceworkplace response kit. The kit willsupport staff training to foster a safeworkplace, to appropriately helpbreak the silence on domestic

violence and equip staff to make anappropriate first response to thoseaffected by domestic violence; and

■ work is in progress with a majorAustralian corporation to producedomestic violence awarenessraising materials.

See also:

■ The ‘Crime Prevention’, ‘Assistancefor victims of crime and violence’and ‘Protection of the law’ sections below.

■ ‘Model Criminal Code’ section below.

F E M A L E G E N I T A LM U T I L AT I O N

The Royal Australian College ofObstetricians and Gynaecologists hasdeveloped a booklet, Female GenitalMutilation: Information for AustralianHealth Professionals, for medicalpractitioners and health professionalsproviding services to women and girlswho have undergone or are at risk offemale genital mutilation. The College has also developed related curriculum materials.

See also:

■ Female Genital Mutilation sectionsin C: Health and Women and I:Human Rights and Women.

C R I M E P R E V E N T I O NThe Australian Government supportsthe National Crime Prevention

I m p l e m e n t a t i o n o f t h e B e i j i n g P l a t f o r m f o r A c t i o n 1 0 1

Programme which commenced in1996. This strategic initiative funds andpromotes policies and projects toprevent and reduce violence and crimein Australian communities. Theprogramme has a research and actionfocus, which includes large scalenational pilot prevention projects, localprevention activities and training forcrime prevention professionals.

The programme addresses a number ofthe concerns women have about crimeand violence in Australian society.Projects are being undertaken withyoung people aimed at preventingviolence in their current and future relationships. Key prioritiesinclude: fear of crime, residentialburglary, violence in Indigenouscommunities and young people andcrime. To date, key initiatives under theprogramme include research intoyoung people’s experience of andattitudes towards domestic violence; apilot project in a rural communityworking with adolescents to preventviolence in their current and futurerelationships; and a review ofprogrammes provided around Australiafor perpetrators of domestic violence.

In addition, the Australian Governmentis providing up to $50 million toestablish Crime Trac, including twonew national databases on DNA andchild sex offenders, and replacing theexisting National Automated FingerPrint Identification System. Thefunding will also be used tosignificantly improve access for law

enforcement officers to existingdatabases such as apprehendedviolence orders, person warnings andmissing persons.

A S S I S T A N C E F O R V I C T I M S O F

C R I M E A N D V I O L E N C E

The Supported AccommodationAssistance Programme, a jointCommonwealth/State programme,provides secure and safe crisisaccommodation for homeless people,including women and children escapingdomestic violence. Some 250 women’srefuges are funded through theprogramme. For more details on thisinitiative, see ‘Housing’ in A: Womenand Poverty.

The Rural and Remote DomesticViolence Initiative is a pilot programmefunded by the Australian Governmentand administered by State and TerritoryGovernments through SAAP. Theinitiative is piloting new approaches forwomen and children who are subjectedto violence in rural and isolatedcommunities to have access andreferral to support services and adviceon matters such as housing, financialand legal matters.

The Family Court has adopted a FamilyViolence Policy aimed at raising staffawareness and offering victims ofviolence the opportunity of separateconciliation or mediation when they arein fear or where the result of past violence includes a significantpower imbalance.


Crisis Payment is a new payment thatbecame available through Centrelink onthe 11 November 1999 for people whoare in severe financial hardship andforced to leave their home due todomestic or family violence. To receiveit a person must be eligible for a socialsecurity pension or benefit payment.Crisis Payment also replaces theprisoner release payment and isavailable for people who are releasedfrom gaol after at least 14 days and whoqualify for a social security pension or benefit.

The Australian Government providesincome support for a wide range ofclients, including women and childrenescaping domestic violence. For detailson these measures, see A: Povertyand Women.

P R O T E C T I O N O F T H E L A W

G U N C O N T R O L

In May 1996, all Australiangovernments agreed to adopt tougheruniform national gun laws throughoutAustralia, as part of the NationalFirearms Agreement. The AustralianGovernment played a leading role insecuring this Agreement whichpermanently removes a large numberof firearms from the Australiancommunity. The Agreement alsodenies access to firearms to a range ofpersons, including those who havebeen the subject of a Domestic ViolenceOrder or an Apprehended Violence Order.

The Commonwealth Governmentallocated $500 million in 1996-1997 fora national buyback scheme for semi-automatic long arms. This measureresulted in the removal of over 643,000firearms from the Australiancommunity. Import restrictions have also been increased on semi-automatic firearms.

Since the Agreement, the level offirearm suicide and firearm related crimes in Australia has fallen significantly.

V I O L E N C E A G A I N S TW O M E N

M O D E L C R I M I N A L C O D E

In 1990, The Standing Committee ofCommonwealth, State and TerritoryAttorneys General established a ModelCriminal Code Officers Committee(MCCOC) to develop a best practicemodel of criminal laws which Statesand Territories will be encouraged to adopt.

In recent years, MCCOC has reviewedall non-fatal offences against theperson including sexual assault,stalking and sexual servitude. Threereports, which provide Model Lawsrelating to these offences, werereleased in 1998 and 1999. Somerecommendations of the reports havesince been legislated at theCommonwealth level and some at theState level. For example, in NSW the


proposed persistent sexual abuseoffence was introduced into legislationin 1998. At the Commonwealth levelsexual slavery and servitude offenceshave been introduced into legislation.

See also:

■ ‘Protection against SexualExploitation’ section in I: HumanRights of Women.

MCCOC is currently reviewing fataloffences. MCCOC issued a discussionpaper on fatal offences in June 1998addressing, inter alia, whetherprovocation should be retained as apartial defence to murder. Its report isexpected to be released later in 2000.

The MCCOC report on sexual offenceswas released in May 1999 and iscurrently under consideration bygovernments.

A discussion paper, Model DomesticViolence Laws, was released at theNovember 1997 National DomesticViolence Summit. The Model Laws areaimed at ensuring continuity ofprotection for victims across thecountry. Recommendations made inthe formal report, released in April1999 address how State and Territorylegislation can more effectively protectvictims who cross State boundaries.State and Territory Attorneys-Generalhave agreed to review their domesticviolence laws in the light of the report.

A discussion paper on computeroffences was released in February

2000. It deals with unauthorisedaccess, modification or impairment of acomputer function with intention tocommit a serious offence. A seriousoffence is one that has a maximumpenalty of 5 years imprisonment. Itincludes stalking. The proposedlegislation would therefore covervarious forms of ‘cyber stalking.’

O L D E R W O M E N

The Australian Government hascommissioned a new research projectto investigate the incidence andexperience of domestic violenceamongst older people over the age of50 years. This is a priority project of thePartnerships Against DomesticViolence initiative. The focus of theresearch will be primarily on olderwomen and will investigate domesticviolence in partner relationshipscovering physical, emotional, sexual,financial and psychological abuse.There is strong anecdotal evidence thatmany older women do not report ordisclose domestic violence as often asyounger women. This project will aimto find out why, and what older peoplemight need in order to feel safe.


All States and Territories provide a widerange of crisis, information, referraland support services for victims ofdomestic violence and sexual assault.Women’s Legal Services in all Statesand Territories offer legal advice on


domestic violence and sexual assault.State and Territory services includecourt support services for victims ofdomestic violence and sexual assaultand specialist services for women ofnon-English speaking background andIndigenous women who are subjectedto violence.

See also:

■ For information on legal aid see A:Women and Poverty and I: HumanRights of Women.

V I O L E N C E I N S C H O O L S

In 1996, the Australian Governmentfunded a State-based fora to discussissues related to school violence. TheNo Fear Kit was produced as a resourceaddressing gender violence for bothprimary and secondary schools. The kitis based on a whole school approachinvolving all members of the schoolcommunity including school leaders,teachers, students and parents. Itconsists of quality resources (eg,professional development materials;curriculum materials; and a video) thathelp create non-violent schoolcommunities and provides a frameworkfor developing understandings of thelinks between gender and violence in alocal context.

The Gender and Violence Project waspart of the Office of the Status ofWomen’s Stop Violence Against WomenStrategy. The project produced a seriesof teaching and learning materials,

including professional developmentmaterials, to assist schools to developtheir own definition of violence and tohelp students and teachers understandthe links between gender and violence.The package is designed to assistschools to develop a whole of schoolapproach for addressing gender-basedviolence and to understand the impactthat violence has on learning outcomes.

E D U C A T I O N A L A N D

I N F O R M A T I O N R E S O U R C E S

A number of educational programmesaimed at identifying and addressinggender bias in the operation of the lawand the legal system have been fundedby the Australian Government.TheAustralian Government commissionedthe Australian Institute of Criminologyto conduct research on people at risk ofcommitting violence. In April 1997, theInstitute released the Indicators ofAggressive Behaviour report. Thereport examined ways to assist groupsmost at risk from the portrayal of violence.

A range of educational and informationmaterials have been produced toinform the community, serviceproviders, teachers and young peopleon domestic violence, as part of thePartnerships Against DomesticViolence initiative. These includeViolence at home: the big secret, Youthand domestic violence, Young peopleand domestic violence, Report:research for a domestic violence


community education program foryoung Territorians, the Yitpi: fun withfeelings kit, Practice standards forworking with children and youngpeople who have lived with domesticviolence. In addition, a leaflet and CDon domestic violence have been produced in a range of community languages.

See also:

■ The ‘Domestic Violence’ sectionabove for details on thecommunication strategy.

P O R T R A Y A L O F V I O L E N C E I N

T H E M E D I A

In July 1996, the AustralianGovernment announced its intention toaddress public concerns about theportrayal of violence in the electronicmedia. Substantial progress has beenmade by Commonwealth, State andTerritory Governments and industrybodies since that time.

High-level violence material has beenclassified ‘RC’ (Refused Classification).Ministers approve the case by casereclassification of films classified highlevel violence for mature audience priorto 1993.

From April 1999, broadcasts of MatureAudience programmes are limited tolate night viewing (between 9.30 pmand 5.00 am) and must carry aconsumer advice symbol indicating

violence. These provisions have beenincluded in the draft revised Federationof Australian Commercial TelevisionStations (FACTS) CommercialTelevision Industry Code of Practice(the draft Code).

Free to air broadcasters may modifyfilms for broadcast in accordance withOffice of Film and LiteratureClassification Guidelines. National andcommercial broadcasters mayimplement such through theirrespective codes of practice. The draftFACTS Code contains a clear referenceto the need to modify films in this way.

The Australian Government has takensteps to prohibit the export of all ‘RC’material by ensuring that exportregulations are consistent with importregulations. In December 1997, revisedCustoms (Prohibited Exports)Regulations to achieve this came into effect.

Commonwealth, State and TerritoryCensorship Ministers have consideredthe introduction of arrangements tomake it an offence to possess films,videos or computer games that havebeen or would be refused classificationbecause of violent content. At present,Ministers have agreed to retain existingoffence provisions which appear to beoperating effectively.

The Ministerial Committeerecommended that an industry code ofpractice for video and interactivesoftware retailers should beintroduced. A voluntary code of


practice was introduced by theAustralian Video Retailers Associationon 1 July 1997.

The Government has also established aregulatory framework for onlinecontent. The framework includesamendments to existing legislationmade by the Broadcasting ServicesAmendment (Online Services) Act 1999,which commenced on 16 July 1999. Theframework is based on the principlethat what is illegal offline should alsobe illegal online. From 1 January 2000any person can complain to theAustralian Broadcasting Authorityabout prohibited online content.

See also:

■ The ‘Broadcasting Industry Codes ofPractice’ section in J: Women andthe Media


2: Study the causes and consequencesof violence against women and theeffectiveness of preventive measures.

The Australian Government’s policiesand initiatives to combat violence areroutinely underpinned by research.Partnerships Against DomesticViolence, for example, includesresearch projects and a rigorous meta-evaluation of project outcomes todetermine best practice and keylearnings for replication.

Available data on violence in Australiareveals significant differences in the

pattern of violence experienced bywomen and men. Men are more likelythan women to be both the victims andthe perpetrators of violence. Thosemost at risk of violence are young men,with the important exceptions of crimesof sexual assault and domesticviolence. When only these two types ofviolence are considered, victims aremostly female, with young women beingat highest risk.

The following section outlines otherrecent research into the causes andconsequences of violence againstwomen and the effectiveness ofpreventive measures.

Australia undertakes a wide range ofresearch into domestic violence andsexual assault issues. Examples ofsignificant recent research topics include:

■ the responses of generalpractitioners and hospital workers tovictims of domestic violence andsexual assault;

■ the extent of violence against Filipino women;

■ the effectiveness of education and counselling programs for perpetrators of violence against women; and

■ the incidence of domestic violence inAustralia and the financialconsequences for women who arevictims of domestic violence.

In 1996, the Australian Government


commissioned the Australian Bureau ofStatistics to undertake a nationalsurvey on violence against women.This survey established the firstcomprehensive national data on thenature and extent of violence againstwomen in Australia. It coveredwomen’s fears for and threats against,their personal safety, women’sexperience of physical and sexualassault, the effects on women ofviolence and what women do as a resultof experiencing violence.

The Women’s Safety Survey 1996provided benchmark data to measurechanges in the level of violeneagainst women.

The Australian Government isundertaking projects to research anddevelop appropriate preventiveapproaches for relationships at risk ofbecoming violent, and referral andintervention approaches whereviolence is already occurring. Theoutcomes of this research will informthe operation of all Commonwealth-funded marriage and relationshipcounselling and mediation services inAustralia and will promote anintegrated response to all familymembers affected by violence who seekhelp from these services.

A number of pilot projects are beingundertaken to trial better ways ofsupporting Indigenous familyrelationships. The projects will have a

research focus and will integrateissues of domestic violence whileproviding information on moreappropriate and effective relationshipsupport services for Indigenous Australians.

In June 1998 the National forum onmen and family Relationships was heldin Canberra. The Forum broughttogether experts includingpractitioners and researchers to shareinformation, identify issues and providevaluable input into strategies for thedevelopment on the Partnership andother programs to assist men withrelationship issues. The Attorneyannounced the Men’s Access Lineinitiative at the Forum. TheGovernment has provided $1 millionseed funding for this telephone linedesigned to provide access to adviceand assistance with family issues andrelationship problems like marriagebreakdown. The line is expected to beoperated by the middle of next year.

S T R AT E G I C

O B J E C T I V E S3: Eliminate trafficking in women andassist victims of violence due toprostitution and trafficking.

Australia regards the trafficking andsexual slavery of women and girls as aform of violence against women and afundamental violation of women’shuman rights. See I: Human rights ofwomen for details of the Australian


Government’s initiatives to eliminatesexual exploitation.

Australia is actively involved in theAsian Regional Initiative AgainstTrafficking Initiative (ARIAT). ARIATaims to help countries in the region andconcerned countries outside theregion, make significant progress in thestruggle against trafficking in womenand children. The initiative will alsodevelop practical strategies fornational and regional cooperation toreduce trafficking by: sharingsuccessful practices; expandingcollaborative efforts among East Asianand Pacific countries affected bytrafficking in women and children;developing realistic national actionplans to combat trafficking; linkingparticipating countries with potentialresources to aid in the implementationof regional and country-specific action plans and anti-traffickinginitiatives, including concernedinternational organisations, NGOs andthe private sector.

Several Australian Governmentprogrammes and services are availablefor victims of trafficking.

■ Programme of Assistance for theSurvivors of Torture and Traumaprovides counselling and advocacyservices to people who have sufferedtorture and/or trauma prior toarrival in Australia.

■ The Supported AccommodationAssistance Programme provides

accommodation for women andchildren escaping crisis situations.

■ Community Refugee SettlementScheme assists eligible migrants tofind accommodation and providesinformation on a range of servicesincluding health, welfare, educationand job placements.

■ On Arrival AccommodationProgramme provides initial shortterm accommodation andinformation on accommodation and other services such as welfare entitlements andemployment agencies.

■ Migrant Resource Centres/MigrantService Agency, CommunitySettlement Services, Translatingand Interpreting Service and AdultMigrant English Programme offermultilingual information, advice and referral services for migrants, refugees and otherhumanitarian entrants.

■ Women’s health centres andwomen’s legal centres. For detailssee A: Women and Poverty and C:Women and Health.




The Australian Government has beenincreasingly concerned about the leveland severity of family violence in someIndigenous communities. Its policyemphasis is on improving key socio-economic outcomes which will, byaddressing underlying causes, have apositive effect in the longer term. Inaddition, the Australian Governmenthas undertaken a range of initiatives tospecifically address Indigenous family violence.

The Australian Government is workingwith Indigenous communities that havetaken positive and effective action todeal with violence, and State andTerritory Governments to developbetter ways of preventing andresponding to violence. Indigenousfamily violence is also a priority underPartnerships (see above) which is, interalia, funding two Family ViolenceSystemic Advocacy Services to adviseservice providers on best practicestandards in delivering services toIndigenous women.

■ The Ministerial Council onAboriginal and Torres Strait IslanderAffairs has endorsed a nationalstrategy on Indigenous familyviolence which will focus on inter-government coordination andsupporting community initiatives ata local level.

■ Family Violence Prevention LegalService Units are being funded towork with victims and communitiesin a holistic manner to prevent family violence.

■ $1.15 million has been allocatedunder Partnerships AgainstDomestic Violence for Indigenousfamily violence projects in Cape Yorkand Kalgoorlie.

■ A further $6 million has beenallocated over four years (1999-2003)from Partnerships for communitygrants to assist Indigenouscommunities to prevent and addressfamily violence.

■ The Australian Government has alsoimproved Indigenous women’saccess to legal services provided byAboriginal and Torres Strait IslanderLegal Services. It is funding fiveIndigenous legal service unitsspecifically designed to provideadvice and legal assistance towomen.

W O M E N F R O M A N O N - E N G L I S H S P E A K I N GB A C K G R O U N D

The domestic violence provision inAustralia’s migration regulationsallows eligible applicants to be grantedpermanent residence where therelationship that forms the basis oftheir claims to residence has endedand there has been domestic violence


(including against children or otherfamily members). This provisionaddresses concerns that in someinstances people might be forced toremain in violent relationships to gainpermanent residence.

Research has indicated that serialsponsorship of visa applicants appearsto be highly correlated with theperpetration of domestic violence. InNovember 1996, amendments toAustralia’s migration legislation wereintroduced to curb serial sponsorship.Sponsors in the spouse, fiance andinterdependency visa classes can onlysponsor a maximum of two partners intheir lifetime, at least five years apart.

Following concerns about the incidenceof violence and abuse of womensponsored to Australia as spouses andfinances, the Australian Governmentfunded the updating of an informationkit, Marrying and migrating you have towork at it in 1998. The Kit andaccompanying video are designed toassist women to make informeddecisions about marriage andmigration and to understand theirrights in Australia and are available inArabic, Mandarin, Thai, Vietnamese,Russian and Tagalog.

W O M E N W I T HD I S A B I L I T I E SIn recognition of the particular issuesthat domestic violence presents fordisabled women, Partnerships

commissioned a national project todevelop national exemplars ofinformation on domestic violence forwomen with disabilities.

Women with Disabilities Australia(WWDA), a national women’s NGO, wasone of four recipients of the NationalViolence Prevention Awards,announced in October 1999.

The Awards, sponsored by the Heads of

Australian Governments as a joint

Commonwealth, State and Territory

initiative, are designed to reward the

most outstanding projects for the

prevention or reduction of violence in

Australia. The Government presented

WWDA with a Certificate of Merit and

$10,000. WWDA’s award was for work

with the following initiatives: the

Woorarra Women’s Refuge Disability

Discrimination Act Action Plan; ‘More

than Just a Ramp’ – a model process

for refuges to remove discriminatory

barriers in their buildings, work

practices, information and attitudes; a

national two-day workshop on violence

against women with disabilities; a

national information kit; and a national

internet site incorporating accessible

information on violence and women

with disabilities.

See also:

■ The ‘Women with disabilities’ section

in I: Human Rights of Women.


I N T E R N AT I O N A LI N I T I AT I V E S A N DA I D P R O G R A M M E

I N T E R N AT I O N A L H U M A NR I G H T S T R E AT I E S

Australia participates constructively inUnited Nations fora concerned withviolence against women and activelysupports the work of the UN Special Rapporteur on Violence Against Women.

Violence against women is discussed in

Australia’s Third and Fourth Reports

under the International Covenant on

Civil and Political Rights lodged with

the United Nations in August 1998.

Violence against women is not

discussed explicitly in the draft of

Australia’s combined Second and Third

Reports under the Convention againstTorture and other Cruel, Inhuman orDegrading Treatment of Punishment.Instead, the report details relevant

criminal offences and penalties,

including sexual assault and assault. It

also covers rights to procedural

guarantees in respect of complaints of

torture or cruel or inhuman treatment

or punishment against public officials

including police officers, prison

officers, military personnel,

immigration officers, customs officials,

public medical officers, residential

carers and public school teachers.

A U S T R A L I A ’ S A I D

P R O G R A M M E

Prevention of violence is a key focus of

Australia’s aid programme in 1999-

2000. Aid projects will be encouraged

which address the effects of violence

and its causes.

The Australian Government is providing

up to $2.2 million over the next five

years to the Fiji Women’s Crisis Centre,

for counselling services for women and

children in the Pacific who are

survivors of domestic violence and

sexual abuse. The community

education programme aims to change

community attitudes about violence to

women. The Centre is also the

Secretariat of the Pacific Women’s

Network Against Violence Against

Women. As such, it plays an important

role in combating domestic violence in

the Pacific region through the

coordination of services and advocacy

by 24 agencies across 11 Pacific

Island States.

Australia is also providing A$800,000 to

a A$3.6 million UN programme aimed

at reducing trafficking of women and

children in the Mekong sub-region.

Australia has provided funding for

judicial and law enforcement systems,

support for ombudsmen and enhanced

community awareness of women’s

rights according to the law.



All States and Territories incorporatededicated sessions on domesticviolence or family violence and sexual assault into their police recruitment training programmes and ongoing police professional education programmes.

Various States and Territories offerongoing professional education in theareas of domestic violence and sexualassault to medical practitioners. Anumber of universities incorporatesexual assault and domestic violencematerials in the undergraduatemedical curriculum. Undergraduatesocial work and nursing curricula aregiving increasing emphasis to topics ofviolence against women. A number ofhospitals include domestic violenceand sexual assault as components ofeducational programmes.

Some States and Territories offereducation and counsellingprogrammes for perpetrators of sexualassault and domestic violence, basedon the principles of safety of victimsand the responsibility of perpetratorsfor their violence. A national audit ofprogrammes has been conducted toassess the effectiveness of theseprogrammes. The audit assesses theextent to which programmeeffectiveness has been evaluated andthe result of such evaluations.


■ The NSW Government isimplementing a state-wide whole ofgovernment NSW Strategy toReduce Violence Against Womenaimed at developing and promotingprevention strategies and improvedaccess to services. The Strategyuses regional partnerships, aprevention focus and a broaddefinition of violence. It features anetwork of 17 Regional ViolencePrevention Specialists, the NSWCouncil on Violence Against Women,to advise the Attorney-General andMinister for Women, the State Management Group, and the Violence Against Women Specialist Unit.

Further measures include:

■ improved law and processes relatingto Apprehended Violence Orders;

■ broader provision of interpretersfree of charge to Community LegalCentres, to assist women seekinglegal advice for family mattersinvolving domestic violence;

■ Resources for Teaching AgainstViolence (1996) on bullying,domestic violence, sex basedharassment, dispute resolution andviolence against homosexual men and women;

■ a Community Benefit Fund whichprovides grants to assist womenvictims of violence;


■ the Women’s Domestic ViolenceCourt Assistance Programme whichinvolves schemes in metropolitanand rural NSW to provide support,legal representation, information &referral from Local Courts. Over16,000 women were assisted in 1997($1.8 m in 1998-99); and

■ training for health and communityworkers in identifying andresponding to abuse of older people and people with disabilities and carers.

The NSW Witness Assistance Servicehas 14 professional staff to assistvictims and prosecution witnesses. Ithas an Aboriginal Project Officer toraise cultural awareness and addressneeds of Aboriginal victims/witnessesincluding domestic violence. Tenworkshops have been held onAboriginal Victim’s Access to Criminal Justice.

The NSW Government is committed tocontinued implementation of the NSWStrategy to Reduce Violence AgainstWomen. It will increase the annualbudget of NSW Women’s DomesticViolence Court Assistance Scheme by$1m to a total of $2.8m by the 2000-2001 financial year. The schemeempowers women experiencingdomestic violence to more effectivelyuse the legal system. There will becontinued work on preventing andresponding to abuse of older people,

people with disabilities and carers,including policy materials forpreventing and reducing abuse andassault in disability services.

The Workplace Bullying Project isinvestigating options for eliminatingworkplace bullying and harassment. Itwill produce a model for implementingstrategies in the workplace forpreventing and managing workplacebullying and harassment. The Women’sDomestic Violence Court AssistanceProgram provides support servicestargeted at indigenous women, womenfrom culturally diverse backgroundsand women with an intellectualdisability and is piloting representationspecifically for domestic violencecases, at five local courts.

V I C T O R I A

The Victorian Government is committed to:

■ the development of a coordinatedresponse to violence against womenacross government;

■ the development of a framework forthe implementation of programs formen who use violence towardsfamily members;

■ providing ongoing funding for arange of support services for womenand children experiencing familyviolence and sexual assault;

■ the development of an Indigenous


Family Violence Services Strategywhich will utilise a communityconsultation model, led by a steeringcommittee of Koori people, whichwill result in an accessible andculturally sensitive service systemfor Koori women and their familiesexperiencing family violence; and

■ improved safety measures on andaround public transport such as theintroduction of additional stationstaff, closed circuit television andpassenger alarm points, andimproved lighting in train station car parks.

The Attorney-General is consideringthe recommendations of the Victims ofCrime Compensation Schemes ReviewCommittee on the restoringcompensation for pain and suffering tovictims of crime. Any necessarylegislation will be developed as required.


The ACT has had specific legislation inplace to protect victims of domesticviolence since 1986. Legislativereforms aimed at providing greaterprotection to victims of domesticviolence include:

■ automatic cancellation orsuspension of a firearms licencewhere a protection order or interimprotection order is made under theDomestic Violence Act;

■ enabling the police to seizeammunition and firearms licenceswhere cancellation or suspension of a licence occurs in such circumstances;

■ requiring that bail for a personaccused of a domestic violenceoffence only be granted where theaccused does not represent asubstantial risk to the safety of an alleged victim or an associated person;

■ including a more comprehensivedefinition of ‘domestic violence’;

■ removing limitations on the types ofrestrictions which could be includedin protection orders;

■ recognising domestic violenceorders made by NZ courts; and

■ ensuring that a protection order canbe obtained at any time includingwhen a court is not sitting.

The Domestic Violence PreventionCouncil (DVPC), which commenced on17 October 1997, provides advice ondomestic violence policy andprogramme development. The Councilhas representation from thegovernment and non-governmentsectors and reports to the ACTAttorney-General.

The ACT project, Preventing ViolenceAgainst Women With Disabilities wasselected as one of four nationalwinners in the Australian Violence


Prevention Awards 1999. This project isin response to needs identified byWomen With Disabilities Australia,which is contributing its expertise tothe development and implementation ofthe project.

Based on information gathered fromresearch and consultations withwomen with disabilities and serviceproviders, a range of communicationproducts will be developed and trialledfor women with disabilities. The projectis expected to be completed inJune 2000.

Specific school-based programmeshave addressed issues of violence andgender. Professional developmentsessions for teachers have addressedthe relationship of gender and violence,including sessions on homophobia.

Q U E E N S L A N D

The Queensland Government hasallocated an additional $1 million peryear over four years through the Officeof Women’s Policy Domestic ViolenceFund to enhance the government’sexisting domestic violence responseand encourage initiatives which helpstem the cycle of domestic violence in families.

The Queensland Government hasestablished the Aboriginal and TorresStrait Islander Women’s Taskforce toadvise government on the appropriateresponses to address family violenceand excessive alcohol consumption.

The Queensland Government hasestablished a Task force on CrimePrevention to develop a CrimePrevention Strategy for Queensland .The Strategy will seek to respond toand address the problems andconcerns of women.


The Northern Territory Governmentlaunched a 5 year Domestic ViolenceStrategy in April 1994, which offers acoordinated and integrated approach todomestic violence. It includes acriminal justice response and supportfor service providers. A majorcommunity education component, the‘It’s got to stop...’ campaign, comprisestelevision, radio, cinema and printedmedia advertising. In addition, acommunity education campaigntargeted young people: the ‘Becool....not cruel’ campaign, funded bythe Commonwealth under thePartnerships initiative.

The Northern Territory Government isimplementing a court mandatedprogram for offenders of domesticviolence. In addition, a course Diplomain Human Service Work (DomesticViolence) was developed andaccredited. A Domestic Violence LegalKit for legal practitioners wasdeveloped and disseminated. Domesticviolence counsellors have beenappointed in all main Territory centresand the Northern Territory Police have


established dedicated Police DomesticViolence Units in Darwin and AliceSprings with Domestic Violence PoliceLiaison Officers identified in policestations throughout the Territory.

Housing policies have beenimplemented for women escapingdomestic violence, for example theallocation of priority housing, bondassistance, installation of Safe Roomsin Housing Commission dwellings toincrease the level of security forwomen in their homes. Funding hasalso been provided to women’s shelters throughout the Territory including access for women withphysical disabilities.

A gender and violence project officerhas been appointed to assist schools inunderstanding the links betweenconstruction of gender and violenceand to develop approaches throughschool curriculum to address these issues.

The Northern Territory Government hasa comprehensive range of polices andprogrammes to assist victims of crime.The Sexual Assault Policy provides aframework and sets down Principlesand Protocols to guide serviceresponses and program managementfrom government agencies. Centralfeatures of the policy include:

■ establishment of sexual assaultservices in main urban centres in the Territory;

■ provision by the Northern TerritoryPolice Sex Crimes Unit of a softinterview room for victims of sexualassault to ensure their anonymity,confidentiality, safety and comfort;

■ facilities for vulnerable witnesses to give evidence via closed circuit television;

■ introduction of victim impactstatements into the criminal justicesystem; and

■ establishment of a Victim SupportUnit in Office of Director of PublicProsecutions. Statistics show thatwomen are the main users.

A discrete component of the overallNorthern Territory Domestic ViolenceStrategy is the Aboriginal FamilyViolence Strategy. It has beendeveloped in partnership withIndigenous Territorians whereresponsibility for the design anddevelopment of programs and theirimplementation in communities isshared with Government Officers.Programmes are initiated only whereAboriginal communities invite Officerswithin the Aboriginal Family ViolenceStrategy Unit to assist them deal withviolence in their communities.

The programmes in urban and remotecommunities, including workshops, aredesigned to consider the lifestyles,customs, culture and the philosophiesof indigenous participants. Initiativesinclude, for example, drop-in centres


for young people, men’s and women’scentres and safe houses, regular nightpatrols staffed by community membersand the appointment of Social HarmonyOfficers. Programmes for maleoffenders have been developed inconsultation with Aboriginalcommunities to reduce family fightingand alcohol abuse.

This is the first time in Australia oroverseas that Indigenous men andwomen have met and tailored a set ofprogramme elements for delivery, as opposed to translating an existing programme.

The Northern Territory initiated a DataCollection Project on reportedincidents of domestic violence. Thisindicates trends, enhances policyresponses and the planning anddelivery of appropriate domesticviolence cases that come before theCourts. Under the Strategy researchhas been conducted and the resultspublished in reports and discussionpapers for dissemination to serviceproviders and the community.


As part of the Western AustralianGovernment’s 1999-2001 Two Year Planfor Women, 61 government agencieshave identified 103 strategies toimprove women’s safety at home, work,public places and on public transport.This includes provision of crisisservices, accommodation, financial

assistance and sexual assault services.

It also includes local governments, fire

and emergency services, Department

of Productivity and Labour Relations,

Department of Employment and

Training, Police, Totalisator Agency

Boards and Work Cover.

The Action Plan on family and domestic

violence is also being implemented

with four key objectives, coordinated by

an across-government committee. A

further phase of the Plan with special

emphasis on aboriginal family violence

is currently being developed.

The Freedom From Fear Campaign

Against Domestic Violence, launched in

August 1998, is a long term, community

education initiative focussing primarily

on perpetrators and men at risk of

perpetrating domestic violence. The

campaign calls upon men to accept

responsibility for their behaviour and

asks them to seek help (through the

Men’s Domestic Violence Helpline) to

change their violent ways. The logic is

that if violent men voluntarily change

their violent behaviour, this will not only

reduce the incidence of violence, but

also reduce the fear felt by their women

partners and children. The Helpline

provides information, telephone

counselling, and referral into men’s

behaviour change programs.



South Australia has implemented aspart of the Partnerships initiative, aseries of radio announcements inthirteen community languages,directed at women from non-Englishspeaking backgrounds, highlightingdomestic violence and availablesupport services.

The South Australian Government hasimplemented the following:

■ The Way It Is report - an audit reportof services for adults who haveexperienced rape or sexual assaultin South Australian country areasover the past 12 months. A series of25 recommendations weredeveloped to address servicecoordination, training, improvedaccess to information, services forspecial needs groups andcommunity awareness. Two themespermeated the recommendations -the importance of interagencyapproaches and the pursuit of a‘victim’s rights’ approach. The Wayit Will Be report addressed the keyfindings by employing seventemporary country based projectworkers; and

■ the Rape Prevention Project 1998-99- integrates health promotion, harmminimisation and crime preventionstrategies. Working across theHuman Services and Justiceportfolios, the project also involves the private sector(licensed premises).

T A S M A N I A

The Tasmanian Government hasintroduced the Domestic ViolenceIntegrated Information Project as partof the Partnerships initiative. The aimof the project is to use informationtechnology to improve service deliveryto victims of domestic violence by:

■ providing for direct electronictransmission of case informationbetween service providers;

■ developing the capacity forelectronic lodgement of restrainingorder applications; and

■ developing a web-site to provideinformation about domestic violence.

The Tasmanian Partnerships AgainstDomestic Violence Inter-DepartmentalCommittee has developed a proposalfor a ‘domestic violence trainingdelivery model’ that will establish bestpractice in training in this area for ruralhealth professionals. The TasmanianDirector of Public Prosecutionsprovides each complainant with a copyof the Victims of Crime Charteroutlining the victim’s rights regardingaccess to information in both the trialprocess and the resultant sentence,appeal process and compensations.

The Tasmanian Government hasconducted Community Safety Surveysinvolving qualitative research regardingfear of crime in public spacesincorporating focus groups andinterviews. A survey examiningcommunity attitudes to police; fear ofcrime; and victimisation was also conducted.




Partnerships between all layers ofGovernment and with business andcommunity partners play a critical rolein developing an integrated serviceresponse to victims of violence anddomestic violence. Servicecoordination and cohesion isparticularly important to the delivery ofappropriate support to victims of sexualassault. In addition, in a multiculturalsociety that includes an indigenous population, responses to family violence need to be culturally appropriate.

Legislation alone is not sufficient toprevent violence against women, itrequires the support and activeinvolvement of all members of the community.

C O M M U N I T Y C O N C E R N S

Women in the community haveconcerns that some victims areespecially vulnerable, particularlywomen who have limited access toservices (eg, rural/remote women,Indigenous women and migrantwomen). Women from a non-Englishspeaking background and Indigenouswomen can also face cultural barrierswhich hinder their access to supportservices. Housing is a vital issue forwomen escaping violence and there areconcerns that the quality andavailability of public housing resources

vary greatly from region to region.There are also concerns that despitegreater public awareness of violenceagainst women, women continue toface obstacles in the legal system.

F U T U R E C H A L L E N G E S

Some of the important futurechallenges for Australia are: to reducethe incidence of domestic violence andsexual assault; to encourage womenvictims of domestic violence to seekassistance from the police and serviceproviders; and the development ofeffective preventative approaches.





W O M E N

A N D

A R M E D C O N F L I C T


The effects of armed or other kinds ofconflict on women, including those livingunder foreign occupation

EC H A P T E R

1 2 1


1. Increase the participation of womenin conflict resolution at decision-making levels and protect women livingin situations of armed and otherconflicts or under foreign occupation.

2. Reduce excessive militaryexpenditures and control theavailability of armaments.

3. Promote non-violent forms ofconflict resolution and reduce theincidence of human rights abuse inconflict situations.

4. Promote women’s contribution tofostering a culture of peace.

5. Provide protection, assistance andtraining to refugee women, otherdisplaced women in need ofinternational protection and internallydisplaced women.

6. Provide assistance to the women of the colonies and non-self-governing territories.

O V E R V I E W

The Australian Government is aconstructive contributor to responsibleinternational security action.

Since 1995, Australia has continued itscommitment as a constructive andresponsible player, supporting dialogueand activities within our region andelsewhere to promote a stable andprosperous world. Valuing andrespecting national sovereignty and theinalienable human rights of individuals,

Australia has contributed to a range ofmeasures to advance our sharedinterests in these important areas,including peacekeeping efforts underthe auspices of the United Nations.

Australia has been at the forefront ofthe development of internationalhuman rights and internationalhumanitarian law and measures toreduce the spread of armaments,including land mines and laser weaponry.

Since 1995, Australia has workedactively for the adoption of measures topromote and protect women’s humanrights in armed conflict. Australia wasinstrumental in the development in1998 of the Rome Statute of theInternational Criminal Court, which itsigned on 9 December 1998. Australiaargued successfully for the inclusion offemale jurists on the Court, and toinclude sexual violence in armedconflicts in the definition of war crimes.Australia has supported internationalstandard setting efforts, such as theOptional Protocol on children in armedconflict (see below).

Australian NGOs are active in thepromotion of women’s involvement indialogue for peace internationally.

Recognising that women areparticularly vulnerable in times of war,Australia offers specific humanitarianassistance to women refugeesincluding resettlement under

S T R AT E G I C

O B J E C T I V E S

Australia’s humanitarian programmes.Women who are resettled receivecomprehensive settlement assistanceto assist their prospects for integrationinto the Australian community.

Women in the Australian Defence Force (ADF)

Women currently comprise 14% of theADF. The vast majority of ADFemployment categories are opento women.

In 1996, the Australian Governmentreviewed women’s participation in theADF. The review report, entitledWomen in the Australian DefenceForce, examined the cultural, socialand institutional barriers to women’scareer progression and retention in theADF. The review found that a moresystematic and strategic approach wasrequired to eliminate gender-baseddiscrimination. The report’srecommendations addressed a range ofpersonnel, management andleadership issues, equity policy, equitytraining, job competencies, humanresource management practices(recruiting, training, transfer,promotion and performance appraisal),balancing family and workresponsibilities, employment practiceand equity performance review. Therecommendations are beingimplemented by the Defence Equity Organisation.

In 1998, a further review of women inthe ADF examined the limitations

placed on the employment of women byequipment and/or methods ofoperations; attitudes to theemployment of women in combat inDefence and in the community; andoverseas experience in the employmentof women in combat. The Chiefs ofStaff Committee is examining therecommendations of the report.


1. Increase the participation of womenin conflict resolution at decision-making levels and protect women livingin situations of armed and otherconflicts or under foreign occupation.

W O M E N ’ S R O L E I NC O N F L I C T R E S O L U T I O N

Australia is a member of the OECDDevelopment Assistance Committee(DAC) Taskforce on Conflict, Peace andDevelopment Cooperation. Australiahas supported DAC research intoassistance of victims of violent conflict.This research includes analysis of waysto support women, throughdevelopment assistance, to becomeprimary actors in the conflictresolution process.

Australia has supported the NeutralPeace Monitoring Group onBougainville, Papua New Guinea.Australia has provided civilianpersonnel for the small, unarmed,



regional group monitoring the ceasefire

agreement in Bougainville. Women

were strongly encouraged to nominate

to take part in these short-term

missions. As part of the peace

establishment negotiations, Australia,

through its aid programme, also helped

to organise separate meetings for

women to ensure their voices

were heard.

A I D F O R V I C T I M S O F

C O N F L I C T

For Bougainvillean women displaced by

conflict, the Australian government has

delivered essential goods including

clothing, gardening tools, construction

materials, cooking utensils, medical

supplies and services. Women have

benefited from training programmes in

primary health care and adult literacy.

Australian and Bougainvillean NGOs

have conducted workshops and training

across Bougainville in conflict

resolution, trauma counselling and

domestic violence, in an effort to

further engage women in the

peace process.

See also:

■ D: Violence against Women for

details on serial sponsorship.

■ Strategic Objective 5 and the

‘International Aid’ sections below.

S T R AT E G I C

O B J E C T I V E S2. Reduce excessive militaryexpenditures and control theavailability of armaments.

D E F E N C E E X P O R T S

In a global context, Australiaundertakes only limited defence-related research and development, anddefence exports are modest. Australiais unlikely to become a major exporterof a wide range of defence goods butwill continue to export to nichemarkets. The export of defenceproducts from Australia is carried outwithin carefully enforced guidelines.

The Australian Government does notpermit export of defence goods to anycountry under a mandatory UN armsembargo, to countries whose policiesare hostile to its own, or to countrieswhich seriously violate their citizens’human rights (unless there is noreasonable risk that the itemsconcerned will be used against those citizens).

L A N D M I N E S

Australia has recognised thehumanitarian problem caused bylandmines and the particular effects onwomen and children of theindiscriminate use of landmines.Australia has accepted that the onlyeffective solution is to eliminate anti-


personnel landmines as a weapon ofwar. On 15 April 1996, the AustralianGovernment announced that Australiasupported a global ban on anti-personnel landmines and unilaterallysuspended their operational use by theAustralian Defence Force.

A revised Protocol II to the InhumaneWeapons Convention, whichstrengthens the restrictions on the useand transfer of landmines, was adoptedon 3 May 1996 in Geneva. Australia wasamongst the first States to ratify theProtocol in August 1997. TheAustralian Government is supportingthe implementation and reviewconferences (November 1999 and 2001)and will continue to encourageincreased adherence to the Conventionas well as encouraging furtherratification of the protocol.

On 14 January 1999, Australia ratifiedthe Ottawa Convention on theProhibition of the Use, Stockpiling,Production and Transfer of AntiPersonnel Mines and on theirDestruction. Australia is active inpromoting universal adherence to theConvention. Until the OttawaConvention is universally observed,Australia will pursue complementaryinternational strategies to strengthenthe global regime against landmines.

Australia will continue to lead effortsfor the Conference on Disarmament inGeneva to negotiate a universal ban on

the transfer, export and import oflandmines in order to find a trulyeffective solution to the globallandmines problem.

In late 1998, the Australian Parliamentpassed the Anti-Personnel LandminesConvention Act 1998. The Act createsoffences relating to the placement,possession, development, production,acquisition, stockpiling and transfer ofanti-personnel mines by Australiancitizens or members of the ADF, or onterritory under Australian jurisdictionor control. The ADF is amending itsdoctrinal and operational manuals,which have the force of law, to ensurethey comply with the Act.

M I N E C L E A R A N C E

On 31 March 1998, the AustralianMinister for Foreign Affairs, theHon Alexander Downer MP, announcedthe appointment of the ParliamentarySecretary to the Minister for ForeignAffairs, the Hon Kathy Sullivan MP, asAustralia’s Special Representative on De-mining. Mrs Sullivan’sappointment underlines the priority theAustralian Government places onbuilding a solution to the globallandmines problem.

Australia has been a long-standing

contributor to international landmine

clearance programmes. The

Australian Government committed

additional funding to de-mining of


approximately $10 million and is

actively engaged in international fora

seeking to develop further strategies

for de-mining and the treatment of

landmine victims. The Australian

Government expects to allocate in

excess of $100 million for de-mining,

victim assistance and related activities

by the year 2005.

Australia is currently the largest donor

to Cambodia’s de-mining programme.

Australian soldiers are deployed in de-

mining in Cambodia and Mozambique.

Australian NGOs are also making an

important contribution to de-mining

and victim assistance programmes in

Cambodia, Mozambique, Laos and

elsewhere. In providing assistance to

landmine-affected countries, Australia

concentrates on sharing its technical

de-mining expertise with local and

national organisations, thereby helping

to develop Indigenous expertise in

landmine clearance techniques.

Australia is also active in funding

landmine awareness activities in local

communities and schools, and in

supporting the treatment and

rehabilitation of landmine victims.

Australia will continue to encourage

non-parties to adhere to the InhumaneWeapons Convention, particularly

countries that are non-signatories to

the Ottawa Convention. Action in

international fora, such as the

Conference on Disarmament, is

complementary to the OttawaConvention’s goal of a global norm

against landmines.

L A S E R W E A P O N S

Australia ratified the Convention onProhibitions or Restrictions on the Useof Certain Conventional WeaponsWhich May Be Deemed to beExcessively Injurious or to HaveIndiscriminate Effects (the Inhumane

Weapons Convention) in 1983. On 22

August 1997, Australia ratified

Protocol IV to the Inhumane Weapons Convention, on Blinding

Laser Weapons.

N U C L E A R W E A P O N S

Australia ratified the ComprehensiveNuclear Test Ban Treaty on 9 July 1998and the pace of ratification is expectedto continue.

See also:

■ D: Violence against Women fordetails on serial sponsorship and the‘buy back’ armaments measure.

T E R R O R I S M

Australia actively participated in the Ad

Hoc Committee drafting an

International Convention for the

Suppression of Terrorist Bombings,

which was adopted in December 1997.


Australia is currently engaged in the

necessary domestic consultation

processes to determine signature.

Australia is also participating in a

further Ad Hoc Committee to draft a

Convention Against Nuclear Terrorism

and a Convention for the Suppression

of Terrorist Financing, and participated

in the latest session of the Ad Hoc

Committee in March 1999.


3. Promote non-violent forms ofconflict resolution and reduce theincidence of human rights abuse inconflict situations.

4. Promote women’s contribution tofostering a culture of peace.

A U S T R A L I A N D E F E N C EF O R C E ( A D F ) H U M A NR I G H T S T R A I N I N G

The Defence Equity Organisation isdeveloping a strategy to ensure that thecore content of all equity and diversitytraining is the same across the ADF.The strategy covers initial training,promotion courses, senior leadershipand specialist courses. The ADF’shuman rights training has a strongfocus on the legal application of forceduring times of conflict, and on thetreatment of civilians and those whobecome `hors de combat’ (that is, sick,wounded and prisoners of war).

This training is provided from point ofentry, throughout members’ careersand prior to overseas deployment.Instruction prior to overseasdeployment also focuses on culturaldiversities which members willexperience. Members also receiveequity and gender integration trainingfrom point of entry and in promotion courses.

C H I L D R E N I N A R M E DC O N F L I C T

Australia is an active participant innegotiations on an Optional Protocol tothe Convention on the Rights of theChild on the involvement of children inarmed conflict. The text has beenfinalised and will be submitted to theUNCHR in March 2000. The OptionalProtocol will raise the age of voluntaryand compulsory recruitment ofchildren into the armed forces andprohibit the participation of childrenbelow 18 years.

The minimum age for recruitment intothe ADF is 17 years of age. The ADFtakes all feasible measures to ensurethat members under age 18 years ofage do not take part in hostilities.

S E X U A L V I O L E N C E A SWA R C R I M E S

At the 1995 International Conference ofthe Red Cross and Red CrescentSocieties in Geneva, Australia lobbiedsuccessfully for a resolution against


practices of sexual violence in armedconflict, the use of rape as aninstrument of terror, forced prostitutionand any other form of indecent assault.

On 17 July 1998, a Statute was adoptedby the United Nations for theestablishment of an InternationalCriminal Court. Australia has been astrong supporter of efforts to establishthe Court. Australia strongly supportedthe inclusion of rape, sexual slavery,enforced prostitution and other formsof sexual violence in the definition ofwar crimes. Australia signed the RomeStatute of the International CriminalCourt in December 1998, and is nowcommencing the process which isrequired under national law to ratify the statute.

A U S T R A L I A N N G O S

Australia has a number of NGOs thatundertake international activities forpeace and freedom. The Australianchapter of the Women’s InternationalLeague for Peace and Freedoms worksfor disarmament, full rights for women,racial and economic justice, asustainable environment and an end toall forms of violence. The InternationalWomen’s Development Agencyundertakes programmes with womenaround the world to promote theequitable growth of people andcommunities and the just distributionof basic resources and respect forhuman rights. The Australian National

Committee on Refugee Women worksto improve the lives of women andchildren from a refugee background ata local, national and international level.

These and many other Australianorganisations are built on the dedicatedcommitment of women around the country.


5. Provide protection, assistance andtraining to refugee women, otherdisplaced women in need ofinternational protection andinternally displaced women.

A S S I S T A N C E F O R R E F U G E E W O M E N

Through bilateral and NGOprogrammes, the AustralianGovernment funds a range of projectswhich take into account the needs ofrefugee women. The AustralianGovernment supports vocationaltraining to increase refugee women’semployment opportunities and toaddress improved nutrition, conflictresolution and peace building.

The Australian Government is stronglycommitted to helping refugees andpeople who have faced serious abusesof their human rights. Australia’sglobal and non-discriminatoryHumanitarian Programme assistspeople affected by humanitarian crises


through resettlement. The size andcomposition of the programme aredecided each year after wide-rangingcommunity consultations andconsideration of the world-wideresettlement needs identified by theUnited Nations High Commissioner forRefugees (UNHCR).

The 1999-2000 HumanitarianProgramme has been set at 12000places. This is notionally dividedbetween offshore and onshorecomponents, with 10000 places forpeople from overseas and 2000 placesfor people in Australia found to be inneed of protection in accordance withAustralia’s obligations under the 1951Convention Relating to the Status ofRefugees and its 1967 Protocol.

The Humanitarian Programme issensitive to the specific circumstancesand needs of refugee women in anumber of ways:

■ comprehensive guidelines have beendeveloped to assist departmentalofficers assess gender-based claimsby applicants. In recognising thatwomen may experience persecutionand discrimination differently frommen, the Guidelines on GenderIssues for Decision Makers provideadvice on how decision makers canbest approach claims of gender-based persecution. The Guidelinesprovide practical guidance onprocedural issues which can

influence women applicants andwhich may affect their ability topresent their claims (eg, in relationto receiving applications, managinginterviews and ensuringconfidentiality of information); and

■ the Woman at Risk Programme (acomponent of the HumanitarianProgramme) was set up in 1989 toadvance the UNHCR goal ofprotecting refugee women andwomen of concern to UNHCR. Itrecognises that women inparticularly vulnerable situationsare often exposed to great risk ofserious abuse, sexual assault,victimisation or harassment wheretraditional support and protectionhave broken down. Applicants caninclude female heads of families,mothers, widows and abandoned orsingle women identified as being atrisk and in need of resettlement andare given priority. Australia grantedmore than 3000 visas between July1989 and June 1999 and theplanning figure for 1999-2000 is 420 places. Australia is one of the few resettlement countries that operates a specific Woman at Risk Programme.

In 1997, the Australian Governmentintroduced special ‘split family’provisions enabling holders ofhumanitarian visas granted overseas,or protection visas granted withinAustralia, to apply for entry of their


immediate family members to Australiawithout charge.

Australia’s overseas aid programmeincluded $100.9 million forhumanitarian relief programmesoverseas in 1998-99. This is asignificant increase from $81.2 millionin 1997-98. Much of Australia’shumanitarian overseas relief supportsrefugees, many of whom are women, incountries of first asylum and wherepossible, assists in their repatriation.For example, Australia is providingsupport for a community resettlementprogramme in Sri Lanka that places apriority on women’s needs. Theprogramme supports micro-projectsfor communities in economic transitionand currently includes projects that address resettlement, de-mining and the development of income generating activities.

K O S O V O A N D E A S T T I M O R

The Australian Government has activelyassisted in the recent humanitariancrises in Kosovo and East Timor.

The Australian Government respondedto the UN’s urgent humanitarianrequest to grant ‘temporary safe haven’visas for persons displaced by theunrest in both Kosovo and East Timor.Women evacuees comprised 48% of all Kosovar and 52% of all East Timorese evacuees.

Australia provided urgent and initial

humanitarian assistance of $3 millionthrough UN agencies including theUNHCR, the World Food Programmeand the Office for the Coordination ofHumanitarian Affairs to assist with thedisplaced people of East Timor andWest Timor. This funding is being usedfor activities such as purchase andtransport for emergency relief supplies(blankets, plastic sheeting foremergency shelter, health and kitchenkits, mosquito nets and buckets, aswell as food and water supplies).

The Australian Government is alsoworking with Australian NGOs todevelop further options for assisting inthe humanitarian crisis in East Timor.

Australia has enacted the InternationalWar Crimes Tribunals Act 1995. Thislegislation implements in domestic lawAustralia’s obligation to assist thetribunal established by the UnitedNations Security Council to investigateand prosecute war crimes and crimesagainst humanity committed in theterritory of the former Yugoslavia,including Kosovo.

H U M A N R I G H T SI N F O R M AT I O N

The Australian Department ofImmigration and Multicultural Affairsmaintains country information onhuman rights abuses and UNHCRconvention-related matters involvingthe violent ill treatment, including rape


and sexual abuse, experienced bywomen living in countries involved incivil war and conflict.

The information is available inelectronic form and as hard copydocuments for 60 countries, and ashard copy documents, for the full rangeof countries from which asylum-seekers arrive in Australia. It is usedby departmental decision-makers andmembers of the Refugee ReviewTribunal to assist in their determinationof applications for refugee status in Australia.

See also:

■ Strategic Objectives 1 and 3 above.


6. Provide assistance to the women of the colonies and non-self-governing territories.

Not applicable to Australia.


■ Unrest in many parts of the worldsince 1995, and the emergence ofsituations of armed conflict,continue to preclude the fullattainment of the objectives of theBeijing Platform for Action. Womenand children continue to be victims of armed conflict throughout the world.

■ Australia has encouraged the use ofpeaceable dialogue and constructiveengagement as an effective meansto address emerging unrest andhuman rights abuses, with the goalof peaceable and cooperative actionby sovereign nations to resolveproblems within their jurisdictions.

■ Where serious human rights abuseshave occurred, Australia has shownitself ready to support internationaltribunals established to investigateand prosecute these abuses.

■ Good progress has been made instandards setting conventions,particularly with regard to reducinginhumane armaments. Australiahas been an active player in globalde-mining activities and measuresto reduce the availability ofinhumane armaments. However,non-signature of key conventions bysome States Parties continues toprevent the full achievement ofthese goals.

■ The Australian community issupportive of humanitarian efforts,including the provision of temporaryasylum to women, men and childrenaffected by conflict in Kosovo andEast Timor. The Australiancommunity has made a sizeablecontribution to private humanitarianaid appeals to provide assistance to those affected by conflict around the world.


■ The Australian Government hasmade a strong commitment tosupport women in the ADF, throughmajor reviews in 1996 and 1998.There has been, and continues to be,concerted action to address thefindings of these reviews. There iswidespread acceptance of theseactivities among both the Australianpublic and members of the ADF.Even so, it will take time to fullyeffect changes in deeply-rootedorganisational practices and toensure that women are able toparticipate in the ADF withoutattitudinal or other barriers.


There are concerns about the incidence ofsexual violence against women in conflictand the need for an adequate level ofgovernment support to organisationsproviding services to women victims.




The Australian Government’s futurebudget commitments for women arecomprehensively outlined in Deliveringon our Commitments for Women, theBudget Ministerial Statement onWomen from the Minister Assisting thePrime Minister on the Status of Women.A copy of this statement has beenprovided in response to Part 2(Financial and Institutional measures).

W O M E N

A N D T H E

E C O N O M Y


Inequality in economic structures andpolicies, in all forms of productiveactivities and in access to resources

FC H A P T E R

1 3 3


1: Promote women’s economic rightsand independence, including access toemployment, appropriate workingconditions and control over economic resources.

2: Facilitate women’s equal access toresources, employment, markets and trade.

3: Provide business services, trainingand access to markets, information and technology, particularly to low-income women.

4: Strengthen women’s economiccapacity and commercial networks.

5: Eliminate occupational segregationand all forms of employmentdiscrimination.

6: Promote harmonisation of work andfamily responsibilities for women and men.

O V E R V I E W

The Australian Government iscommitted to sound economicmanagement for the benefit of allAustralians and has implemented aseries of major economic reforms since 1996.

The Federal Budget has improved froma deficit of $11 billion in 1996 to asurplus. It has delivered GDP growth of4.5% - amongst the highest in theOECD and real wage increases (2.2% in1998-99) - while maintaining lowinflation (with the CPI rising by just

1.1% over the year to the June quarter

1999). Employment has expanded with

the unemployment rate falling from

over 10% in 1992-93 to its lowest levels

in nearly a decade (6.6% in November

1999). Home loan interest rates are the

lowest in thirty years. Australia has

adopted a new tax system which from 1

July 2000 will return $12 billion in

income tax cuts each year,

improvements in income security

payments and $2.5 billion in additional

assistance to families. The Australian

Government is embarking on further

reforms to business taxation and

to position Australia as a global

financial centre.


committed to ensuring that women

share in the benefits of sound economic

management. It is committed to

policies to improve opportunity and

choice for women, whether they are

participating in the paid workforce or

full-time parents or carers. Its reforms

to workplace relations are providing

greater flexibility for women (and men)

to combine work and family

responsibilities while maintaining a

safety net of fair minimum wages and

conditions of employment.

The government has also introduced

major reforms to workplace relations

which have opened up a far wider range

of employment options for women.

S T R AT E G I C

O B J E C T I V E S

Women’s participation in the paidworkforce has increased steadily since1995 and their earnings have grownfaster than for their male counterparts.There are more opportunities forwomen to participate in part-time jobs,job-sharing and home-based work. Inaddition, more women are enteringnon-traditional areas of the labour force.

See also:

■ A: Women and Poverty for details on the Australian Government’s economic reforms.


1: Promote women’s economic rightsand independence, including accessto employment, appropriate workingconditions and control over economic resources.

W O M E N ’ S E M P L O Y M E N T

In the past ten years the number ofwomen participating in the Australianlabour force has grown by 20% - almostdouble the increase for men. Most of this increase has been among married women.

Women’s labour force participation ratewas at a record high level of 54.9% inApril 2000, compared with 53.7% inApril 1995. Men’s labour forceparticipation rate was 72.8% inApril 2000.

Over 425,000 new jobs have beencreated for women since February 1995– an increase of 12.2%. In keeping withglobal trends, there has been asignificant increase in part-timeemployment in recent years, more sofor men (26.7% between February 1995and February 1999) than women (15.6%increase over the same period). Theunemployment rate for women fell to6.8% in January 2000 - compared to8.1% for 1995 as a whole.

Australian women’s earnings aregrowing faster than men’s. In thetwelve months to November 1999 (themost recent data), average weeklyordinary time earnings (AWOTE) grewby 3.3% for females, compared with2.8% for males. In the August quarter1999 the ratio of female to male AWOTEreached a record high of 85.0%.

See also:

■ A: Women and Poverty for details on initiatives to assist unemployedwomen.

F E D E R A L L E G I S L AT I V EF R A M E W O R K

The Australian Governments’workplace relations reforms areexpected to increase the range ofemployment opportunities for women.

The Workplace Relations Act 1996 (theWR Act) has a strong emphasis on workand family balance. This is reflected inthe principal object of the WR Act with



its specific reference to ‘assistingemployees to balance their work andfamily responsibilities effectivelythrough the development of mutually beneficial work practices with employers’.

This focus on work and family is carriedthrough in provisions governing awardsand agreement-making, as well as inprovisions for minimum entitlements toparental leave and protection fromdismissal on family responsibility-related grounds.

There are two types of formalagreements provided for under the WRAct. Certified Agreements (CAs) andindividual signed agreements known asAustralian Workplace Agreements(AWAs) enable employers andemployees to tailor working conditionsto achieve a balance between work andpersonal life needs. These conditionscan include job sharing, home-basedwork, child care in the home and leavefor family and compassionate reasons.There are safeguards included in thelegislation for both types of agreementsensuring that this occurs in a way thatdoes not disadvantage employees.

The WR Act also maintains an effectivesafety net of fair minimum wages andconditions of employment through theaward system. The protection affordedto workers with family responsibilitiesby awards is reflected in the WR Actthrough the inclusion of relevant

allowable award matters, includinghours of work, personal/carer’s leave,parental leave and type of employment.It is also reflected in provisionsencouraging the inclusion of regularpart-time work in awards, andremoving restrictions on this type of employment.

There is a statutory requirement for abiennial report on developments inagreement-making to be presented inFederal Parliament. This report mustinclude a particular focus on the effectsof bargaining on employment, includingwages and conditions of women, part-time employees, people from non-English speaking backgrounds andyoung people.

W O R K I N G W O M E N ’ SC E N T R E S

The Australian Government funds theWorking Women’s Centres to provideassistance to those women who havenot accessed other services. WorkingWomen’s Centres are located in anumber of locations around the country(Sydney, Brisbane, Adelaide, Hobartand Darwin). These Centres providefree, confidential information andadvice on a range of work-relatedissues for women, particularly womenfrom non-English speakingbackgrounds, Indigenous women andwomen in rural and remote areas.

The Centres increase women’sawareness of workplace issues through


free training sessions, workshops andpresentations. The Centres provideinformation on issues such as pay andworking conditions, entitlements,occupational health and safety,employment discrimination andworkplace bargaining. They can alsoarrange assistance to women wishingto negotiate AWAs.

M AT E R N I T Y L E AV E

Australia does not have a European-

style social insurance system where

employees “purchase” insurance and

where their insurers, not their

employers, pay them while on

maternity leave (usually not at their full

rate of pay).

In Australia, a means-tested social

security benefit, the MaternityAllowance ($201.2 million in 1999-

2000), is paid to families who are

eligible for Family Allowance,

regardless of the woman’s workforce

participation prior to the birth of the

baby. It assists with the direct and

indirect costs associated with the birth

of a child. The first installment is

payable shortly after the birth of the

child and the second installment

(Maternity Immunisation Allowance) is

paid after a child turns eighteen

months upon proof of appropriate

immunisation or a valid exemption.

The combined payments are equal to at

least six times the maximum weekly

rate of the Parenting Payment

(partnered), the income support

payment for the primary carer in couple

families. In some ways, the Maternity

Allowance is more generous than the

European model because all eligible

women are entitled to it.

Many employees, including

Commonwealth and State/Territory

government employees, and some

private sector employees, also have

access to paid maternity at the full rate

of pay. In addition, women who have

been employed for 12 months or more

have access to 52 weeks unpaid leave.

See also:

■ The Parenting Payment section in A: Women and Poverty.

C H I L D C A R E

The Australian Government recognisesthe need to provide assistance tofamilies with dependent children toparticipate in the workplace and thegeneral community. It funds a varietyof child care services and providesassistance with child care fees toeligible families. See the child caresection in A: Women and Poverty fordetails on these initiatives.

C H I L D C A R E A C C E S S H O T L I N E

The Child Care Access Hotline wasestablished in 1996 to help parents withtheir child care needs. The hotline


provides parents with informationabout types of child care available, feestructures and whether they might beeligible for government financialassistance. To help parents who oftenfind it difficult to get to the phoneduring the day, the hotline operates forextended hours. Various child careoptions – such as long day care, familyday care, outside school hours andoccasional care – will be explained sothat parents can make an informedchoice. Interpreter services are alsoavailable through the hotline.

D I S T R I B U T I O N O F C H I L DC A R E

Since 1996, child care reforms havebeen introduced to enhance theprovision of quality child care in Australia.

Over the past decade, poor planninghas led to an over-supply of child careplaces in some neighbourhoods and anunder-supply in others. To correct this,new child care places are beingintroduced over the next four years toimprove the distribution of care.

Another important measure is theextension of the Government’s qualityassurance systems into family day careand outside school hours care.

These initiatives will make child careplaces more accessible for people livingin neighbourhoods with an under-supply of child care places and forfamilies requiring outside school hours

care. As a result of the Government’sefforts, parents will be more able toparticipate in the workforce, andbroader community, knowing that theirchildren are being well looked after inquality child care.

C L O T H I N G O U T W O R K E R S

A number of initiatives have beenundertaken to improve the workingconditions of outworkers, many ofwhom are women, particularly women from non-English speaking backgrounds.

The Australian Government supportsthe voluntary Homeworkers Code ofPractice for the garment industry. TheCode aims to improve compliance withrelevant awards, agreements andlegislation covering outworkers whichprovide protections to ensure fair payand conditions for outworkers.

The Australian Government conductedan outworker information campaign forthe clothing industry in 1998. Thecampaign aimed to educateoutworkers, manufacturers and sub-contractors about their rights,responsibilities and opportunitiesunder the Workplace Relations Act1996 and the Clothing Trades Award1982. Major facets of the campaignwere seminars, advertisements onethnic radio, a national multi-lingualtelephone help-line, investigation ofcomplaints to ensure compliance, and


publications on workplace relationsand occupational health and safetyissues. The publications foroutworkers were printed in English andin six community languages (Chinese,Vietnamese, Cambodian, Lao,Macedonian and Turkish).

The Australian Government signed anagreement in July 1998 to providesignificant funding ($302 000) tosupport an education campaign to helpimplement the code. Major activities ofthe education campaign include thedevelopment of a licensing system forapproved products and relatedlabelling, the recruitment and trainingof bilingual outreach workers, aseminar programme in majoremployment centres and provision ofmulti-lingual publications on the code.Another key component is thedevelopment of a ‘Product RateManual’ (or sewing time manual) toestablish accurate task details and fairremuneration rates for outworkersemployed on the range of commongarment assembly activities.

W O M E N A N D T R A D E

The Australian Government issupporting measures to encouragemore women into trade

Australia is taking a leading role todevelop gender criteria guidelines forAPEC projects, evaluations andassessments. Australia is a member ofthe Ad Hoc Advisory Group for Gender

for Integration and is activelycontributing to the implementation ofthe Framework for the Integration ofWomen into APEC.


2: Facilitate women’s equal access toresources, employment, markets and trade.

E Q U A L P AY F O R W O R K O FE Q U A L VA L U E

The gap between men’s and women’swages has improved slightly since1995, reaching a record low of 15% foraverage earnings in March 2000. Whilewomen’s earnings have risen at afaster rate than men’s have, theiractual average earnings are still lowerthan men’s, both per hour of work andfor total weekly earnings. This is due toa number of factors, including:

■ women, on average, do fewer hoursof paid work per week;

■ women, on average, work less paid overtime;

■ women tend to work in industriesand occupations that pay less thanthose dominated by men and, withinoccupations, women are less likelyto be at the higher levels; and

■ women’s career progression is farmore likely than men’s to beinterrupted by child-rearing or othercaring responsibilities.


The WR Act specifically addresses the

issue of equal remuneration for men

and women for work of equal value,

without discrimination based on sex,

and gives effect or further effect to:

■ the Equal Remuneration Convention

1951 (ILO Convention 100);

■ the Convention concerning

Discrimination in respect of

Employment and Occupation (ILO

Convention 111);

■ the Convention on the Elimination

of All Forms of Discrimination

against Women;

■ Articles 3 and 7 of the International

Covenant on Economic, Social and

Cultural Rights;

■ the ILO’s Equal Remuneration

Recommendation 1951; and

■ the ILO’s Discrimination (Employment

and Occupation) Recommendation, 1958.

The WR Act introduced a new legislative

requirement that the Australian

Industrial Relations Commission

(AIRC), in the performance of its award-

making functions, has regard to the

need to apply the principle of equal pay

for work of equal value without

discrimination based on sex.

The AIRC can also make orders, on

application, to ensure equal

remuneration for men and women

workers for work of equal value without

discrimination based on sex.

Applications can be made by an

employee, a trade union with relevant

coverage, or the Sex Discrimination

Commissioner. Equal remuneration, in

this context, is taken to include

award rates, rates specified in

agreements, over-award pay and

non-monetary benefits.

U P D AT I N G T H E S K I L L S O FT E A C H E R S

The Quality Teacher Programme ($77.1million from 1999-2000 to 2002-2003) isa new initiative aimed at strengtheningthe skills of the teaching profession.The programme focuses on the renewalof teacher skills and targets the 70% ofteachers who completed formaltraining ten or more years ago, causalteachers and teachers re-entering theteaching profession. The initiative willprovide training and development formany women teachers.

S T R AT E G I C

O B J E C T I V E S3: Provide business services, trainingand access to markets, information and technology, particularly to low-income women.

W O M E N A N D T H EI N F O R M AT I O N E C O N O M Y

The Australian Government is playingan active role in guiding Australia’s


transition to the information economyand is committed to ensuring equitableaccess for women.

A Strategic Framework for theInformation Economy - IdentifyingPriorities for Action (December 1998)sets out the Australian Government’svision to maximise opportunities andensure that all Australians benefit fromthe information economy. TheFramework’s objectives are designed to ensure that Australians, including women:

■ are aware of online choices and theinformation economy’sopportunities, and have theconfidence and understanding theyneed to participate;

■ have access to affordable online services relevant to their individual needs;

■ have access to lifelong learningopportunities to ensure they canobtain the on-line skills required inboth the workplace and thecommunity; and

■ leave Australian schools with theon-line skills and knowledge theyneed to benefit from employmentand other on-line opportunities.

The Australian Government is workingto progress these objectives, incooperation with the States and Territories.

The Australian Families Guide to the

Internet site (www.aba.gov.au/family),established in 1998, providesinformation and strategies to helpparents and carers guide childrentowards a safe and productiveexperience on the Internet. The siteprovides links to fun and educationsites and information on relevant lawsand technological tools.

Online Australia 1999 is a nationalprogramme of events and activities tofocus national attention on theinformation economy anddevelopments. A women andinformation technology advisory groupdeveloped projects to raise women’sawareness of the benefits of theinformation economy and recognise thecontribution that women make ininformation technology.

The AccessAbility Programme ($1.5million 1998-99 to 1999-2000) aims toimprove access to information andcommunication technologies andonline services for people withdisabilities. Grants are provided forinnovative new products, services andmodels for service delivery that willhelp people with disabilities. A higherproportion of women than men live withdisabilities and the carers of people with disabilities arepredominantly women.

Research is currently being undertakento examine different groups’ access –including women – to information


technology in schools, universities,vocational education and traininginstitutes and the workplace.

See also:

■ J: Women and the Media


4: Strengthen women’s economiccapacity and commercial networks.

W O M E N A N D S M A L LB U S I N E S S

The Australian Government recognisesthe enormous contribution women inbusiness make to the Australianeconomy. Women make up 34% ofAustralia’s 1.3 million small businessoperators, and this figure is growingstrongly. Several initiatives have beenimplemented since 1995 to addressbarriers to women in small businessand enhance opportunities for womento start up their own business andexpand their operations.

The Small Business Enterprise andCulture Programme ($6.4 million 1999-2000 to 2002-2003) provides funding forskills development initiatives,mentoring services and to supportwomen in small business. Around$800,000 of the programme has beenallocated to improving the flow ofinformation on business to women andproviding opportunities to enhancetheir management skills and networks.

This measure will fund demonstrationprojects in business skills, providesponsorship to women’s organisationsseeking to develop their members’business skills and upgrade a web sitefor women in business (Womensweb).

Around $400,000 has also beenallocated during 1999-2000 for thedevelopment of nationally recognisedtraining materials and self-pacedcourses and the dissemination ofinformation on training productsthrough online technology, seminarsand printed material.

The Small Business ProfessionalDevelopment Programme fundedprojects to trial and document a rangeof best practice models for smallbusiness training and developmaterials to support the uptake oftraining in small business. Severalprojects targeted small businesswomen or industries where there arelarge numbers of women workers toincrease women’s participation intraining and help them expand theirbusiness operations. The Women inSmall Business Mentoring Project, forexample, developed a mentoringnetwork to link new starters withexperienced business owners to shareknowledge and experience and to boostconfidence and success. The networkplaced a strong emphasis on improvingskills and participation in on-jobtraining with general business supportand information.


The New Enterprise Incentive Scheme($55.8 million in 1998-99) assistseligible unemployed people to establishand run viable new small businesses.The assistance provided includes smallbusiness management training,income support, mentor support andon-going assistance for the first year ofbusiness operation. Best practicemodels have been introduced toincrease the proportion of womenparticipants in the scheme. Womencomprise around 42% of those assistedinto self employment through thescheme, which is higher than theproportion of small business women in the labour market. Surveys indicate that 86% ofparticipants are either running a smallbusiness or in employment 15 monthsafter commencing the program.

Several research projects werecommissioned to identify barriers towomen in small business fromexpanding their businesses. Theseprojects also identified best practicesand practical strategies to enhance thecapacity of small business women toincrease their operations.

A U S T R A L I A N C O U N C I L O FB U S I N E S S W O M E N

In 1996, the Australian Governmentprovided $175,000 in initial fundingtowards the establishment of theAustralian Council of Business women(ACOB) as a peak body for Australian

business women and theirorganisations. ACOB encompasses theinterests of business women frommicro-business to corporatemanagement and large enterprises,and gives particular recognition tobusiness women from Indigenous andnon-English speaking backgrounds.ACOB also enables business women tohave a greater role in public and privatesector policy development anddecision-making.


5: Eliminate occupational segregationand all forms of employmentdiscrimination.

W O R K P L A C E R E L AT I O N SA C T 1 9 9 6

The WR Act contains provisions to help

prevent and eliminate discrimination

on a range of specified grounds

including sex, marital status,

pregnancy and family responsibilities.

The WR Act establishes a frameworkwith clear rights and responsibilitiesfor employers and employees,supporting fair processes and practicesincluding in relation to awards,agreements and termination ofemployment. The promotion offlexibility is balanced with the provisionof statutory protections that ensure fairdealing, particularly in the removal ofdiscrimination. The Act makes


termination of employment on any of the specified discriminatory grounds unlawful.

The provisions of the WR Act requirethe AIRC to have regard to the need toprevent and eliminate discrimination onthe specified grounds in theperformance of its award-makingfunctions. The AIRC is also required toensure that new awards, variations toawards, and orders affecting awards donot contain provisions that discriminateon the specified grounds.

The WR Act is complemented by therequirement for the AIRC to takeaccount of the principles embodied inthree federal anti-discrimination actswhich cover employment –relateddiscrimination – the RacialDiscrimination Act 1975, the SexDiscrimination Act 1984 and theDisability Discrimination Act 1992.

S E X D I S C R I M I N AT I O N A C T 1 9 8 4

The federal Sex Discrimination Act 1984prohibits discrimination in employmentbased on sex, marital status, pregnancyor family responsibilities.

Women who have been discriminatedagainst can take action under the Act bylodging a complaint with the HumanRights and Equal OpportunityCommission. The complaint can beinvestigated by a Conciliator or referred to the Sex DiscriminationCommissioner for a formal

hearing. Conciliation agreements orCommission determinations can result in financial compensation;reinstatement; promotion; an apology;changes in policies or practices; thepromise that the behaviour will cease;or the introduction of training andeducation programmes. If the partiescannot agree on an appropriate courseof action, the matter can be take to theFederal Court of Australia.

A federal award or agreement that isconsidered to be discriminatory by theSex Discrimination Commissioner mustbe referred to the AIRC. The AIRC isthen required to convene a hearing toreview the award or agreement. ForCAs, the AIRC must refuse to certify anagreement if it is discriminatory or if itunfairly excludes employees it couldreasonably cover. The agreement mustbe explained to employees in a wayappropriate to their particular needsand circumstances. AWAs mustinclude the anti-discrimination clauseset out in the WR Act’s regulations, beoffered in the same terms to allcomparable employees and must havebeen explained to the employee andhave his or her genuine consent.

E Q U A L O P P O R T U N I T Y F O RW O M E N I N T H EW O R K P L A C E A C T

The Equal Opportunity for Women inthe Workplace Act (replacing theAffirmative Action {Equal EmploymentOpportunity for Women} Act 1986)


requires private sector businesses,higher education institutions,community organisations, non-government schools and trade unionswith more than 100 employees todevelop and implement their own equalemployment opportunity programmesfor women. These employers are alsorequired to submit reports on theprogress of those programmes to theEqual Opportunity for Women in theWorkplace Agency. Around one quarterof the Australian workforce(approximately 2,120,000 employees ofwhom approximately 900,000 arewomen) are covered by the Act.

The recent legislative amendments aredesigned to achieve better outcomesfor women. The changes seek to:strengthen the links between industryand the Act; simplify and streamlinethe compliance processes; focus onequal opportunity outcomes for women,rather than on processes; and providereporting organisations with betterincentives to do well.

The principal objects of the Act include:

■ promote the principle thatemployment for women should bedealt with on the basis of merit;

■ promote amongst employers, theelimination of discriminationagainst, and the provision of equalopportunity for, women in relation toemployment matters; and

■ foster workplace consultationbetween employers and employeeson issues concerning equalopportunity for women in relationto employment.

Employment matters include:recruitment; selection criteria;promotion, transfer and termination ofemployees; training and development;work organisation; conditions ofservice; sex-based harassment; andarrangements for dealing withpregnant, or potentially pregnantemployees and employees who arebreastfeeding their children.

The Equal Opportunity for Women inthe Workplace Agency (replacing theAffirmative Action Agency) administersthe Act. The Australian Governmenthas established an advisory board tobuild stronger links betweengovernment, business and the Agency.The advisory board comprisesbusiness, employee and women’srepresentatives and will have a key rolein implementing the new Act and inensuring that the Act and the Agencyare responsive to their stakeholders.

The Agency plays an importanteducative role to promote bestpractices in the workplace. It providesemployers with advice on developing anequal opportunity programme andassistance in completing the report tothe Agency. The Agency also producesand disseminates a range of practical


guides and conducts seminars, trainingcourses and site visits.

H U M A N R I G H T S A N D E Q U A L

O P P O R T U N I T Y C O M M I S S I O N

The Human Rights and EqualOpportunity Commission (HREOC)administers federal legislation in thearea of human rights, including anti-discrimination and social justice. TheCommission has responsibility forhandling complaints, public inquiries,policy development and education andtraining. As part of its educativefunction, the Commission fosterspublic discussion and conductsresearch and educational programmesto promote human rights and eliminate discrimination.

The Commission’s policy developmentresponsibilities include providing theGovernment with advice on legislationrelating to discrimination andmonitoring the implementation of thatlegislation. It also reviews existinglegislation for any inconsistency withhuman rights or for any discriminatoryprovision which impairs equality of opportunity.

HREOC can deal directly withcomplaints relating to AWAs, over-award payments and payments made toemployees not covered by awards.

See also:

■ I: Human Rights of Women forfurther details on HREOC.

R E S E A R C H

Several research projects have beencommissioned to examine the causesof gender segmentation in the labourforce and to increase opportunities forwomen. The projects identifiedbarriers and developed practicalstrategies to increase women’sparticipation in non-traditionalindustries and occupations.

See also:

■ The ‘Vocational Education andTraining’ section in B: Education andTraining of Women for details oninitiatives to increase women’sparticipation in non-traditional areasincluding New Apprenticeships.

■ Section 6 below for details on theEmployer’s attitudes to women re-entering workforce project.


6: Promote harmonisation of work andfamily responsibilities for women and men.

The Australian Government hasintroduced several important initiativesto facilitate more flexible workingarrangements and encourageentitlements and opportunities similarto those available for full-timeemployment. These measures areespecially beneficial to women who choose to combine work and family responsibilities.


P A R T - T I M E E M P L O Y M E N TO P P O R T U N I T I E S

Australian women have moreopportunities to participate in part-time work in Australia than ever before.The greater availability of part-timejobs allow women to combine familyresponsibilities and paid work. Part-time jobs have continued to expandrapidly in Australia since 1995increasing from 2,031,500 in January1996 to 2,335,200 in January 2000.Women make up around 73% of theseworkers. In April 2000 around 59% ofemployed women with children under15 worked part-time.

Women workers also have greateraccess to permanent/regular part-timework. The proportion of part-timeworkers employed on a permanentbasis rose by 2.1% between 1996 and1998 (rising from 32.5% in 1996 to34.6% in 1998). In the past, whilst manywomen wanted to work part-time,award restrictions limited the numberof people able to workpermanent/regular part-time whichmeant that they were forced to becomecasual in order to work reduced hours.

W O R K P L A C E R E L A T I O N S A C T

Through the WR Act, the AustralianGovernment has taken action to removearbitrary restrictions on part-timeemployment, by requiring the AIRC,where appropriate, to introduce regularpart-time work provisions in awards

and by prohibiting arbitrary quotas onthe number of employees able toundertake regular part-time work.

The Act removes unnecessaryconstraints on part-time work fromindustrial awards and encourages thespread of regular part-time workprovisions throughout awards. Regularpart-time employment providesemployees with reasonably predictablework patterns, continuity ofemployment and access to pro-rataconditions associated with permanentemployment (eg, paid annual leave andsick leave and forms of leave to assistworkers with family demands, such asparental and carer’s leave). Sucharrangements are able to reflect theparticular circumstances of employees,including their work and family responsibilities.

The AIRC, when performing itsfunctions, must take account of theprinciples embodied in theInternational Labour OrganisationConvention 156, Workers with FamilyResponsibilities. The EmploymentAdvocate, who is responsible foroverseeing the filing and approval ofAWAs, is required to have regard toassisting employees to balance theirwork and family responsibilities and tothe needs of workers in adisadvantaged bargaining position. TheOffice of Employment Advocateengages Working Women’s Centres toprovide additional assistance for


women on the operation of the WR Actand also provides advice to employersand employees about measures to assist balancing work and family responsibilities.

W O M E N R E T U R N I N G T OW O R K

The Return to Work Programme ($24.2million from 1999-2000 to 2002-2003)was established in recognition of thespecial needs of people who take timeout of the workforce for parenting orcaring responsibilities. Theprogramme will provide skillsassistance, build confidence andincrease familiarity with currenttechnology. Job seekers re-enteringthe workforce after a break of two yearsor more, will receive individual andflexible assistance in such areas asskills assessment, career planning,assistance with developing trainingplans and help with access to, andpurchase of, training. Women whohave taken a break from paidemployment to care for young childrenor older relatives will be majorbeneficiaries of this initiative.

See also:

■ The Jobs, Education and TrainingProgramme in A: Women andPoverty for details.

■ ‘New Apprenticeships in B: Educationand Training of Women.

P A R E N T A L L E AV E

The WR Act guarantees employees toentitlements to unpaid parental leave.Employees are entitled, after 12months’ continuous service with anemployer, to 12 months’ unpaidparental leave on a shared basisfollowing the birth or adoption of a child.

Standards for personal/carer’s leavefor employees under federal awardswere established in thePersonal/Carer’s Leave Test Case in1994 and 1995. The standardsestablished under this case make leaveavailable for employees to use in thesupport of an immediate family, asdefined in the Sex Discrimination Act1984, or household member who issick, up to a maximum of five days peryear. The broad category of ‘household’covers same-sex relationships. Manyfederal awards have been formallyvaried to include the provisions flowingfrom this test case. A number of Stateindustrial tribunals have handed downidentical or similar decisions to thefederal test case decision.

W O R K A N D FA M I LY U N I T

The Work and Family Unit in theDepartment of Employment, WorkplaceRelations and Small Business helpsemployers to support employeesbalance their work and familyresponsibilities, by raising awarenessof flexibility within the workplacerelations arrangements.


FA M I LY F R I E N D LY AWA R D S

The Work and Family Unit co-sponsorsannual Corporate Work and FamilyAwards to recognise organisationsthat demonstrate outstandingachievements in providing a morefamily-friendly work environment fortheir employees. It provides advice andassistance to business and governmentorganisations about work and familyissues. It conducts seminars, roundtables and conferences on work and lifeissues and promotes the study of workand family in courses in tertiaryinstitutions. The Department hasproduced a Guide to Elder Care Issuesto assist workers with aged parents orothers with aged care responsibilities.

A range of publications on work andfamily issues are produced anddisseminated to women in thecommunity. The Work/Life ResourceKit aims to raise awareness of issuesrelated to balancing work and personallives, including family responsibilities.The kit covers issues such as job-sharing, regular part-time work,home-based work, career breaks, combining breastfeeding and work and family rooms.

R E S E A R C H

The Australian Governmentcommissioned research to examinebarriers faced by women with familyresponsibilities and to identify bestpractices to improve their employmentand training opportunities.

The Work and Family State of Play(1998) analyses progress anddevelopments in the spread of family-friendly provisions at Australianworkplaces generally, and specificallythrough the legislative frameworkprovided by the WR Act. The reporthighlights the importance of flexibleworking arrangements for helpingemployees to balance their work andprivate lives and provides evidence thatorganisations are increasinglyproviding family-friendly provisions.Almost 70% of CAs and 80% of AWAsinclude one or more familyfriendly measure.

Research has been commissioned toexamine employer’s attitudes to womenwho have been absent from theworkforce due to child rearingresponsibilities (Employer’s attitudesto women re-entering workforce). Theproject identified attitudinal barriersthat impede women’s re-entry into theworkforce and developed practicalstrategies to address both direct andindirect forms of discrimination in the workplace.

Other key research has examinedbarriers to employment for pregnantand parenting adolescents (Pregnantfutures: barriers to employment,education and training amongstpregnant and parenting adolescents)and developed best practice models foremployers to assist workers with familyresponsibilities (Work and family:towards best practice).



R U R A L W O M E NA Vision for Change – National Plan forWomen in Agriculture and ResourceManagement is a five year plan whichwill provide best practice guidelines insupporting the work of women inagriculture and resource management.The plan helps women to achieveprofitable and innovative agricultureindustries, sustainable naturalresource management and vibrantrural communities.

The Farm Business ImprovementProgramme provides funding to allthose involved in agriculturalproduction – including farmers, theirspouses, and farm employees involvedin the management of the farmbusiness. The programme assiststhese people to build on their existing skills by providing direct financial contributions towards the cost of programmes and activities in which farmers participate. Activitiessupported will include skillsdevelopment, farm managementplanning, business and financialplanning, farm performancebenchmarking, quality assurance, risk management, skills auditing,leadership development and marketing.

Through the enhanced tele-communications services provided bythe Government’s Networking the

Nation Programme, women in regional,rural and remote communities are better able to take advantage of on-line training, up to date commodities information, world wide marketing opportunities, improvedcommunications channels and theability to work from home throughteleworking initiatives.

The Uniting Our Rural Communities -Technology and Community LeadershipProject will help to raise awareness ofand training in information andcommunications technologies for 6communities in rural Victoria. Theproject will be provided in three stagesand includes a series of workshops anddiscussion groups, a mentoringscheme, the establishment of a website and discussion list using “weblink”(developed by the Queensland RuralWomen’s Network) as a model, and aroving training component targetingremote regions.

The Agriculture Advancing Australiapackage ($309.4 million over fouryears) includes leadership training forwomen, increased partnerships withwomen to address rural industriesissues and the development of astrategy for the recognition andparticipation of youth in portfolioindustries. This measure aims toincrease women’s participation inrural industries.

In 1997-98, the Australian Governmentcommissioned a ground-breakingapplied research project, Missed


Opportunities: Harnessing thePotential of Women in AustralianAgriculture. The project measuredwomen’s financial contribution to therural economy and trialled strategies toincrease rural organisations’recognition and valuing of women ascustomers, board members anddecision-makers.


The Indigenous Employment Policy isan initiative of the AustralianGovernment to increase employmentopportunities for IndigenousAustralians, particularly in the privatesector. The policy has three elements:the Indigenous EmploymentProgramme; the Indigenous SmallBusiness Fund; and the Job Network.

The Indigenous EmploymentProgramme provides funding of morethan $55 million per annum andinvolves the following elements:

■ Wage Assistance – a 26 week wagesubsidy available to employers whoemploy disadvantaged Indigenousjobseekers in long term jobs;

■ CDEP Placement Initiatives –sponsors of CommunityDevelopment Employment Projects(a programme where unemployedIndigenous jobseekers choose towork in return for income support)are provided with a bonus of $2,000for each participant placed in on-going open employment. 1500 newCDEP places are being funded in

regional and remote areas during2000-2001;

■ CEOs for Indigenous EmploymentProject – involves working with ChiefExecutive Officers of majorcompanies to generate more privatesector jobs for Indigenous people;

■ Structured Training andEmployment Projects – supportsstructured training projects leadingto permanent employment outcomeswith private and public sector employers and withcommunity organisations;

■ Voluntary Service to IndigenousCommunities Foundation – utilisesskilled volunteers, with thecooperation, expert advice andsupport of key Australian volunteerorganisations, to provide for theshort term needs identified byIndigenous communities forbusiness, financial and technicalskills, and mentoring; and

■ National Indigenous CadetshipProgramme – employers recruitIndigenous undergraduates andrelease them to full-time study togain the professional qualificationsneeded for a range of jobs in boththe public and private sectors.

The Indigenous Small Business Fund($11 million over three years) providesfunding to Indigenous organisationsand individuals to learn about business,develop business plans and providemanagement skills.


Job Network includes specialmeasures to maximise employmentoutcomes for Indigenous jobseekers.These measures include:

■ Indigenous specialist providers in anumber of key locations;

■ eligibility requirements whichrecognise Indigenous status for referral to intensive assistance services;

■ targets set for referral of Indigenous jobseekers to intensive assistance; and

■ CDEP participants are eligible forJobNetwork services on the samebasis as unemployed jobseekers.

See also

■ A: Women and Poverty for moredetails of reforms to help Indigenouspeople into employment.

N O N - E N G L I S H S P E A K I N GW O M E N

See.

■ Sections on ‘Working Women’sCentres’, ‘Agreement making’ and‘Australian Council of Businesswomen’ above.

■ B: Education and Training of Womenfor details on the Workplace EnglishLanguage and Literacy Programme.

O L D E R W O M E N

The Mature Age Workers Projectexamined the barriers older jobseekers encounter in their search for

employment and identified ‘bestpractices’ to assist them intoemployment. The project will give JobNetwork members a betterunderstanding of the problemsconfronting older job seekers and thebroad range of strategies that willenable them to better assist this groupinto employment.

A guide to Issues for Older Workers willalso be produced, which will lookspecifically at the issues that affectolder participants in the labour force.The Guide will assist organisations tobetter understand and meet thechanging needs of older workers.

The Australian Government initiated arequest to the House ofRepresentatives Standing Committeeon Employment and WorkplaceRelations to inquire into and report onthe social, economic and industrialissues specific to workers over 45 yearsof age seeking employment, orestablishing a business, followingunemployment. Among the issues tobe considered, the Committee willexamine the plight of older workersfacing redundancy and the prospect ofunemployment or having to retrain tosecure employment. A report will beprovided to the Government.

W O M E N W I T H D I S A B I L I T I E S

New requirements included in the WRAct ensure that the AustralianIndustrial Relations Commission(AIRC) in performing its dispute


prevention and settlement functionshas regard to the need to provide asupported wage system for people withdisabilities. In addition, the WR Actrequires that when the Commissionmakes an award or an order it mustensure that the award or order, whereappropriate, provides a supported wagesystem for people with disabilities.

In relation to workplace agreementsthe Government has includedprovisions in the WR Act to ensure thatthe wages of people with disabilitiesemployed under the Supported WageSystem (SWS) are treated as specialcases for the purposes of the nodisadvantage test. This provisionensures that appropriate wagearrangements for the SWS can beincluded in AWAs and CAs, even wherethe relevant award does not makeappropriate provision for the SWS. Asat August 1998, more than 1000 womenwith disabilities had used this system to further their employment opportunities.

See also:

■ Section 3 above for details on theAccess Ability Programme.

INTERNATIONAL AID

Australia’s aid programme aims toimprove the status of women throughencouraging access and control ofresources and through encouragingleadership and decision-making ofwomen at all levels.

The Australian Government places ahigh priority on addressing the needs ofthe poor through major ruraldevelopment projects in countries suchas Thailand, the Philippines, Indonesiaand Papua New Guinea. Australia hasmade efforts to ensure that theeconomic and social concerns ofwomen are taken into account in suchactivities, often through projectcomponents aimed at alternativeincome generation.

Improving women’s access to economicresources is one of the objectives of theGovernment’s Gender andDevelopment Policy. This is achievedby supporting programmes whichpromote women’s equal access tocapital, including land, forests, marineand other natural resources, as well ascredit and savings Programmes.

Australia is increasingly supportingprogrammes aimed at sectoral reformand restructuring closely linked toeconomic reform, macro-economicrestructuring and public expenditurereform. This type of developmentassistance has a broad impact oneconomic and social conditions andthus on the lives of women and men.

As part of the public sector supportproject in South Africa, Australiaprovided technical assistance todevelop a gender-aware budgetaryprocess, a sex-disaggregated statisticaldatabase, and policy dialogue on theintegration of gender concerns intoSouth Africa’s budgetary process.


The East Asian financial crisis has hada huge impact on women. The recentUnited Nations Population Fundpublication - Southeast AsianPopulations in Crisis - found that theeconomic crisis has effected women inThailand, Philippines, Malaysia andIndonesia via two main avenues:

■ unemployment has disproportionatelyaffected women and placedadditional pressure on women frompoor families to earn income.Increasing numbers of women areentering the commercial sexindustry and are increasing theirrisk of exposure to STDs (includingHIV/AIDS); and

■ the economic and social costs of thecrisis have exacerbated tensions atboth the household and communitylevel, and are a contributing factorbehind reported increases in levelsof domestic violence, rape and child abuse.

In response to the crisis, the AustralianGovernment has:

■ established an Asia Crisis Fund ($12million) to assist countries in theregion, especially in economicgovernance, financial sector reformand employment generation.Activities will focus on ensuringappropriate policies are in place tofoster development, for example,through training, and technicalassistance to strengthen publicinstitutions. Assistance will focus on

those countries most affected by thecrisis, particularly Thailand andIndonesia; and

■ provided over $33 million inhumanitarian assistance toIndonesia in response to the socialimpacts of the crisis and the droughtthat is affecting much of the country.Assistance includes food aid, medical assistance, drought relief and employment generation activities.

Australia’s aid programme alsosupports initiatives that provide creditfacilities to women. For example, theAustralian Government is contributingan estimated $1.2 million over threeyears (1999-2002) to the Lik Lik DinauMicro Credit Project in PNG whichprovides a micro credit and savingsfacility for disadvantaged rural womenin the Highlands of PNG.

EXAMPLES OFSTATE ANDTERRITORYINITIATIVES


Women returning to the workforce area priority target group for employmentprogrammes, particularly courseswhich aim to increase informationtechnology skills.

The ACT Government EmploymentPathways Programme provides training


and support to help unemployed peoplegain employment and supports aworkforce that meets the needs ofindustry and employers. It createspartnerships and strategic linksbetween the ACT Government andindustry and employers, serviceproviders, Commonwealth Government,the wider community and unemployed people.

Pathways to Successful BusinessDevelopment offers information on a range of assistance programmes to develop viable and successful businesses.

Pathways provides information on NewFutures in Small Business, the NewEnterprise Incentive Scheme,mentoring business incentive anddevelopment, reskilling and targetedprogrammes to assist young people,Indigenous people and women infinding employment or in starting theirown business.


The NSW Government Action Plan forWomen (1996) works to maximise theinterests of women in microeconomicreform, including principles andmethods for gender analysis of socialprogrammes policy by GovernmentTrading Enterprises.

The Women’s Equity Bureau hasdeveloped models of good practice inwork & family arrangements NSW

Work and Family Strategy –WorkingFamilies, Working Futures(1997,1998,1999).

A Financial Planning Kit for women hasbeen developed and disseminated byNSW. The Kit included booklets andpamphlets contributed by privatesector and seminars held inconjunction with the Australian Stock Exchange.


The NT Government introduced a newlegislative framework for enterprisebargaining in 1995. This legislation hasincreased flexibility in the number ofhours in which flexitime can beaccrued, increased opportunities towork during periods of maternity leave,provided greater flexibility in part-timeemployment, established a widerdefinition of what constitutes a familymember for the purposes of sick-leaveand established an award to facilitatehome based work.

A Five Year Plan for children’s serviceswill increase the number of childcareplaces to a target access level of 46% ofchildren under 4 years whose parentsare in the workforce or training.

Most NT public sector agencies havedeveloped policies and guidelines fordealing with sexual harassment in the workplace. Awareness raisingworkshops are held by the Office of theCommissioner for Public Employmentin major urban centres.


The Anti-Discrimination Commissionpromotes non-discriminatory proceduresand practices in both the public andprivate sector workforce on thegrounds of gender among others.

Q U E E N S L A N D

A range of initiatives have beenintroduced to provide moreopportunities for women to participatefully in the workforce. Initiatives whichencourage women into non-traditionaloccupations and provide informationand support on work-related issues arealso integral to improving economicsecurity for Queensland women.

A jobs development and businessstrategy is to be developed to build onthe government’s job creation policiesand to coordinate employment andtraining projects for women.International Women’s Day grants werealso announced to assist women todevelop their small businessmanagement skills.

The provision of quality affordable childcare is fundamental to ensuringwomen can participate in all areas oflife, particularly in the paid workforce.Programme initiatives are targeted tothe areas of greatest need and aim toimprove the quality, affordability andavailability of child care in Queensland.


South Australia has established anetwork to encourage women to

participate in training. A network ofsmall business operators in the SouthEast of the State has also beenestablished to encourage women in theregion to participate in small business training.

Following consultations and a phone-in, a series of financial checklists havebeen produced on obtaining finance,superannuation and budgeting.Further checklists were launched(June 1999) on Considerations forWomen in the Event of a Death;Financial Issues to Consider at the Endof a Relationship; and a checklist todemystify financial terms. The report,More Than Pin Money – Issues ofWomen’s Financial Independence, wasalso released in June 1999.

A free service has been established toadvise women on employment issues.The Working Women’s Centre providesfree and confidential services towomen experiencing problems at worksuch as dismissal, redundancy,harassment, employment conditionsand workers’ compensation. TheCentre recently released acomprehensive response to workplace bullying.

The State Public Service’s ManagingDiversity initiative encouragesgovernment agencies to provide moreflexible work arrangements such aspart-time work, job sharing, flexiblehours, leave without pay and homebased work.


T A S M A N I A

The publication Women in SmallBusiness - A Tasmanian Perspective1996 was produced by the TasmanianWomen’s Consultative Council as itsmajor consultative project for 1995-96.The Council consulted with Tasmanianwomen owners of small businesses inorder to gather data on the numbersand types of businesses that womenoperate in Tasmania; the issues andconcerns of women operating smallbusinesses; and the factors insuccessful small businesses.

The Report recommended that theState Government sponsor thedevelopment of local networks forwomen in small business.Subsequently in 1997, the WISEnetwork was launched. By the end of1997, 14 groups had been established,involving approximately 2000 businesswomen statewide.

A programme has been establishedwhich targets women operating smallbusinesses or in key management rolesin small businesses. The programmewill provide: a mentoring service forwomen in business; promotion of rolemodels for women in business; flexibleand accessible services which supportrural business women; access tofinancial and business managementtraining; support and promotion ofwomen’s networks; assistance in theformative stages of businessdevelopment; and access to training in

business management for womenoperating or in key management rolesin small businesses. The programmereflects the recommendations of theWomen in Small Business report,which addressed the low usage rates ofgovernment business assistanceservices by women in small business,and identified a need for coordination ofbusiness assistance services; andeasier access to business assistanceservices for owners/operators of small businesses.

V I C T O R I A

The Victorian Government is committedto enhancing women’s economicindependence across all stages of life,including that women receive equal payfor work of equal value, and that theireconomic position after retirement issafeguarded. The government will seekto promote adequate superannuationfor women as an important aspect ofeconomic independence.

The Government also recognises thatwomen contribute and participate inboth the paid and unpaid workforce. Aproject regarding the contributionmade by women to society and theeconomy through their unpaid andvolunteer work in the community willbe undertaken to assist the broadercommunity to recognise and value this contribution.

The Victorian Equal Opportunitylegislation protects women from


discrimination at work, sexualharassment in the workplace, anddiscrimination in the provision of goodsand services.

OBSTACLES ANDLEARNING PO INTS

Despite significant advances for women

since 1995, there are still a number of

obstacles that impede women’s

progress in the economy.

Women who take a break from work to

have children can face difficulties

returning to the labour force,

particularly if they are absent for more

than two years. The break in many

women’s working lives contributes to

the wage differential between men and

women. Women also face ongoing

problems in balancing work and family

responsibilities. While more men share

in parenting and domestic duties in the

home, it is still overwhelmingly women

who take primary responsibility for

caring and the household.

As with all other OECD countries,

gender segmentation is a feature of the

Australian labour market. While more

women are entering non-traditional

female industries and occupations,

women are still concentrated in the

services and clerical sectors

and women continue to be

under-represented in decision-

making positions.


Some of the issues of particularconcern to women in the communityare: structural inequalities such asunequal pay and discriminatoryattitudes in the workplace; the weakerposition of many women in theworkforce (particularly part-time andcasual women workers) in negotiatingsuitable pay and conditions; and thedouble burden faced by women fromdisadvantaged backgrounds inaccessing education, training andemployment opportunities.



In the Australian Government system,new funding commitments arecustomarily announced in the annualFederal Budget. Additionalcommitments may be publiclyannounced in the context of theelection platform or at other occasions.


W O M E N I N

P O W E R A N D

D E C I S I O N M A K I N G


Inequality between men and women in the sharing of power and decision-making at all levels

GC H A P T E R

1 5 9


1: Take measures to ensure women’sequal access to and full participation inpower structures and decision-making.

2: Increase women’s capacity toparticipate in decision-making and leadership.

O V E R V I E W

Women have a right and a responsibilityto participate in the decision-makingprocesses that shape the nation.Unless women are full and activeparticipants in all spheres of public andprivate life, across a wide range ofdecision-making positions, Australia’sfuture will not reflect the talents,experience and aspirations of all citizens.

The Australian Government iscommitted to encouraging greaterdiversity among those occupying seniordecision-making positions and stronglysupports efforts to expandopportunities for women to participatein high level positions. Many Australianwomen have the appropriateexperience, skills and ability tocontribute to the decisions onimportant issues that affect our lives.

Since the early 1990s, women haveincreased and consolidated theirrepresentation in high level decision-making. Since 1995, there has beensignificant strengthening of the criticalmass of Australian women in positionsof leadership and decision-making.

During this time, the representation ofwomen in the Australian nationalparliament has increased to nearlydouble the international average.Women’s participation on governmentboards and at senior executive levels inthe public sector has also consolidatedbeyond critical mass. In the privatesector, women’s representation inboard, chief executive and senior levelpositions has doubled over the past fiveyears but is still much lower than publicsector boards.

Significant achievements since 1995 include:

■ women currently comprise 24.5% ofCommonwealth parliamentarians,nearly double the internationalaverage of 13.4%;

■ women currently hold a recordnumber of portfolios (20%) in theCommonwealth Parliament;

■ 22% of State and Territoryparliamentarians in 2000 arewomen, compared with 17% in 1995and 9% in 1985;

■ 25% of local government electedcouncil members in 1997 werewomen, compared with 20% in 1992and 13% in 1986;

■ in 1998, the Australian Governmentappointed the first woman Presidentto Australia’s Human Rights andEqual Opportunity Commission,Professor Alice Enh Soon Tay;

S T R AT E G I C

O B J E C T I V E S

■ in 1998, the Australian Governmentappointed Ms Susan Halliday as the new Commonwealth SexDiscrimination Commissioner;

■ women comprised 24.1% ofAustralian Government seniorexecutives in June 1999, comparedwith 21.8% in 1998, 17% in 1994 and10% in 1989;

■ women occupied 30.9% of positionson Commonwealth governmentboards in 1999 compared to 30.5% in1995; and

■ the number of women on privatesector boards is increasing, albeitfrom a low base. The most recentavailable survey indicates thatwomen make up 10.3% of privatesector non-executive boardmembers, an increase from 4% in 1995.

The Australian Government believesthat encouraging skilled and talentedwomen to contribute to this country’sdecision-making processes is a farmore effective way to increase women’sparticipation than relying on quotas and targets.

Since 1995, the Australian Governmentand many State and Territorygovernments have increased theiractivities to maximise the number ofwomen appointed on merit to seniorpositions of power and decision-making. Generally, measures have not

relied on prescription or compulsoryquotas, but on identifying andpromoting the considerable talent poolof Australian women. Australianwomen are selected on their merits tothe highest levels of existing powerstructures, and have not relied onspecial treatment strategies.

There are no institutional barriers towomen’s electoral participation. Underthe Australian electoral system,electors vote for candidates withoutconstraints as to how they allocatetheir preferences. This is in contrast tomany countries in which electors vote(for at least some seats) in the orderdecided by the relevant political party.The ability of individual voters to choosehow to allocate their preferences is afundamental strength of the Australianelectoral system.

The Australian Government, with thesupport of the Prime Minister,the Hon John Howard MP, has activelypursued measures to identify andencourage suitably qualified and skilledwomen. The Australian Governmenthas successfully used executive search(executive headhunter) processes toaugment or replace self-nominatedwomen’s registers. It is trialling astrategic approach for earlyidentification of upcoming vacancies,supported by awareness raising andlobbying among key decision-makersand improved monitoring tools.



In recent years, there has been ongoing

attitudinal change to women in power

and decision-making positions. The

participation of women in a wide range

of positions of power and decision-

making is less likely to be reported

as exceptional.

A C H I E V E M E N T SF O R W O M E NS I N C E 1 9 9 5

W O M E N I N T H E

C O M M O N W E A LT H

P A R L I A M E N T

There are currently 55 women in the

Commonwealth Parliament: 33 women

in the 148 member House of

Representatives (Lower House) and 22

in the 76 member Senate (Upper

House). This brings women’s

participation in the Commonwealth

Parliament to 24.5%, an increase from

21.4% following the March 1996

election, and 14% following the 1993

federal election. The current rate is

nearly double the international

average of 13.4%.

Currently, there is a record number of

women in the Federal Government

Ministry. There are four female

ministers, the equal highest number of

women ministers of any previous

federal government:

■ Senator the Hon Jocelyn Newman,Minister for Family and CommunityServices, Minister Assisting thePrime Minister for the Status of Women;

■ Senator the Hon Amanda Vanstone,Minister for Justice and Customs;

■ the Hon Bronwyn Bishop MP,Minister for Aged Care; and

■ the Hon Jackie Kelly MP, Minister forSport and Tourism.

There are also four femaleParliamentary Secretaries:

■ the Hon Sharman Stone MP(Environment and Heritage);

■ the Hon Trish Worth MP (Education,Training and Youth Affairs);

■ Senator the Hon Kay Patterson(Immigration and MulticulturalAffairs and Foreign Affairs); and

■ Senator the Hon Judith Troeth(Agriculture, Fisheries and Forestry).

Senator Margaret Reid is the firstfemale President of the AustralianSenate, a position which Senator Reidhas held since 1996.

W O M E N I NS T AT E / T E R R I T O R YP A R L I A M E N T S

During the last decade, the proportion of female State/Territoryparliamentarians increased from 9%(1985), 17% (1995) to 22% (2000). Three


State/Territory governments have beenled by women in recent years. TheAustralian Capital Territory currentlyhas a woman Chief Minister, KateCarnell MLA. The Northern Territory,Tasmania and New South Wales currently have women opposition leaders.

W O M E N I N L O C A LG O V E R N M E N T

Women’s representation in localgovernment has generally been higherthan their representation inState/Territory and Federalparliaments. In 1997, 25% of electedcouncil members were women,compared to 13% in 1986 and 20%in 1992.

W O M E N I N T H E J U D I C I A R Y

In 1999, women comprised over 50% ofuniversity law graduates in Australia.However, research suggests thatwomen lawyers are disproportionatelyrepresented in the lower echelons oflaw firms, government and the Bar,academia and the judiciary. Womencomprise 14.1% of judges andmagistrates in Australia (121 out of854). Around 75% of these women arelocated in the State/Territory district orcounty courts (19 are appointed tofederal courts and 11 are located inState/Territory supreme courts). Ofthose appointed to federal courts, the

majority are located in the Family

Court. Attempts to address the under-

representation of women in the

judiciary are being made through more

open selection and appointment

processes and more determined

processes to identify suitable women

candidates for these positions.

In 2000, Diana Bryant QC became the

first Chief Federal Magistrate of the

new Federal Magistrates Service.

W O M E N I N S E N I O R

D E C I S I O N - M A K I N G

P O S I T I O N S

W O M E N O N A U S T R A L I A N

G O V E R N M E N T B O A R D S

Women currently fill 30.9% of

Commonwealth board positions where

the Commonwealth has had total

discretion over the appointment

(December 1999). This compares with

30.5% in December 1995.

W O M E N O N P R I V A T E S E C T O R

B O A R D S

In the private sector, the proportion of

women occupying board positions has

doubled over the past five years but is

still much lower than public sector

boards. In 1998, women comprised

over 10% of non-executive directors

and filled 8.3% of private sector board

positions, increasing from 4% in 1995


for both categories (Korn/FerryInternational, 1999). This comparesfavourably to other western nations.While the number of female executivedirectors remains unchanged at 1.3%,the representation of women inmanagerial positions in the privatesector has continued to rise over thepast decade. In 1998, womencomprised 27.3% of managers incompanies covered by AffirmativeAction legislation (100 or moreemployees), a rise from 17.2% in 1990.s

W O M E N H E A D S O F M I S S I O N S

Women make a significant contributionto Australia’s foreign service both athome and overseas. The AustralianGovernment is committed to increasingthe role women play in the developmentand implementation of Australia’sforeign and trade policies.

There are currently 11 out of 79 womenHeads of Missions or Heads of Post.

The Australian Government hasappointed 17 women as Heads ofMissions or Posts since March 1996(including the position of theAmbassador for the Environment). Theappointments reflect the AustralianGovernment’s determination to givewomen equal opportunities to advancetheir careers and to ensure that thesenior echelons of our diplomaticservice reflect Australia’scontemporary diversity

W O M E N I N T H E A U S T R A L I A N

P U B L I C S E R V I C E

At June 1999, 48.3% of permanentemployees of the Australian PublicService (APS) were women. Womencomprised 24.1% of permanentemployees in the Senior ExecutiveService in the APS as at June 1999.While there is still room forimprovement, this represents asignificant increase from 21.8% in June1998, 17% in 1994 and 10% in 1989.36.4% of new appointments to theSenior Executive Service between June1998 and June 1999 were women, anincrease from the 1998 figure of 34.6%and from the 1988 figure of 8%.

W O M E N ’ S P A R T I C I P AT I O NO N B O A R D S

The Australian Government isimplementing initiatives as part of abroad strategy aimed at increasing thenumber of women appointed on meritto Commonwealth boards and bodies.These initiatives include the ExecutiveSearch Pilot Programme, EarlyWarning System and Appointmonitoring. As a measure of theimportance placed on women inleadership, the Executive Search PilotProgramme and Early Warning Systeminitiatives were launched by the PrimeMinister, the Hon John Howard MP, on27 March 1998.

The Government is also committed toencouraging women’s greater


participation on private sector boards.It has provided funding towards theNational Women’s Leadership Project.

E X E C U T I V E S E A R C H P I L O T

P R O G R A M M E

The Executive Search Pilot Programmeis testing whether executive search(head hunter) methods can be used toidentify suitable women candidates forvacancies on boards and bodies in fourCommonwealth departments. Anexecutive search firm is conducting anidentification and selection process forsuitably qualified women with highlevel skills in a variety of fields andspecialist areas who could beconsidered for appointment.

E A R L Y W A R N I N G S Y S T E M

The Early Warning Systemcomplements the Executive SearchPilot Programme and aims to impacton the process of appointments acrossall other Commonwealth departments.Details of suitably qualified women whocould be considered for upcomingboard vacancies are provided todepartments to ensure thatappropriately qualified women are considered early in the appointment process.

‘ A P P O I N T ’

‘Appoint’ is a monitoring system thatprovides a whole-of-government statusreport on the representation of women

on Commonwealth boards and bodies.A report is compiled every six monthsbased on information from allCommonwealth departments.

T H E C A B I N E T A P P O I N T M E N T

P R O C E S S

The Office of the Status of Women

(OSW) maintains a close interest,

through the Cabinet process of

appointments, in potential candidates

for significant appointments for which

the Prime Minister’s agreement is

sought. OSW may brief the Prime

Minister on upcoming appointments

and put forward alternative women

candidates. The Cabinet appointment

process covers significant

appointments to Commonwealth

boards and bodies.

N A T I O N A L W O M E N ’ S

L E A D E R S H I P P R O J E C T

The Australian Government provided

funding towards a National Women’s

Leadership Project, managed by the

Australian Council of Businesswomen.

The project is aimed at encouraging

and promoting action by business and

industry to increase women’s

participation on private sector boards.

Strategies include the selection and

training of suitable women candidates,

mentoring and networking

opportunities at a very high level,

boardroom functions and other training


and developmental opportunities for

potential female executives. The

project has attracted support from

major peak industry bodies such as

KPMG Recruiting, the Australian

Institute of Company Directors and the

Committee for Economic Development

of Australia. Over 200 women have

been identified to participate in the

project, including women from a range

of industries and from all States

and Territories.

A U S T R A L I A N W O M E N ’ SR O U N D T A B L E

The Government funds the AustralianWomen’s Round Table, an annual two-day meeting with key women’s NGOsand prominent Australian women. Theparticipants represent a diverse rangeof women including Indigenous, rural,refugee, business, disability and olderwomen, as well as women leaders fromacademia and the charitable, healthand local government sectors.

The meeting provides an opportunity forAustralian women to be informed firsthand of Government policies andprogrammes and provide direct input tothe Government on concerns of womenin the community and to the policymaking process.

R E G I O N A L A N D S T AT EW O M E N ’ S R O U N D T A B L E S

Regional and State women’s roundtables are conducted by the Minister

Assisting the Prime Minister for the Status of Women and Women’s Parliamentary Advisory Group members.

See also:

■ The ‘Women’s ParliamentaryAdvisory Group’ section in H:Institutional Mechanisms for theAdvancement of Women.

N A T I O N A L W O M E N ’ S N G OF U N D I N G P R O G R A M M E

In 1998-99, the Australian Governmentprovided over $840,000 to women’sNGOs across a range of portfolios.

The Australian Government supportsnational women’s NGOs through a$500,000 annual National Women’sNGO Funding Programme and throughfunding provided by line agencies. Theaims of the programme are:

■ to support broadly representative,effective and viable nationalwomen’s NGOs that contributeactively to government policies andstrategies affecting women; and

■ enable a diverse range of women’sviews to be considered.

The programme was reviewed in 1999in consultation with national women’sNGOs. The programme has beenupdated in line with local andinternational best practice to provideoutcome based funding. In 1999-2000,$615,000 has been provided throughOSW on direct and indirect assistanceto 19 women’s organisations:


■ $125,000 was provided to 13women’s organisations forcontinuation funding for the period 1July – 30 September 1999;

■ $225,000 for the period 1 October1999 to 30 June 2000 has beenprovided to three national women’sorganisations to provide nationalsecretariat services.#For the firsttime, these organisations will befunded over a period of 3 years andwill receive $100,000 per annum.These organisations are robust,vibrant, national and wellestablished and represent womenfrom a broad range of backgroundsand interests;

■ $230,000 has been provided to 12national women’s NGOs for projectsin the period up to 30 June 2000.These projects offer clear andlasting outcomes in a diverse rangeof interests and will furtherstrengthen the important voice ofwomen throughout the community.This includes three leadershipprojects: a ‘train the trainer’workshop and kit for women withdisabilities; a national leadership kitfor school students; and regionalactivities with current and future rural women, includingIndigenous leaders;

See also:

■ Women With Special Needs sectionbelow for further details on

initiatives for womenwith disabilities.

■ $35,000 has been allocated forcapacity building partnerships with afurther four women’s NGOs. Theresources and training opportunitiesarising from this exercise will bemade available to other women’sgroups throughout Australia.

The Australian Prime Minister, the HonJohn Howard MP, has encouraged allgovernment agencies to considerwomen’s NGOs in their fundingprogrammes. This strategy reflects theGovernment’s commitment to a moreintegrated approach to gender issuesand helps to build stronger linksbetween NGOs with particular sectoralinterests and relevant governmentagencies. Women’s organisations havebeen encouraged to work more closelywith the portfolios in which they have aspecific policy interest. This has led tobetter communications andparticipation in policy decision-makingbetween specific government agenciesand women client groups.

In 1999-2000, more than $460,000 is tobe provided by other AustralianGovernment agencies to women’sNGOs, an increase of $100,000 over the previous financial year. Some examples are:

■ Agriculture, Fisheries and ForestryAustralia has created a grantsprogramme to provide operationalsupport for national rural women’s


NGOs. In 1999-2000, the Foundation

for Australian Agricultural Women

and Australian Women in Agriculture

will each receive grants of $45,000

and the Women’s Industry Network

will receive $10,000 to help it set up

a national office. The grants

programme will operate for three

years, at the end of which time the

organisations supported are

expected to have arranged other

sources of ongoing funding; and

■ funding of $50,000 a year over two

years to the National Council of

Single Mothers and their Children to

assist them to better represent the

interests of single mother families

and other lone parent families has

been provided through the

Department of Family and

Community Services.

OSW has also provided assistance with

capacity building training and support

across the women’s NGO sector. The

aim is to strengthen women’s NGOs’

effectiveness and capacity to effectively

represent the interests of women and

to influence policy.

W O M E N I N T H E P U B L I C

S E C T O R

The Australian Government has funded

various initiatives aimed at developing

women’s capacity to enter senior

positions in the Australian Public

Service. The Senior Women inManagement Programme is a unique

management development programme

designed to significantly enhance the

skills and abilities of high achieving

APS senior women managers. In

addition, core leadership skills have

been developed for senior executives in

the Australian Public Service – the

Senior Executive Leadership CapabilityFramework. This Framework aims to

achieve high performance leadership.

Another key initiative is a series of

training films for both the public and

private sectors on leadership and

teamwork in the workplace. Gender

issues will be a focus of the films,

which are expected to be launched in

May 2000.

W O M E N I N U N I V E R S I T Y

To improve the representation ofwomen in policy and decision-makingpositions, the Australian ViceChancellors’ Committee established aRegister of Senior University Women.The Register contains a comprehensivelist of women with experience andexpertise and who could be more widelyutilised within the higher education,Government and business sectors. TheRegister is regularly updated withcurrent contact information, andrelevant details of over 2,950 senioruniversity women. It is disseminated inhard copy to universities andgovernment agencies and is also


available on the Internet(www.avcc.edu.au).

W O M E N I N S P O R TL E A D E R S H I P

The Australian Government hasprovided an additional $144 million tothe Australian Sports Commission overfive years to 2002-03. This will permitthe continued expansion of the ActiveAustralia initiative that includes a focuson increasing the quality and quantityof women’s participation in sport andphysical activity.

The Australian Government has revisedits national policy and plan for womenand girls in sport and physical activity.The revised policy, launched inSeptember 1999, includes practicalstrategies that support the fullinvolvement of all women and girls insport, recreation and physical activity inAustralia. It also highlights theimportant contribution of women toleadership and management positionsin sport and provides practicalexamples of encouraging women intothese positions.

The Sydney 2000 Olympic Games willmark the centenary of women’sparticipation in the Olympic Games.The Government has developed severalprojects to commemorate thissignificant event and to highlight thecontribution and achievements ofwomen in sport. These include:

■ a women and sport scholarship/

exchange between Australia and France;

■ a schools’ education package; and

■ a major function co-hosted by theAustralian and French Governments.

W O M E N I N P O L I T I C SIn 1997, OSW updated and republishedEvery Woman’s Guide to Getting intoPolitics, an easy-to-use, non-partisanhandbook for women interested inbecoming involved in politics at anylevel. The Guide lists sources oftraining and experience in publicspeaking and presentation andincludes basic information on politicalcampaigning. The Guide has beenwidely distributed and is available viathe Internet at www.dpmc.gov.au/osw.In addition, the Government updatedthe booklet Getting the MessageThrough in October 1999. It providesinformation and contact details on allwomen in the CommonwealthParliament, as well as information onParliamentary Committees to assistwomen to gain greater access toParliament and the ParliamentaryCommittee system. The booklet isavailable free of charge.

H O N O U R S , AWA R D S A N DR E C O G N I T I O N

The Australian Government recognisesthe enormous contribution womenmake to Australia and is committed to ensuring that their efforts


and achievements are appropriately recognised.

While not specifically for women, thetwo major Australian Governmentawards schemes – the Order ofAustralia Awards Scheme and theNational Australia Day Council AwardsScheme – provide national recognitionfor the contributions of many women.

Awards in the Order of Australia areannounced on Australia Day and on theQueen’s Birthday each year and providenational recognition of outstandingachievement and service to thecommunity at all levels in a diverserange of fields and areas of endeavour.On Australia Day 2000, women received30.4% of the honours awarded.Nominations for women continued toincrease in 2000, 230 nominations forwomen were considered, with 57%awarded. Among the 131 exceptionalwomen recognised on Australia Day2000 were the following women whowere appointed an Officer in the Orderof Australia: Betty Johnson (AO) forservice to the community as aconsumer advocate and for her workwith the Older Women’s NetworkAustralia and the AustralianPensioners’ and Superannuants’Federation; Ann Sefton (AO) for serviceto medical education; and StellaO’Donnell (AO) for service to theadvancement of pharmaceuticalscience. In 1999, three women received

the highest honour, the Companion inthe Order of Australia. They wereProfessor Suzanne Cory for service toscience; Kaarene Fitzgerald for serviceto the community in relation to SuddenInfant Death Syndrome; and Dr LowitjaO’Donoghue, CBE, AM for publicservice and leadership to Indigenousand non-Indigenous Australians.

The Government also supports theNational Australia Day Awards schemewhich includes the Australian of theYear, Young Australian of the Year,Senior Australian of the Year,Community of the Year, AustralianAchievers and Aussie of the Monthawards. 2000 award recipients includeLorna Fejo, for her work with theAboriginal community and to the widerAustralian community; KaareneFitzgerald, AC who established theSudden Infant Death ResearchFoundation Inc; and Vicki Wilson, OAM,Australian netball team captain from1996-1999.

The Australian Government has soughtto increase further the number ofnominations for women and otherunder-represented groups through thedevelopment of a number of strategiesto raise awareness about the honourssystem. For example, a newsletter It’san Honour and a dedicated Internetweb site (www.itsanhonour.gov.au) havebeen developed to provide informationon awards in the honours systemincluding nomination procedures.


In addition, there are a number of othernational measures to recogniseachievements both within and outsideof Government. Some of thesespecifically recognise women’sachievements and contributions:

■ the Australian Government is one ofthe sponsors of the Telstra BusinessWomen’s Awards which recognisesand supports the important rolebusiness women make to theAustralian economy. The awardsaim to recognise the achievementsof outstanding women, affirm thevalue and ability of women in theworkplace and highlight the role thatbusiness women make to theAustralian community, its economyand employment. Sponsorship is tothe value of $70,000;

■ the Network of Women’s ExecutiveWoman of the Year recognisesexcellence in business;

■ the Businesswomen’s Hall of Fame,an initiative of the AustralianBusinesswomen’s Network,recognises the achievements ofAustralian businesswomen;

■ the Rural Industries Research andDevelopment Corporation’s (RIRDC)Rural Women’s Award to recogniseand encourage the vital contributionwomen make to rural Australia;

■ the Sculpture Garden of theAustralian War Memorialacknowledges the contribution of

women during war time. TheSculpture Garden was opened by theMinister Assisting the PrimeMinister for the Status of Women,Senator the Hon Jocelyn Newman, inMarch 1999. All women whocontributed to Australia’s war efforton the home front arecommemorated, including those inthe Land Army, the munitions,parachute and other factories, andthose who cared for disabledveterans at home. Design andconstruction of the memorial wasfunded by the AustralianGovernment and management of theproject was assisted by an advisorygroup of ex-service women and women who are currently serving; and

■ the Australian Service Nurses’National Memorial was opened inOctober 1999 in Canberra tocommemorate 100 years of Servicenursing. The Australian Governmentprovided additional funding of$0.5 million in 1999-2000 to this Memorial.

See also:

■ The ‘Women with special needs’section below.

N AT I O N A L E S T AT E G R A N T SP R O G R A M M E

A project has been funded under theNational Estate Grants Programme to increase the visibility and


representation of women. The projectis identifying, interpreting andpromoting places that represent theheritage values of women’s roles andexperiences in Australian society and history.

A U S T R A L I A N W O M E N ’ SH I S T O R Y P R O J E C T

The Office of the Status of Women(OSW) received a grant from theNational Council for the Centenary ofFederation of $105,300 to produce acelebratory book on Australianwomen’s history and women’scontribution in shaping Australia. Thebook will be published in 2001, as partof Australia’s centenary year. Theemphasis of the book will be on newmaterial about experiences general towomen rather than those outside theusual range. The book will have a veryspecial feature - real life stories fromordinary Australians collected through the Australian Women’sHistory Search.


R U R A L W O M E N

In November 1998, theCommonwealth-State StandingCommittee on Agriculture andResource Management published AVision for Change: National Plan forWomen in Agriculture and ResourceManagement. The Plan contains

principles, strategies and best practicecase studies to assist organisations tobetter support the roles of women inagriculture and resource management.The Plan was endorsed by 115 public,private and community organisationsand provides the framework forindividual State action plans.

On World Rural Women’s Day 1999, theGovernment launched two initiativesfor women from regional and rural areas.

The Rural Industries Research andDevelopment Corporation’s (RIRDC)Rural Women’s Award is a jointinitiative that was announced on WorldRural Women’s Day 1999.

The Award is designed to recognise andencourage the vital contributionwomen make to rural Australia. TheAward builds on the success of theprevious ABC Radio’s Australian RuralWoman of the Year Award and is opento all women involved in agriculture,natural resource management andrelated service industries. The Awardcomprises seven state and territorywinners. Each winner will receive abursary of up to $20,000 that may beused for activities that build theirmanagement, business or leadershipskills, for example, a study tour orformal education. State and territorywinners and runners-up also attendeda national leadership seminar in Marchthat provided them with leadership andmanagement training, media


and presentation skills and networking opportunities

The Women as Clients Strategy, part ofthe larger National Plan for Women inAgriculture and ResourceDevelopment, ensures that the needsof regional women are considered inthe policy development process.

In recognition of the need to strengthenthe voice of women in the decision-making process, the AustralianGovernment established the RegionalWomen’s Advisory Council in 1999. Theseven council members are appointedby, and report to, the Minister forTransport and Regional Services. Thewomen members provide advice onissues identified as matters of majorconcern to people and communities inrural and regional Australia. TheCouncil plays an important role ingiving women greater access toAustralian Government decision-making processes.

Agriculture, Fisheries and ForestryAustralia has established andmaintains the Balance database ofwomen with experience and expertisein rural areas to encourage moreappointments of women todepartmental boards and committees.It is also participating in the ExecutiveSearch Pilot Programme with theOffice of the Status of Women to ‘head-hunt’ suitable women for positions onCommonwealth boards.

The Australian Government funds anannual national scholarship for a

mature age rural woman to participate in the Australian RuralLeadership Programme.


The Aboriginal and Torres StraitIslander Commission (ATSIC)comprises a network of 35 RegionalCouncils around Australia, a Board ofCommissioners established throughthe election of Indigenousrepresentatives, and an administrativearm to provide support. RegionalCouncils are elected every three years.ATSIC recognises the need to identifyways in which the cultural traditions ofIndigenous women can be preservedfor future generations and the need tostrengthen Indigenous women’snetworks and promote improvedcoordination between women’sorganisations and other agencies.

The fourth round of ATSIC electionstook place in October 1999, with arecord 34% of candidates being women.The elections resulted in a recordnumber of women councillors elected(30%), compared with the 1996 election(23% females elected).

Anecdotal evidence suggests that themajority of office holders ofincorporated Indigenous communityorganisations are women. Acomprehensive database is to beestablished to quantify the actualsituation with the view to targetingcorporate governance education togeographical or functional areas wherewomen may be under-represented.


A national Women’s AdvisoryCommittee advises the Aboriginal andTorres Strait Islander Board ofCommissioners on the impact ofpolicies and programmes onIndigenous women.

W O M E N F R O MC U LT U R A L LY A N DL I N G U I S T I C A L LY D I V E R S EB A C K G R O U N D S

Women from culturally andlinguistically diverse backgrounds inthe Australian Public Service willbenefit from the Charter of PublicService in a Culturally Diverse Society.In adhering to the seven principles ofthe Charter, agencies are encouragedto recognise the needs of migrantwomen and to address theseappropriately in the design,development and implementation of allpublic service policies andprogrammes. The Department ofImmigration and Multicultural Affairsmonitors the implementation of the Charter.

The Department of Immigration andMulticultural Affairs manages theSelect register. While not specifically aregister of women, Select wasdeveloped to encourage an increase inthe number of people from culturallyand linguistically diverse backgroundswho occupy positions on governmentadvisory boards and bodies. Peoplelisted with the Select register work in a

wide variety of fields, for examplecommerce, community and welfareservices, consumer affairs, legalservices and the building and rural industries.


The Australian Government recognisesthat developing leadership skills is amajor issue for women withdisabilities. In recognition of thedemand for more training opportunitiesfor women with disabilities to acquireleadership skills, the Government hasallocated $25,000 to Women withDisabilities Australia, a nationalwomen’s NGO, to conduct a NationalLeadership and Mentoring TrainingWorkshop. The project will use a trainthe trainer model for women withdisabilities and will involve women fromeach State and Territory. The projectwill aim to develop a model of bestpractice in leadership and mentoringtraining for women with disabilities.



The NSW Government established aWomen’s Advisory Committee andStrategic Plan in 1998 to increaseparticipation of women on Reserve


Trust Boards. Subsequently, thenumber of women on Reserve TrustBoards increased from 8.9% (1997) to16% (1998) and reporting on boardappointments has improved.

Since l995, women in NSW seniorpublic sector positions have increasedfrom 15% to 21%. The number ofwomen CEOs has increased from 8 to 19.

The NSW Government aims to increasethe number of women decision makersin the sport and recreation industrythrough performance agreements with all funded organisations and the Women in Sport and Recreation Administration Scholarship Programme.

V I C T O R I A

The Victorian Government is stronglycommitted to ensuring that women arewell represented among decisionmakers and leaders in our community,including at board and committee level.A register of women, the VicWomenDirectory, has a listing of over elevenhundred women interested in, andavailable for board appointments.Government departments areencouraged to consult the Directory when makingrecommendations for newappointments and reappointments.

The Government will also be developingtargets with Government departments

to increase the representation ofwomen on Government boards andcommittees and will work with theprivate sector to do the same.


The ACT Government has made acommitment to measurably improvethe status of women by the year 2000.This includes gender balance onstructures such as boards and committees.

The ACT encourages women’sparticipation in decision-makingprocesses in a number of ways.

The Representation of Women in theGovernment policy is aimed at ensuringbalanced representation in thecomposition of ACT government boardsand committees. This includes, asappropriate, women, people fromculturally and linguistically diversebackgrounds, Indigenous people andpeople with disabilities. Responsibilityrests initially with the agency seekingto appoint members to boards and/orcommittees. Nominations are soughtthrough advertising for vacancies, withthe advertisement noting that thegovernment encourages nominationsfrom people of all ages representing allsections of the community.

As at 31 December 1998, womenconstituted 41% of the membership ofstatutory and non-statutory


government boards and committees,and 31% of the total ACT Public Serviceat the Executive level.

Q U E E N S L A N D

Queensland women’s representationon statutory bodies comprised some23.4% of positions in July 1998 and hasincreased by 8% since 1993. TheRegister of Women, a database ofwomen who wish to be considered forappointment to Government boards, ismaintained by the Office of Women’s Policy.

A Women on Boards kit was launchedin September 1999 that providesinformation on women in decision-making.

New strategies including working withthe chief executives of governmentagencies, are being implemented in anattempt to increase the representationof women on government statutory authorities.

A number of government departmentsare working to introduce changes incultural, systemic and structuralconditions to achieve immediate andlong term improvements for women.Strategies include the introduction ofmentoring programmes, targetedtraining and career development andthe implementation of flexible workingarrangements to improve work andfamily choices.

S O U T H A U S T R A L I AThe South Australian Government hasa goal of 50% representation by womenon government boards and committeesby 2000. The current representation is31.85% (April 1999).

A Women’s Register of over 450 namesis maintained to provide candidates toministers, government agencies, thecommunity and private sectors. Anexecutive search firm conducts regularexecutive searches on behalf of theSouth Australian Office for the Status ofWomen to provide additional names ofwomen suitable for appointment togovernment boards.

The South Australian Government hassponsored the following initiatives:

■ Springboard and Women,Leadership and the Future projectoffers training and professionaldevelopment specifically for women;

■ the Graduate Certificate in BusinessProgramme, New Leadership forWomen and Men is a joint venturebetween the Housing Group and theUniversity of South Australia; and

■ the Women towards LeadershipProgramme is offered annually bythe Department of Transport, UrbanPlanning and the Arts. More than 80women have participated over thelast four years.

The Office of Recreation and Sport’sWomen in Sport and Recreation


Mentoring Project aims to increase theparticipation of women in leadershipand decision making. There are plansfor a mentoring programme for womenof non-English speaking background toincrease the participation of theircommunities in recreation and sport. Ascholarship fund has been establishedto assist women coaches to furthertheir coaching careers. They will begiven access to elite level coachingcourses and further education.

A Rural Women’s Interactive Databaseassists rural women in developing acurriculum vitae and provides trainingand information for women interestedin serving on boards and committees.The database is promoted togovernment and industry. Project staffwork cooperatively with the SouthAustralian Office for the Status of Women.

T A S M A N I A

The Tasmanian Government iscommitted to ensuring that womencomprise 50% of the membership ofgovernment boards, committees andauthorities by 2001. As at 30 June 1998,women comprised 26.9% of themembership of Tasmanian Governmentboards, committees and authorities.

The Tasmanian Women’s Register aimsto increase women’s participation onGovernment boards, committees andauthorities. The second edition of the

Register was launched in 1996 and isavailable to both government andprivate sector boards, committees and authorities.

The Tasmanian Government iscommitted to ensuring that by 2001,women comprise 35% of the SeniorExecutive Service (SES). Whileapproximately 64% of State PublicServants are women, women currentlycomprise only 26.8% of the SES, anincrease from 19% in 1996. In order toincrease women’s involvement in theSES, strategies include:

■ a mentoring programme for womenin the public sector; and

■ a Management Skills for WomenProgramme which targets womenwho are in, or aspiring to,management positions. Thisprogramme was offered twice in1998 and will run again in 1999.


Decision-making is a priority area inthe second Western AustralianGovernment Two Year Plan for Women.Fifty one government agencies havemade over 200 individual commitmentsto improve women’s decision-making.The Department of the Premier andCabinet works in partnership with theWomen’s Policy Development Office tobring together agencies with aninterest in improving women’sdecision-making to implement


collaborative initiatives. Forty threeagencies are committed to improvinggender balance on government boardsand committees against the June 1998baseline and develop women’sconfidence in decision-making and management.


The Northern Territory AboriginalDevelopment Unit (ADU) in theDepartment of Education, is the mainNorthern Territory Government agencyresponsible for employment andtraining matters for AboriginalTerritorians. ADU has sponsoredIndigenous women to attend theManagement Skills for Womenprogramme for women in supervisoryand pre-management positions in thepublic sector. The Department alsofunds Indigenous women to attendconferences to gain knowledge and skills to take back to their communities.



■ Women are concerned that there is aneed for increased mechanisms tosupport women’s representation inleadership and decision-making

positions across society. Manywomen are excluded from high-levelleadership positions, particularly inthe private sector.

■ There is a need to address thebarriers faced by Indigenous womenand women from non-Englishspeaking backgrounds to access power and decision-making positions.


■ There have been very encouraginginitial results from the use ofexecutive search (‘head-hunter’)practices for the nomination ofwomen for positions of power anddecision-making.

■ Public attitudes to women inpositions of power and decision-making have changed, with theappointment of women to seniorlevels increasingly accepted as unexceptional.

■ There is no shortage of highly skilledwomen in Australia for appointmenton merit, and merit-basedprocesses continue to be preferredover quotas. There is little publicsupport for quota-driven affirmativeaction policies, which risktrivialising the achievements andpotential contribution of women iftheir appointment is seen to beotherwise than on merit.


F U T U R E C H A L L E N G E S■ Notwithstanding the commitment of

governments at all levels, time isneeded to change embeddedcultures and practices. It takes timefor women with increased educationand middle-high level managementskills to advance to the highestechelons. In the case ofappointments to boards, time isneeded to effect a changeover ofexisting members due to duration of terms.

■ There remain structural andattitudinal barriers to the fullestparticipation of women in positionsof power and decision-making.Australia’s Sex DiscriminationCommissioner has undertakenresearch highlighting the continuedexistence of sexual harassment anddiscrimination in the workplace. TheAustralian Government’s review ofthe Affirmative Action (EqualEmployment Opportunity forWomen) Act 1986 also pointed to thecontinued under-representation ofwomen at senior levels in private andpublic sector employment. Unlesswomen enjoy workplaces free ofharassment and are able to progresson their merits in their professionaland work lives, the goal ofmaximising women’s capacity tocontribute in decision-makingpositions cannot be fully realised.Governments need the support ofbusinesses and other key sectors in the community to tackle these problems.

■ The Australian Government report,

Enterprising Nation – Renewing

Australia’s Managers to Meet the

Challenges of the Asia-Pacific

Century, released in April 1995,

raised concerns at certain private

sector practices, remarking on the

lack of diversity among many private

sector boards and their age makeup.

These institutional factors and ‘old

guard’ mentality can retard the rapid

accession of women on their merits.


Future commitments for women are

incorporated above.

In the Australian Government system,

new funding commitments are

customarily announced in the annual

Federal Budget. Additional

commitments may be publicly

announced in the context of the election

platform or at other occasions.

The Australian Government’s future

budget commitments for women are

comprehensively outlined in Delivering

on our Commitments for Women, the

Budget Ministerial Statement on

Women from the Minister Assisting the

Prime Minister for the Status of

Women. A copy of this statement has

been provided in response to Part 2

(Financial and Institutional measures).

I N S T I T U T I O N A L

M E C H A N I S M S F O R

T H E A D VA N C E M E N T

O F W O M E N


Insufficient mechanisms at all levels topromote the advancement of women

HC H A P T E R

1 8 1


1: Create or strengthen national machineries and other governmental bodies.

2: Integrate gender perspectives inlegislation, public policies,programmes and projects.

3: Generate and disseminate gender-disaggregated data and information forplanning and evaluation.

O V E R V I E W

The participation of women on equalterms with men in political, social,economic and cultural life is essentialto the progress of women and the well-being of society in general. Australiahas one of the most advanced systemsin the world for ensuring that women’sinterests and concerns are taken intoaccount in all aspects of Governmentpolicy making and delivery of servicesand programmes.

Since 1995, Australia’s institutionalmachineries for women have beenretained and strengthened. Australiamaintains an extensive framework ofanti-discrimination legislation,strategies and programmes atCommonwealth, State and Territorylevels to respect and advance the rightsof women. At Commonwealth, Stateand Territory government level,specialised machinery of governmentoperates to report and advise on issuesrelating to the status of women and tomonitor and evaluate the outcomes for

women of government policies and programmes.

In recent years, Australiangovernments have placed increasedemphasis on the need for genderissues to be taken into account inmainstream government activities.Specialist women’s machineries haveadopted a strong focus on theintegration of gender perspectives intowhole of government policies andpractices. Women’s machineries haveincreased cooperative efforts with otheragencies and have diversified theirlinks with a wider range of socialpartners, including business and the community.

The Australian Government hasreviewed and updated key legislativeand institutional instruments, includinga 1998 review of the Affirmative Action(Equal Employment Opportunity forWomen) Act 1986.

The Australian Bureau of Statisticsroutinely collects and disaggregatesinformation by gender where relevant.Australian governments collect andanalyse sex-disaggregated data andinformation across key areas includingeducation, training, employment,earnings and income security. TheOffice of the Status of Women (OSW)periodically produces an Australianwomen’s statistical compendiumbringing together a range of statisticalinformation on key social, health,

S T R AT E G I C

O B J E C T I V E S

earnings and other indicators for women.

Recent significant achievements at thenational level:

■ The Australian Government reviewedthe Affirmative Action (EqualEmployment Opportunity forWomen) Act 1986 and reaffirmed itscommitment to ensuring equalopportunity for women in Australianworkplaces. Changes to the Act willimprove its operation through: theappointment of an advisory board tothe Equal Opportunity for Women inthe Workplace Agency to strengthenlinks with business; increasededucation and facilitation ofoutcomes for women in theworkplace; and streamliningreporting procedures to identify key issues to be addressed by particular workplaces.

■ The new Workplace Relations Act1996 has provisions to safeguardwomen and other groups of workersincluding youth and those fromculturally and linguistically diversebackgrounds. The Act provides forequal remuneration for work ofequal value without discriminationon the grounds of sex. The Actprovides a legislative entitlement to12 months parental leave for mostemployees after 12 months ofcontinuous service, up until thechild’s first birthday. The Actrequires a periodic report to theParliament on outcomes for women.

■ The Office of Employment Advocate(OEA) has been established toprovide assistance and advice toemployers and employees. The OEAhas engaged Working Women’sCentres to provide additionalassistance for women on theoperation of the Act. OEA alsoprovides advice to employers andemployees about measures to assist in balancing work and family responsibilities.

■ In 1999, the Governmentcommissioned the Federal SexDiscrimination Commissioner toundertake a landmark report onpregnancy in the workplace. TheCommissioner has also reported onsexual harassment in the workplace.

The following provides further detail ofthe key government women’smachineries at Commonwealth, Stateand Territory level.

S T R AT E G I CO B J E C T I V E S1: Create or strengthen nationalmachineries and other governmentalbodies.

T H E C O M M O N W E A LT HO F F I C E O F T H E S T AT U S O FW O M E NThe Office of the Status of Women

(OSW) is located within the Department

of the Prime Minister and Cabinet.



OSW is a strategic policy division

advising the Prime Minister and the

Minister Assisting the Prime Minister

for the Status of Women on issues

affecting women. OSW has a central

role in considering current and

prospective government policy and its

impact on women.

As a member of Cabinet, the Minister

Assisting the Prime Minister for the

Status of Women is involved in the

deliberation of high level policy making

and is able to ensure that gender issues

are considered in these matters. The

Minister also initiates specific policies

on matters relating to women

in Cabinet.

As part of the Prime Minister’s

Department, OSW has early access to

government policy making processes,

including relevant Cabinet and Budget

matters. OSW works bilaterally with

policy analysts and advisers across the

Australian Government to identify, at an

early stage, policies with possible

gender impacts and to ensure that

women’s issues are taken into account

in the policy development process.

Since 1995, OSW has strengthened its

role to advise and effectively influence

public policies affecting women. OSW

works effectively across the

Department of the Prime Minister and

Cabinet to ensure that advice on the

effects of proposed policies on women

are fully reflected and integrated in the

department’s Cabinet briefing

materials. With the support of the

highest levels of government, OSW also

encourages departments to integrate

the consideration of gender at all

stages of policy development. Agencies

do this either through specialist

women’s units and/or gender sensitive,

informed consideration of advice in

mainstream policy processes.

OSW has been consulted on major

government reforms, including A New

Tax System and workplace relations

reforms. OSW is also the lead agency

for the Commonwealth’s Partnerships

Against Domestic Violence and

Business Against Domestic Violence,

the largest programme administered by

OSW in its twenty-five year history.

OSW is also responsible for the

development and implementation of

strategies to increase the

representation of women in decision-

making positions on Commonwealth

bodies, working closely with relevant

portfolio agencies.

In recent times, OSW has been active in

progressing reforms to superannuation

and family law. These legislative

changes will provide greater

flexibility and access to marital

retirement savings in the event of

marital breakdown.


OSW also undertakes activities in theareas of:

■ women’s economic and income security;

■ education and training;

■ women in and out of the paid workforce;

■ international and legal matters forwomen; and

■ communication and consultationwith women’s non-governmentorganisations and the community(see below).

OSW has responsibility for monitoringthe Convention on the Elimination of AllForms of Discrimination againstWomen and the Beijing Platform forAction. In these tasks, OSW liaisesclosely with departments and the Human Rights and EqualOpportunity Commission.

OSW is responsible for coordinating theWomen’s Ministerial Statement, adocument that accompanies theCommonwealth Budget and providesinformation on Budget decisions withparticular impact on women. The OSWmaintains close links with its State andTerritory counterparts via theCommonwealth, State and TerritoryMinisterial Conference on the Status ofWomen and regular meetings betweenCommonwealth and State women’sministers, advisers and officials.

C O N S U LT AT I O N W I T H

W O M E N

The Australian Government has a

range of consultative mechanisms to

inform and consult with Australian

women throughout the community.

These include:

■ the Australian Women’s

Round Table;

■ regional and State women’s round

tables conducted by the Minister

Assisting the Prime Minister for the

Status of Women and the Women’s

Parliamentary Advisory Group

members (see below);

■ Australian Women Working

Together, an annual booklet which

highlights the activities

and achievements of national

women’s groups;

■ a communication network for

women’s NGO’s, the Network

Exchange of Women’s Services

(NEWS), comprising a website and a

fortnightly periodical for women’s

NGOs, funded by the Australian

Government; and

■ a booklet for effective lobbying

called Getting the Message Through

which provides information and

contact details on all women in

Federal Parliament and the

Parliamentary Committee system.


See also:

■ G: Power and Decision Makingfor details on the Australian

Women’s Roundtable.


2: Integrate gender perspectives inlegislation, public policies,programmes and projects.

W O M E N ’ S P A R L I A M E N T A R YA D V I S O R Y G R O U P

A Women’s Parliamentary AdvisoryGroup, comprising a governmentmember of parliament in eachState/Territory, acts as a local accesspoint for women on behalf of theMinister Assisting the Prime Ministerfor the Status of Women. Its currentmembers are: Senator the HonMargaret Reid (ACT); Senator HelenCoonan (NSW); Senator the Hon GrantTambling (NT); Mrs Kay Elson, MP(QLD); Senator Jeannie Ferris (SA);Senator the Hon Jocelyn Newman(TAS); Senator the Hon Kay Patterson(VIC); and Ms Julie Bishop, MP (WA).

M A I N S T R E A M I N G W O M E N ’ S I S S U E SIn line with international best practice,the Australian Government haspursued a strategy of integratingwomen’s issues into mainstream policymaking and practice across all

government departments. Ministersand departments consider women in allmainstream programmes, policydevelopment, evaluation and reportingand work closely with the MinisterAssisting the Prime Minister for theStatus of Women. This approach hasbeen endorsed at the highest level bythe Prime Minister, the Hon JohnHoward MP.

Australian Government departmentsprovide relevant programme datadisaggregated by gender in their annualreports and other administrative data.Many departments maintain specificwomen’s programmes or consultationprocesses. Specialist women’s units indepartments (e.g., the Women in RuralIndustries Section in Agriculture,Fisheries and Forestry Australia andthe Regional and Rural Women’s Unit inthe Department of Transport andRegional Services) play an importantrole in enhancing linkages and cooperation.

A number of institutional mechanismsfacilitate gender mainstreaming across all government agencies.These include:

■ regular meetings of the Women’sPolicy Officers Network; and

■ liaison between OSW and agenciesto encourage managers to considerthe needs of women in thedevelopment and implementation of mainstream programmes and policies.


The Australian Government activelyseeks to ensure that the needs ofAustralians from all cultural and ethnicbackgrounds, including women, areaddressed in government policy andservice delivery through the Charter ofPublic Service in a Culturally DiverseSociety. Implementation of the Charteris overseen by the Department ofImmigration and Multicultural Affairs.

The Public Service & Merit ProtectionCommission promotes a culture ofworkplace diversity within allAustralian Government agencies.Agencies are encouraged to managediversity and create an inclusiveenvironment that values and utilisesthe contribution of people fromdifferent backgrounds, experience andperspectives, including women.

The Public Service Commissioner’sGuidelines, Managing WorkplaceDiversity, issued in early 1998, set outthe legislative basis and policy for theworkplace diversity model. TheGuidelines provide advice to agencieson the requirement to developWorkplace Diversity Programmes(WDPs) which maintain the basicprinciples of the Equal EmploymentOpportunity provisions of the PublicService Act, and develop andimplement workplace diversitymeasures. The Workplace DiversityPractitioner’s Handbook was alsoissued, providing further assistance toagencies on developing, implementing,reviewing and reporting on WDPs.

Agencies have responsibility forimplementing and managing WDPs andare required to lodge copies with thePublic Service and Merit ProtectionCommission. The Public ServiceCommissioner has responsibility formonitoring and reporting on diversityoutcomes. Activities undertaken by the Commission during 1998 and 1999 include:

■ dissemination of a discussion paper,

Values in the Australian PublicService proposing the introduction of

diversity value indicators;

■ Building the Foundation – APSValues at Work conference to help

APS staff understand and implement

workplace diversity;

■ establishment of a ‘Workplace

Diversity Project’ to assist a number

of agencies to develop and

implement their WDPs; and

■ Workplace Diversity Awards to

encourage good practice examples

that demonstrate innovation,

lasting impact and transferability to

other agencies.

L AW R E F O R M

Australia is privileged to have a stableand robust rule of law. The AustralianGovernment has been active in reviewof legislation, including a range ofinstruments of particular significanceto women. The national women’s


machineries are active participants inthe reform process.

OSW is routinely involved in relevantlegislative reform processes, workingclosely with the Attorney-General’sDepartment and other relevantportfolios. OSW provides advice onproposed legislative reforms to thePrime Minister and the MinisterAssisting the Prime Minister for theStatus of Women.

Recent Australian legislative reforms ofsignificance to women include:

■ the participation of women in thePeoples’ Convention onconstitutional issues in February1998. The Minister for the Status of Women addressed the Women’s Constitutional Conventionheld immediately preceding the Convention;

■ reforms to the treatment ofsuperannuation retirement savingson marital breakdown. OSW was anactive participant in the policydevelopment process, whichresolved a ten-year deadlock toimprove access to retirementsavings by non-working spouses andprovide more flexible financialoptions in the event of marital breakdown;

■ close collaboration with theAttorney-General’s Departmentthrough which OSW contributed tothe development of amendments tothe Family Law Act 1975. In

particular, OSW was instrumental inensuring that the Act took intoaccount issues of violence in the home;

■ reforms to the family law systemincluding the introduction of apackage of primary disputeresolution initiatives which address family law disputes (eg, breakdown, separation, divorce and related parenting and maintenance arrangements);

■ the establishment of advice andinformation line on family law andchild support matters. Thisconfidential service will assist ruralwomen, women affected by domesticviolence and other women who lackready and private access to face-to-face services;

■ the introduction of robust legislationby the Australian Government toaddress and prevent sexualservitude and slavery and thetrafficking and exploitation of womenfor sexual purposes. Australia hasintroduced laws dealing withoverseas child sexual abuse;

■ the 1998 review by the AustralianGovernment of the Affirmative Action(Equal Employment Opportunity forWomen) Act 1986. Outcomes fromthe review process have affirmed theAustralian Government’scommitment to ensuring equalopportunity for women in Australian workplaces;


■ the involvement of OSW inconsultation on the development ofpolicy for the AustralianGovernment’s Workplace RelationsAct 1996;

■ the Model Criminal Code projectthat provides uniform nationalcriminal laws for adoption by allStates and Territories. OSWparticipated in the development ofthe Code, particularly in relation tosexual assault and fatal and non-fatal offences;

■ OSW’s key role in monitoring theoperation of the Sex DiscriminationAct 1984 and its contribution tolegislative review and amendment ofthis Act; and

■ OSW’s regular input intoParliamentary inquiries, AustralianLaw Reform Commission andHuman Rights and EqualOpportunity Commission inquiries,and liaison with other agencies onissues such as gender bias and thelaw, censorship and regulation ofthe internet, and other issuesconcerning women and the law.

R E F O R M S T O T H E F A M I L Y

L A W S Y S T E M

The Australian Government announcedits intention in October 1999 torebalance the family law system tofocus more on helping separating anddivorcing couples and less on legalprocesses. Where possible, more

emphasis will be placed on communitybased primary dispute resolution, suchas mediation, and relationship supportservices to help families deal withproblems and to resolve disputes early.Special consideration will be given tothe needs of women and childrenaffected by domestic violence or sexualabuse. A new Federal MagistratesService is being established to providea cheaper, less formal forum for themajority of family law issues, freeing upFamily Court judges for more complex matters.

An advisory group, comprisingexperienced practitioners from variousorganisations, is being established toexamine the problems families face inthe family law system. The group willwork to find the best practical optionsto meet the needs of people frustratedby the family law system, and ways ofchannelling families into the mostappropriate methods of disputeresolution as early as possible.

N O N E N G L I S H S P E A K I N GB A C K G R O U N D W O M E N

The Federation of Ethnic Communities’Councils (FECCA) was established in1979 as the national peakrepresentative body for the variousState, Territory and Regional EthnicCommunities Councils and nationalethnic organisations. The AustralianGovernment allocates funding of$350,000 per annum to administer


funds according to an agreed workplan, based on the provision of advice togovernment on emerging issues,including those affecting women fromvarious cultural and linguisticbackgrounds, as well asmulticulturalism; youth; older persons;and reconciliation issues.

The results of FECCA’s consultationsand specific research projects arepublished in FECCA’s newsletter EthnicSpotlight and sometimes in separatereports. FECCA also publishes anannual report and prepares policysubmissions on specific issues,including an annual submission on the Budget.


3: Generate and disseminate gender-disaggregated data and information forplanning and evaluation.

W O M E N ’ S B U D G E TS T AT E M E N T

Each year, the Minister Assisting thePrime Minister for the Status of Womenreleases a Budget MinisterialStatement containing relevant Budgetmeasures for women. The Statement isproduced as part of theCommonwealth’s Budget associatedmaterials and is in a similar format tothese materials. The Minister alsoproduces a ready reference guide toBudget initiatives. Information onBudget measures for women is also

accessible through the OSW web siteand by hotlink to other portfolios’ sites.

A U S T R A L I A N B U R E A U O FS T AT I S T I C S

The mission of the Australian Bureau ofStatistics (ABS) is to assist andencourage informed decision-making,research and discussion withingovernments and the community byproviding a high quality, responsivenational statistical service.

The ABS routinely collects anddisaggregates relevant demographiccollections and statistics by sex. TheABS periodic collections, such as themonthly labour force survey, providegender disaggregated data on issuessuch as Australian women’semployment patterns and workinglives, education, income, family statusand health. Comparative data forwomen and men are easily accessible.Time series data are available for manyof these collections.

The ABS Census of Population andHousing, conducted every five years,also collects data by gender and isreadily available at the community leveland for specific population groups.

The ABS’s major social surveys collectdata on more complex measuresrequiring interviews or specialcollection techniques such as diaries.Surveys repeated on a five-yearly basishave included the National HealthSurvey, the Survey of Disability, Ageing


and Carers, and the Time Use Survey.The continuous Income and Housing Costs Survey provides information annually.

In 1995, the ABS carried out alandmark survey into Violence AgainstWomen. This survey providedbenchmark information about theincidence of violence against women,including domestic violence.

The ABS Time Use Survey measuresunremunerated work. The ABS hasproduced a draft set of satelliteaccounts estimating the value ofunpaid household work, volunteer andcommunity work in the Australianeconomy, based on the 1992 Time UseSurvey. ABS is currently repeating thestudy using data from the 1997 TimeUse Survey and expects to publish apaper on unpaid work in early 2000.

Gender statistics are reported andanalysed in other annual ABSpublications such as the Year BookAustralia, Australian Social Trends andin other reports to be developed withOSW and specifically focused on women.

O T H E R S O U R C E S O FG E N D E R D AT A

Other statistical data on women is available from a range of Commonwealth agencies and educational and researchorganisations. These includecollections such as reporting data

under Australia’s equal employmentopportunity legislation, genderdisaggregated data on education andtraining, and major collections andanalysis undertaken under theWorkplace Relations Act reportingrequirements. In addition, ad-hoc datacollections and survey activity byeducation and research institutions area major source of sex-disaggregateddata collections on specific issues.

W O M E N I N A U S T R A L I A

OSW has undertaken a three-year trialof a women’s statistical compendium.The Australian Women’s Yearbook waspublished annually between 1995 and1998. The publication provided astatistical backdrop for measuringAustralia’s progress in raising thestatus of women. The Yearbook lookedat women’s position across a broadrange of areas including livingarrangements, health, housing,education, employment, income andincome support, crime and justice,decision-making and the role of womenin voluntary work. Time series datawas included wherever possible, toprovide a statistical basis formonitoring the progress of women over time.

OSW and other CommonwealthGovernment agencies have recentlyfunded a continuation of this series,revised in a more current and userfriendly format for less technical usersand with a feature topic. The new


Women in Australia publication wasreleased in December 1999. Thepublication contains a feature article onolder women to coincide with theInternational Year of Older Persons.

I N T E R N AT I O N A LA I DThe Australian Government recognisesthe importance of strengtheninginstitutional mechanisms for theadvancement of women. This is in linewith the high priority Australia placeson activities aimed at improvinggovernance in recipient countries.Gender is an important consideration inimproving the capacity of an institutionto deliver services and strengthenpersonnel performance.

Australia recognises the value ofstrengthening the statistical capacitiesof countries so that the gender divisionof labour and access to resources bywomen and men can be fully measured.This assists in policy development andmeasuring outcomes of aid activities.For example, Australia is supportingthe Fiji Bureau of Statistics to improvethe efficiency and effectiveness of itsstatistical operations at a cost toGovernment of $4.1 million over 5 years.

There has been a sustained increase inAustralia’s commitment to addressinginstitutional mechanisms for theadvancement of women. TheAustralian Government is providing

assistance to a wide range ofinstitutions that support theadvancement of women. These includegovernmental, non-governmental andregional institutions. For example:

■ funding for an organisationaldevelopment adviser for theDepartment for Women and Culturein Fiji;

■ provision of assistance to women’sNGOs, through communityassistance schemes such as thePhilippines-Australia CommunityAssistance Programme (PACAP);

■ support for the Pacific Women’sResource Bureau (PWRB) at theSecretariat of the Pacific Community(SPC); and

■ Australia is providing support to theVietnam Women’s Union, the LaoWomen’s Union and the BougainvilleProvincial Council of Women toassist in strengthening managerialcapabilities through theimplementation of projects.


Women’s offices are established inState or Territory jurisdictions withinthe Australian federal system. Thefollowing highlights some recentinitiatives and current activities ofthese mechanisms.



Some recent activities andachievements of the NSW Departmentof Women are:

■ the NSW Government Action Plan forWomen (1996), a cross-governmentplan to ensure that governmentpolicies, programmes and servicesare inclusive and relevant to all NSW women;

■ the Aboriginal Women’s Directory(1998) which aims to increaseAboriginal women’s access togovernment services;

■ the local council social andcommunity plans under the LocalGovernment (General) Regulation,which are required to specificallyaddress the needs of women;

■ the organisation of regionalseminars/meetings to raiseawareness of issues for women inmining communities;

■ the establishment of a WorkingParty on Careers for Women inUniformed Services, which has led toincreases in the proportion ofwomen in uniformed services. In1996, 25.3% of uniformed recruitswere women, up from 18% in 1994.In the NSW Police Service, womencomprised 35% of new uniformedrecruits. The total number ofuniformed women increased from1,548 (12%) in 1994 to 1,926 (15%) in1996 and to 2,536 (18%) in 1998;

■ the establishment in 1996 of aTaskforce on Women in Transport toincrease the representation ofwomen in public transport,particularly the number of women inmale-dominated operational jobsthat form the feeder groups for manypublic transport executive positions.Women make up 50% of trainingintakes for State Rail AuthorityCustomer Service Attendants andTrain Guards. The State TransitAuthority has introduced permanentpart-time positions to encouragemore women to become busoperators. The need to retainwomen has been recognised inmajor restructures of theseinstrumentalities;

■ development of a training kit in 1997,on flexible work arrangements forthe public sector;

■ conduct of a joint case study on thesuccessful implementation offlexible work practices in high workvolume and client contact areas;

■ a Women’s Programme option in thePublic Sector Management Course(PSMC), completed by over 200women in 1994 to 1997. Women have won over 60% of PSMCscholarships; and

■ that nine of the current sixteenparticipants in the ManagementDevelopment Programme forAboriginal and Torres Strait IslanderPeople are women.


V I C T O R I AThe Victorian Office of Women’s Policyprovides strategic policy advice toGovernment on issues of concern towomen, and monitors and coordinatesgovernment initiatives which impact onwomen. The Office providesinformation to the women of Victoria,and consults with women and women’sorganisations on issues of concern tothem. It also researches and identifiesemerging trends and issues on theneeds of women and effective methodsto address those needs.

Current priorities of the Office include:

■ conducting a women consultativeforum program, including an AnnualPremier’s Women’s Conference;

■ examining the media portrayal of women;

■ increasing the representation ofwomen on government boards and committees;

■ increasing the participation andportrayal of women in sport andphysical activity; and

■ developing a coordinated responseto violence against women acrossgovernment.

An Equal Opportunity (Amendment) Bill2000 is currently being considered byParliament which will prohibitdiscrimination in relation to sexualorientation, transgender, and breastfeeding mothers.


The South Australian Office of the

Status of Women is the primary source

of women’s policy in Government. It

reports to the South Australian

Minister for the Status of Women. The

Office provides advice and assistance to

Government agencies on women’s

policy and related issues and

coordinates Commonwealth-State

relations on the status of women.

Current initiatives in South

Australia include:

■ the Women’s Advisory Council, apeak advisory body and acommunication channel betweenwomen and the South AustralianGovernment through the Minister forthe Status of Women. Councilresearch activities include violenceagainst women; women’s financialindependence; women’s work; andissues for women in rural andregional South Australia;

■ the South Australian Women’sInformation Service, which providesinformation and referrals forwomen. The Information Servicemay be accessed by telephone, inperson or via the internet and coversa broad range of issues for women.The service has a special emphasison the needs of rural women;

■ the Statewide Aboriginal Women’sAdvisory Council, which is


comprised of representatives fromSouth Australian Aboriginalcommunities. The council consultswith Aboriginal communities onGovernment programmes andmonitors outcomes on health andwelfare and other concerns of theAboriginal community as a whole.The Council promotes a unified voiceamong Aboriginal women on socialand family issues; and

■ an interdepartmental Aboriginal

Women’s Advocacy Group which

examines the implementation of

Government policy and strategies

and approaches used for problems

such as health, justice,

social security and ageing, for

Aboriginal people.

T A S M A N I A

Women Tasmania is the peak State

institutional mechanism for women. Its

role includes:

■ developing policies and programmes

to respond to the particular needs of

women in Tasmania and policy

advice to the government on issues

relating to women;

■ research, policy and secretariat

services to the Tasmanian Women’s

Consultative Council, which provides

independent advice to the

government on the needs of

Tasmanian women;

■ supporting women’s organisationsthrough the provision of resources;

■ the Tasmanian Women’s Register,which is designed to increaseopportunities for women toparticipate on boards andcommittees; and

■ a Statewide information and referralservice to the women of Tasmania.


Under the ACT Women’s Action Plan,the ACT Government will conduct anaudit of ACT Government programmesduring 1999. The audit examines workand family, access, and health and wellbeing. The Plan will assess how wellACT women as customers are beingserved by the government. Its resultswill inform future development of thePlan. The first theme that the audit isassessing is the needs of women inrelation to their working lives andfamily responsibilities.

The ACT Government participates in anumber of Commonwealth/State forasuch as the Women’s Ministers’Conference and the National Women’sForum which advance the status of women.

The ACT is also working on issues thataffect women, such as through itsprojects under the PartnershipsAgainst Domestic Violence initiative.


The fourth ACT Women’s ConsultativeCouncil was appointed in September1998. The Council plays a key role inassisting the Government to developand implement policies to advance thestatus of women. The Council acts as alink between women in the ACT and theGovernment and conducts communityconsultations on issues affectingwomen. The fourth Council isoverseeing the Action Plan for Womenin the ACT and the establishment of aYoung Women’s Forum. The fifteenmembers of the Council representdiverse community organisations andindividuals including young women,seniors, ethnic women and women in business.


Australia’s institutional mechanismsfor women are of a high standard.Some recent learning points include:

■ integration of women’s policy intomainstream policy processes hasthe capacity to deliver improvedoutcomes. The extent of resultsarising from mainstreaming is notalways as visible as those fromdedicated women’s machineries.Commentators can wrongly mistakechanges in the locus of activity (fromthe women’s machinery tomainstream processes) as adiminution of commitment to

women’s issues. Somestakeholders have been slow toestablish links with mainstreampolicy makers.

■ Government policy-makingprocesses and directions areconstantly evolving and respondingto emerging issues andconstituencies. Effective advocacyof women’s issues involvesdeveloping expertise to engage withcurrent policy frameworks andapproaches. Effective partnershipsand lobbying involve thedevelopment of sharedunderstanding. There is opportunityto capitalise on linkages withemerging agendas such as familypolicy and local community building.

■ global and domestic forces and newways of doing business in a modern,electronic, competitive worldenvironment challenges all thesocial partners to update theirapproach so as to be able toparticipate fully in rigorous debate.Governments and social partnersalike need to look to new ways toconsult and engage effectively withindividual women throughout the community.


Key concerns in the community include:

■ the policy of mainstreaming anddismantling of gender-specificservices may cause women’s issues


to become lost in broader agendas,especially if women are not equallyinvolved in decision making;

■ the shift towards privatisation,competitive tendering and user paysimpacts negatively on the quality andavailability of services for womenand that this is not being adequatelymonitored. Gender analysis acrossgovernment portfolios, themaintenance of genderdisaggregated data and thestrengthening of national women’smachineries are needed to ensurethe proper monitoring of service delivery;

■ a changed approach to funding ofNGOs; and

■ reforms to legal aid and family laware adversely affecting women. Keyconcerns in relation to Family Courtmatters include the lack ofappropriate safeguards for bindingfinancial agreements, the lack ofsupervised access centres andproposed increases in penalties forbreaches of Family Court orders.





H U M A N R I G H T S

O F W O M E N


Lack of respect for and inadequatepromotion and protection of the humanrights of women

IC H A P T E R

1 9 9


1: Promote and protect the humanrights of women, through the fullimplementation of all human rightsinstruments, especially the Conventionon the Elimination of All Forms ofDiscrimination against Women.

2: Ensure equality and non-discrimination under the law and in practice.

3: Achieve legal literacy.

O V E R V I E W

The human rights of women and girlsare an inalienable, integral andindivisible aspect of human rights.Human rights are a cross-cuttingtheme which imbues all measures for women detailed throughout this document.

Australia’s commitment to the humanrights of women and of all persons ismanifested through its world classlegislative protections and theexistence of agencies to enablecitizens to exercise their rights and responsibilities.

Since 1995, the Australian Governmenthas reviewed the operation andeffectiveness of key machineries toensure their continuing effectiveness,to provide a focus on educative andfacilitative approaches and tostreamline their operation. In 1998, theAustralian Government appointed thefirst woman president to Australia’sHuman Rights and Equal Opportunity

Commission, Professor Alice Enh SoonTay. The Australian Government also appointed Ms Susan Halliday as the new federal Sex Discrimination Commissioner.

Australia is a States Party to numeroushuman rights treaties and has activelycontributed to the development of thetext of many of these.


1: Promote and protect the humanrights of women, through the fullimplementation of all human rightsinstruments, especially the Conventionon the Elimination of All Forms ofDiscrimination against Women.

Australia is an active participant in thedevelopment of the text of instrumentsto advance person’s human rights,including the human rights of womenand girls.

H U M A N R I G H T SI N S T R U M E N T S

Australia is a State Party to all the majorhuman rights instruments, including:

■ International Covenant on Civil andPolitical Rights;

■ First Optional Protocol to the ICCPR;

■ Second Optional Protocol to the ICCPR;

■ International Covenant on Economic,Social and Cultural Rights;

S T R AT E G I C

O B J E C T I V E S

■ International Convention on theElimination of All Forms of Racial Discrimination;

■ Convention on the Elimination of All Forms of Discrimination against Women;

■ Convention on the Rights of the Child;

■ Declaration on the Rights ofMentally Retarded Persons;

■ Declaration on the Rights ofDisabled Persons;

■ Declaration on the Elimination of AllForms of Intolerance andDiscrimination Based on Religion or Belief;

■ International Labour OrganisationDiscrimination (Employment and Occupation) Convention (ILO 111); and

■ Convention against Torture andOther Cruel, Inhuman or DegradingTreatment or Punishment.

Australia is actively pursuing itsobligations under these human rights instruments.

Australia is developing a new UnitedNations’ National Action Plan for thedomestic observance of human rightsacross the full range of civil, political,economic, social and cultural rights.The Plan will comprehensively updatethe current National Action Plandeveloped following the 1993 Vienna

World Conference on Human Rightsand presented to the 50th Session ofthe Commission on Human Rights.

Work is underway on a National Agendafor Action from the World CongressAgainst the Exploitation of Childrenheld in Sweden in August 1996. TheAgenda will address trafficking inchildren, child pornography and sexual exploitation.

Australia is actively involved in thenegotiation of a Protocol on Traffickingin Persons, especially Women andChildren, Supplementing the draftUnited Nations Convention againstTransnational Organised Crime.

C O N V E N T I O N O N T H EE L I M I N AT I O N O F A L LF O R M S O FD I S C R I M I N AT I O N A G A I N S TW O M E N ( C E D AW )

Australia signed CEDAW in 1980 andratified it in 1983. OSW hasresponsibility for monitoring Australia’sobligations under CEDAW, includingproviding policy advice and coordinatingthe Australian Government’s progressreports to the United Nations.

Australia’s combined fourth and fifthreport under CEDAW is due to belodged in August 2000. The AustralianGovernment is undertaking extensiveconsultations with State and Territorygovernments, women’s organisationsand members of the community, toinform and seek input on CEDAW.



Australia has two reservations underCEDAW relating to paid maternity leaveand the employment of women incombat duties. Australia aims to limitthe extent of any reservations toCEDAW; formulate any suchreservations as narrowly and preciselyas possible; ensure that noreservations are incompatible with theobject and purpose of CEDAW orotherwise incompatible withinternational treaty law and regularlyreview them with a view to withdrawingthem. For instance, the reservationwhich Australia holds to CEDAW inrelation to the employment of women incombat duties was recently modified inMarch 2000 after review. The modifiedreservation removes reservationsagainst women participating in combatrelated duties and now only excludeswomen from direct combat duties.

Australia does not have a European-style social insurance system whereemployees “purchase” insurance andwhere their insurers, not theiremployers, pay them while on maternityleave (usually not at their full rate ofpay). Instead, Australian women haveaccess to a range of income supportmechanisms, depending upon theircircumstances. These include:

■ a means-tested social securitybenefit, the Maternity Allowance,which is paid to families who areeligible for Family Allowance,regardless of the woman’s workforce

participation prior to the birth of the

baby. This payment assists with the

direct and indirect costs associated

with the birth of a child;

■ access to 52 weeks unpaid leave for

women who have been employed for

12 months or more (see WorkplaceRelations Act in F: Women and theeconomy);

■ paid maternity leave for Australian

and State/Territory government

employees and some private

sector employees.

■ other forms of Australian

Government funded assistance for

women in paid and unpaid work (see:

‘Family assistance’ and ‘Parenting

Payment’ in A: Women and Poverty).

Australia is currently considering the

maternity leave reservation in the

context of the Australian Government’s

response to the Pregnancy and Work Inquiry.

Australia has been an active participant

in the development of an Optional

Protocol to CEDAW. The Australian

Government worked with other

countries at the four sessions of the

Commission on the Status of Women

Working Group on the development of

the text for an Optional Protocol.

Australia supported the adoption of the

Optional Protocol in the United Nations

General Assembly in 1999.


The Australian Government will consultwidely at the domestic level about theOptional Protocol in accordance with itsdomestic treaties-making processes.These processes require a high level ofconsultation at the national level,including the involvement of State andTerritory Governments and the widercommunity, including non-governmentwomen’s organisations.

P R O T E C T I O N A G A I N S TS E X U A L E X P L O I T AT I O N

The Australian Government recognisesthat girls and young women arevulnerable to particular human rights violations. It is committed to protect their rights through a range of legislation and other initiatives designed to prevent sexual exploitation, including:

■ the development of a NationalAgenda for Action to combattrafficking in children, childpornography and sexual exploitation;

■ the Australian Child Sex Tourism Act1994 which makes it an offence forAustralians to engage in sexualconduct while overseas with personsunder 16 or to organise, promote orencourage overseas child sex tours; and

■ Australia’s active support of theelaboration of the Optional Protocolto the Convention on the Rights ofthe Child dealing with the sale ofchildren, child prostitution and child pornography.

In October 1997, the AustralianGovernment signed a Memorandum ofUnderstanding with the Government ofthe Philippines to implement the aimsof the Australian Child Sex Tourism Act1994. A further Memorandum ofUnderstanding was signed inDecember 1998 with Fiji.

Australia has developed strong lawenforcement links with many othercountries in the region, includingThailand and Indonesia, which furthersthe level of cooperation in tacklingchild abuse and bringing offenders tojustice. The forms of cooperationrange from informal ‘police to police’assistance, formal treaty relationshipson extradition and mutual assistance incriminal matters.

H U M A N R I G H T SE D U C AT I O N

Discovering democracy ($18 million1997-2000) is a programme of civicsand citizenship education activities toeducate students about Australia’ssystem of government, its legal andpolitical institutions, and the historyand evolution of Australian democracy.It covers human rights educationincluding those relating specifically towomen. A range of curriculummaterials have been produced for teachers and primary and secondary students.

The Australian Government has

commissioned Streetwize Comics Ltd


to undertake a project to increase

young men and women’s awareness of

women’s human rights and CEDAW.

Streetwize has conducted research and

is producing a comic that will be

targeted at young women from diverse

and ‘at risk’ backgrounds. The comic

will be widely disseminated to young

people and teachers.

A number of initiatives are currently

being funded to promote an awareness

of women’s human rights within the

community. These include: a ‘Plain

English’ guide to Australia’s

implementation report on the Beijing

Platform for Action which will provide

accessible information for the broadest

possible audience in the community; a

booklet summarising key initiatives

aimed at improving the status of

women in Australia; a joint project

between OSW and women’s NGOs to

develop a range of women’s human

rights materials.


2: Ensure equality and non-discrimination under the law and inpractice.

D O M E S T I C H U M A N R I G H T SA N D A N T I - D I S C R I M I N AT I O NL E G I S L AT I O N A N DA G E N C I E S

Australia has some of the most robustand well established institutionalmechanisms for women and a worldclass legislative regime.

S E X D I S C R I M I N A T I O N A C T 1 9 8 4

The Commonwealth Sex DiscriminationAct 1984 prohibits discrimination on thegrounds of sex, marital status,pregnancy and potential pregnancy andfamily responsibilities. Its objectsinclude to give effect to certainprovisions of CEDAW and to eliminate,so far as possible, discrimination inemployment ,education,accommodation,the provision of goods, services andfacilities and the administration ofCommonwealth laws and programmes.

The Act makes unlawful:

■ sexual harassment in the workplace,educational institutions and in otherspecified areas of public activity;

■ discrimination on the grounds ofpregnancy and potential pregnancyin specified areas of public life; and


■ dismissal from employment on theground of family responsibilities.

In 1998, the Australian Governmentappointed Ms Susan Halliday as federalSex Discrimination Commissioner.Since her appointment, Ms Hallidayhas, in addition to her handling ofindividual complaints, conducted twoimportant inquiries on sexualharassment and pregnancydiscrimination in the workplace. Thelatter of these was commissioned byreference from the CommonwealthAttorney General, the Hon DarylWilliams AM QC MP.

RACIAL DISCRIMINATION ACT 1975

The Racial Discrimination Act 1975prohibits discrimination on the groundsof race, colour, descent and national orethnic origin. Indigenous women andwomen from diverse culturalbackgrounds who experience this formof discrimination can lodge a complaintwith the HREOC Race Commissioner.

The Australian Government launchedthe $5 million Living in HarmonyInitiative in 1998. The initiative aims toincrease and maintain tolerance andharmony between diverse groups in thecommunity. In addition, theGovernment’s Productive DiversityStrategy includes a series of projectsaimed at increasing understanding ofhow business can capitalise on theskills and knowledge of Australianswho were born and educated overseas.

D I S A B I L I T Y D I S C R I M I N A T I O N

A C T 1 9 9 2

The Disability Discrimination Act 1992prohibits discrimination on the groundof disability. Disability is broadlydefined to include, among other things,the loss, partial loss or impairment ofphysical or mental functions and thepresence in the body of organismscausing or capable of causing diseaseor illness. Women with disabilities whohave experienced discrimination canlodge a complaint with the HREOCDisability Commissioner.

The human rights of people withdisabilities are of particular concern towomen. For women with a disability,the effects of disability can compoundgender disadvantage. Women withmore severe disabilities and especiallythose in resident care may beparticularly susceptible to abuse andsexual assault.

See also:

■ ‘Recent significant achievements atthe national level’ and ‘Law reform’in H: Institutional Mechanisms.

H U M A N R I G H T S A N DE Q U A L O P P O R T U N I T YC O M M I S S I O N The Human Rights and EqualOpportunity Commission (HREOC)inquires into complaints under federalanti-discrimination law and educates


the community about obligations under

domestic legislation. HREOC is

charged with increasing the

understanding, acceptance and

observance of human rights in

Australia and has a mandate to

carry out related research and

education activities.

HREOC liaises internationally with

governments and agencies in respect of

international treaties and ensures that

Australia meets its obligations under

international instruments. HREOC

performs educative and promotional

functions under domestic legislation

with the aim of increasing equality

of opportunity.

The Australian Government’s

continuing commitment to the effective

protection of human rights is reflected

in its recent review of the Commission

and proposed legislative amendments.

The Commission, to be renamed the

Human Rights and Responsibilities

Commission, will be streamlined and

restructured to make it more effective.

The changes will give the Commission

greater flexibility in assisting all

Australians to exercise their rights and

responsibilities under the human

rights legislation.

See also:

■ Sex discrimination in employment’in F: Women and the Economy.

V I O L E N C E A G A I N S TW O M E N

Australia prohibits actions that violatethe human rights of women and girlsand has criminalised all forms ofphysical and sexual violence.

See also:

■ D: Violence Against Women

F E M A L E G E N I T A LM U T I L AT I O N

The Australian Government abhors thepractice of female genital mutilation asa form of violence against women.

Strategies for eradicating femalegenital mutilation in Australia have adual focus:

■ to support women who have beenmutilated; and

■ to prevent the mutilation of girls andyoung women who may be at risk.

Australia has adopted an integratedapproach using legislation andcommunity education initiatives. AllStates and Territories have enactedspecific legislation prohibiting thepractice of female genital mutilation,with the exception of those stateswhere existing non-specific legislationhas been assessed adequately toprohibit the practice.

The Model Criminal Code OfficersCommittee has developed model lawson offences against the person. Thesedraft codes maintain sanctions onviolence against women on the grounds


of customary practices or culturalprejudices, including inter alia inrespect to female genital mutilation.

See also:

■ C: Women and Health.

■ D: Violence Against Women.

■ The section on Victoria under‘Examples of State and TerritoryInitiatives’ below.

I M M I G R AT I O N A N DC I T I Z E N S H I P

Australia’s immigration programmedoes not discriminate on the groundsof race, gender or ethnicity. People ofany country can be considered formigration to Australia under setselection criteria in categoriesdesigned to meet Australia’s economic,social and humanitarian requirements.

Australia’s citizenship law and policydoes not discriminate on the basis ofrace, colour, sex, language, religion,political or other opinion, national orsocial origins or property. Permanentresidents who have lived in Australiafor two years are eligible for Australian citizenship.


LEGAL AID

The Australian Government recognisesthe importance of women havingaccess to information and support toexercise their rights under the law.

The Australian legal system issupported by legal aid which providesassistance to financially disadvantagedpeople. Changes to Commonwealthlegal aid funding were made in 1996 todirect Commonwealth assistance tomatters under Commonwealth law,including Commonwealth anti-discrimination and family law matters.

The Australian Government will provide$110.02 million in 2000-2001 for legalaid. Commonwealth legal aid fundingis targeted at matters underCommonwealth law. This means that,under agreements with the States andTerritories, Commonwealth legal aid isprovided mainly for Family Lawmatters. Each agreement between aState/Territory Legal Aid Commissionand the Commonwealth provides that‘protecting the safety of a child orspouse who is at risk is to be accordedthe highest priority in making grants ofaid in family law’.

State/Territory Legal Aid Commissionsprovide legal assistance to peopleunable to afford private legal services.They provide grants of legal assistanceto those who meet means and merittests to pursue legal proceedings inthose matters. Most Commissionsprovide initial counselling and advice services to victims of domestic violence.

An additional $63.1 million for 2001-2002 to 2003-2004 will be provided forlegal aid.


C O M M O N W E A L T H C O M M U N I T Y

L E G A L S E R V I C E S P R O G R A M M E

The Commonwealth Community LegalServices Programme (approximately$20 million in 2000-2001) fundswomen’s legal services to provide legaladvice and referral services for women,including toll-free telephone advice.

Some women’s legal services receivespecial funding to provide specialistlegal services to help address theparticular legal needs of Indigenouswomen in their communities.

The programme also enhances accessto legal advice and referral services forwomen in rural regions. Some fundingis allocated to some generalistcommunity legal services to operaterural outreach projects to provide legalservices for women in rural areas. Inaddition, five new community legalservices are being established in highneed regional centres and the outreachservice from Darwin is being enhanced.

Community legal services alsoundertake community legal educationon issues that are of particular concernto women, including Family Lawmatters, violence against women,discrimination, employment and manyother areas of law.

A consultancy project wascommissioned in 1998 to improveadministration and service delivery inwomen’s legal services. Theconsultants conducted site visits to all

women’s legal services and are

currently developing strategies that will

provide the support needed for these

services to enhance their management

and service delivery.

The programme also plays an advocacy

role, for example, to increase the

availability of lawyers for women

needing legal representation in courts

and tribunals.

F E D E R A L M A G I S T R A T E S

S E R V I C E


establishing a new Federal Magistrates

Service to provide a quicker and

cheaper forum for a range of

Commonwealth matters. This measure

will particularly benefit women, who

are often the less-resourced parties

when marriages break down, by

providing a low cost option for dealing

with family law disputes. It will also

provide a low cost forum for women

seeking to enforce their rights under

anti-discrimination law.

See also:

■ Legal assistance’ in A: Women and

Poverty and D: Violence

Against Women.



3: Achieve legal literacy.

H U M A N R I G H T SE D U C AT I O N A C T I V I T I E S

The Australian Government places apriority on human rights education andpromotes an educative and facilitativerole for human rights machineries, inaddition to its on-going information andcomplaints activities.

HREOC is responsible for thepromulgation and increasedunderstanding and acceptance ofhuman rights and responsibilities. Thisincludes promotion and facilitation ofcommunity access to the services andfunctions performed by theCommission, as well as direct workwith individuals, community groups,governments and other organisationstowards the elimination of all forms ofunfair discrimination.

The Australian Government recentlyprovided $10,000 seed funding for theestablishment of a National Committeeon Human Rights Education, to bechaired by Dr Eric Tan. The Committeewill comprise government, nongovernment, NGO and businessrepresentatives. The Committee’sobjective is to initiate comprehensiveand systematic human rights educationfor the Australian community. Thisinitiative is part of Australia’s

commitment to the United NationsDecade on Human Rights Education.

The Attorney-General hosts a bi-annual NGO Forum on DomesticHuman Rights matters which isattended by NGOs from over 35 peakinterest groups in Australia and otherinterested government and communityrepresentatives. The most recent NGOForum was held in September 1999.

Australia has hosted or been involvedwith regional conferences onInternational Humanitarian Law forrepresentatives of Government,military forces, non-governmentorganisations, academics and thegeneral community. In February 1999,Australia hosted a conference tocommemorate the centenary of thefirst Hague Peace Conference.

In July 1999, Australian NGOs hosted aregional NGO preparatory conferencein the lead up to Beijing Plus Five. Over100 NGO representatives fromAustralia and the pacific regionattended the three day conference in Sydney.

In September 1999, the MinisterAssisting the Prime Minister for theStatus of Women met with the All ChinaWomen’s Federation, the peak nationalwomen’s organisation in China. Thepurpose of the meeting was toexchange information on theimplementation of the Beijing Platformfor Action.


OSW has conducted consultations toinform and seek input from State andTerritory governments, women’s non-government organisations and thecommunity about CEDAW and Beijing+5. The Australian Government isfunding several community educationprojects on women’s human rightsincluding lobby training workshops onUN processes for womens NGO’s andBeijing +5, postcards and brochures.These resources will be suitable forwomen from diverse backgroundsincluding Indigenous women, womenfrom a non-English speakingbackground and young women ‘at risk’.In addition, several women’s NGOrepresentatives were given financialassistance to attend the Commissionon the Status of Women and Beijing +5 fora.

E D U C AT I O N A N D R E F O R MO F T H E J U D I C I A R Y

The Australian Government iscommitted to ensuring that allmembers of the Australian judiciaryhave access to education programmesthat increase their awareness ofcommunity attitudes and of the impactof their decisions on women. Judicialeducation programmes on thesematters are being funded by theAustralian Government, through theAustralian Institute of JudicialAdministration. State and Territorygovernments also provide a range of relevant judicial education programmes.

W O M E N ’ S N G O S

Women’s NGOs in Australia are activein the monitoring of human rights ofwomen, including action under theBeijing Platform for Action and CEDAW.The Australian Government employs avariety of mechanisms to ensure thateffective consultation is undertakenwith women’s NGOs and with the public generally. These include acommunication network for women’sNGOs, an annual two day meeting withkey women’s NGOs, funding to supportkey NGO activities, capacity buildingtraining and support for the NGO sectorand training in United Nationsprocedures. These fora provide afurther conduit for exchange ofinformation about the continuedobservance of women’s human rights.OSW regularly contributes articles onwomen’s human rights activities for theAustralian Government fundedNetwork Exchange of Women’sServices (NEWS).

See also:

■ ‘Consultation with Women’ in H:Institutional Mechanisms for theAdvancement of Women.

W O M E N W I T H

S P E C I A L N E E D S

R U R A L W O M E N

In 1999, the Community Services LegalProgramme established six newcommunity legal centres,


telecommunications legal adviceservices and enhanced clinical legaleducation aimed at better meeting theneeds of rural and remote Australians,at a cost of over $11 million.

The Australian Government has alsoprovided new funding for the rural andregional expansion of the existingCommunity Legal Services Programmewhich provides services aroundAustralia providing free legal advice forclients as well as legal policy work andpublic education campaigns.


The Translating and Interpreter’sService (see below) provides a referralservice to Indigenous language interpreting services.

Australia continues to take a closeinterest in activities that specificallyrelate to both the International Decadeof the World’s Indigenous Peoples andto the development of the UNDeclaration on the Rights of Indigenous Peoples.

The Government has begun anAustralia wide review of Aboriginallegal services with a view to setting newnational standards for serviceprovision. Indigenous women’s accessto legal services provided by theAboriginal and Torres Straight IslanderLegal Services is being improved byfunding additional units specificallydesigned to provide legal advice and

assistance to women. Where theseunits are unable to provide advicebecause of conflict of interest, they arerequired to fund independent advice forclients. The Australian Governmenthas also funded additional familyviolence legal services in high need regions.

The Australian Government recognisesthe importance of improvingIndigenous women’s access to justiceand has recently committed $2.5million to fund legal projects forIndigenous women.

N O N E N G L I S H S P E A K I N GB A C K G R O U N D W O M E N

T R A N S L A T I N G A N D

I N T E R P R E T I N G S E R V I C E ( T I S )

The Translating and InterpretingService (TIS) provides a national 24hours a day, seven days a weektelephone interpreting service. Specialnational facilities allow a three-wayconversation between the two parties tothe telephone call, who are assisted bya TIS interpreter. Other servicesinclude on-site, face-to-faceinterpreting and a documenttranslation service.

TIS assists Australian andState/Territory agencies to meet theiraccess and equity obligations to non-English-speaking backgroundAustralians. TIS’s female clients may


access female interpreters if they wish,

particularly in sensitive areas such as

reproductive health, torture and

trauma and domestic violence. Sixty

per cent of TIS’s professional

interpreters are women.

As a free community service, the

Australian Government provides:

■ telephone interpreting to individuals

wishing to speak with government or

certain community organisations;

■ limited face-to-face interpreting to

individuals, medical practitioners,

and community organisations

on migrant settlement-related

matters; and

■ extract translations of personal

documents for migrants during their

first two years of residence

in Australia.

TIS also provides services on a fee-for-

service basis to individuals, the

Australian Government and

State/Territory agencies, community

organisations and private sector

businesses and organisations in

relation to commercial transactions.

Funds generated are used to expand

services and to improve their quality

and accessibility.

See also:

■ ‘Human rights education activities’ above.


The Commonwealth Disability Strategyis a ten-year plan of action forAustralian Government agencies toremove barriers in policies,programmes and services for peoplewith a disability. Particular emphasis isplaced on the need for appropriateinformation and communicationtechniques to be adopted to ensure thatpeople with a disability can accessgovernment services, includinginformation and services in the area ofviolence against women.

The Australian Government hasadopted Guidelines for CommonwealthInformation Published in ElectronicFormats which includesrecommendations to ensure thatelectronic information is accessible forpeople with disabilities.

In September 1999, the Attorney-General gave a reference to HREOCconcerning the access to electroniccommerce by older Australians andpeople with a disability. HREOC iscurrently examining issues affectingthe accessibility of electroniccommerce and the provision ofinformation and services through theInternet and digital technology in theareas of banking, finance and otherbusiness and government informationand services. This reference willprovide information about theseimportant access issues and suggest


strategies for enabling the benefits ofnew technologies to be available to allAustralians. The Commission’s reportis due in March 2000.

See also:

■ C: Health for information on womenwith a disability and sterilisation.

INTERNATIONAL AID

A U S T R A L I A ’ S A I DP R O G R A M M E

The promotion of human rights ofwomen and the elimination ofdiscrimination against women areamong the objectives of the Australian Agency for International Development (AusAID) Gender and Development Policy.

In AusAID’s 1998-99 budget, an 18%real increase has been provided forgovernance and human rights activitiesin the aid programme. This includesfunding for an expanded Human RightsFund and for the Centre for DemocraticInstitutions. The Human Rights Fundwill continue to support small-scalehuman rights activities proposed byNGOs involved in the defence of human rights.

The National Human RightsCommission of India has receivedfunding for human rights training forofficers of women’s police cells in NewDelhi. The Tonga Women in LawAssociation has received funding to

increase Tongan women’s knowledge of

legal issues. The Fund will also provide

support for national human rights

institutions through the Asia-Pacific

Forum of National Human Rights

Institutions and the UN Centre for

Human Rights. Gender considerations

are also a significant element of a

project to strengthen PNG’s

Ombudsman Commission.

Australia has contributed funding to the

World Health Organisation’s Division of

Women’s Health and Development

(WHD) to promote women’s health and

the incorporation of women’s

perspectives into health policies and

programmes. WHD’s agenda includes

technical support, policy guidance,

research, advocacy and training

materials regarding female

genital mutilation.

Australia is funding an international

NGO programme for Appropriate

Technology in Health to work in

conjunction with the Kenyan women’s

development body MYWO, to develop

and promote coming of age ceremonies

which do not involve mutilation. The

aim of this successful and innovative

project is to create a cultural

alternative to female circumcision that

takes into account the religious, social

and cultural belief structures that give

rise to female genital mutilation.




The Wirringa Baiya Women’s LegalCentre (formerly known as theAboriginal Women’s Legal ResourceCentre) set up in 1996, providesculturally appropriate legal servicesand information to indigenous women($204,600 in 1998/99).

The NSW Legal Aid Commission holdsregular community legal educationworkshops for women including olderand Indigenous women and womenfrom linguistically diversebackgrounds. It has also produced andwidely marketed a brochure Are YouApplying for an Apprehended ViolenceOrder? which explains the process inplain English. The Commissionmanages funding to Community LegalCentres through the jointStates/Commonwealth CommunityLegal Services Funding Programme.In 1998-99, specific centres willreceive: $298,126 for Women’s LegalServices, $119,426 for Rural Women’sOutreach Lawyers, $149,559 forSatellite Women’s Project, $304,234 forAboriginal & Torres Strait IslanderWomen and $325,794 for RuralWomen’s Services in addition togeneral recurrent funding tocommunity legal centres.

Q U E E N S L A N D

Recent Queensland anti-discriminationreforms include:

■ a review of all Queenslandlegislation in order to detect andaddress gender bias. The review willseek to identify both direct andindirect forms of discriminationagainst women, and recommendappropriate legislative or otherapproaches to reform;

■ a review of the laws relating toprostitution in Queensland toconsider key issues such as thehealth and safety of sex workers aswell as prevention of the economicexploitation of sex workers, townplanning considerations and thehealth and safety of partners of menwho use the services of sex workers; and

■ establishment of a Taskforce onWomen and the Criminal Code toinvestigate the impact of the Codeon women in three areas: women asvictims; women as accused, andcourt procedures and practices. TheTaskforce will advise on women’sexperience in the criminal justicesystem and will makerecommendations for reform. TheTaskforce is due to report shortly.

The Queensland Government is takingmeasures to address the under-representation of women in thejudiciary by the appointment of an


additional three female judges to theSupreme Court, one to the districtcourt, two women StipendiaryMagistrates and one Senior StipendiaryMagistrate.

Women from all over Queensland haveidentified reconciliation betweenAboriginal and Torres Strait Islanderwomen and non-Aboriginal and TorresStrait Islander women as a priority for1999. The Office of Women’ s Policy isworking with women in the communityto develop and implement the Womenand Reconciliation Strategy.

The Strategy has three main parts:

■ establishment of local and regionalgroups focused on reconciliation andthe publication of a brochure andposter to assist the focus groups;

■ a range of forums and activities topromote reconciliation by the focusgroups during 1999; and

■ publication of a book telling thestories of reconciliation andcelebrations to take place in the year 2000.


The Northern Territory Anti-Discrimination Commission is vestedwith administering the NorthernTerritory Anti-Discrimination Act 1992and the Office of the Commissioner ofPublic Employment which monitorsequal employment opportunity withinthe public sector. The Anti-

Discrimination Commission producestapes in Indigenous languages advisingwomen of their rights and a publiceducation programme promoting therights of women with disabilities whichresulted in an increase in inquiriesrelating to the rights of women withdisabilities. The Commission alsoconducts training sessions in remotelocations to address both direct and indirect discrimination faced by women.

V I C T O R I A

In 1996, Victoria passed legislationspecifically with regard to femalegenital mutilation. The legislation wasintroduced after consultation with theaffected communities and inconjunction with a legal educationcampaign. The Victorian Governmentwill maintain a commitment to theFamily and Reproductive RightsEducation Program. The Programfocuses on reproductive rights, families and children’s rights in consultation with workers and affected communities.


A review of practices and procedureswas held within the Supreme Court,Civil Court, District Court andMagistrates Court, in consultation withthe Migrant Resource Centre, DisabilityAction Incorporated, Aboriginal LegalRights Movement and the Women’sLegal Centre.


L A W A N D J U S T I C EC O N F E R E N C E I N T H E A N A N G UP I T J A N T J A T J A R A L A N D S

In May 1998, judicial officers from theSupreme, District and MagistratesCourts as well as several CourtsAdministration Authority staff travelledto the Anangu Pitjantjatjara Lands inSA’s Far North West to attend a Lawand Justice Conference. Theconference was organised by theAnangu Pitjantjatjara Council andAboriginal Legal Rights Movement aspart of the judicial officers’ crosscultural awareness programme andwas designed to enable judicial officersand traditional Aboriginal people tomeet on Aboriginal Lands and discusslaw and justice issues.

Meetings were held separately withAnangu women and men. The women’smeetings provided an opportunity forAnangu women to discuss issues ofparticular concern to them with womenin the delegation. This includedmatters of a sensitive nature that couldnot be discussed in the presence ofmen at the general conference forum.Among the recommendations made bythe women’s meetings were theappointment of Anangu women asjustices of the peace to sit in court withthe circuit Magistrate and theappointment of women as police aides.

In collaboration with the AustralianInstitute of Criminology, the SA JusticePortfolio held a Conference on Best

Practice Interventions for IndigenousPeople in 1999. The conferenceincluded an examination of issues forwomen offenders from Indigenousgroups, as well as Indigenous women’sperspective on domestic violence, andmental and physical health issues forwomen in prisons.

Human rights are a cross cuttingtheme manifested in the full range ofmeasures for women detailedthroughout this document.

See also:

■ D: Violence against Women.

■ E: Women and Armed Conflict.

■ H: Institutional Mechanisms.



■ The Australian Government hasmaintained its commitment to thefull achievement of human rights, inparticular its commitment toimproving opportunity and choice toAustralian women in all their diversity.

■ The Australian Government hastaken practical action to improveopportunity and choice forAustralians. The AustralianGovernment’s role in bringing abouta prosperous and resilient economy


underpins human rights advancesand increased opportunities. Socialpartners in the business sector playan increasingly important part in thedelivery of services on behalf ofgovernment and in shaping thesociety in which rights are actualised.

■ Some commentators remainconcerned with measures to addressbudgetary pressures, to adopt worldbest practice in governmentoperations and the delivery ofservices, and to streamline andmore effectively target legislativeprotections. Continuing dialogue isneeded to address these concerns,including clarifying where concernsare not supported by the availabledata. For example, women’s full-time wages have risen comparativeto men’s since the introduction ofmore flexible arrangements underthe Workplace Relations Act 1996 and women’s employment is increasing.

■ The effect of government policies onhuman rights remains an importantmatter that warrants close andongoing monitoring and evaluation.The Australian Government has putin place robust legislative rules,monitoring systems and complaintsmechanisms to ensure policychanges are fully monitored, thatadjustments to policy can be madewhere necessary and to ensure

services and protections continue tooperate in an appropriate and non-discriminatory way.

■ Taking concrete action to advancehuman rights and supportopportunity and choice require aconcerted effort across the whole ofgovernment, in addition to theimportant ongoing role of specialisthuman rights monitoring andcomplaints mechanisms. Humanrights agencies have increased theireducative and facilitative operationsto foster a society that gives fulleffect to women’s human rights, notonly through reliance on individualcomplaints action.

■ The rise of information technologyand the Internet provides newopportunities for the promulgationof human rights and to improveaccess to the exercise of theserights. Information technologiessupport access to education andtraining for many isolated women, aswell as providing increased access tolegal advice and services for manywomen throughout Australia.


■ Women are concerned about thelevel of access to and participation inprocesses relating to Australia’sobligations under internationalinstruments on the rights of women,


including reporting and monitoringobligations. There is concern thatfunding levels are insufficient toallow NGOs to monitor andparticipate in Australia’sinternational obligations relating towomen.

■ There is concern about theeffectiveness of legislation, policiesand programmes to addressdiscrimination in relation to minoritygroups, the aged, women withdisabilities, sexual orientation,women from a non-English speakingbackground and Indigenous women.

■ There is a concern that cuts toservices, including legal aid andinterpreter services, has had aparticular impact on vulnerablegroups, such as women and childrenaffected by violence, NESB womenand Indigenous women.

■ The Government needs to adoptstrategies to ensure that femalegenital mutilation is criminalisednationally and that there is mandatory education against this practice.



In the Australian Government system,new funding commitments arecustomarily announced in the annualFederal Budget. Additionalcommitments may be publiclyannounced in the context of theelection platform or at other occasions.


W O M E N

A N D T H E

M E D I A


Stereotyping of women and inequalityin women’s access to and participationin all communication systems,especially in the media

JC H A P T E R

2 1 9


1: Increase the participation andaccess of women to expression anddecision- making in and through themedia and new technologies of communication.

2: Promote a balanced and non-stereotyped portrayal of women in the media.

O V E R V I E W

Since 1995, the world has witnessed anexplosion in new technologies ofcommunication, in particularinformation technology (IT) and theInternet. Australians are voraciousearly adopters of new technologies.Over 40% of adult Australians accessedthe Internet in the twelve months toMay 1999, a massive increase of over53% from the twelve months up to May1998. As a modern, information-basedeconomy, and with one of the mostgeographically remote populations,Australia is well positioned to benefitfrom access to the rise of new IT based communications.

The Australian Government iscommitted to supporting andmaximising the potential offered by newtechnologies. Governmentcommunications policies recognise theimportance of women’s access to newcommunications technologies,particularly for rural andgeographically isolated women.Government measures are designed to

support maximum access to newtechnologies and to minimise the riskof emergence of a society dividedbetween the information rich andinformation poor. Since 1995, Australiahas established the National Office ofthe Information Economy (NOIE) andthe Office of Government Online (OGO)and taken a range of measures toensure women’s access to emergingcommunications technologies.

The Australian Government recognisesthe important role played by the mediain portraying non-sexist images ofwomen. Since 1995, the Governmenthas also built upon measures to ensurethe appropriate portrayal of women inbroadcast media and taken action toprovide for appropriate controls overthe transmission of offensive materialsvia the Internet.


1: Increase the participation andaccess of women to expression anddecision- making in and through themedia and new technologies of communication.

W O M E N ’ S A C C E S S T O N E WT E C H N O L O G I E S


the potential offered by new

technologies in the developing

information economy. The

S T R AT E G I C

O B J E C T I V E S

Government’s vision is to maximise

opportunities for all Australians,

including women, to benefit from

these developments.

In December 1998, the Australian

Government released a document

setting out this vision: A Strategic

Framework for the Information

Economy – Identifying Priorities for

Action. The Framework acknowledges

the potential barriers to online access

of groups, such as women, and

identifies the need for strategies to

overcome these barriers.

The Commonwealth and State

Women’s Ministerial Conference on the

Status of Women commissioned a

survey of women’s use of the Internet

through the Activities Trust Fund. The

survey found that access to information

technologies was greatest for those

using IT in connection with work

or study.

Governments at all levels, including

women’s machineries at the State and

Territory level, have been active in

providing access and assistance to

women to use the Internet. Many State

and Territory women’s offices offer

Internet facilities for use by women and

training in the use of the Internet.

Public access to the Internet is also

available through community access

points, such as public libraries.

O N L I N E G O V E R N M E N T

S E R V I C E S

The Australian Office for Government

Online encourages a whole of

government approach to the use of

information technology and

telecommunications at the national

level. These strategies aim to make the

Government an innovative, leading edge

user of online technology and to

promote the use of electronic access to

government services.

Australian Government agencies are

using new technologies to put services

online and improve community access

to information and services. For

example, the Department of

Employment, Workplace Relations and

Small Business maintains a Business

Entry Point which is a single point of

access to government information and

transactions for people operating or

planning to start a business. It

includes advice on employing staff,

taxation, codes of practice, business

assistance and online transactions

which allow the business person to

transact online with government at

both Commonwealth and State levels.

This will be of great assistance to

women who comprise the bulk of small

business opera



W O M E N ’ S P A R T I C I P AT I O NI N T H E M E D I A

A U S T R A L I A N F I L M ,

T E L E V I S I O N A N D R A D I O

S C H O O L

The Australian Film, Television andRadio School (AFTRS) is the nationalcentre of excellence for professionaltraining in film and related industries.AFTRS maintains a strong record ofgender equity. Women make up 67% ofAFTRS’ senior managers andapproximately 50% of employees andstudents. To date, 48.5% of all film andtelevision graduates are women and40% of radio graduates are women.Participation rates for cinematography,design and sound are particularly goodgiven that these are areas traditionallydominated by men.

AFTRS has fostered the careers ofoutstanding female filmmakers such asGillian Armstrong, Jane Campion,Samantha Lang and Rachel Perkins.

In recent years, AFTRS has pursued anumber of avenues to encourage a highlevel of participation by women in film,broadcasting and new media:

■ AFTRS and State organisations ofWomen in Film and Television workto identify training needs for womenin film, television and videoindustries;

■ AFTRS’ Industry Training Fund forWomen (ITFW) has assisted

hundreds of women since 1988 toupgrade their creative and technicalskills in film, broadcasting andrelated industries. Its emphasis ison specific support for women in theindustry to enter non-traditionalareas such as camera departments,feature film sound recording andsound post-production, multicameratelevision direction, documentaryfilmmaking and new technologies.In 1998/99, the ITFW supported 14individual women and manyactivities on women such as theWomen on Women Film Festival, AScreen of Her Own Conferenceand the Women Screen Composers Conference;

■ ITFW financially supports individualtraining for women throughattachments and fee subsidies. Italso assists specialised State-basedprojects with relevant localorganisations; and

■ in 1999, AFTRS published a book byJulie James Bailey, Guts andTenacity: Women in Film andTelevision. The book containsinterviews and profiles of womenwith established careers in film andtelevision and showcases successfulrole models for women seeking toenter the industry. AFTRS Researchhas supplemented the book with areport on interviews with nine youngfemale film practitioners. Theyounger women’s perspectives


explore changes in the trends andchallenges experienced by theirolder colleagues.

While some areas of Australia’s filmand television industries remain maledominated, there has been a noticeableshift in this culture in recent years.Australia has a greater representationof women in the upper hierarchy ofmedia industries than most othercountries, including the United States.Government support remains animportant lever to consolidate andextend the gains made by women inthese fields.

A U S T R A L I A N F I L MC O M M I S S I O N ( A F C )

The Australian Film Commission (AFC)is the primary development agency forthe film industry in Australia. The aimsof AFC’s industry and screen culturalsupport include, inter alia, initiatives toincrease the participation of women inkey creative and technical positions inthe film, video and television industriesand the development of Indigenous filmand television programme makers.

Through the Women’s Film Fund andthe Women’s Programme, the AFC hasdemonstrated a commitment toensuring women participate in allaspects of the Australian film andtelevision industry. Professionaldevelopment initiatives included theNew Imaging Technologies Scheme,

which assisted 32 women to upgradetheir skills in the area of interactivemedia. In the context of rapidlyevolving technologies, these one-offgrants have enabled recipients todevelop their skills across a range ofactivities including CD-ROM creation,3D animation for website design, digitalimage production for non-linearediting, interactive documentary designand visual special effects technology.

The Women’s Programme has recentlybeen mainstreamed, with the overallobjectives and activities beingintegrated into the AFC’s overall branchstructure and its programme andproject development activities. TheAFC is collecting data on theparticipation of women in AFC fundedprojects and providing analysis andreports on this data.

During 2000, the AFC is maintaining afinancial commitment to the Women inTelevision Project which will bemanaged through the newly createdIndustry and Cultural DevelopmentUnit. This project, undertaken inpartnership with all major commercialnetworks, the public broadcasters andindustry associations, focuses oncareer development and networkingactivities for women working inAustralian television and theindependent production sector.

The AFC supports a network of screenresource organisations throughout


Australia to provide entry level accessto the industry and skills andprofessional development forpractitioners. These organisationsensure broad community access toscreen culture, with an emphasis onthe needs of those with diverse culturaland linguistic backgrounds. Fundedorganisations are encouraged todevelop access and equity policies and strategies.

In 1999, 53% of workers inorganisations seeking AFC assistancewere women.


2: Promote a balanced and non-stereotyped portrayal of women in the media.

B R O A D C A S T I N G I N D U S T R YC O D E S O F P R A C T I C E

Australian public and commercialbroadcasters are required to havecodes of practice. There are provisionsin such codes, or in accompanyingguidelines, which are directed to assistbroadcasters to avoid stereotypedgender portrayals. Under theBroadcasting Services Act, thecommercial broadcasters are requiredto register their codes with theAustralian Broadcasting Authority(ABA) and national broadcasters mustdevelop codes of practice under their

enabling legislation and notify these to ABA.

The Code of Practice and relatedAdvisory Notes of the Federation ofAustralian Commercial TelevisionStations recommend:

■ avoidance of language whichunnecessarily excludes one sex;

■ avoidance of stereotyped gender portrayals;

■ a better balance in the use of womenand men as experts and authorities; and

■ increased prominence to women’sachievements in areas such as sport.

The Federation of Australian RadioBroadcasters also has guidelines on the portrayal of women on commercial radio.

Both Codes provide for complaintsprocesses. The ABA may take action inresponse to breaches of codes.

Australia’s national broadcasters, theAustralian Broadcasting Corporation(ABC) and the Special BroadcastingService (SBS) are independent from thegovernment of the day in programmingand editorial policy, but must, by law,develop codes of practice.

The code of practice of the ABC states:

■ programmes will acknowledge the fullrange of roles performed by women;


■ programmes should not promote orendorse inaccurate, demeaning, ordiscriminatory stereotypes ofwomen or men;

■ irrelevant references to a woman’sphysical characteristics, maritalstatus or maternity will be avoided; and

■ in producing programmes usingexperts, interviewees and othertalent, programme makers willensure that there are opportunitiesfor both men and women to present viewpoints.

ABC policy stipulates that programmesshould not include language or imagesthat are likely to encourage denigrationor discrimination against any person orsection of the community on the basisof sex, race, ethnicity, nationality, age,disability or illness, social oroccupational status, sexual preferenceor the holding of any religious, culturalor political belief.

■ Language or images that perpetuatemyths or reinforce stereotypesbased on any of the above groupsshould be avoided. For example, theportrayal of female secretaries andmale managers or women insupermarkets to illustrate foodprices are considered to reinforceimages which are not representativeand should be avoided.

■ Programme makers should not uselanguage and images that conveyoutdated and often discriminatory

assumptions about the social anddomestic roles of men and women.For example, irrelevant references towomen’s physical appearance, age,marital status or maternity can beoffensive and should not be made.

SBS broadcasts with a particularemphasis on Australia’s community ofnon-English speaking, migrant andmulticultural members. SBS’s code ofpractice covers the portrayal ofwomen, including:

■ provision for awareness of the actualand potential contributions ofwomen and states that the portrayalof women should not create or reinforce sexual, gender or racial stereotypes;

■ provision of opportunities for womento direct, produce and presentprogrammes. The code recognisesthat a high level of involvement fromwomen in general programmes issought and the on-air presence ofwomen on radio or television ismaximised; and

■ recognition of the particular needsof women of non-English speakingbackgrounds. SBS seeks tochallenge stereotypes by reflecting awide variety of cultural mores andportraying women in both traditionaland modern roles.

In addition to these measures, FilmAustralia produces programmes for theNational Interest Programme, which


often explore the area of history andsocial issues in the context of the roleof women. In 1997-98, threeprogrammes featured women as theprincipal subjects.

See also:

■ ‘Portrayal of violence in the media’ inD: Violence Against Women.

C O M M U N I T Y AT T I T U D E S

The ABA conducts research intocommunity attitudes on issues relatingto programmes. ABA’s 1997 survey onaudience concerns showed that menand women frequently differ in theiropinions and attitudes regardingbroadcast media programming. Thesurvey found that women were morelikely than men to have seen somethingon television that they disliked or whichconcerned them.

See also:

■ ‘Portrayal of violence in the media’ section in D: Violence Against Women.

C E N S O R S H I P

Australia is an open society, with a highrespect for free speech and the rightsof adults to read, hear and see whatthey want without undue restriction.Australia’s censorship and regulatoryframework respects this principle,while recognising the need to allow forinformed choice of content and

protection from unsolicited offensivematerial, to protect minors and tosafeguard against demeaning andviolent content.

Regulation of publications, films andcomputer games in Australia is acooperative scheme involvingCommonwealth, State and Territorygovernments. Classification decisionsare based on the following principles:

■ Australian adults should be able toread, hear and see what they want;

■ minors should be protected frommaterial likely to harm or disturb them;

■ everyone should be protected fromunsolicited material that they find offensive;

■ community concerns should betaken into account;

■ depictions should not condone orincite violence, particularly sexualviolence; and

■ portrayal of persons should not be ina demeaning manner.

The production, dissemination orpossession of child pornography isillegal in all States and Territories.

Recent reviews have includedguidelines for films, publications,computer games and the Internet.These reviews, which involve publicconsultation, are conducted to ensurethe guidelines reflect current


community standards and will takeaccount of concerns about depictions ofviolence, including sexual violence, andthe portrayal of persons in ademeaning manner.

Revised classification guidelines forfilms were introduced in July 1996.Among other matters, these removedhigh level violence from the ‘R’classification. A review of theclassification guidelines forpublications commenced in 1997.When that review is completed, a reviewis to be conducted of the computergames guidelines. A review is alsobeing conducted of offence provisions,in response to community concernsabout the dissemination of obscene or violent material via the Internet.

In 1999 the Australian Governmentintroduced new legislation to regulatethe content of the Internet. The objectof the legislation is to protectAustralian citizens, particularlychildren, from illegal and highlyoffensive material.

See also:

■ D: Violence Against Women

W O M E N W I T HS P E C I A L N E E D SIn 1999, 53% of workers inorganisations seeking AFC assistancewere women. Amongst AFC applicants,42% conducted programmes toenhance the participation of peoplefrom a non-English speaking

background and people from Aboriginaland Torres Strait Islander descent.Amongst staff from applicantorganisations, 7% were from a non-English speaking background and 3%were of Aboriginal or Torres StraitIslander descent.


The Federation of AustralianCommercial Television Stations’(FACTS) Code of Practice forcommercial television broadcastershas an Advisory Note dealing with theportrayal of Aboriginal and Torres StraitIslander peoples. The Note encouragesreporters and producers to deal withAboriginal and Torres Strait Islanderpeoples as an integral and importantpart of contemporary Australia and torespect the dignity, traditions, diversityand contemporary achievements ofthese peoples. The Note also providespractical advice about avoidingprejudice, stereotyping andunwarranted generalisation.

In May 1997, the Aboriginal and TorresStrait Islander Arts Policy was adoptedby the Australia Council. The Boardapproved triennial grants of $124,900per annum (1998-2000) to theAssociation of Northern, Kimberley andArnhem Aboriginal Artists in theNorthern Territory to supportIndigenous artists from the remoteregions of northern and westernAustralia. The Board has also allocated


three-year funding to four majorIndigenous organisations.

In the 1999 grant round, the AustraliaCouncil Board allocated over $1.4million to support the development ofnew practices in Indigenous art,through contemporary interpretationsof cultural traditions and the use of newtechnologies and media.

A U S T R A L I A N F I L M

C O M M I S S I O N

In 1998-99, the Indigenous Branchundertook initiatives to increase filmproduction and related skills amongIndigenous people and to promote thequality and diversity of indigenousfilms. As a result, the number ofapplications from Indigenous people tothe AFC increased significantly from 53in 1998 to 160 in 1999.

In 1999, the Indigenous Branchembarked on an initiative in the newmedia area, Online, Ontrack, to provideIndigenous people with anunderstanding of digital manipulation,online technology and the creation ofCD-ROMs. Workshops lasting ten dayswere conducted for between six and tenindigenous people each in Melbourne,Adelaide, Brisbane and Perth.

Some recent activities by AFC fundedscreen resource organisations are:

■ in 1999, Metro Screen in Sydneyextended its Indigenous MentorProgramme to provide five

Indigenous producers with

production opportunity and

professional mentors;

■ in September 1998, the ChangingImages Festival toured Australia to

showcase films made by people from

non-English speaking backgrounds;

■ ten Indigenous artists and

filmmakers received funding to

complete the Certificate II in

Interactive Arts.

A U S T R A L I A N F I L M ,

T E L E V I S I O N A N D R A D I O

S C H O O L

The Indigenous Programme assists

Indigenous Australians to attend

courses, workshops and seminars.

AFTRS designs courses specifically for

Indigenous Australians and conducts a

scholarship programme in conjunction

with the Commonwealth Department of

Education, Training and Youth Affairs.

N O N E N G L I S H S P E A K I N G

B A C K G R O U N D W O M E NIn September 1998, the AFC funded the

Changing Images Festival which toured

Australia to showcase films made

by people from non-English

speaking backgrounds;

See also:

■ See ‘Broadcasting Industry Codes of

Practice’ above.


W O M E N W I T H AD I S A B I L I T Y

In 1999, Women With DisabilitiesAustralia (WWDA), a national women’sNGO, received a $5,000 grant from theAustralian Government to promote theconsideration and interests of womenwith all types of disabilities in thedevelopment of government andindustry policy in relation totelecommunications, by fundingrepresentation of women with disabilities on relevant advisory forums.

In 1998 AccessAbility, Online Servicesfor People with Disabilities a newCommonwealth grants program aimedat making online services moreaccessible for people with disabilities,was announced. Through this grantsprogram, WWDA received $64,000 toenable WWDA to promote access toonline information for women withdisabilities in Australia. The threemain strategies of WWDA’s project aredevelopment of a website, Internettraining workshops for women withdisabilities and Internet access pointsand electronic links for each State andTerritory branch of WWDA.

R U R A L W O M E N

The Australian Government hasprovided $250 million over five years toNetworking the Nation to assist theeconomic and social development ofregional, rural and remote Australia.

This programme allows rural women totake advantage of improvedcommunications, on-line training, up-to-date commodities information,world wide marketing opportunitiesand the ability to work from home.Projects that will benefit rural women include:

■ the ‘Farmwide Regional AccessNetwork’ project aimed atsignificantly enhancing Internetaccess for rural families. The projectincludes provision of acomprehensive range of relevant on-line content and services for ruralfamilies; local call Internet accessfor the first time to 15 communitiesin four different states; and selectedequipment enabling 400 remotefamilies to participate in a trial ofsatellite-delivered Internet access.All of these projects are backed byongoing training and support. Theinitiative will enable rural women totake advantage of the vast potentialopened up by the Internet forinformation and communication;

■ the Queensland Rural Women’sNetwork BridgIT project which willprovide IT and Internet training andsupport to rural women and theirfamilies; and

■ Women’s Justice Network whichcomprises a network of communityorganisations and legal adviceservices connected throughcomputer video conferencingfacilities and a legal information


database. This is a pilot project toprovide legal information, advice andreferral to women in south west Queensland.

The Australian Government will providean additional funding of $81 millionover three years to Networking theNation, upon the further 16% sale of Telstra.

I N T E R N AT I O N A LA I D

Australia’s aid programme hasprovided support and training to womenworking in the media.

■ The South Pacific media project, towhich Australia is providing $2million over 5 years, includestraining for women producers ofdocumentaries, for production as videos or for local television programmes;

■ The role of men and women indevelopment is regularly reported inthe Australian Government aidmagazine, Focus, for widedistribution within Australia and topartner governments;

■ Since 1995, Australia has provided$95,500 to the Women’s MediaCentre in Cambodia to produce atelevision series on women inpolitics and equipment for a radiostation and media campaign. ThisCentre monitors the portrayal of

women by the Cambodian media andprovides training and workshops forjournalists on women’s issues.


V I C T O R I A

The Victorian Government is committedto addressing the media portrayal ofwomen. It will seek a more positiverepresentation of women as leaders,sports players and by the advertisingindustry. The value of women and thecontributions made by women will bestrengthened by a more positive andrepresentative portrayal of women.

O B S TA C L E S A N D

L E A R N I N G

P O I N T S The Australian Government hasresponded promptly to the emergenceof new technologies, particularlyinformation technology and the Internetto harness the economic and socialpotential of these new communicationsmedia. A hallmark of AustralianGovernment activity has been tosupport wide access to new media, withparticular regard to the needs ofwomen and rural communities, so as toavoid the emergence of informationrich and information poor within the community.


Information technology is proving apotent force to increase participation incivil society, through online access todiverse products including education,legal and commercial services. TheInternet is also being developed as acommunication channel for civildiscourse, and is used extensively bygovernment and non-governmentpartners for dialogue. Australia’ssuccessful experience may provide abenchmark for other countries dealing with geographically remote populations.

Australia is fortunate to have a lesssex-disaggregated media industry thanother countries. Continuedgovernment measures assist inpromoting and facilitating women’saccess to, and participation in theindustry, particularly in areas,including high technology areas, wherethey remain under-represented.

Australia has robust Codes of Conductfor the depiction of women in themedia. In recent years, there has beena noticeable improvement in thedepiction of women, includingrecognition of women in non-traditionalroles and avoidance of the depiction ofwomen in stereotypical or demeaningways. There is still room for improvement.

Australia’s Codes of Conduct for publicand commercial broadcasters provideredress for offensive or demeaningportrayal of women in the media.

These arrangements generally workwell and demonstrate effectivecollaboration between self-regulatoryand external complaints mechanisms.For example, in 1998, consumercomplaints led to the successfulwithdrawal of a barbequeadvertisement due to inappropriategender stereotyping of a mother-in-law. Continued public education isimportant in educating consumers inthe ways to take effective action underpublic broadcast codes.

The Australian community holds dearto the principle of free speech and theright of adults to access informationwithout government controls. Recentgovernment changes to theclassification and broadcast hours ofviolent programmes, and to restrictaccess to certain Internet materials,indicate it is possible to preserve thisprinciple while responding tocommunity concerns.


■ There is concern that there areinsufficient mechanisms to educatemedia representatives to ensure thefull implementation of accountabilityguidelines on the portrayal ofwomen in the media. There is still aneed to challenge genderstereotyping, violence againstwomen and a lack of portrayal ofsocial diversity in the media.


■ There is a concern that many women

may be excluded from access to new

technologies of communication,

particularly information technology

and the Internet. Strategies need to

be developed to maximise women’s

access to such technologies.



incorporated above.






announced in the context of the

election platform or at other occasions.



comprehensively outlined in Deliveringon our Commitments for Women, the



Prime Minister on the Status of




W O M E N

A N D T H E

E N V I R O N M E N T


Gender inequalities in the managementof natural resources and in thesafeguarding of the environment

KC H A P T E R

2 3 3


1: Involve women actively inenvironmental decision-making at all levels.

2: Integrate gender concerns andperspectives in policies and programmesfor sustainable development.

3: Strengthen or establish mechanismsat the national, regional andinternational levels to assess theimpact of development andenvironmental policies on women.

O V E R V I E W

Research has shown thatenvironmental issues are important forwomen. Areas of particular interest towomen include: protection of theenvironment for future generations;women’s involvement in environmentaldecision-making; sustainabledevelopment that ensures the caringand careful use of all resources byindividuals, industry and governments;damage to the ozone layer; and foodstandards in relation to geneticallymodified products.

The Australian Government has taken aleading role internationally onenvironmental and sustainabledevelopment issues. Australia’senvironmental policies andprogrammes seek to ensure thatwomen have access to and areappropriately represented in decision-making forums, as well as havingaccess to relevant information and

education. The Australian Governmentis also aware that women and childrenare particularly affected by certainenvironmental hazards.

The Australian Government hascommitted around $1.5 billion to theenvironment through the NaturalHeritage Trust using proceeds from thepartial privatisation of Australia’snational telecommunications carrier.

Sustainable agriculture is a majorenvironmental goal for Australia.Australian women are actively involvedin caring for the environment through arange of government funded,community based programmes such asLandcare Green Corps.

Specially targeted public awarenesscampaigns have been undertaken forenvironmental issues particularlyaffecting women. These includeinformation campaigns to reduce risksfrom lead petrol and paint to women ofchild-bearing age and campaigns for consumers.


1: Involve women actively inenvironmental decision-making at all levels.

Women are active and well representedin environmental government and non-government agencies. For example,women comprise almost 50% of staff in

S T R AT E G I C

O B J E C T I V E S

Environment Australia, and 30% ofappointments on statutory and non-statutory bodies.

Women have held an increasingnumber of field-based parks andenvironment positions since 1995.Women also participate in largenumbers in many non-governmentenvironmental organisations. Womenthroughout the community, particularlyrural farm managers, are activelyinvolved in grassroots communitylandcare and environmental work.Rural and agricultural women, andIndigenous women, play an active andimportant role in sustainable practices.

Department of Agriculture, Fisheriesand Forestry - Australia funds a rangeof measures to increase women’sparticipation in decision-making inrural communities. The Guidelines forreaching our clients – women promotesconsultation with women and containsexamples of best practice models forincreasing women’s involvement indecision-making in rural communities.This publication is distributed widelyand is free of charge.

See also:

■ G: Power and decision-making fordetails on the Rural Women’sAdvisory Council.

■ The ‘Rural women’ and ‘Indigenouswomen’ under Women with SpecialNeeds section below.


2: Integrate gender concerns andperspectives in policies and programmesfor sustainable development.

L A N D C A R E

The National Landcare Programmeprovides $280 million to the communityfor projects for the sustainablemanagement of land, water, vegetationand biological diversity. Theprogramme also supports propertymanagement planning which providesfarmers with improved naturalresource and business managementskills. There are more than 4,250Landcare projects around Australia andapproximately a third of Australianfarmers are involved in these projects.Women as joint farm managers areactively involved in these activities.

Aboriginal Landcare encompasses anumber of specific projects involvingIndigenous communities. Theseinclude the GreeningAustralia/Northern Land Councilproject for landcare education ($45,500)and the Julalikari Council AboriginalCorporation land management project ($64,000).

G R E E N C O R P S

The Green Corps Programme ($88

million over four years from 1999-2000

to 2002-2003) provides full-time



accredited training opportunities for six

months for young people aged 17-20

years interested in cultural heritage

protection and environmental issues.

To date, around 43% of Green Corpsparticipants have been women. GreenCorps improves participants’

employment prospects and provides

them with a basis for further education

and training in environment-

related areas.

See also:

■ The ‘Mutual obligation’ section in A:Women and Poverty.

C O A S T C A R E

Coastcare supports direct community

involvement in the management of

coastal and marine areas. Coastcarefocuses on practical actions and on-

ground work to tackle the causes of

environmental degradation. Women

are actively involved in Coastcareactivities both as members of

community groups undertaking

projects and as facilitators. Of the 27

facilitators currently employed, 16 are

women. Coastcare regional facilitators

work with community groups, including

women’s community groups, and with

local government to facilitate links

between groups and local coastal

managers and to assist in

the preparation of project

funding applications.

J A B I L U K A

The proposal to mine uranium at

Jabiluka has been the subject of a

comprehensive environmental impact

assessment process under the

Environment Protection (Impact ofProposals) Act 1974 lasting nearly

three years. Several reports have been

prepared including the EnvironmentImpact Statement and a PublicEnvironment Report, both of which

were subject to extensive public review.

The Mirrar, traditional owners of the

Jabiluka lease, gave consent in 1982 to

the Jabiluka mine in an agreement

under the Aboriginal Land Rights(Northern Territory) Act 1976. The

Mirrar confirmed this consent in 1991

when they agreed to the transfer of the

mining rights to Energy Resources of

Australia Ltd.

The Jabiluka mine will provide a wide

range of social and economic benefits

to the local Aboriginal community.

These include employment and training

opportunities, provision of new housing

for about 65 Aboriginal families,

assistance for Aboriginal businesses

and funding of a women’s resource

centre, traineeships and university

scholarships for Aboriginal students

and for adult education. In addition, the

Aboriginal communities will receive

more than $230 million in royalty

payments over the life of the project.


C L I M AT E C H A N G E

Australia is a signatory to the United

Nations Framework Convention on

Climate Change.

The Australian Government’s

agreement to the Kyoto Protocol,establishing a target to return

emissions to an increase of 8% above

1990 levels by the period 2008-2012,

represents a significant commitment.

Without any measures in place,

Australia’s net energy emission growth

was projected to increase by 43% from

1990 levels to the year 2010.

Australia is committed to robust and

credible action in this regard. To

address this issue, the Australian

Government has committed funding of

almost $1 billion over five years – the

largest commitment of funding to

address the challenge of climate

change in Australia’s history.

■ The Australian Greenhouse Office

was established within the

environment portfolio to provide a

whole of government approach to

greenhouse matters, and to deliver

the Commonwealth Government’s

$180 million climate change

package, Safeguarding the Future:Australia’s Response to ClimateChange. This is the world’s

first dedicated national

government agency to oversee the

greenhouse problem.

■ The National Greenhouse Strategy isa ‘whole-of-government’ strategyagreed by all Australiangovernments in 1998. It is acomprehensive approach to meetingAustralia’s international climatechange commitments. The Strategyaims to: limit net greenhouse gasemissions, in particular, to meet ourinternational commitments; fosterknowledge and understanding ofgreenhouse issues; and to lay the foundations for adaptation to climate change.

■ The Household Greenhouse ActionProgramme encourages community,industry and governments to work inpartnership to address barriersaffecting the supply of, and demandfor, energy-efficient products andservices. Grants are allocated toprojects that will reduce nationalgreenhouse emissions fromhouseholds. Areas to be addressedinclude hot water systems, lighting,refrigeration, and heating andcooling systems.

■ The Greenhouse Challenge is a joint

voluntary initiative between the

Australian Government and industry

to abate greenhouse gas emissions.

Participating organisations sign

agreements with the Government

that provide a framework for

undertaking and reporting on

actions to abate emissions. The


measure has succeeded in achieving

broad and diverse participation, from

public and private organisations,

both large and small, and across all

industry sectors.

■ A wide range of programmes

including: the Alternative FuelsConversion Programme; the

Photo-voltaic Rebate Programme;

the Renewable Remote Power Generation Programme;the Renewable EnergyCommercialisation Programme; anda Greenhouse Gas Abatement Fundthat will support activities with

maximum capacity for emission

reduction and sink enhancement.

■ The Cities for Climate Protection™Programme is a partnership between

the Australian Greenhouse Office and

the International Council for Local

Environmental Initiatives. Cities for

Climate Protection Australia is an

innovative and internationally

recognised programme for

empowering Australian local

governments to reduce their own

greenhouse gas emissions and to

leverage broader reductions through

community partnerships. The

programme has been highly

successful and since it began in 1997,

74 local councils (covering 39% of

Australia’s population) have

committed to the programme.


3: Strengthen or establish mechanismsat the national, regional andinternational levels to assess theimpact of development andenvironmental policies on women.

Institutional mechanisms have beenestablished to monitor the impact ofAustralia’s environmental policies on women.

E N V I R O N M E N TP R O T E C T I O N

The Environment Protection andBiodiversity Conservation Act 1999(EPBC Act) places responsibility forenvironmental issues with Stategovernments and appropriateCommonwealth portfolios. The EPBCAct requires extensive consultation withthe community and interest groups inthe development of bilateralagreements, environmentalassessments and in the preparation ofguidelines, management plans, wildlifeconservation plans and five-yearlyreviews. Women will take an active partin future environmental protectionthrough the EPBC Act.

The EPBC Act ensures that, for the firsttime, the Australian Government hasthe capacity to protect matters ofnational environmental significance.These matters include World Heritageproperties, Ramsar wetlands,nationally threatened species and


ecological communities, migratoryspecies, nuclear matters and theCommonwealth marine area. The Act establishes a strengthenedenvironment protection regime and anintegrated approach to theconservation of biodiversity.

G E N E T I C A L LY M O D I F I E DP R O D U C T S

Women, often the primary householdpurchasers, have particular concernsin relation to genetically modifiedproducts and have been activelyinvolved in campaigning for safe and appropriate safeguards and consumer information.

In August 1999, the AustralianGovernment announced a stringentnew system to control all commercialreleases of genetically modifiedproducts in Australia. It has committed$7.5 million over two years to apermanent Office of the GeneTechnology Regulator to be establishedby 1 July 2001. The GeneticManipulation Advisory Committee,currently chaired by EmeritusProfessor Nancy Millis AC MBE, willadvise on the scientific safety aspectsof genetically modified organisms.Environment Australia will advise on allenvironmental aspects.

B I O T E C H N O L O G Y

Biotechnology encompasses technologiesbased on the application of biologicalprocesses with diverse application inmedicine, agriculture, food processing,

manufacturing and environmentalmanagement. To realise the benefits ofbiotechnology, the community must beconfident that any associated risks arerigorously managed through regulationthat is transparent, accountable andunderstood and supported by the community.

Women’s NGOs have been active inbiotechnological and related areas.Work with consumers, includingwomen’s consumer groups, is animportant part of Australia’s approachto biotechnology.

In September 1998, the AustralianGovernment announced its intention todevelop a comprehensive strategy toposition Australia to benefit from thedevelopment of biotechnology. ABiotechnology Consultative Group wasformed to guide the development of thestrategy. In May 1999, the Governmentannounced measures intended toassist the development and applicationof biotechnology in Australia. One ofthese measures was the establishmentof Biotechnology Australia tocoordinate the AustralianGovernment’s activities inbiotechnology. There are four womenon the Biotechnology ConsultativeGroup (a total of 14 members).

A I R P O L L U T I O N

In June 1998, Commonwealth, Stateand Territory governments agreed tonationally applicable ambient airquality standards for Australia. The


standards cover six pollutants to whichAustralians are exposed (lead, carbonmonoxide, sulfur dioxide, nitrousoxides, ozone and particles) and are setout in the National EnvironmentProtection Measure for Ambient AirQuality. Standards include pollutantsparticularly injurious to the health ofchildren and pregnant women becauseof their potential for greater sensitivityto chemicals. The measure will ensureambient air quality to protect humanhealth and well being. It alsoestablishes mandatory protocols formonitoring air quality and harmonisesmonitoring and reporting practicesacross States and Territories.

S I T E C O N T A M I N AT I O N

Australia’s National EnvironmentalProtection Council is developing anational environmental measure onAssessment of Site Contamination.This initiative will provide a nationallyagreed formally recognised approachfor assessing soil contamination and the effects of resultant environmental hazards.

N AT I O N A L P O L L U T A N TI N V E N T O R Y

The National Pollutant Inventorycollects information from industry andgovernments on diffuse and pointsource emissions of pollutants due tohuman activity. The Inventory providesinformation that can be used to assesshow and to what extent women are

particularly susceptible or exposed by environmental degradation and hazards.

N AT I O N A L E N V I R O N M E N TA LH E A LT H P O L I C Y

In late 1996, the Australian Governmentinitiated the second stage ofdevelopment of a nationalenvironmental health policy. The policyis based on the need for broadcommunity information about andsupport and ownership of decisionsabout developments which may affecthuman health and the environment.The current policy focuses on improvingaccess to environmental healthinformation and new initiatives,particularly mechanisms to increasepublic availability and accessibility ofvalidated information.

See also:

■ C: Women and Health, the nationalenvironmental health policy


R U R A L W O M E N

Agriculture, Fisheries and ForestryAustralia (AFFA) recognises thesignificant contribution of women in therural sector. Women participateactively in a wide range of sustainableresource management activitiesincluding whole-farm and land care


practices, the National Heritage trust,catchment management work and theRural Partnership Programme.

AFFA’s Women in Rural IndustriesSection integrates women’sperspectives into the AustralianGovernment’s agriculturalprogrammes and promotes thesignificant contribution of women inbest practice case studies. The Sectionhas produced a set of guidelines tobetter integrate the concerns of womeninto the development of AFFA’s policiesand programmes.


Aboriginal traditional owners havebeen the custodians and sculptors ofthe land for generations and theirtraditional skills and knowledge areparticularly recognised in parksmanagement. Joint managementbetween Parks Australia andtraditional owners and the employmentof Aboriginal people ensure thattraditional skills and knowledge,particularly women’s traditional skills,are used in conjunction with modernmanagement practices to ensure thepreservation of Australia’s natural andcultural landscapes of significance.

Environment Australia providesAboriginal women with opportunities toparticipate in environmental tasks atall levels, ranging from communityinvolvement to being employed as

rangers, cultural advisers or trainingofficers. Some of these positions are atthe senior management level.

I N T E R N AT I O N A LA I D

Australia’s international aidprogramme ensures that aid activitiesmake a positive contribution tosustainable development.

In 1998-99 the Australian aidprogramme will spend an estimated$193 million on environment activitiesin developing countries. This includes$51 million on projects in sectorsprincipally targeted at the environment(such as sustainable resourcemanagement, urban environmentalmanagement and sustainable energyproduction) and $142 million on sectorsthat are not principally targeted at theenvironment but have significantenvironmental benefits (such as watersupply and sanitation).

The needs of women and children aretaken into account carefully in thedesign and implementation of these activities.

The Central Visayas Water andSanitation Project improved thesituation of women by reducingdistances to water sources, byincreasing latrine ownership and byincreasing knowledge about the causesof diarrhoea. The community hadsignificant inputs into major project


decisions. The women were trained notonly in health education but also inlatrine construction. Women reportedeconomic benefits and improvementsin more free time, less heavy workand improved relationships with their spouses.

Australia is providing $10m over 5 yearsto a Community Resource ManagementProject in Nepal. The project isimplementing activities in incomegeneration, increasing subsistenceproduction, and improving communityself-reliance and conservation of theenvironment. This project builds onliteracy, water supply and communityforest management activities of theNepal Australia Community ForestryProject that was completed in 1997.

The Environment Protection Agencyhas developed an Environment ImpactAssessment Training ResourcesManual prepared for the United NationsEnvironment Programme (UNEP),under the guidance and technicalsupport of the UNEP InternationalWorking Group on environment impactassessments. The Manual promotesthe development of local trainingmaterials that reflect the economic,cultural and social systems indeveloping countries and in countriesmoving to a market economy.

This project is seen as a major steptowards strengthening capacity-building in environmental protection in

these countries and establishing theinstitutional basis for effective, locallysupported environmental impactassessment. Women are specificallypromoted as stakeholders in thisprocess.

Australia’s input to the GlobalEnvironment Facility is closely guidedby the gender and development policiesof the Australian aid programme. InMarch 1998, Australia committed $43million to the replenishment of theGlobal Environment Facility (GEF), inconjunction with the first ever GEFAssembly in New Delhi in April 1998.Since GEF’s creation, Australia hascommitted funds to the pilot phase(1991-1994), Phase 1 (1994-1997) andPhase 2 (1998-2002). Australia jointlyfinances three GEF projects within theAsia Pacific region.

Australia has carried out projectsunder the Activities ImplementedJointly Scheme with Chile, Fiji,Indonesia, Mauritius and the SolomonIslands. The Scheme is a precursor tothe ‘Clean Development Mechanism’which will enable developed countriesto engage in emission reductionprojects in developing countries. Suchprojects help developed countries toachieve their Kyoto targets and at thesame time contribute to theachievement of sustainabledevelopment goals in the hostdeveloping country.


Australia is also contributingsignificantly to the dissemination ofinformation about a range of land careissues. These include campaigns onthe effects of land-based pollution onthe marine environment in the Asia-pacific region and building the capacityof States in the region to moreeffectively manage marineenvironments. In addition, Australiawas a key participant in thedevelopment of a regional oceanspolicy for the South Pacific, includinginput into the United NationsConvention on the Law of the Sea in thePacific Conference in Tonga in August1999. Australia also provides marinescience and technology training onmarine protected areas to countrieswithin the region.


V I C T O R I A

The Victorian Action Plan for Women inAgriculture and Resource Managementhas established the blueprint for actionover the next five years. There are anumber of components of the actionplan which promote the role of womenand increase their involvement innatural resource management. Theregister for Victorian Women inAgriculture and Resource Management

provides opportunities for women tohave a role in leadership and decisionmaking through appointments toBoards and Committees.

An advisory body to the Department ofNatural Resources and Environment(DNRE) consisting of Victorian Womenin Agriculture and ResourceManagement has also beenestablished. In addition, DNRE hasalso instigated a programme, titled“Working with Rural Women”, whichrecognises women as clients of the Department.


The NSW Government encouragedwomen to nominate for the 1997 RuralLands Protection Boards. Women’srepresentation on these boardsincreased from 4% in 1996 to 9% in1997. Women are now on over 50% ofthe Rural Lands Protection Boards.


The second Western Australian TwoYear Plan for Women includescommitments for women working forand with environmental issues,including continued support forlandcare and other environmentalgroups. Strategies will improveservices to women to improve careerprospects and raise the profile ofwomen in the agriculture andresources management sector.


Specific initiatives involve:

■ information gathering and planning

via the Rural Remote

Women’s Network;

■ interrogation of data on use of

parks to identify gender

specific requirements;

■ improve use of technology to

increase the role of women in

decision making in relation to the

environment (eg leadership training,

boards and committees); and

■ maximising access by women to

environmental information and

internet site (eg NatureBase).


The Women in Adelaide Study is a

major collaborative project between the

South Australian Office of the Status of

Women, the City of Adelaide Council,

the University of Adelaide, Trans

Adelaide, Planning SA and the

Passenger Transport Board, to explore

women’s perceptions of the City of

Adelaide. The Study includes

qualitative and quantitative research.

Suggestions arising from the Study

have been made to the City of Adelaide

Social Development Strategy, the

Capital City Development Programme

for Adelaide and the Adelaide

Parklands Management Strategy.

O B S TA C L E S A N DLEARNING PO INTS

C O N C E R N S O F W O M E N I N

T H E C O M M U N I T Y

■ There are concerns that theAustralian Government shouldinvolve women more inenvironmental decision-making,including proper consultation withIndigenous women in relation to theimpact of Government decisions ontraditional customs and beliefs.

■ There is a concern about a lack ofmeasures to assess, regulate andreduce the impact of environmentalhazards, chemicals and toxicpesticides on women, children andunborn babies.

■ There is also a concern thatlegislative changes have weakenedthe Australian Government’s controlover most environmental issues andprevented Government involvementin greenhouse pollution, landclearing, forest protection, waterallocation and the release ofgenetically modified organisms, allof which are of particular concern towomen.




incorporated above.






announced in the context of the election

platform or at other occasions.



comprehensively outlined in Deliveringon our Commitments for Women, the



Prime Minister on the Status of




T H E

G I R L

C H I L D


Persistent discrimination against andviolation of the rights of the girl child

LC H A P T E R

2 4 7


1. Eliminate all forms of discrimination

against the girl child.

2. Eliminate negative cultural attitudes

and practices against girls.

3. Promote and protect the rights of

the girl child and increase awareness

of her needs and potential.

4. Eliminate discrimination against

girls in education, skills development

and training.

5. Eliminate discrimination against

girls in health and nutrition.

6. Eliminate the economic exploitation

of child labour and protect young girls

at work.

7. Eradicate violence against the

girl child.

8. Promote the girl child’s awareness

of and participation in social, economic

and political life.

9. Strengthen the role of the family in

improving the status of the girl child.

O V E R V I E W

Australia condemns actions that violate

the human rights of children, and has

criminalised physical and sexual

violence against the girl child.

Australia also abhors the practice of

female genital mutilation, which is

regarded as a form of violence

against women.

The Australian Government is an active

supporter of international treaties

which promote the protection of girls

and young women against sexual

exploitation, trafficking, sexual abuse,

domestic violence and female

genital mutilation.

All Australian governments have

implemented a wide range of

legislation, policies and programmes to

eradicate these harmful practices and

to eliminate all forms of discrimination

against girls and young women.

Overall, Australian girls and young

women are not disadvantaged in terms

of health, welfare and educational

outcomes compared to their male

counterparts. On many indicators,

females have better outcomes than

males. There are important exceptions,

such as the incidence of child sexual

abuse, eating disorders and smoking.


that cultural attitudes, sexual

harassment and discrimination prevent

girls and young women reaching their

full potential.

The Australian Government continues

to support initiatives to tackle these

barriers and promote the status of the

girl child, so that girls and young

women can participate fully across all

social, political and economic areas

of society

S T R AT E G I C

O B J E C T I V E S


1. Eliminate all forms of discriminationagainst the girl child.

E X P L O I T AT I O N O FC H I L D R E N

The Australian Government recognisesthat children are vulnerable to humanrights violations and has put in placecriminal sanctions against violence andsexual abuse and exploitation. Thesesanctions protect girls and youngwomen who are especially vulnerableto these violations.

Australia is a State Party to both theConvention on the Rights of the Child(CROC) and the Convention on theElimination of All Forms ofDiscrimination against Women.Australia is an active supporter of theelaboration of an Optional Protocol toCROC to deal with the sale of children,child prostitution and childpornography. The Optional Protocolprovides a mechanism to redress thesexual exploitation of children andstrengthens implementation of CROCthrough penalisation for non-compliance. Australia is participatingin a Working Group developing a draftOptional Protocol to the CROC torestrict children’s participation inarmed conflict.

Australia is a signatory to the Goals andTargets of the World Declaration on the

Survival, Protection and Developmentof Children, which sets out goals andtargets to improve the well being ofchildren internationally.

See also:

■ The ‘Female genital mutilation’sections in C: Women and Healthand I: Human Rights of Women.

■ B: Education and Training ofWomen, F: Women and the Economyand I: Human Rights of Women fordetails on legislation and othermeasures to eliminatediscrimination against girls andyoung women.


2. Eliminate negative cultural attitudesand practices against girls.

A wide range of policies andprogrammes have been implementedby the Australian Government tocombat sex stereotyping, child abuseand neglect, child pornography,harassment against girls in educationand training and to provide support for‘girls at risk’. These are detailedthroughout in this report.

M A R R I A G E

The age of consent to marry is 18 yearsfor men and women. A person aged 16or 17 years may obtain courtauthorisation to marry another specific



person who is aged 18 years or older ifthe circumstances are exceptional andunusual as to justify the order. Inaddition to such authorisation, theunderage person must also obtainparental consent to the marriage.

A marriage is void where the parties donot consent to it. Where the consent ofeither party is obtained by fraud orduress, the marriage is also void.

It is a criminal offence for a celebrant tosolemnise or purport to solemnise amarriage knowing or having reason tobelieve that the marriage would be void.

See also:

■ B: Education and Training of Womenfor details on initiatives to combatsex stereotyping and support for‘girls at risk’.


3. Promote and protect the rights ofthe girl child and increase awarenessof her needs and potential.

All Australian governments pursueeducating women, men, boys and girlsto promote girls’ status and encouragethem to work towards mutual respectand equal partnership between girlsand boys. In addition, the HumanRights and Equal OpportunityCommission plays a major role ineducating the community about humanrights, including women’s human rights.

The Australian Government has fundedseveral initiatives to increase youngwomen’s awareness of the full range of education, training and employment options available to them. These include:

■ activities to encourage youthinvolvement in the community orreinforce a positive image of youngAustralians (eg, Young Australian ofthe Year Awards; National YouthWeek; The Rock Eisteddfod; NationalBattle of the Bands and the NationalYouth Media Awards);

■ measures to increase young people’sknowledge and understanding ofgovernment programmes andservices for young people. Theseinclude Voices of Youth, the Trainingand Youth Online Newsletter and thesource web site. The Have Your Saypage on the website gives youngpeople the chance to talk to theGovernment about youth issuesgenerally, as well as have theirquestions referred to appropriateareas for a response; and

■ the production and dissemination ofcareer information materialsincluding The Job Guide, a CareerPlanning Information and ServicesDirectory and careers publications.

See also:

■ B: Education and Training of Womenfor details on: the CEDAW resource


kit; the Discovering democracyprogramme; and measures to

broaden girls’ career choices.

■ The ‘Female genital mutilation’

section in C: Women and Health and

I: Human Rights of Women.

■ The ‘International Aid’ section in

I: Human Rights of Women.


4. Eliminate discrimination againstgirls in education, skills developmentand training.

C O M P U L S O R Y E D U C AT I O N

In Australia, all children between the

ages of 5-6 and 15-16 years (some

three million children) are required by

law to attend either a government

school, or some other government-

approved educational programme.

Although the final two secondary

school years (Years 11 and 12) beyond

age 15-16 years are not compulsory,

young people are encouraged to

complete these years and most do. The

retention rate is higher for girls than

for boys. Children in remote country

areas and those with disabilities can

access school education through

other modes of service delivery,

including distance education or

special education.

G E N D E R F R A M E W O R K F O R

S C H O O L S

The National Policy for the Education of

Girls in Australian Schools (1987) and

the National Action Plan for the

Education of Girls 1993-97 provided a

nationally agreed framework for

meeting the educational needs of girls

and boys. Gender Equity: A Framework

for Australian Schools (1997) builds on

this completed work. The Framework

proposed broad areas for action based

on five strategic directions in the areas

of: understanding the process of

construction of gender; curriculum,

teaching and learning; violence and

school culture; post-school pathways;

and supporting change. Specific

outcomes are provided for each

strategic direction, together with a

range of approaches and strategies

that will ensure that the

overall intentions of the Framework

are achieved.

G I R L S ’ E D U C AT I O N A L

P E R F O R M A N C E

Educational outcomes for females

across a number of key indicators are

better than for males. For example,

girls have higher literacy levels than

boys and retention rates to Year 12 are

consistently higher for girls than boys

(77.7 % for girls compared with 65.9 %

for males in 1998).


C H I L D P R O T E C T I O N

The Australian Government introducedchild protection education as amandatory component of the schoolcurriculum. Comprehensive supportmaterials have been provided to allschools, dealing with power inrelationships, recognising abuse andprotective strategies in a range ofsituations such as sex-basedharassment and domestic violence.

P R E G N A N T A D O L E S C E N T S

The Australian Governmentcommissioned research into theeducation, training and employmentneeds of pregnant adolescents.

The Australian Government’s inquiryinto pregnancy and work included anexamination of the experiences andbarriers facing pregnant adolescents,including harassment and difficultiesassociated with completing school ortraining. The report containsrecommendations to address theseissues, which are currently underconsideration by the Government.

See also:

■ B: Education and Training of Women.


5. Eliminate discrimination againstgirls in health and nutrition.

Health and welfare outcome measuresfor children and youth of both sexes inAustralia compare favourably withother OECD countries and areconsistently better than most non-OECD and developing countries.Australian girls and young women havebetter outcomes than males for severalindicators such as mortality rates.However, they have face disadvantagesin several areas, particularly in relationto smoking, sexual abuse andadolescent eating disorders.

In addition, the Australian Governmentrecognises the historical and socialfactors, which continue to affectAboriginal and Torres Strait Islanderwomen and children because of raceand gender. It is the Government’spolicy to ensure that Aboriginal andTorres Strait Islander women’sconcerns and needs are addressed inthe design and delivery of policies andprogrammes across all portfolios. TheGovernment is determined to makeimprovements in the key areas ofhealth, housing, education,employment and economicdevelopment. Indigenous specificspending is now the highest it has everbeen in real terms. This focus onimprovement and growth will benefitentire communities.


I N FA N T I C I D E

Prenatal sex selection and femaleinfanticide are not practices known in Australia.

The Children, Australia: A SocialReport 1999 shows that there were 4.7million children aged 0-17 years inAustralia and that males slightlyoutnumbered females in June 1997.The child population comprised2,409,200 males (51%) and 2,289,800females (49%). The greater number ofmale than female children reflects theslightly greater number of male birthsin Australia.

SEXUAL AND REPRODUCTIVEHEALTH EDUCATION

Australian governments providefunding for sexual and reproductivehealth education to young womenthrough community education andschool based education campaigns. Ingeneral, most family planningorganisations provide free, specialservices for adolescents, and somehave special centres for young people.

See also:

■ C: Women and Health for details on the National Women’s Health Policy and Programme and family planning.

E AT I N G D I S O R D E R S

Under the National Mental HealthStrategy, the Australian Government

provides funding for the developmentand implementation of the NationalCommunity Awareness Programme,which was launched in April 1995.Outcomes of the programme includeadvertising (television, cinema andposters) and a number of mental healthinformation leaflets on specificdisorders including a leaflet titled Whatis an eating disorder?

I N F O R M AT I O N

The Australian Bureau of Statistics(ABS) is currently developing indicatorsof the well-being of children. One ofthe tasks of this project has been toexamine existing data in current ABSand non-ABS collections, with a view toimproving the quality and range of dataavailable on families and children.

In April 1997, the ABS conducted asurvey on family characteristics andthe publication Family CharacteristicsAustralia was released in April 1998. ASocial Report was published in 1998 aspart of Australia’s reporting obligationsunder the UN Convention on the Rightsof the Child.

The Health of Young Australians, anational health policy for children andyoung people, has identified the needfor regular monitoring of the health ofchildren and young people,complemented by research targetingpriority issues. The National HealthPlan for Young Australians (1995)


nominates the development of anagreed national data set as a keypriority for maintaining and improvingthe health of young children and young people.

See also:

The ‘Research’ section in C: Womenand Health.


6. Eliminate the economic exploitationof child labour and protect young girlsat work.

Pregnant adolescent workers

The Australian Government fundedresearch on the experiences andbarriers facing pregnant adolescents.The study found that teenagers havelimited knowledge about discriminationand the law and that some employersfail to provide them with information ontheir maternity entitlements.

The Australian Government’s inquiryinto pregnancy and work included an examination of the experiences and barriers facing pregnant adolescent workers.

See also:

■ The ‘International Aid’ section belowfor details on initiatives to protectexploited child workers.

■ H: Human Rights of Women for moredetails on the Pregnancy and Work Inquiry.

■ The ‘Children and Armed Conflict’section in E: Women and Armed Conflict.

■ Research Section in F: Women andthe Economy for more details onresearch regarding barriers toemployment for pregnant andparenting adolescents.


7. Eradicate violence against the girl child.

Australia condemns actions that violatethe human rights of children, and hascriminalised physical and sexualviolence against the girl child.Australia also abhors the practice offemale genital mutilation, which isregarded as a form of violence against women.

D O M E S T I C V I O L E N C E

The National Campaign AgainstViolence and Crime initiative aims toidentify and promote ways of preventingcrime and fear of crime in Australiancommunities. Domestic violence andyouth are two of the main priority areas.A wide range of research and practicebased projects have been funded whichfocus specifically on adolescents andcover issues affecting girls and youngwomen. The following materials havebeen produced and distributed widely,free of charge: Working withadolescents to prevent domestic


violence – rural town model; Workingwith adolescents to prevent domesticviolence in Indigenous communities;Homeless youth; Early intervention;Young people’s attitudes towardsdomestic violence. In addition, awebsite has been established whichcontains a register of nearly 100domestic and general violenceprevention initiatives for adolescents.

See also:

■ D: Violence against Women.

SEXUAL ABUSE OF CHILDREN

Child Protection Australia 1997-98, areport published by the AustralianInstitute of Health and Welfare,indicates that nearly three times asmany girls as boys were the subject ofsubstantiated reports of sexual abuse.

The Australian Government considersthat strategies aimed at combatingchild sexual abuse must reflect the factthat the majority of offenders areheterosexual males who are immediatefamily members (including ‘step’members) or close relatives.

See also:

■ The ‘Sexual assault and other formsof violence against women’ and‘Sexual slavery and servitude’sections in D: Violence againstWomen.

■ I: Human Rights of Women fordetails on measures to combat childsex tourism and trafficking.


8. Promote the girl child’s awarenessof and participation in social, economicand political life.

G I R L S I N S P O R T

In September 1999, the AustralianGovernment announced an initiative topromote female participation in sport,the National Policy on Women and Girlsin Sport, Recreation and PhysicalActivity 1999-2002. The policy is aimedat broadening the base of nationalparticipation by targeting femalesacross a range of practices and makingsport more responsive to female valuesand perspectives.

The policy encourages schools to allowsingle-sex competition until such timeas there is substantial researchevidence to suggest that girls will notbe disadvantaged in mixed-sexcontests. The policy also advocatesprogrammes for less skilled girlsentering high school and moresensitivity towards the culturaldifferences of girls from non-Englishspeaking backgrounds. Sports venuesthat cater for women and include childcare attract more government fundingunder the policy.

The policy also calls for greaterrecognition and portrayal of women’ssport in the media and suggests thedevelopment of a register of suitable


sportswomen and girls available toparticipate in media activities.

See also:

■ B: Education and Training for detailson the Discovering democracyinitiative.


9. Strengthen the role of the family inimproving the status of the girl child.

S U P P O R T F O R FA M I L I E S

Strengthening and supporting familiesis a paramount priority for theAustralian Government, in recognitionof the contribution families make intheir supporting, educating andnurturing roles for children.

The Australian Government is workingcooperatively with State and Territorygovernments and communityorganisations to develop a nationalframework, the National FamiliesStrategy, to support and strengthenfamilies. The Strategy will drawtogether and better link existingprogrammes across all levels ofgovernment and work closely with thecommunity and business sectors. Itwill build on government initiatives toimprove the quality of life for familiesand children at home and in the generalcommunity, including support forparents in their parenting role,

assistance for disadvantaged familiesand children at risk and increasedcommunity awareness of theconsequences of child abuse and neglect.

See also:

The JET Programme and ‘Familyassistance’ sections in A: Women and Poverty.

C H I L D R E N ’ S C O N T A C TS E R V I C E S

The Australian Government hasprovided around $16 million over fouryears to establish new children’ssupervised contact services in urbanand regional centres. An additional10,000 families will be assisted tobetter manage child contact difficultiesthrough the establishment of a further25 children’s contact services. Theseservices provide practical assistancewhere parents need skills to ensure thebest interests of their children are metand to improve family relationships.

M A R R I A G E A N DR E L AT I O N S H I P S U P P O R T

The Australian Government iscommitted to strengthening andsupporting families and nurturingrelationships through education andprevention. A total of $16.5 million willbe provided for marriage andrelationship education services and new support networks and


services specifically for men. Major initiatives include:

■ services to assist families, couplesand individuals to enhance theirfamily relationships will be fundedwith $6 million over three years.This will build on the RELATEcampaign launched in February 1999which provides information aboutthe value and availability of marriageand relationship education; and

■ $9 million will be provided over threeyears to further assist men in theirfamily relationships – thisrecognises the importance towomen of positive and qualityrelationships with their partners andthe value of relationship education inpreventing family breakdown.

See also:

■ The ‘Responses to perpetrators of domestic violence against women’ section in D: Violence against Women.

■ Strategic Objective 3 above fordetails on youth initiatives.

INTERNATIONAL AID

Australia’s development assistanceprogramme promotes activities whichaddress discrimination against the girlchild and has provided ongoing fundingto protect child labourers, sexuallyprostituted children and streetchildren. Education projects address

gender biased curricula and encourageenrolment of girls where indicatorsshow disparities against enrolment of girls.

Examples of projects which considerthe girl child include:

■ in partnership with World VisionAustralia, support for theestablishment of a drop in centre forstreet girl children in Dhaka;

■ prior to the 1997 ILO Conference onChild Labour, Australia supported aChild Labour Forum RegionalConference in Bangkok to developcountry and regional plans for theidentification and rescue of children in intolerable situations and to improve data collection and research.

See also:

■ The ‘International aid’ section in D: Violence Against Women



The NSW Young Mothers Programmeencourages schools to assist youngmothers to remain in education.

The NSW Government has establishedthe following initiatives:


■ Community Benefit Fund included agrant of $20,000 during 1997-98 to assist in the establishment of physical activity opportunities for girls;

■ $15,000 (1997) for the Daily PhysicalActivity project for girls in detention;

■ SR-Active Girls Project (1997) -around $75,000 was allocated toschool visits and activity programmefor girls using female role models; and

■ Gender Issues and Physical ActivityProject (1998) provided funding of$75,000 to increase the proportion ofgirls engaging in physical activity,including research into theeffectiveness of such programmes.

V I C T O R I A

The Victorian Government willintroduce a range of initiatives toencourage the participation of girls insport and recreation which aim toincrease the low fundamental skill levelof girls, provide female role models,introduce cricket and soccer for girlswithin the schools sporting calender,and develop best practice action plans.

A Gender Education Unit has beenestablished in the Office of Schools.The major focus of this Unit will be thereview of current provision of gendereducation, and the development ofpolicy advice and curriculum strategiesto support schools to provide genderequity in education.

A Ministerial Consultative Committeehas been established to review theprogress for women and girls ineducation and to provide futuredirections and funding requirements forthe education of women and girls inVictorian Schools.

See also

■ ‘Family assistance’ in A: Women andPoverty

■ B: Education and Training for detailson school education

■ C: Women and Health

OBSTACLES ANDLEARNING PO INTS


■ Women are concerned thatgovernments should provide moreadequate programmes and supportin alleviating the effects of povertyon families. There needs to be moresupport for families in their crucialrole of protecting the well-being ofthe girl child.

■ There is concern about provision ofadequate funding to address theincreasing incidence of sexual abuseof the girl child. More active effortsare needed to tackle abuse both inthe home and in relation to childprostitution and sex trafficking in theAsia Pacific Region.


■ There need to be programmes toaddress the health of the girl child,particularly in relation to mentalhealth issues, smoking andsubstance abuse.

F U T U R E C H A L L E N G E S

The availability of controversialmaterial on girls on the Internet,covering pornography, and degradingand violent portrayals of girls andyoung women, is an ongoing challengefacing all governments around the world.





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