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8/17/2019 Imper Feccio Nes Ultra Son i Do

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Detección de Defectos

por Ultrasonido

• Ensayos noDestructivos


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Detección de Defectos

por Ultrasonido

• CONTENIDO• Introducción

• Fundamentos• Técnicas de inspección porUltrasonido


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Introducción

• Se presenta una introducción al Ensayo No Destructivoconocido como Inspección por Ultrasonido.

• La inspección por ultrasonido utiliza la energía de ondas desonido de alta frecuencia para realizar evaluaciones y hacermediciones.

• Se pueden hacer evaluaciones de una variedad significativade componentes con diversas formas y diferentesmateriales.

• Se puede obtener información muy variada sobre loscomponentes inspeccionados como presencia de

discontinuidades, espesores, espesor de pinturas yrecubrimientos o establecer características acústicasrelacionadas con las propiedades del material.


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Outline

• Applications• Basic Principles of sound generation• Pulse echo and through transmission testing

• Inspection applications• Equipment• Transducers• Instrumentation

• Reference Standards• Data presentation• Advantages and Limitations• Glossary of terms


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Principios Básicos sobre el

Sonido• El sonido es producido por la vibración de un objeto en

contacto con el medio y se propaga a través de éste como unaonda longitudinal.

• El sonido viaja por la vibración de las partículas quecomponen el material.

• La vibración tiene• una frecuencia asociada.• El Ultrasonido no es• detectable por el oido

• humano..


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Sonido• La medición de la onda cresta a cresta es la longitud de

onda (λ).

• The time is takes a sound wave to travel a distance of onecomplete wavelength is the same amount of time it takesthe source to execute one complete vibration.

• La longitud de onda es inversamente proporcional a la• frecuencia (λ = K/f)


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Sonido• Las ondas Ultrasonicas pueden ser

reflejadas, refractadas y/o enfocadas.

• Reflexión y refracción occurren cuando laonda alcanza interfases de materiales concaracterísticas acústicas distintas.

• En materiale sólidoss, la energía de lavibración es dividida en diferentes ondascuando la onda alcanza una interfase con unángulo diferente a los 90 grados.

• Las reflexiones ultrasónicas debidas a lapresencia de discontinuidades permite la

detección y la localización de las mismas.• La velocidad del sonido en un material es

constante.


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Generación de Ultrasonido

El transductor escapaz detransmitir yrecibir energíadel sonido.

El Ultrasonido es generado con un transductor .

Un elementopiezoeléctrico en eltransductor convierte

la energía eléctrica envibraciones mecánicasy viceversa.


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• Se pueden realizar inpecciones en diferentes formas.• Las técnicas se pueden dividir usando las siguientes

clasificaciones:

• Puls-eco y Transmisión(Se relaciona con si se usa energía reflejada o transmitida)

• Haz Normal y Haz Angular(Se relaciona con el angulo con que la energía entra al elementobajo prueba)

• Contacto e Inmersión(Se relaciona con el métod de acople del transductor con elelemento de prueba.)

Técnicas


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• In pulse-echo testing, a transducer sends out a pulse of energyand the same or a second transducer listens for reflected energy(an echo).

• Reflections occur due to the presence of discontinuities and thesurfaces of the test article.

• The amount of reflected sound energy is displayed versus time,which provides the inspector information about the size and thelocation of features that reflect the sound.

f

Test Techniques - Pulse-Echo

plate

crack

0 2 4 6 8 10

initial

pulse

crack

echo

back surface

echo

UT Instrument Screen


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Técnicas – Pulso-Eco (cont.)

Digital displayshowing signalgenerated fromsound reflectingoff back surface.

Digital displayshowing the presenceof a reflector midway

through material, withlower amplitude backsurface reflector.

The pulse-echo technique allows testing when access to only oneside of the material is possible, and it allows the location of

reflectors to be precisely determined.


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Test Techniques – Through-Transmission

0 2 4 6 8 10

2

11

• Two transducers located onopposing sides of the testspecimen are used. Onetransducer acts as a transmitter,the other as a receiver.

• Discontinuities in the sound pathwill result in a partial or total lossof sound being transmitted andbe indicated by a decrease in thereceived signal amplitude.

• Through transmission is useful indetecting discontinuities that arenot good reflectors, and whensignal strength is weak. It doesnot provide depth information.

T R

T R

11

2


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Digital display

showing received

sound through

material

thickness.

Digital display

showing loss ofreceived signal

due to presence

of a discontinuity

in the sound field.

Test Techniques – Through-Transmission


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Test Techniques – Normal and Angle Beam

• In normal beam testing, the soundbeam is introduced into the testarticle at 90 degree to the surface.

• In angle beam testing, the soundbeam is introduced into the testarticle at some angle other than90.

• The choice between normal andangle beam inspection usuallydepends on two considerations:

- The orientation of the feature ofinterest – the sound should bedirected to produce the largestreflection from the feature.

- Obstructions on the surface of the

part that must be worked around.


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0 2 4 6 8 10

FWE

BWEDE

2IP IP = Initial PulseFWE = Front Wall

Echo

DE = Defect Echo

BWE = Back Wall

Echo

0 2 4 6 8 10

FWE

BWE

1IP1 2

Defect

Test Techniques – Contact Vs Immersion

• To get useful levels of sound energy into a material, the airbetween the transducer and the test article must be removed.This is referred to as coupling.

• In contact testing (shown on the previous slides) a couplantsuch as water, oil or a gel is applied between the transducerand the part.

• In immersion testing, the part and the transducer are place in awater bath. This arrangement allows better movement of thetransducer while maintaining consistent coupling.

• With immersion testing, an echo from the front surface of thepart is seen in the signal but otherwise signal interpretation is

the same for the two techniques.


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Inspection Applications

Some of the applications for which ultrasonic testing

may be employed include:

• Flaw detection (cracks, inclusions, porosity, etc.)

• Erosion & corrosion thickness gauging• Assessment of bond integrity in adhesively

joined and brazed components

• Estimation of void content in composites and

plastics

• Measurement of case hardening depth in steels• Estimation of grain size in metals

On the following slides are examples of somecommon applications of ultrasonic inspection.


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Thickness Gauging

• Ultrasonic thicknessgauging is routinely utilizedin the petrochemical andutility industries todetermine various degrees

of corrosion/erosion.

• Applicationsinclude pipingsystems, storageand containmentfacilities, and

pressure vessels.


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Equipment

Equipment for ultrasonic testing is verydiversified. Proper selection is important toinsure accurate inspection data as desiredfor specific applications.

In general, there are three basic componentsthat comprise an ultrasonic test system:

- Instrumentation

- Transducers- Calibration Standards


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Transducers

• Transducers are manufactured in a variety offorms, shapes and sizes for varying applications.

• Transducers are categorized in a number of wayswhich include:

- Contact or immersion- Single or dual element

- Normal or angle beam

• In selecting a transducer

for a given application, itis important to choose thedesired frequency,bandwidth, size, and in some cases focusingwhich optimizes the inspection capabilities.


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Contact Transducers

Contact transducers aredesigned to withstandrigorous use, and usuallyhave a wear plate on thebottom surface to protectthe piezoelectric elementfrom contact with thesurface of the test article.

Many incorporate

ergonomic designs forease of grip whilescanning along thesurface.


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Contact Transducers (cont.)

• Contact transducers areavailable with two piezoelectriccrystals in one housing. Thesetransducers are called dualelement transducers.

• One crystal acts as a transmitter,the other as a receiver.• This arrangement improves near

surface resolution because thesecond transducer does not

need to complete a transmitfunction before listening forechoes.

• Dual elements are commonlyemployed in thickness gaugingof thin materials.


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Contact Transducers (cont.)

• A way to improve near surfaceresolution with a single elementtransducer is through the use ofa delay line.

• Delay line transducers have aplastic piece that is a sound paththat provides a time delaybetween the sound generationand reception of reflectedenergy.

• Interchangeable pieces make itpossible to configure thetransducer with insulating wearcaps or flexible membranes thatconform to rough surfaces.

• Common applications includethickness gauging and high

temperature measurements.


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Transducers (cont.)

• Immersion transducers aredesigned to transmit soundwhereby the transducer andtest specimen are immersed

in a liquid coupling medium(usually water).

• Immersion transducersare manufactured withplanar, cylindrical orspherical acousticlenses (focusing lens).


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Instrumentation

• Ultrasonic equipment is usually purchased tosatisfy specific inspection needs, some usersmay purchase general purpose equipment tofulfill a number of inspection applications.

• Test equipment can be classified in a number ofdifferent ways, this may include portable orstationary, contact or immersion, manual orautomated.

•Further classification of instruments commonlydivides them into four general categories: D-meters, Flaw detectors, Industrial and specialapplication.


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Instrumentation (cont.)

• D-meters or digitalthickness gaugeinstruments provide theuser with a digital(numeric) readout.

• They are designedprimarily forcorrosion/erosioninspection applications.

• Some instruments provide the user with both adigital readout and a display of the signal. Adistinct advantage of these units is that they allowthe user to evaluate the signal to ensure that thedigital measurements are of the desired features.


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• Flaw detectors areinstruments designedprimarily for the inspectionof components for defects.

• However, the signal can beevaluated to obtain otherinformation such asmaterial thickness values.

• Both analog and digitaldisplay.

• Offer the user options ofgating horizontal sweepand amplitude threshold.


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• Industrial flaw detectioninstruments, provideusers with more optionsthan standard flawdetectors.

• May be modulated unitsallowing users to tailorthe instrument for theirspecific needs.

• Generally not as portableas standard flawdetectors.


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• Immersion ultrasonic scanningsystems are used forautomated data acquisitionand imaging.

•They integrate an immersiontank, ultrasonicinstrumentation, a scanningbridge, and computer controls.

•The signal strength and/or thetime-of-flight of the signal ismeasured for every point in thescan plan.

•The value of the data is plottedusing colors or shades of grayto produce detailed images ofthe surface or internal featuresof a component.


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Images of a Quarter Produced With an

Ultrasonic Immersion Scanning System

Gray scale image produced using

the sound reflected from the front

surface of the coin

Gray scale image produced using the

sound reflected from the back surface

of the coin (inspected from “heads” side)


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Calibration Standards

Calibration is a operation of configuring theultrasonic test equipment to known values. Thisprovides the inspector with a means of comparingtest signals to known measurements.

Calibration standards come in a wide variety ofmaterial types, and configurations due to thediversity of inspection applications.

Calibration standards are typically manufactured

from materials of the same acoustic properties asthose of the test articles.

The following slides provide examples of specifictypes of standards.


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Calibration Standards (cont.)

Thickness calibrationstandards may be flat orcurved for pipe and tubingapplications, consisting of

simple variations inmaterial thickness.

Distance/Area Amplitudestandards utilize flat bottom

holes or side drilled holes toestablish known reflectorsize with changes in soundpath form the entry surface.

ASTM Distance/Area Amplitude

NAVSHIPS


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Calibration Standards (cont.)

There are also calibrationstandards for use in anglebeam inspections whenflaws are not parallel to

entry surface.These standards utilizedside drilled holes, notches,and geometric

configuration to establishtime distance andamplitude relationships.

IIW

DSC DC Rhompas

SC

ASME Pipe Sec. XI


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Qualification Standards

Qualificationstandards differ fromcalibration standardsin that their use is for

purposes of varyingproper equipmentoperation andqualification ofequipment use for

specific codes andstandards.

AWS Resolution

IOW Beam Profile

DC-dB Accuracy


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Data Presentation

• Information from ultrasonic testing can bepresented in a number of differing formats.

• Three of the more common formats include:

• A-scan• B-scan• C-scan

These three formats will be discussed in the nextfew slides.


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Data Presentation - A-scan

• A-scan presentationdisplays the amount ofreceived ultrasonicenergy as a function oftime.

• Relative discontinuitysize can be estimated bycomparing the signalamplitude to that from aknown reflector.

• Reflector depth can bedetermined by theposition of the signal onthe horizontal sweep.

Time S

i g n a l A m p l i t u d e

S i g n a l A m p

l i t u d e

Time


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Data Presentation - B-scan

•B-scan presentationsdisplay a profile view(cross-sectional) of a testspecimen.

•Only the reflector depth inthe cross-section and thelinear dimensions can bedetermined.

•A limitation to this displaytechnique is thatreflectors may be maskedby larger reflectors nearthe surface.


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Data Presentation - C-scan

• The C-scan presentation displays a plan type viewof the test specimen and discontinuities.

• C-scan presentations are produced with anautomated data acquisition system, such as inimmersion scanning.

• Use of A-scan in conjunction with C-scan isnecessary when depth determination is desired.

Photo of a CompositeComponent

C-Scan Image ofInternal Features


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Advantage of Ultrasonic Testing

• Sensitive to small discontinuities both surface andsubsurface.

• Depth of penetration for flaw detection or measurementis superior to other methods.

• Only single-sided access is needed when pulse-echotechnique is used.• High accuracy in determining reflector position and

estimating size and shape.

• Minimal part preparation required.• Electronic equipment provides instantaneous results.• Detailed images can be produced with automated

systems.

• Has other uses such as thickness measurements, inaddition to flaw detection.


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Limitations of Ultrasonic Testing

• Surface must be accessible to transmit ultrasound.• Skill and training is more extensive than with some other

methods.

• Normally requires a coupling medium to promote transferof sound energy into test specimen.• Materials that are rough, irregular in shape, very small,exceptionally thin or not homogeneous are difficult toinspect.

• Cast iron and other coarse grained materials are difficultto inspect due to low sound transmission and high signalnoise.

• Linear defects oriented parallel to the sound beam maygo undetected.

• Reference standards are required for both equipmentcalibration, and characterization of flaws.


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Glossary of Terms

•Acoustical properties: ultrasonic material characteristicssuch as velocity, impedance, and attenuation.

•ASTM: acronym for American Society for Testing andMaterials. This society is extensively involved inestablishing standards for materials and the testing of

materials.•Back reflection: a display signal that corresponds to the

far surface of a test specimen, side opposite to transducerwhen testing with longitudinal waves.

•Band width: a range of frequencies either transmitted orreceived, may be narrow or broad range.

•B-scan: presentation technique displaying data in a cross-sectional view.


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Glossary of Terms

•Calibration: a sequence of instrument controladjustments/instrument responses using known values toverify instrument operating characteristics. Allowsdetermination of unknown quantities from test materials.

•CRT: acronym for Cathode Ray Tube. Vacuum tube thatutilizes one or more electron guns for generating an image.

•C-scan: presentation technique that displays specimendata in a plan type view.

•DAC (Distance Amplitude Correction-curves): agraphical method of allowing for material attenuation.

Percentage of DAC is often used as a means of acceptancecriteria.

•Discontinuity: an interruption in the physical structure of amaterial, examples include fissures, cracks, and porosity.


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Glossary of Terms

• IIW: calibration standard meeting the specification of theInternational Institute of Welding.

• Longitudinal (Compression) waves: ultrasonic mode ofpropagation in which the particle vibration is parallel to thedirection of propagation.

• Near Surface Resolution: the ability of an ultrasonic systemto display reflectors located close to the entry surface.

• Pulse-echo: ultrasonic test method that utilizes reflectedsound as a means of collecting test data.

• Rayleigh (Surface) waves: ultrasonic mode of propagationwhere the sound travels along the surface, particle vibration iselliptical.


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Glossary of Terms

• Reflection: the changing in direction of sound waves as theystrike a surface.

• Snell’s Law: an equation of ratios used to determine incidentor refracted angle of sound, denotes angle/velocityrelationship.

• Sweep display: horizontal line on the lower portion of thedisplay, often called the time base line.

• Through transmission: test technique in which ultrasound istransmitted from one transducer and received by a separatetransducer on the opposite side of the test specimen.

• Wavelength: the distance that a sound wave travels as itcompletes one cycle, normally measured in inches ormillimeters.


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For More Information

The Collaboration for

NDT Education

www.ndt-ed.org

The American Society

for Nondestructive

Testing

www.asnt.org

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