Top Ten List #3: 1450-1750

Impacts of Interactions

Conquistadores

Top Ten

1. Motivations – Both the individual conquistadors and their patrons were motivated by wealth (gold, silver, spices, and slaves), power, prestige, increasing opportunities and markets for Spanish/Portuguese trade, building a Spanish/Portuguese empire, and most likely to a lesser degree, spreading Catholicism to the natives.

2. Funding - Conquests were usually funded by private enterprises through a contract called capitulaciones, instituted by the king and his representative. The group was to conquer a particular territory within a specified time. The king organized an army and, and the expedition leader agreed to cover the expenses of the campaign and complete it within the time limit. Once conquered, the land was exempted from tax and donated to future populations; Castilian rights and freedoms were established.

3. Francisco Pizarro (1478-1541)- He was a Spanish conquistador and conqueror of the Incan civilization. He undertook the conquest of Peru in 1532. The resident natives of this area had been in a civil war, and Pizarro took advantage of that by forming alliances with the Incan’s enemies. The Incans fought fiercely against his forces at the Battle of Cajamarca, but could not overcome the disadvantage of Spain’s technology against their weapons. He invaded Peru and had the Incan ruler Atahualpa killed.

4. Herman Cortes (1485-1547) – Cortes was a Spanish explorer/conquistador famous for his conquest of the Aztec civilization in modern-day Mexico. He took part in the conquest of Cuba and became governor in 1518. In 1519 Cortes and his men reached the Aztec capital and met with the ruler Montezuma. The Aztecs regarded him as a god-king. He took Montezuma captive and held him and ransom for huge amounts of gold and jewelry. The Aztecs finally drove him and his men out of their city in June of 1520, but Cortés regrouped and returned in the summer of 1521 to capture Tenochtitlán. Cortes built Mexico City on the ruins of the Aztecs and New Spain was established there in 1523, and he was made its governor.

5. Roles in Gov. – The 2 major areas of the empire, New Spain and New Castile, were each governed by a viceroy responsible to the Spanish king. They were to rule in place of the king in the colonies. The specified areas were viceroyalties, and were further divided into smaller autonomous units, audiencias, which were granted by law both administrative and legislative powers.

6. Treatment of Natives – In the process of conquering the lands of South/Central America, the conquistadors slaughtered masses of natives through battle and the spreading of European diseases. Those that survived were employed in hard labor such as mining, farming, stock raising, and craft production. Initially the encomienda system allowed settlers to demand

labor from the natives, but pressure from activists led to the repartimiento system, which compelled natives to something workers for specified amounts of time. Natives were at the bottom of the social pyramid. They were oppressed, abused, and ill-treated.

7. Treaty of Tordesillas – The treaty was signed in 1494 between the crowns of Portugal and Spain. The treaty split the newly discovered lands of the Americas between the Spanish and Portuguese. The line of demarcation was halfway between the Cape Verde Islands (already Portuguese) and the islands discovered by Christopher Columbus on his first voyage (claimed for Spain), named in the treaty as Cipangu and Antilia (Cuba and Hispaniola). The lands to the east belonged to Portugal and the lands to the west to Spain.

8. Military Superiority – The native warriors of civilizations such as the Incans and Aztecs were fierce but were at a serious disadvantage because of European technology. The conquistadors had better techniques, tools, firearms, artillery, steel and domesticated animals. Horses and mules carried them, pigs fed them and dogs fought for them. However, the indigenous peoples possessed the advantage of established settlements, determination to remain independent, a large numbers advantage. European diseases and “divide and conquer” tactics added the conquistadors.

9. Spread of Diseases – The conquistadors brought European diseases that the natives had never been exposed to. Because of this, their immune systems did not know how to defend against the diseases, and many natives succumbed to diseases such as smallpox, chicken pox, diptheria, typhus, influenza, measles, malaria and yellow fever. These diseases devastated the population of the natives and had played in an important role in the conquests.

10. Role/Spread of Religion – The spread of Catholicism served as a motivation for the conquests in the Americas. Many Spanish explorers /conquistadors saw their mission to conquer new lands as an extension of the medieval crusades, particularly the retaking of the Iberian Peninsula from the Moors. Roman Catholic Priests and Friars accompanied the Spanish explorers who were expected to convert heathen natives to Christianity.

Quotations:

The following morning, they came out of the city to greet me with many trumpets and drums, including many persons whom they regard as priests in their temples, dressed in traditional vestments and singing after their fashion, as they do in the temples. With such ceremony they led us into the city and gave us very good quarters, where all those in my company were most comfortable. There they brought us food, though not sufficient. On the road we had come across many of the signs which the natives of that province had warned us about, for we found the highroad closed and another made and some holes, though not many; and some of the streets of the city were barricaded, and there were piles of stones on all the roofs. All this made us more alert and more cautious.”--1522 Cortez’s 2nd letter to Emperor Charles V

The Sun had treacherously murdered our people on the twentieth day after the captain left for the coast. We allowed the Captain to return to the city in peace. But on the following day we attacked him with all our might, and that was the beginning of the war -- From Miguel LeonPortilla, ed., The Brohen Spears: The Aztec Account of the Conquest of Mexico (Boston: Beacon Press, 1962), pp. 6466, 129131.

…and the Spaniards are not willing to do the work themselves, and the natives cannot be forced to do so, because the Emperor has freed them from all obligation of service as soon as they accept the Christian religion. Wherefore it is necessary to acquire negro slaves, who are brought from the coasts of Africa, both within and without the Straits, and these are selling dearer every day, because on account of their natural lack of strength and the change of climate, added to

the lack of discretion upon the part of their masters in making them work too hard and giving them too little to eat, they fall sick and the greater part of them die. -- Fuente: Cortés, Hernán. Hernán Cortés to Emperor Charless V., 1522. En Cartas y Relaciones de Hernán Cortés al Emperador Carlos V.

Summary:

The conquistadors were Portuguese and Spanish explorers and conquerors that colonized the Americas. Using military tactics and other advantages such as firearms, the conquistadors overcome the natives and established colonies. In the process, conquistadors devastated the native populations and pushed harsh labor/conditions upon those that survived. These men were often funded by the crown and private enterprises, often with the goal of achieving wealth, fame, expansion, and to a lesser degree, spreading Catholicism.

The Columbian Exchange

Top Ten

1. Origin – The Columbian Exchange is a result of the 1492 expedition by Christopher Columbus of Spain. He was supported by Isabel and Ferdinand. He sailed across the Atlantic Ocean and set up a Spanish colony in the Americas. This created the basis for overseas trade between the two continents.

2. Exchange of Crops – The Spaniards introduced barley, bananas, yams, wheat, and many more crops to the “New World.” They brought back maize, cotton, tobacco, peanuts, and many more with them to Europe. This exchange of plants led to an increase in population in both Eurasia and the Americas.

3. Exchange of Animals – When the Spaniards arrived in the “New World” on horses, the natives were in awe. This was the first time they had ever seen such a creature. This shifted the natives’ tribal lifestyle to a nomadic one, and allowed for them to hunt bison on horseback. The pig, goat, and cow also allowed for a more stable food supply, while buffalos acted as beasts of burden. The native animals such as llamas and alpacas made little contribution to the European conquest, but they did add to the food supply.

4. Exchange of Diseases – With little or no natural resistance to European diseases, the Indians of America were ravaged by smallpox, measles, and typhus. All of these diseases were brought by the Europeans, who were exposed to them much earlier in their history, and had become immune. These diseases led to the largest death tolls among Native Americans ever recorded.

5. Population – After the arrival of Europeans to the “New World,” more than half of the natives dies from European diseases. On Hispaniola alone, out of an initial population of 100,000 natives when Columbus arrived in 1493, only 300 Indians survived by 1570. This was not only due to the diseases though; it was also due to the harsh treatment by Columbus and his men of the natives. The forced labor, starvation, and torture inflicted by the colonists made a massive dent in the once thriving Indian population.

6. Atlantic Slave Trade – The forced migration of over 15 million Africans to the “New World” is one of the most significant outcomes of the Columbian Exchange. This system evolved into the triangle trade: European manufactured good were sent to Africa for slaves, then the slaves were shipped to America to work, and then American products shipped back to Europe. Not only were the natives forced to work, but Africans were sent into the Americas to increase production.

7. Columbus Controversy – Although Columbus was the first European to discover the Americas, he was not the first person to discover them. He is celebrated for the founding of a continent, but his heroism is questioned when his actions in doing so are brought to light. Many historians compare Columbus to Hitler, because he to committed a form of genocide. Although Columbus began the modernization of the Americas, he did murder many of those who were there before him, and that I why his celebration (Columbus Day) is questioned.

8. Gold, God, and Glory – Jared Diamond wrote a book about the effects of European expansion to the “New World,” and in it he describes the reason for the Conquistadors’ actions. Columbus, just like so many other European explorers, had three goals in mind whenever he set out on his journey. He wanted to travel in the name of God and spread his influence, bring glory to his nation (Spain), and find gold to increase his wealth.

9. Missionaries – When the Conquistadors travelled to the “New World,” they were required to bring priests with them in order to justify many of their otherwise unholy actions. While the settlers forced the natives to work, the priests forced their “correct” religion on the “unlearned” natives. This resulted in the spread of Christianity and the suicide of many Indians. Many would rather kill themselves than succumb to the Spaniards demands.

10. Environment – In the Americas, entire landscapes were cleared to build plantations for European cash crops. This led to the degradation of topsoil and a massive loss of vegetation. The domestication of animals required entire forests to be cut down in order to provide living space – the wood was then used for housing. The Columbian Exchange had an overall damaging effect on the environment in the Americas.

Quotations

1. “The interchange of plants, animals, and diseases between the Old World and the Americas following Columbus's arrival in the Caribbean in 1492. For reasons beyond human control, rooted deep in the divergent evolutionary histories of the continents, the Columbian Exchange massively benefited the people of Europe and its colonies while bringing catastrophe to Native Americans.”

2. “The term ‘Columbian Exchange’ is used to describe the interchange of animals, plants as well as diseases between the eastern hemisphere’s Old World and the western hemisphere’s New World, after Columbus arrived in the Caribbean in the year 1492. To be more precise, it refers to the exchange of non-native plants, animals and communicable diseases between Europe and the Americas.”

3. “The Columbian Exchange explains the reason for the collapse of Indian nations and the flourishing of European colonies after Columbus’ voyage in 1492. It also explains why European nations attained a powerful and wealthy status swiftly, while Africans were sold as slaves. Its reasons are rooted in evolutionary histories, and at that time, no one understood the powerful environmental forces which determined the survival and destruction of life. With this widespread exchange, ecology served to determine the destiny of cultures and populations. Small pox epidemics resulted in massive death tolls of Native Americans. It is probable that small pox played a major role in defeating the Incas and Aztecs, rather than the Spanish soldiers.”

Summary

After Columbus’ initial voyage across the Atlantic to the Americas in 1492, there was an exchange of crops, animals, and diseases. Spain and other European nations flourished from this newfound trade route, while the native Indian populations decreased immensely from disease, forced labor, and harsh

treatment. The Atlantic Slave trade was a major result from the discovery of the Americas, as was the desire for wealth. Religious zeal was used as an excuse for the harsh treatment of the natives, even though the settlers’ actions went against everything Christianity preached.

The Role of Silver

Top Ten

1. “New World” Silver – When the Europeans arrived in the Americas, they sought after gold and silver. Rich silver deposits were found and exploited in southern Peru and Mexico. The silver mines discovered in the Americas more than quadrupled the value of precious metals in Europe around 1545.

2. Trade – The silver discovered in the Americas stimulated trade between Spain and China. China desired silver, while Spain desired silk and porcelain – luxurious items compared to the uncomfortable wool Spaniards were used to. This was the first time a stable and lasting trade network was established between Europe and Asia.

3. Spain’s Army and Economy – Spain became a much wealthier nation due to the silver mines in the “New World.” The newfound wealth helped improve the economy and create a more stable and confident state with a coin-based money system. The money also increased the power of the army. The soldiers were paid better and their equipment was upgraded. The Spanish Armada was largely a result of the silver trade.

4. Dangers – The Indians and slaves forced to work in the Silver mines did not last long. Just like coal mines, silver mines are damaging to one’s health. Men would often die of mercury poison or failing lungs from long hours in the mines.

5. Increase in Colonization – When men in Europe heard of Cortez and Pizzaro’s exploits, they hurried to get a claim in the “New World.” Silver acted as a catalyst to the colonization of the Americas. Men were spellbound by the dreams of wealth and prosperity, that healthy competition for the remaining silver deposits resulted in the expansion of European powers overseas.

6. Increase of Violence – With new wealth comes new greed. When both Cortez and Pizzaro discovered silver and gold in the Americas, they were overcome with a sense of ownership – the desire to own all the wealth. The result was a massive increase violence and death in both the “New World” and back home. Everyone wants a portion of the wealth, and whether it’s killing innocent natives, or your next door neighbor, Europeans went to new extremes to acquire silver and gold.

7. Potosi – This is a city in Bolivia that was founded in 1546 as a mining town. It soon produced fabulous wealth, becoming one of the largest cities in the Americas and the world, with a population exceeding 200,000 people. Potosi lies beneath the Cerro de Potosi – sometimes referred to as the Cerro Rico or “Rich Mountain.” The mountain is popularly conceived of as being "made of" silver ore, which has always dominated the city. The Cerro Rico is the reason for Potosi's historical importance, since it was the major supply of silver for Spain during the period of the New World Spanish Empire.

8. Percentages and Numbers – Between 1503 and 1650, some 16 million kilograms of silver entered the only the Spanish port of Seville. Spain used 20% of the wealth attributed to silver to wage nearly endless wars in Europe – the army received 1/5 of the wealth.

9. Environment – Silver is a natural resource that was present in the Americas long before European settlers discovered it in the early 1500’s. Individually, it has no damaging effects on the environment. But when it is paired with man’s greed, the habitat that the silver is found in

is destroyed. When the Europeans started mining silver, the vegetation, forests, and topsoil were eliminated. Animals had to find new places to live, and America saw its first glimpse of pollution.

10. Nationalism – With this new found wealth, Spain not only improved their military and economy, but their pride as a nation also increased. Spain now had the right to say that they were one of the wealthiest, if not the wealthiest nation in Western Europe. This instilled a confidence in the state, and made Spain a challenging opponent when it came to war.

Quotations

1. “Cortez professed only friendliness for Montezuma and his subjects, and he was rewarded with gifts such as a Spanish helmet filled to its brim with gold dust and a disc of silver as large as a cart wheel. Cortez reciprocated by capturing the emperor and slaughtering his subjects.”

2. “One of the major places where silver was mined was Potosi in Upper Peru. Gold and silver mines meant virtual enslavement of Native Americans under the jurisdiction of the Spanish. The silver trade enriched China’s economy and also Japan’s, one of the greatest markets for trading silver. The silver and gold entering European markets in the 1500’s from Japan and the America’s (mainly Peru and Mexico) affected the overall world economy including the European, Asian, and the Ottoman Empires.”

3. “After they conquered America in the 16th century, the Spanish exploited the considerable silver resources of Peru and Mexico. Every year, nearly 300 tons of silver were extracted from New World mines. The result was an intensive production of silver coinage minted in Peru or in Mexico. These coins were imported on a massive scale into Spain and then, once in Europe, were melted down before being re-minted in Spain. Historians consider that this flood of New World coinage began in the 16th century and that it directly contributed to the long period of inflation that affected Europe from 1520 to 1650 (the “Price Revolution”).”

Summary

The role of silver from 1450 to 1750 mainly affected Spain and its colonies in the Americas. When the Conquistadors discovered the silver ores, they quickly put the natives, and soon after, the slaves to work. The newfound wealth stimulated Spain’s economy/army and the global trade network. The greed that came with the new wealth blinded all dangers and violence that resulted from mining the silver. Potosi was one of the many settlements that were rapidly established in the Americas after the silver deposits were discovered. The discovery of silver had a drastic effect on the environment of the Americas and the power of Spain in Western Europe.

Role of Sugar

Top Ten

1. Cane sugar was native to Indonesia and had first been introduced to Europeans from the Middle East during the Crusades, and by the 15th century, it had grown and developed and was being produced in significant portions.

2. The sugar industry began and excelled when it was discovered and colonized within the Americas.

3. Sugar production was significantly cheaper in the New World as a result of the encomienda system. It was because the encomienda system both allowed and promoted cheap labor, and

land availability that the production of sugar was significantly cheaper in the New World rather than anywhere in the Eastern Hemisphere.

4. The Sugar industry aided many economies, as it required so many laborers in order to be successful. The growth within the sugar industry resulted in many African people to be imported as laborers (early 1500’s).

5. The complex cultivation and production of sugar involved many different aspects. Land, labor, buildings, animals, capital, and technical skills are among the many tools necessary for the sugar industry to both be successful and maintain success. The sugar industry was a specialized process, and ordinary laborers were unable to make sugar, rather it had to be skilled workers.

6. The slaves involved in cultivating the land for sugar often worked under severe and harsh conditions. Mistreatment, long hours, unsanitary conditions, extreme nutrition and malnutrition were among the many hardships that the slaves faced. These hardships ultimately led to diseases and death.

7. The sugar industry was the first complex manufacturing business of the Industrial Revolution. The sugar industry served as a model for other businesses throughout Europe. The sugar industry eventually led to and was translated into the textile industry.

8. There were around 3,000 sugar mills throughout Europe by the early 1500’s. This created a demand for the parts required to make and maintain a sugar mill, such as axles. The sugar industry aided in the advanced mechanization throughout Europe, and forced Europe to maintain a constant flow of industry.

9. The sugar industry began as a job for skilled workers, and the sugar produced was expensive, and primarily exclusively available to the upper and wealthy class. This did however change overtime and as a result of the multi-sourced production, sugar became more affordable and thus available to the middle class and masses.

10. The sugar industry developed a need for skilled workers. These skilled workers eventually aided in mill construction. This technical skill was used later with the Industrial revolution with making other industries.

Quotes:

1. “The primary impetus to the sugar industry came from the colonization of the Americas” (413). 2. “Crusaders brought sugar home with them to Europe after their campaigns in the Holy Land,

where they encountered caravans carrying what they thought was sweet salt.” (Web). 3. “Sugar remained relatively unimportant until the Indians discovered methods of turning

sugarcane juice into granulated crystals that were easier to store and to transport” (Web)

Summary:

The cultivation of sugar was a complex and useful system that serves as the stepping stone to the industrial revolution. The sugar industry was in no way responsible for the idea and concept of slavery, but it certainly significantly added to the prevalence of slavery around the world. The sugar industry aided in the mechanization and job specialization throughout Europe as it demanded tool production. The cultivation of sugar required many different aspects being, land, technological advancements, money, and skilled labors.

The Spice Trade

Top Ten

1. Ferdinand Magellan: In the early 1520s, Ferdinand Magellan sailed around the Southern tip of South America and crossed the Pacific to the Philippine islands in search of a western route to the Spice Islands. Though only a small portion of the crew survived, two ships overtook the island of Tidor and sailed around the Cape of Good Hope. Eventually Spain took over the Philippines, which became the base for the trade in the Pacific.

2. Foundation of the East India Company: This joint stock company first went to India in 1591 and returned with a cargo of pepper. In 1608, the British landed at Surat and eventually began trade with Souheast Asia. The Dutch, who feared being left out of the trade, quickly began the Dutch East India Company to compete in the region with the British and Portuguese.

3. Dutch East India Company Expands: Around 1620, the Dutch East India Company began to consolidate their political control by setting up a fort on the island of Java. They tried to rule as much as possible through local rulers so as not to set up an official colony. They attempted to monopolize the clove and pepper trades, and were successful by the end of the 18 th century.

4. Impact on the Mainland: Cohesive monarchies such as Burma, Vietnam and Thailand resisted the onslaught of the foreigners, and they were successful at first because the spices did not grow as prosperously on the mainland. Trading privileges with these nations were limited, and European powers eventually became interested in commercial relations with these lands because of the political influence they could extend, rather than the limited goods they could acquire.

5. Vietnam: Europeans began to intervene in Vietnamese politics in a tumultuous time for the country. When seeing that their progress and influence was limited in the area, many gave up because of the lack of goods exchanged.

6. Agriculture: The economies of most southeast Asian countries depended on the cultivation of crops. Commerce based on the selling of food-stuffs began to have an impact on the development of urban centers near the coast in the 16th century. Cash crops, such as sugar and spices, became widely grown and replaced subsistence farming.

7. Location: The central location of Southeast Asia enabled it to be the focal point of trading networks. Spices were the most important crop traded, but other items such as tin, copper, fruits, and gems began to be sold along with the spices that Europeans sought.

8. Living Standard because of trade: With the widespread and abundant growing of crops, hunger and starvation were not problems for the people. Southeast Asians enjoyed a higher standard of living than their contemporaries in Asia. The salubrious climate and fertile deltas of the region enabled dependent growing seasons.

9. Population: The thinly populated areas of Southeast Asia enabled for a lower hunger problem. With people who were willing to work and with much harvesting of crops to do, unemployment and idleness were never problems for the region.

10. Vasco de Gama: The voyage of Vasco de Gama to Calicut India in 1498 established Portugal as the original master of the spice trade. On the Malabar coast and by the end of the 16 th century,

the most popular good traded was black pepper. During the Renaissance, the Portuguese traded the pepper a great deal with the Italian city states.

Systems of Forced Labour

The Trans-Atlantic Slave Trade

Top Ten

1. Pre-European Slave Trade in Africaa. Long before the entrance of the Portuguese along the African coast, many inhabitants of

African nations used slave labor. In west Africa, the kingdoms of Songhai and Mali used slaves, mainly taken during battle, for agricultural work. In the Nile Valley and East Africa, trade had been used for many centuries and continued to grow into the fifteenth century because of trade routes in the Sahara and along the Nile. Many times, African slaves were used in the middle East for domestic purposes.

2. Initial Purposea. Before the use of slavery for large-scale agriculture, the Portuguese were only replacing

European slaves for African ones. In fact, in the fifteenth century, the Portuguese only took around a thousand slaves to Portugal, a very small fraction of what they would be taking later in the sixteenth century. The slaves that were captured early on, however, were used as servants within the homes of elite families throughout Europe.

3. Sugarcanea. The crop that changed slave trade forever was sugar cane, a crop native to Indonesia

but can grow in areas like the Caribbean and South America. during the sixteenth century, plantations were set up along the Brazilian coast and in the islands in the Caribbean. Harvesting of sugar cane is very arduous work and could not be handled solely by the native population. Soon african slaves were being shipped from Europe to the Americas, originally from Portugal. In 1958, however, a Spanish ship made the first shipment of slaves straight from Africa to the Americas.

4. The Middle Passagea. The appallingly high mortality rate usually associated with the trans-atlantic slave trade

can largely be attributed to the Middle Passage, or the journey from Africa to the Americas. Though no one can really know the number dead on the first few journeys, it can be estimated that nearly one third of the africans died on the trip. even the crew members that imprisoned them were not safe from disease and malnourishment, as they too had similar mortality rates. Eventually merchants found ways to keep their cargo alive, however, the conditions these future slaves travelled in were inhumane.

5. Benefits of African Descenta. Though the Africans received brutal treatment once they had arrived in America, they

still fared somewhat better tan the Europeans in terms of diseases. Europeans in the West Indies lost 125 per 1000 people in the West Indies annually, while the Africans lost 30 per 1000 people. This immunity from diseases could have stemmed from the

African’s ancestors’ trade with the Europeans. As these ancestors probably encountered European diseases along the trans-Saharan trade routes, they probably developed some kind of immunity.

6. Stunted population growtha. During this time, the mortality for immigrants was much higher than tose born in the

Americas. Also, the death-rates for tose slaves born in America was much lower than the new arrivals. This information, however, contrasted the stunted slave population in the Americas. tis can be explained firstly by the lack of women enslaved and the high infant mortality rates. this can also be explained by the low prices of new slaves, as owners found it cheaper to buy new slaves rater than raise native born slaves.

7. Sources of Slavesa. Before the Europeans appeared in Africa in the fifteenth century, most slaves in Africa

were war captives or had inherited their title as slave. Most served as domestic servants or wageless workers, and some could even buy their freedom under certain conditions. When the Europeans first came they purchased slaves traditionally, through local African merchants. They would exchange gold, guns, textiles, and copper utensils for their human cargo.

8. Local Responsea. In some cases, local African rulers became concerned about the affect that the slave

trade had on their societies, as it impacted the political and social well-being of their people. Most of the time, however, these monarchs viewed the slave trade as a source of income and sometimes even raided surrounding villages in the hopes of finding victims to sell off to the merchants.

9. Effect of Slave Trade of Africaa. Though many would assume that the slave trade decimated the populations of African

kingdoms, it really varied from area to area. In places like Angola ad the area south of the Congo River basin, where the population was thin anyway, it was most noticeable. But in places like West Africa, the birthrate was high enough to compensate for the lack of adults. Also, the introduction of American crops like maize, peanuts, and manoic led to an increase in food production which produced a healthier and larger population.

10. European Justificationa. Some Europeans justified the slave trade in that it had been going on for centuries in the

Mediterranean and Africa and the traders, merchants, and buyers were only following ancient tradition. Others believed that the Europeans were introducing Africans to the Christian faith, therefore improving their livelihood. Also, some believed that natives were not stable and strong enough to work the sugarcane and instead believed that the Africans were physically capable.

Summary

The Trans-Atlantic slave trade took place in the Atlantic Ocean in the transport of Africans to the New World from the 16th to the 19th centuries , including both North and South America. Most of the slaves came from central and West Africa by way of African merchants. Much of the economic system

that developed in the New World became dependent on this slave labor that the Trans-Atlantic slave trade brought. The first Europeans to take part in this trade were the Portuguese but they were soon followed by many others.

Quotations

“The poor slaves work entirely naked, exposed to the heat of the burning sun. The presence of the master intimidates them, and the fear of punishment expedites the work; but they make themselves amends in his absence. "- Rene-Auguste Caillie

“But for the people living on or near the coast, the impact was often great. As the trade in slaves increased during the sixteenth, seventeenth, and eighteenth centuries, thousands and then millions of men, women, and even children were removed from their homes and forcibly exported to plantations in the Western Hemisphere.”- William J. Dukier

Encomienda

Top Ten

1. Origin – The early Spanish settlers in the Caribbean needed to recruit a great deal of labor. The encomienda system gave them the right to demand labor from the native peoples. Queen Isabella and King Ferdinand supported the institution of this colonial government in the hopes of bringing structure and order to the mysterious natives.

2. Definition – Around 1500, the Spaniards collected tribute from the natives and used them as laborers. In return, the holders of the “encomienda” were supposed to protect the Indians and supervise their spiritual and material needs. It was a very basic form of feudalism.

3. The Definition in Practice – In reality, the settlers had no one looking over their backs, and implemented the system as they pleased. They ignored their government, and brutally used the Indians to pursue their own economic interests. If the Indians could not pay tribute or refused to work, they were harshly punished. The Europeans whipped, severed limbs, tortured, and killed all for the sake of wealth.

4. Labor – The natives were forced to mine both gold and silver as well as harvest many of the new crops that Europeans discovered in the “New World.” When Europeans realized they needed more people to work, they began shipping African slaves to work alongside the Indians during the Atlantic Slave Trade.

5. Religious Excuse – The European settlers used religion to justify their domination over the Native Americans. The Conquistadors maintained it was God’s will that they indoctrinate the Native Americans in the Catholic faith. This of course was just an excuse to use the Indians as an unpaid workforce to increase their own wealth.

6. Encomenderos – Conquistadors, soldiers, and notable natives were granted a plot of land with a certain amount of natives to work the land. Queen Isabella and King Ferdinand required the Encomenderos to treat the Indians fairly and pay them a minimum wage. But at the same time, they were given the power to “convince” the natives to actually do the work. Most took

advantage of this system and defied the royal family without informing them about what was really happening.

7. The Repartimiento System – This system of government later replaced the Ecomienda System at the urging of Catholic priests. They saw the system as hurtful to their attempts at conversion. The new system compelled native communities to supply laborers but only for limited periods of time and for a fair wage.

8. Haciendas – Spanish plantations, mines, and businesses set up after the settlers established their rule and created a labor force. Living and working conditions for the workers were awful, while the owners lived in luxury. It was because of the harsh treatment the natives received on these estates that the encomienda system was replaced.

9. Cargo System – After a church was built in a Spanish settlement in America, the priests who occupied it had almost complete control over “town” life. Their power stemmed from their ability to speak the native tongue. With so few priests and so many Indians, they appointed certain jobs to the natives to better organize the religious and civil lives of the Indians. The priests abused their control over the villager’s hierarchy to make them organize efforts to discharge debts related to cost of food, wafers and wine for the Mass and payment of the priests.

10. Later Practice of the Encomienda System – Even though the system was abolished, another form of the same system was established while encomienda was practiced. Encomienda can be simply defined as “forced labor” – sounds a whole lot like the slave trade. The Atlantic Slave Trade came into play in order to improve the encomienda system, but when the system was abolished, slavery was not. It took over 300 years for people to recognize that the treatment of African American slaves was unjust, and do what they should have done when encomienda was abolished.

Quotes

1. “During the Spanish colonial period, the economy was based on exploitation, both of land and of Indian labor. The first Spanish settlers organized the encomienda system by which Spaniards were given title to American land and ownership of the villages on that land. In return for promises to convert the Indians to Christianity, the Spanish were allowed to use the land and labor any way they saw fit. This system quickly turned into something very close to outright slavery: Indians were paid exceedingly low wages—if anything at all—to perform backbreaking labor on plantations and in mines. The Spanish believed that their God-given duty was to convert the Indians, and that the European notion of eternal salvation was a reward great enough to justify any possible mistreatment in this life. The result was a race for control of people more than of land, and not too surprisingly, abuses were so widespread as to become the norm.”

2. “In colonial Spanish America, a system by which the Spanish crown defined the status of the Indian population in its colonies. An encomienda consisted of a grant by the crown of a specified number of Indians living in a particular area. The receiver (encomenderos) could

exact tribute from the Indians and was required to protect them and instruct them in the Christian faith. The encomienda did not include a grant of land, but in practice the encomenderos gained control of Indian lands. Though the original intent was to reduce the abuses of forced labour, in practice it became a form of enslavement.

3. “As legally defined in 1503, an encomienda consisted of a grant by the crown to a conquistador, soldier, official, or others rewarded for assisting in the conquest, of a specified number of Indians living in a particular area. The receiver of the grant, the encomendero, could exact tribute from the Indians in gold or labor ("Encomienda"). Basically, the natives were gathered into villages under the supervision of a trustee and forced to work in the construction of buildings, in mines, and in the cultivation of the soil. In turn, the trustee (the encomendero) was to civilize, Christianize, and protect the Indians (Thomas 51). Through this system, the crown intended to both reward deserving conquerors and settlers and to incorporate the Indians into Christian civilization by placing them under the protection of responsible individuals (Vigil 218).However, the system quickly became corrupted.”

Summary

The encomienda system was established in 1503 when Spanish settlers in the Americas needed a labor force in order to work the mines and plantations. The natives were required to work for the settlers and pay tribute. In return, they were protected and shown the “right” way to live. The European settlers used religion as an excuse to force the Indians to work. Because of the harsh treatment and corruption in the system, encomienda was replaced with repartimiento. This gave the natives more rights and fairer wages. The plots of land that notable natives were put in charge of were called Haciendas, and they were under the overall power of the priests who could speak the native tongue. The slave trade was a major result of the encomienda system, and lasted into the second part of the 19 th

century.

European Serfdom/Feudalism Top Ten: 1450-1750 CE

*Using APWH Themes*

Top Ten List:

Interaction Between Humans and the Environment:

1. Demography and Disease: The Black Death helped spur on the demise of official serfdom in Western Europe, just before this time period, and set up a decline in widespread serfdom from 1450 to 1750 CE.

2. Technology: From 1450-1750, a small agricultural revolution occurred and the foundation was laid for the Industrial Revolution. This, along with a slowly increasing urban population, diluted the strength of feudal relationships.

Development and Interaction of Cultures:

3. Religions and Philosophies: Christianity supports Feudal System, loyalty to church and rulers, but as the Enlightenment and Scientific Revolution gained ground, the church’s support became less important.

4. Russia and Eastern Europe retain their system of serfdom; remain isolated from Western Europe after its decline in serfdom and the feudal system.

State-building, Expansion, and Conflict:

5. Roman Empire began tradition of serfdom with agricultural slavery, feudalism helps create bonds of loyalty that fuel the growth of empires and nations, see the unification of Castile and Aragon, English and French wars, Austro-Hungarian Empire.

6. Feudalism ensured a structure that allowed for nations and rulers to pursue military goals; unification in times of war.

Creation, Expansion, and Interaction of Economic Systems:

7. Agricultural and Pastoral Production and Labor Systems: serfs and peasants in feudal system are necessary to maintain largely agricultural economies in Europe, although this trend began to change towards the end of the time period.

8. Trade and Commerce: begin to develop more heavily, shows the emerging changes to the feudal system.

Development and Transformation of Social Structures:

9. Gender Roles and Relations: Women are accorded a lesser role within feudal social structure; serfdom does value their work as laborers, but still relegates them to a lesser position than socially comparable males

10. Social and Economic Classes: the basis of serfdom and the feudal system, the class structure ensured that stability was maintained through a system of mutual agreement concerning loyalty and protection.

Summary:

Serfdom is essentially the state of the peasantry under feudalism. Feudalism was a system in which society was ordered by the relationships based upon land ownership and the exchange of services and loyalty. Serfdom itself originated from the agricultural slavery of the Roman Empire, which had declined by 600 CE, and it spread throughout Europe in the 10th century. By the 14th century, serfdom had begun to steeply decline in Western Europe, including France, but the feudal system continued to order society in this area. Russia and Eastern Europe did not outlaw serfdom until as late as the 19th century, leaving millions of serfs tied to land and the landowners. Although serfdom officially declined in Western Europe around the time of the Black Death, the feudal system continued to be prevalent and existed in different modified forms through 1750 CE. Certain nations and states supported a more tightly defined and rigid feudal system, but in general, the 15th and 16th centuries proved to be the last periods where feudalism was accorded great importance in its oldest definition. France, however, continued to rely on a heavily feudal system that defied much of the rest of Western Europe, as France still held peasants to the land in a fashion comparable to that of Russia. Russia maintained a reliance on serfdom that belied its feudal system’s frequent failures and lack of central authority.

Quotations

“An earthly kingdom cannot exist without inequality of persons. Some must be free, some serfs, some rulers, some subjects.” -- Martin Luther

“Feudalism was not a word used in the middle ages. It has had two quite distinct meanings in recent usage. The first meaning - promoted by radicals during the French Revolution and developed by Marxist historians - refers to a social system based on a society in which peasant agriculture is the fundamental productive activity; in which slavery is non-existent or marginal but peasants are tied to the land in some way; and in which a small elite defined by military

activity dominates.. This is probably the most important meaning in modern popular usage. For most of the 20th-century, professional medievalists have given the term a quite different meaning [see F. Ganshof, Feudalism for a classic summary]. For medieval historians the term has come to mean a system of reciprocal personal relations among members of the military elite, which lead ultimately to parliament and then Western democracy.”

- Paul Halsall, Fordham University

Empires

Italian City States

1. Major Powers – The duchy of Milan, the republics of Florence and Venice, the Papal States, and the Kingdom of Naples dominated the Italian peninsula during this time. Milan, Florence, and Venice built strong, centralized states. Milan utilized taxation to generate revenue, while both Venice and Florence were ruled by merchant oligarchies. The Papal States were a sovereign under direct control of the Roman Catholic Church. The kingdom of Naples was governed by an absolute monarchy.

2. Commercial Empire – The Italian city-states formed a commercial empire partly because of their ideal location in the Mediterranean Sea. In particular, the maritime empire of Venice brought in vast revenues earned status of an international power. The city-states were the center of trade between European nations, the Middle East, and Asia. These city-states facilitated trade and reaped its benefits, building them into economically and socially powerful regions.

3. Trade Renaissance – The Italian city-states fostered the growth of famous, noble families, such as the Medicis of Florence from the merchant class. The ideal location of Italy and the substantial merchant class facilitated the trade of goods to/from the Middle East and Asia. The lucrative trade with the Islamic and Byzantine cultures allowed many wealthy Italians to become patrons of painters, sculptors, and scientists, spreading the new ideas of the Renaissance into the city-states.

4. Florence and the Medicis – Cosimo de’ Medici took control of the merchant oligarchy in Florence in 1434. The family carefully chose political alliances and even after Cosimo’s death, the family dominated the city during its time at the center of the cultural Renaissance. The family became patrons of the arts and funded many of the artists, writers, and inventors of the Renaissance, adding to the prestige and value of Florence during the Renaissance.

5. Rivalries – The city-states competed with each other for economic, social, and political dominance in the flourishing Mediterranean region. During the 14th and 15th centuries, the powerful city-states like Florence, Milan, and Venice, were able to conquer weaker city-states. By conquering these city-states, the areas became more regional states. This lead to the 1454 Treaty of Lodi between Milan, Venice, and Florence, which established a temporary regional balance of power.

6. Italian Wars – The wars lasted from 1494 to 1559 and involved most of the Italian city-states, major states of Western Europe (France, Spain, the Holy Roman Empire, England, and Scotland) and the Ottoman Empire. The war arose from dynastic disputes over the Duchy of Milan and the Kingdom of Naples and became a general struggle for power and territory. As a result, Hapsburg Spain immerged as the major European power, while the power of the Italian city-states was greatly reduced, and Milan and Naples were annexed to Spain.

7. Significance of the Spanish War of Succession – The war lasted from 1701-1714. It pitted the Two Crowns of Spanish loyal to Philip V, France, and the Electorate of Bavaria, against the Grand Alliance, those opposing unification, the Spanish loyal to Archduke Charles, the Holy Roman Empire, Great Britain, the Dutch Republic, Portugal and the Duchy of Savoy. The kingdom of Naples, the Duchy of Milan, and Sardinia were ceded to the Hapsburgs, while Savoy gained Sicily.

8. Pope Julius II – Pope Julius II became pope in 1503. This marked the beginning of the Roman Golden Age; during this time both Rome as a city and the Roman Catholic Church prospered. Pope Julius II halted the decline of the papacy and took steps to restore Rome and the Church’s prestige. He played an important role in the development of the Renaissance and patronage. The pope funded works such as Michelangelo’s paintings on the Sistine Chapel, which not only added to the value of the art and classics of this time, but further fostered the growth and popularity of patronages among the Italian elite.

9. Sack of Rome – In 1527, the imperial army of the HRE Emperor Charles V sacked the city of Rome and completely took it over in a matter of 12 hours. They struck decisively against Pope Clement VII and imprisoned him. This sack marked the end of The Italian Renaissance, severely damaged the prestige of the papacy, and allowed Charles V to act against the Reformation.

10. Decline in Economic Significance – With the discovery of the New World and the opening of new trade routes in the 15th century, the Italian city-states were no longer the center of trade, as new avenues were being explored. With the development of the Colombian Exchange and the Triangle Trade, the city-states were no longer the sole facilitators of trade. Many nations began to utilize goods from their colonies and the Italian city-states lost their economic dominance.

Quotations:

“As a result, the city was thrown into strife and disorder, for Buondelmonte's death was the cause and beginning of the cursed Guelf and Ghibelline parties in Florence. To be sure, there were already divisions among the noble citizens, and these parties already existed because of the quarrels and disputes between church and empire.” -- GIOVANNI VILLANI: FLORENTINE CHRONICLE

“After the successful termination of the war of Serezana, the Florentines lived in prosperous tranquillity until the death of Lorenzo de' Medici in 1492; for after having established peace by his good judgment and authority, Lorenzo devoted his attention to the aggrandisement of the city and of his own family.” -- Niccolò Machiavelli, History of Florence: Lorence de' Medici

“There was a very great pestilence in the city and district of Florence. It was of such a fury and so tempestuous that in houses in which it took hold previously healthy servants who took care of the ill died of the same illness. Almost non of the ill survived past the fourth day. Neither physicians nor medicines were effective..” -- Marchione di Coppo Stefani, The Florentine Chronicle

Summary:

During this time period, the Italian city-states were the center of the Renaissance of Western Europe. Their ideal location and trading capabilities allowed them to thrive. Various families such as the Medicis often competed for power. By the end of 15th century, the city states’ economic dominance began to decline because of the discovery of the Americas and the shifting of trade routes. The Italians

were involved in small wars and were ceded to the Hapsburgs, a condition that would spur later independence movements.

HRE/Austria

Top Ten List:

1. Hapsburgs – The Hapsburgs were the ruling family of the HRE, Austria-Hungary, Spain, Portugal, Italy, Bohemia, Bosnia, and Slovenia from the 11th to 18th centuries. The Hapsburgs ruled vast empires made up of ethnically diverse people. The fact that they controlled numerous nations/regions threatened other nations such as France and England and challenged the desire for a balance of power.

2. Empress Maria Theresa (r. 1740-1780) – She was the first female ruler of the Hapsburg domains and the last of the House of Hapsburg. To assure her accession to the throne, her father, Emperor Charles VI, issued the 1713 Pragmatic Sanction; however Prussia’s encroachment led to the War of Austrian Succession (1740-48). In its aftermath, the idea of a balance of power was instilled among the weaker nations involved. The empress made a number of administrative reforms that helped centralize the Austrian Empire, with the particular goal of strengthening the power of the Hapsburg state and enlarging and modernizing Austria’s armed forces.

3. Thirty Years’ War (1618-1646) – The War was fought in the Germanic lands of the HRE as a struggle between the Catholic forces led by the Hapsburg HRE Emperor and the Protestants (mostly Calvinists) in Bohemia. Political issues were also a factor, as there was competition for European leadership between the Bourbon dynasty of France and the Hapsburgs of Spain and the HRE. The Peace of Westphalia issued that all German states, including the Calvinist ones were free to determine their own religion.

4. German disunity/decentralization – The GRE was made up of more than 300 entities recognized as independent states. Each state had the power to conduct its own foreign policies. This disunity, further increased by the religious divisions of the Peace of Westphalia brought an end to the HRE. Each state was ruled by its own prince, further creating distance between the German states. Because of these elements, the HRE was never truly united and existed as independent states/regions and did not share a homogenous culture. It was a collection of territories held together by the Hapsburg emperor; each region had its own law and political life.

5. Land Holdings – The nucleus of the new Austrian Empire remained the traditional Austrian hereditary possessions: Lower and Upper Austria, Carinthia, Carniola, Styria, and Tyrol. The empire added the kingdom of Bohemia and parts of NW Hungary. After defeating the Turks in 1687, Austria controlled all of Hungary, Transylvania, Croatia, and Slovenia, thus establishing the Austrian Empire in SE Europe.

6. Problem of Ethnic Minorities – While the Germans were the main ethnic group of the central HRE, the empire was so large that it included various ethnic groups, minorities in the German lands. Peoples such as the Czechs, Poles, Hungarians, and Bohemians began to desire independence from the Hapsburg crown because they felt the monarch did not understand their needs or culture, leading to alienation that would serve as a main factor in the struggle for independence and growth of nationalism.

7. Austro-Prussian Rivalry – During the 18th century, the Prussians and Austrians fought for political control of the German speaking peoples. The rivalry reached its peak during the Seven Years’ War (1756-1763). There were antagonisms between the Bourbons and Great

Britain and the Hohenzollerns of Prussia and the Hapsburg of the HRE/Austria. Prussia’s attempt to strike against the HRE failed, and conditions were restored to antebellum boundaries.

8. Start of the Reformation – The official start of the Reformation began in the HRE when Martin Luther nailed the 95 Theses to the door of the Castle Church of Wittenberg. Martin Luther received support and protection from several German princes despite the threats of the Pope. He started a reformation in the HRE which was closely associated with the Roman Catholic Church in terms of political and social authority.

9. Charles V (1519-1556) – The emperor of the HRE and member of the Hapsburgs. Despite the imperial title, the HRE was really governed as independent states by various princes. He was emperor during the Reformation and was present at the hearing of Martin Luther at the Diet of Worms to defend his beliefs. Spain was the true center of his holdings, but he was considered as a foreigner, which stirred up resentment, although not as much as his son Philip II who was seen as an aggressive usurper.

10. Commitments of the Hapsburg Monarch – Because the empire extended over vast regions and ethnic groups, the emperors had varying titles in the different lands. During the time from 1450-1750, the rulers of the Hapsburgs held titles such as: Emperor of Austria, King of Germany, Emperor of Mexico, King of Spain, King of Aragon, King of Sicily, King of Naples, King of Castile, King of Hungary, King of Bohemia, King of Croatia, King of England and Ireland, King of Portugal, King of Dalmatia, King of Galicia and Lodomeria, Archduke of Austria.

Quotations:

“You will guess at once, I know, that I have seen the Empress. Yes, I have seen her, the greatest among women. She who, in herself, is higher than her throne. I have not only seen her, but I have spoken with her. Not merely seen her, but talked with her three-quarters of an hour in her family circle. Forgive me if this letter is chaotic and my handwriting uneven. Both faults spring from the overwhelming joy I feel in the two delights of this day---the privilege of meeting the Empress and the pleasure of telling your Highness of the honor.” --Luise Gottsched: Description of the Empress Maria Theresa, 1749

The city, anciently called Taurunum, or Alba Graeca, was the metropolis of Hungary, 'till won by Sultan Suleiman the second, in the year 1525. It is one of the most pleasant, stately, and commodious situations that I have seen; it stands most in a bottom, encompassed eastward by gentle and pleasant ascents, employed in orchards or vines..”– 1634 A Journey into Levant by Henry Blount

“That there shall be a Christian and Universal Peace, and a perpetual, true, and sincere Amity, between his Sacred Imperial Majesty, and his most Christian Majesty; as also, between all and each of the Allies, and Adherents of his said Imperial Majesty, the House of Austria, and its Heirs, and Successors; but chiefly between the Electors, Princes, and States of the Empire on the one side; and all and each of the Allies of his said Christian Majesty, and all their Heirs and Successors, chiefly between the most Serene Queen and Kingdom of Swedeland, the Electors respectively, the Princes and States of the Empire, on the other part.. -- Peace Treaty between the Holy Roman Emperor and the King of France and their respective Allies in Treaty of Westphalia 1648

Summary:

During this time, the Holy Roman Empire and Austria were dominated by the Hapsburg family. The Reformation started in the HRE in 1517, and the HRE/Austria was involved in the Thirty Years’ War

concerning both political and religious conflicts. The HRE/Austrian Empire had vast land holdings and included many different ethnic groups, causing issues between the majority Germans and the minorities such as the Czechs and Bohemians. The Empire was never truly centralized because of its huge amount of land and the independent nature of the provincial princes.

Spain

Top Ten

1. Encomienda System: Queen Isabella instituted this system which allowed the conquering Spanish people to collect money from the natives and also use them as laborers. The Indian people were supposed to protect the natives, meaning that they had to supervise their spiritual needs. This was the first government utilized by the Spanish and is the way in which they governed their colonies. An encomienda, by definition means a large plot of land, it is a grant for the natives allowing them to work and essentially act as slaves for the Spanish people. This system ultimately led to exploitation by the Spanish people.

2. Treaty of Tordesillas: This is a treaty between Portugal and Spain that was developed in 1494, this treaty separated their spheres of influence. They divided what was now known as the “New World.” The Portuguese received the route to the east, while the Spanish received the route across the Atlantic Ocean.

3. The Conquistadors: The conquistadors were made up of mostly upper class men and were influenced and acted on their desires of greed and religious zeal. This group of people were endorsed by the Castilian crown, but were outfitted financially by private people, rather than the government. The conquistadors maintained and established a powerful Spain by creating and influencing colonies, among the most notable conquistadors were Columbus and Cortez.

4. Spanish Inquisition: The Spanish inquisition was established and supported by the Spanish monarchy, being Queen Isabella and King Ferdinand. Their goal with the inquisition was to maintain a Catholic Spain. Anyone and everyone that was not catholic, was persecuted and severely discriminated against. This only ended under Isabella II.

5. Economic Superiority: The Spanish economy was superior as a result of their many colonies and the encomienda system. Inflation from gold and silver brought upon Spain by the conquistadors. It was because of their many colonies that Spain was able to have such success; however, the Spanish economy began to crash and essentially decline because of the monarchy. The Spanish monarchy spent their money frivolously on luxury items rather than invest their money in the country in order to maintain a strong economy.

6. Spain becomes Unified: Spain becomes unified only after the marriage of Queen Isabella and King Ferdinand I. Queen Isabella was of Castile while king Ferdinand was from Aragon. This marriage united all of the different kingdoms of Spain, being Castile, Aragon, Navarre and the kingdom of Granada. The unification of these four kingdoms made Spain more powerful and gave them the ability to conquer other colonies successfully. Because two of the four kingdoms were represented by the monarchy, there were no rivals within the kingdoms any longer, and Spain was united as one.

7. Columbus vs. Cortez: Both Columbus and Cortez explored and eventually took over different colonies. Despite the fact that they both accomplished essentially the same thing, they did so in very different manners. Columbus took over his colony in a rather peaceful manner, while Cortez did so violently with superior weapons. The central conflict and reasoning for violence with Cortez is that he demanded that the natives renounce their beliefs and take on the beliefs of the Spanish, while Columbus took a much more passive approach.

8. Reconquista: The reconquista is known as the “re-conquest” of Spain. This occurred after the Muslims expanded their sphere of influence. The central or core issue with this influence was the varying view in regards to religion. Spain conquered Spain from the Muslims and essentially forced them out, allowing Spain to regain its proud catholic state.

9. Spain Flourishes: The Spanish renaissance otherwise known as the golden age of Spain occurred in the early 1500’s. During this age the economy was flourishing along with the liberal arts. It was because of the many conquests of different colonies that the economy was able to flourish, specifically the encomienda system. Many different pieces of artwork and literature were produced that reflected both their conquering, and strong military, along with their proud religious zeal.

10. Trade flourishes: Trade in Spain was able to flourish throughout the time period of 1450-1750 because of the many colonies. Each colony was known for something different, and every colony traded with Spain. Silver deposits were both discovered and exploited in Mexico, and essentially sent back to Spain. Agricultural products that were unique to the different colonies came to Spain. Potatoes, corn, tobacco and cocoa were among the few crops that made their way to Spain as a result of the colonies.

Quotations

1. “Their bodies swelled with greed, and their hunger was ravenous; they hungered like pigs for that gold” (407).

2. “Spanish policy toward the inhabitants of the Americas, whom the Europeans called Indians, was a combination of confusion, misguided paternalism, and cruel exploitation” (405).

3. “With little or no natural resistance to European diseases, the Indians of America were ravaged by smallpox, measles, and typhus brought by the explorers and conquistadors” (405).

Summary:

Throughout the time period of 1450-1750 Spain was experiencing expansion and an attempt to conquer. Spain established a myriad of colonies, and set up the encomienda (slave-like) system. Because of their ability to conquer colonies and effectively rule them, Spain, as a country, was one of the most dominating powers in Europe during the time period. Because of their flourishing economic state, they were able to excel in other areas of life such as the liberal arts. Columbus and Cortez were both very significant in Spain’s success as a country, while the monarchy did their best to destroy the economy through their lavish and unnecessary lifestyle. Because of their numerous quarrels with the colonies, their military eventually weakened and the country was then taken over by the Bourbons who assumed the role of leaders, essentially monarchs of the nation.

Manchu Empire

Top Ten

1. First Opium War: The Chinese officials thought that they should stop the supply of opium into the country after having seen what the drug was doing to their people. The officials confiscated the supply of drugs from British travelers and did not realize that the British Government would object. When it did so violently, that was the First Opium War.

2. The White Lotus Society: The white lotus society consisted on the central group of ancestors throughout China. The organization was called the Triads, and they were original soldiers of the Heaven Earth society. This society dated back the Ming dynasty, but had evolved into

what was then known as the Triads. Their sole mission was to restore the Ming dynasty back to its original form. The White Lotus society did not have criminal intentions, despite the fact that they fully intended on overthrowing the government.

3. Emperor Quianlong: The Quianlong Emperor possessed a strong military influence and therefore was a fairly successful leader. He sent numerous armies in order to suppress the Miao rebellion. He also had a myriad of campaigns to aid in expanding the Manchu empire. His most significant achievement lay not with his military prowess, but with his creation of a rather large work that explained all of the important works of the Chinese culture. He produced over 36,000 copies of this work and called it the Siku Quansh. This also created a small boom in the economy as it created jobs for nearly 15,000 people.

4. Banners: Manchus were assigned farmland and organized into eight military units, called banners, which were stationed as separate units in various strategic positions throughout China. These men were the primary fighting force of the entire empire.

5. Throughout the Manchu empire, China remained an agricultural force. Nearly eighty five percent of the people were farmers throughout the time period. Despite their focus on agriculture, their economy also underwent a change, which some historians claim led to the Industrial Revolution.

6. Treaty of Nanking: This treaty was a treaty between China and Britain. In this treaty China signed Hong Kong away to the British.

7. Treaty of Nerchinsky: This treaty was a treaty between Russia and China. The purpose of this treaty was to keep the northern border of China secure and safe from invaders.

8. Panthay Rebellion: These rebellions were caused by the way the imperial administration treated the Hui. It was also a conflict between the Han and Muslim miners in 1853, but tensions existed long before that day.

9. Emperor Kangxi: He was known as one of China’s greatest emperors because he suppressed the Revolt of the Three Feudatories, forced the Kingdom of Tungning on Taiwan to submit to Qing rule, blocked Tzarist Russia on the Amur River and expanded the empire. This was a time of stability and wealth after years of war and chaos.

10. “Prosperous Era of Kangxi and Qianlong”: The period of stability and wealth after the years of war and chaos in which Emperor Kangxi reigned, but lasted far beyond his own lifetime.

Quotes:

1. “They also tried to establish their legitimacy as China’s rightful rulers by stressing their devotion to the principles of Confucianism” (487).

2. “An Imperial Edict to the King of England: You, O King, are so inclined toward our civilization that you have sent a special envoy across the seas to bring to our Court your memorial of congratulations on the occasion of my birthday and to present your native products as an expression of your thoughtfulness.” (“The Tribute System in Action” 492).

3. “I have given your daughter a brush. Somebody she will be famous. How can you forbid it?” (“A Chinese Woman Artist” 495).

Summary:

The Manchus, not being originally Han Chinese and so therefore strongly resisted, learned very quickly they had to do things the Chinese way if they wanted to continue ruling. They kept Confucian practices and temple rituals, and the Qing dynasty was determined to protect not only its internal self from rebellion but also from outside foreign forces. After a series of conquers, the Qing dynasty became the first to eliminate successfully all danger to China proper from across its land borders. However, also

under the Qing dynasty, other forces became known, such as the might of the British government. Under its imperialist rule, being one of the spheres of influence, they became exposed to the Western world and the wonders of opium, leading to the Opium Wars.

Mughal India

Top Ten

1. Akbar the Great- He tried to reconcile Muslim and Hindu. He was religiously tolerant (he even married a Hindu) although he was a Muslim. He abolished restrictions on the Hindus like the Jizya tax.

2. Taj Majal- built to glorify Shah Jahan’s wife. Its airiness contrasts with the heavy style of the Baroque which was occurring in Europe.

3. Gunpowder Empire- He took Mughal India with his use of weapons. He used guns, more advanced than those of the Indians, and cavalries, while the Indians rode on elephants to take Delhi.

4. Mughals- They were not locals, but rather came from mountainous regions of Ganges River. Babur was the first conqueror of Mughal India.

5. Zamindars- Local officials ruled their certain areas. They gained considerable power. 6. Justice- There was equality in legal matters as well. Regardless of the religion, a person

was treated the same in court.7. Disunity- Due to the many different regions Mughal India was by no means a centralized

state. 8. Decline- The lessening in competence of leaders and the economic straining of the time

led to the downfall of the Mughals. The Europeans were also beginning to seize control. The local leaders also gained too much power.

9. English and Dutch- In the beginning Portugal arrived and just established monopolies over trades, but instead just used the Mughal territory as a stepping-stone to China. England set up factories within India and they traded Indian goods in the East Indies. The British East Indies also gained power to collect taxes.

10. Women- In tribal society they fought in battle among the men. They were educated, allowed to own land, wrote poetry, and painted. They spun thread. These textiles were sometimes major export. However, Muslims subjugated women. So there was a give and take with Muslim society for the exact role of women.

Quotations

“Fueled by the growing power and autonomy of the local gentry and merchants, rebellions groups in provinces throughout the empire, from the Deccan to the Punjab, began to reassert local authority and reduce the power of the Mughal emperor to that of a “tinsel sovereign.”

“Like so many of their predecessors since the fall of the Guptas nearly a thousand years before, the Mughals were Muslims. But like the Ottoman Turks, the best Mughal rulers did not simply impose Islamic institution and beliefs on the predominantly Hindu population; they combined Muslim with Hindu and even Persian concepts and cultural values in a unique social and cultural synthesis that still today seems to epitomize the greatness of Indian civilization.”

Summary

Mughal India was a high time for Indian culture. While it was a product of a foreign force, the Mughals modernized India. Great rulers like Akbar, Shag Jahan, and Aurangzeb changed the face of politics. Religious freedoms for Muslims and Hindus were revolutionary. Cultural developments in architecture, painting, and literature transformed India. Even the economy, which was stable and led to a spread in wealth, brought changes to the Caste system, but mostly brought affluence for the merchant and upper classes. Unfortunately, the Mughals fell from internal disputes, political weakness which led to England’s rule in India.

England

Top Ten

1. By the early 16th century, England was laying the foundation for its future Empire. It held land in the Americas (near VA), slave trading depots in West Africa, and Bombay, Madras, and Calcutta in India.

2. Though competition in Southeast Asia was fierce, England soon became the most powerful economic entity in the lucrative spice trade due to the prowess and efficiency of the English East India Trading Company as well as the British Maritime dominance.

3. The son of the Tudor Dynasty founding Henry VII “The Spider”, Henry VIII was an incredibly efficient and powerful absolutist King. Because his wife, Catherine of Aragon, was not bearing sons he wished to divorce her; however Henry received no avail from the Pope to appropriate said Divorce. Instead he turned to the Church of England (Avangelican) to grant him his wishes. This was the first official British tie to Protestantism, which would become a trademark in the British cultural identity.

4. In 1534, Henry VIII and his right hand religious man Archbishop Cranmer convinced Parliament to pass the Act of Supremecy; all ties with the Catholic Church officially ended. Britain had become an officially protestant nation.

5. After the death of Edward VI in 1553, Mary Tudor took the throne and instituted Catholic doctrine with a heavy hand; thus she earned the nickname of “Bloody Mary” due to her execution of 300+ Protestant leaders and heretics. She was, however, ineffective and Britain associated itself with Protestantism more than ever.

6. Elizabeth I, Henry VIII’s daughter, succeeded Mary in 1558. She was incredibly cautious, but she was also a brilliant ruler. She repealed all of Mary’s Catholic doctrine and issued a policy of religious toleration. Under her, England entered what is still called “The Golden Age.”

7. Outraged at the death of Catholicism in England, Philip II of Spain sent his massive armada to invade England. The outcome was a massive upset, as the smaller, faster British Navy outmaneuvered and destroyed much of the Armada with the aid of constant storms that were unfamiliar to the Spaniards. Due to England’s victory, these storms were nick-named “The Protestant Wind.”

8. Charles I, like his father James VI, believed in a divine right monarchy, which alienated Parliament and the people as a whole. Not only that, Charles was an adamant Catholic, and grievances reached a climax in 1642. Civil War erupted, and Charles fell from power against the armies of Oliver Cromwell. Britain declared itself a Republic, however Cromwell eventually dispersed it and set up military rule. After his death, the Army restored Charles II to the throne.

9. Like his father, Charles and his Catholic family angered the people. Once again anger rose until Parliament invited the Dutch William of Orange to invade England. ‘The Glorious Revolution”

was bloodless, and the Protestant William and his wife Mary proved to be an excellent fit for England.

10. In 1707, England underwent massive political changes to form the Britain that we know today. Scotland and Wales joined the United Kingdom under the rule of a dominant Parliament and a monarch who served primarily as an icon.

Quotations:

“Sir , this is none other than the hand of God; and to him alone belongs the glory.” –Oliver Cromwell“And thereupon the said Lords spiritual and temporal…for the vindication and assertion of their

ancient rights, declare;”-English Bill of Rights (1668)This happy breed of men…This precious stone set in the sea…this blessed plot, this earth, this realm,

this England.”-William Shakespeare

Summary

Between 1450 and 1750, England endeavored to increase its national political and economic standing in a somewhat hectic Europe. The rule of absolutist monarchs like Henry VIII and Elizabeth I saw a great climb in national power; however this reward was expressed through the people as individual freedom grew. Thus, England slowly made its way towards the powerful capitalist, Empire dominated by the people that it would become.

France

Top Ten

1. Outcome of 100 Years’ War: In 1453, the French reigned victorious after defeating the English in a war that lasted for 112 years. A defining factor that led to French success came in the person of Joan of Arc. After convincing the French Dauphine to give her a small legion of troops, she marched to Orleans and drove the English out of the area. Though she was eventually captured and burned at the stake, she reinvigorated French motivation and inspired them to victory.

2. The War of Three Henrys: In the 1560s, almost half of the French nobility converted to Calvinism. The Bourbon house, which was composed of Huguenots, and the Valois, who were Catholic, were both in line to succeed the French throne. After the Catholic party initiated brutal attacks on the Protestants, war raged for thirty years until Henry of Navarre assumed the throne. (He became king after the two Catholic Henrys were killed in the wars.) Henry of Navarre, though a Protestant, converted to Catholicism in order to please the masses, and is famous for saying, “Paris is worth a mass.” He instituted the Edict of Nantes, which granted religious toleration to the Huguenots.

3. The Thirty Years’ War (1618-1648): When Protestants in the Hapsburg Bohemia rebelled against Hapsburg authority, major European nations inserted themselves into the controversy. This war highlighted the tensions between the Spanish/Holy Roman Hapsburgs and the Bourbon dynasty in France because both families wanted their respective nations to be the most influential in Europe – and they believed using religious wars as their platform would be a beneficial tool. The Peace of Westphalia, though it further fragmented Germany, issued major territorial gains for France. After the war, France became the most powerful nation in Europe.

4. Absolutism under Louis XIV: After countless wars plagued the European continent, many people looked for a strong centralized government to protect and promote the welfare of the people. France is considered the quintessential example of Absolutism. An absolutist king is considered a divine right monarch, and Louis XIV was the indisputable, unquestioned ruler. The key to Louis’s key success was his ability to manipulate the uncooperative nobility by removing them from the royal court at Versailles if he sensed any problems. Because Versailles was not only Louis XIV’s court but also his personal home, he was able to keep a close eye on the elite, who increasingly sought to please him because of the opulence that surrounded them.

5. The Economy under Louis XIV: Jean-Baptiste Colbert was the financial advisor to Louis XIV during the 17th century. Because the building of Versailles and the king’s lavish spending tendencies, Colbert had to focus on the goal for France to export more than it imported. France adopted a policy of mercantilism, and the government regulated economic activity frequently. Colbert granted large subsidies to new industries, while increasing tariffs on imported goods to bolster the sale of domestic products.

6. The Military under Louis XIV: During the numerous wars in the 17th century, the French army increased to 400,000 men. Louis XIV waged four wars in the late 16th and earlier 17th century in order to increase his prestige and gain more territory. France’s distraught neighbors reacted by forming coalitions against France because they feared a disruption in the balance of power. Louis gained little success, and only created many enemies for France along its borders.

7. The Philosophes: The philosophes were the intellectuals of the Enlightenment who called for social reform. They came from many different backgrounds in France, ranging from the lower-middle to upper classes. France has come to be known as the capital of the Enlightenment because most of the leaders of the movement, such as Montesquieu and Voltaire, were French. The main idea of the philosophes was that one could apply the scientific method in order to explain reason in life.

8. Montesquieu: Montesquieu was the author of The Spirit of the Laws, and he was one of the most famous government analysts. In his work, Montesquieu distinguishes the three basic types of government: republic, monarchy, and despotism. The most famous aspect of Montesquieu’s ideals is the separation of legislative, judicial, and executive branches of government. He believed that three branches could check and control each other so that no one person or party would have complete control.

9. Voltaire: Voltaire was best known for his work toward religious toleration. Having been persecuted himself in his earlier years, he pushed for the religious outlook called deism. Deism possessed a mechanical outlook to the creation of the universe and God. The philosophes who championed deism believed that the universe worked like a clock, and that God was the clockmaker who created the laws that govern out lives.

10. The Effects of Enlightenment: After a tumultuous time before and after the reign of Louis XIV and XV, the Enlightenment emphasized the ability of human beings to use and justify their reason. While the Renaissance had seemed to focus on the beauty of the individual and a refurbishing of the classics, the Enlightenment focused on the intellectual potential of human beings. These focuses on reason and the course of nature helped to influence later uprisings in

France because the masses began to question and grow tired of the rulers who governed them poorly.

Ottoman Empire

Top Ten

1. The Fall of Constantinople & Expansion: Mehmet II and his Ottoman troops seized the Golden Horn of Constantinople and dragged their ships over the peninsula. After capturing the capital, he renamed it to Istanbul and transformed the Orthodox Hagia Sophia into a Muslim mosque. The predecessor Selim I consolidated control over Mesopotamia and Egypt. Local rulers and tax collectors that were loyal to the central government collected taxes and tributes.

2. Expansion into Europe: Around 1476, the Ottomans tried to invade Europe through Hungary, but initially met some opposition. Under Suleyman I, the Turks overran Hungary, Austria, and got as far as Vienna. The expansion into the Mediterranean was halted when a Spanish fleet defeated the Ottomans at Lepanto in 1571.

3. Relations: Many Christians who feared that Islamic influence was spreading too far with the Ottomans called for more crusades to rid the area of the threat. But the Ottoman Empire participated in the trade between the Western nations, while forming alliances and trade concessions like any other power. Eventually, though, when the Empire tried to expand into Hungary again, a European coalition expelled them completely from the area.

4. Turkish Rule: The sultan was the center of the political and military systems in the Empire. Court rituals were assimilated from the Byzantine and Persian Empires while a centralization policy increasingly isolated the sultan in his palace. The succession to the throne was often plagued by disputes over those in the sultan’s household, and the vezir, or chief executive.

5. The Harem: The Topkapi Palace served as the administrative and private residence for the sultan, but the private domain of the sultan and his concubines. Members of the harem were often of slave origin, but were trained and educated. The women of the harem who produced male heirs could assume places of grand power if their sons assumed the throne. Because their could be multiple sons living in the palace at the same time, succession disputes were very common.

6. Religion: The majority of ruing elites were predominantly Sunni Muslims. Sultans claimed the title of caliphs, and were theoretically responsible to oversee the wellbeing of their people. The treatment of minorities was relatively tolerant as long as minorities did not threaten the well being of others, and remained loyal to the government. Each religious group was organized into a millet with a head priest, patriarch or rabbi. Each nation established its own system of justice and law.

7. Social Classes: The four main occupational groups were peasants, artisans, merchants, and pastoral people. Taxes were based on the amount of land the peasants possessed and were paid to the local siphahis, who owned the land as a fief. Merchants were the most privileged class in Ottoman society because of a lack of government regulation.

8. Decline: The first factor that led to the downfall of the Empire can be attributed to the decline of the administrative system. Those who were trained for work in the harem or the government were allowed to own property eventually, and thus became similar to a hereditary caste rather than an educated elite. The treasury became drained because of constant wars, and inflation occurred after the importation of cheap American silver.

9. Architecture: Ottoman architecture was epitomized by the erection of magnificent mosques. The huge vastness of the new mosques, modeled after the Hagia Sophia, allowed for all the Muslims to worship in unison. Entire walls, both interior and exterior, were covered with painted tiles. The dome became a common characteristic of Ottoman architecture.

10. Textiles: Because the Ottomans were so heavily involved in trade and commerce, a flourishing of silk manufacturing occurred. At Bursa, factories produced rugs, wall hangings, and court costumes.

Safavids (1502-1736)

Top Ten

1. Shah Ismail (1487-1524) founded the Safavid dynasty and traced his origins back to Ali. Seized modern lands of Iran and Iraq and called himself shah of new Persian state.

2. Red heads Activists of the Shi’ite faith3. Conflict with Ottomans Ismail sent Shi’ite preachers to Anatolia to promote rebellion against

Turkish tribal peoples in Ottoman Empire. The Ottoman sultan, Selim I, retaliated by advancing the Safavids into Iran and won battle of Tabriz in 1514 but the Safavids regained it after a couple years.

4. Abbas I (1587- 1629) Under him the Safavids were forced to a punitive peace with the Ottomans and lost a lot of land. They moved to capital to Tabriz. Also under Abbas I, the Safavids reached the height of their glory and maintained a period of peace.

5. System of reformtrained administrators to replace the traditional warrior elite (like Janissaries)

6. Decline militant Shi’ites began to increase at court decreased the usual freedom of the empire with the pressures of religious orthodoxy especially with Iranian women. Attempts suppress minorities led to popular unrest. The Ottomans also seized territories around the western borders. Order was restored under Nadir Shah Afshar but ended after death.

7. Mixed society They came to power with support from Turking-speaking tribal groups that influenced the empire. Majority of the people were Iranian; worked as farmers or townspeople. The empire was decentralized but rulers used the Shi’ite faith as a unifying factor.

8. Political power/systemThe shah claimed to be the spiritual leader of Islam and was also the state leader. The landed aristocracy was strictly controlled by the shah, who confiscated aristocratic estates when possible and brought then under his control. Senor positions were given to those of merit rather than birth. To maintain the peace between Turkish and non-Turkish elements, Shah Abbas I hired foreigners from neighboring countries for positions in his government.

9. Economy The Safavids were involved in commercial and manufacturing activities. The shah traveled in the city streets in disguise to check on the honestly of his subjects. Caravan traveled goods. The government provided accommodations for travelers, and kept the roads mostly clear of theives.

10. Arts Under Abbas I there was an increase in the buildings of mosques, palaces, and bazaars. Mosques were elaborately decorated with blue tiles. Safavid artists created imaginative metalwork, tile decorations, and delicate glass vessels. Most well-known was the carpet weaving.

Quotations

1. “Most people embraced Islam with sincerity, but some felt an aversion to making the Muslim profession of faith. True knowledge lies with God! May God reward the Shah for his action with long life and prosperity”-Eskander Beg Monshi

a. This demonstrates some of the feelings of gratefulness to the shah, and also the peoples trust in him.

2. “We can enter the world of the Safavids most readily, by looking at their painting… brought to its peak in a jewelled style of taut perfection.”- Frank Robinson

a. demonstrates the new style of detailed work in art3. “The beauty of Isfahan steals on the mind unawares.”- Robery Bryon, English traveler who

visited in 1934a. He describes the extravagant beauty of Isfahan and how it was truly the gem of the

whole empire.

Summary

Shah Ismail, who declared himself shah of the dynasty, founded the Safavid dynasty. Under his rule, the Persian state was characterized by the Shi’ite faith. Due to the regulations of the religion, there were also many wars with the Ottomans over religion and land. The next strong shah, was Abbas I. He was able to bring a period of peace for the dynasty and form a structured political and economic system, which fostered the height of glory. The decline of the empire occurred when militant Shi’ites began to increase at court decreased the usual freedom of the empire with the pressures of religious orthodoxy especially with Iranian women. Attempts suppress minorities led to popular unrest. Also the lack of strong leadership eventually led to its downfall.

Songhai (Songhay) (1464-1591)

Top Ten

1. Sunni Ali The founder of the Sonhai empire. He was a local chieftain who seized Timbuktu from its Berber overlords in 1468.

2. Means of ConsildationSunni Ali consolidated the empire by appointing governors to oversee the provinces, building a hierarchically commended army, and creating an imperial navy to patrol the Niger River.

3. Trans-Saharan trade A lucrative trade which went through the city of Gao and brought salt, textiles, and metal in exchange for slaves and gold

4. Askia Mohammed (1493-1528)He was the next rule after Sunni Ali. He was a fervent Muslim and brought Islamic institutions and ideology strengthen national unity. He tried to revive Timbuktu as an Islamic center.

5. Decline The decline was caused by centrifugal forces within Songhai and after Askia’s death the empire of Songhai broke up. Also the diversion of trade routes towards the coast led to the weakening of old Songhai trading empire.

6. InvasionMorocco hoped to expand influence of over the Sahara to gain the gold and salt of the region. In 1590 Moroccan forces defeated Songhai’s army at Gao and occupied Timbuktu.

7. UnrestThe next two centuries after the capture of Timbuktu was marked by civil disorder with tribal groups and Muslims in the cities and towns.

8. ReligionLeaders converted to Islam while the people still followed tribal religious ideas. 9. Economy Songhai’s economy was based on trading. It was a major trading center in the

West Africa that mainly traded gold and salt. 10. City of TimbuktuThe city served as a major trade route that passes through the Sahara

between the kingdoms of West Africa and the Mediterranean Sea. Timbuktu became the want for other empires because of its plentiful amounts of salt. It was also the center of education. A lot of the power of Songhai’s empire came from Timbuktu.

Quotations

1. “The slaves are fed three times a day with indifferent good victuals, and much better than they ear in their own country. Their lodging place is divided into two parts, one of which is appointed for the men, the other for the women, each sex being kept apart. Here they lie as close together as it is possible for them to be crowed”-Dutch observer

a. He describes the harshness of the Trans-Saharan slaves. He notices the brutality of it.

2. "The rich king of Timbuktu has many plates and sceptres of gold, some whereof weigh 1300 pounds; and he keeps a magnificent and well-furnished court... Here are a great store of doctors, judges priests and other learned men, that are bountifully maintained at the king's cost and charges. And hither are brought divers manuscripts of written books out of Barbary (North Africa) which are sold for more money than any other merchandise" (Wallbank 329).

a. This quotation demonstrates the extravagance of Timbuktu, and how it was the center of the empire. It was the not only the gem of the empire but the focal point of education and learning.

3. “Under Sonni Ali the Songhai Empire was divided up into territories which he placed under the rule of trusted lieutenants from his army. Traditional African cults and the observance of Islam were combined, much to the annoyance of Muslim clerics in the cities -- and plots were hatched against his rule.”

a. Shows the contrasts of both religions, and how Islam was looked down upon at certain times. It also demonstrated how the leaders were Muslim while the people still followed tribal religion, so it fostered some decentralization.

Summary

Sunni Ali founded the Songhai kingdom after the fall of Mali. He seized Timbuktu and consolidated tribal society’s to form an empire. The emphasis of the Songhai was on the Trans-Saharan trade. The next strong ruler was Askia Mohammed, who brought Islamic institutions and ideology strengthen national unity. He tried to revive Timbuktu as an Islamic center. After the period of prosperity the empire began to decline. The decline was caused by centrifugal forces within Songhai and after Askia’s death the empire of Songhai broke up. Also the diversion of trade routes towards the coast

led to the weakening of old Songhai trading empire. The complete end of the empire was in 1590 Moroccan forces defeated Songhai’s army at Gao and occupied Timbuktu.

Russia

Top Ten

1. Ivan IV - The first ruler to take the title of tsar, a Russia emperor. He expanded the territories of Russia eastward and crushed the power of Russian nobility. He was known as “Ivan the Terrible” because of his ruthless deeds.

2. tsar - The Russian word for Caesar, it was also spelled czar or tzar. It is the name of the Russian emperors.

3. Zemsky Sobor - This was the national assembly that chose the new tsar after Ivan’s dynasty.

4. Michael Romanov - This was the tsar that the Zemsky Sobor picked that established a dynasty that lasted more than four hundred years.

5. Peter the Great - A prominent tsar of Russia who travelled to Europe in 1697-1698 and came back with a firm determination to Westernize Russia.

6. St. Petersburg - Constructed by Peter the Great, it is his window to the west and is the most westernized part of Russia.

7. Streltsy - An elite military unit stationed in Moscow that rebels, causing Peter to return from his western expedition prematurely. He severely crushes the rebellion.

8. Catherine II - Otherwise known as Catherine the Great, this woman becomes empress of Russia, and though seemed to favor more modern practices, ended up still favoring the nobility just as her processors.

9. Emelyan Pugachev - The leader of a peasant rebellion caused by Catherine’s policy of favoring the landed nobility. He was eventually captured, tortured, and executed.

10. Peace Treaty - In 1700, Russia and Turkey sign a peace treaty that grants Azov to Russia, and Russia allies with Poland against Sweden.

Quotations

“I have conquered an empire, but I have not been able to conquer myself.” - Peter the Great

“You philosophers are lucky men. You write on paper and paper is patient. Unfortunate Empress that I am, I write on the susceptible skins of living beings.”

“To understand why Ivan was such a vicious ruler, take a look at his tragic childhood. Ivan Basiljevich was born to . His father, Basil III, had tried for years to have a child, but divorced his wife after no success. His second wife, Elena Glinskaya, bore him two sons four years after they were married in 1526. On August 25, 1530, Ivan IV was born into a world that held little joy for him. Two years later, his brother Fyodor was born. A year after this his father died. But in his last remaining moments on earth, Basil asked that Ivan become ruler over Russia once he grew up. After his father died, his mother Elena ruled Russia with a few faithful boyars (members of the Russian aristocracy) for four years until she was assisinated. Ivan was left with only his nurse, Agrafena, to care for him. However, she was taken away from him when his mother was killed. Traumatized by these proceedings, seven-year-old Ivan was left orphaned with no one who cared whether he lived or died, except the boyars. They intercepted his right to rule, abusing and abandoning him, reducing him to a beggar in his own home. The only time he received attention

was when a ceremony occurred. He was cleaned and dressed exquisitely, to be presented to visitors. Afterwards, he was disrobed and isolated again. In the palace, Ivan witnessed a bloody feud for power through horrific murders and abuse in the palace. Frustrated at the indignities he was suffering, he took out his anger on vulnerable animals. Thus was the upbringing of the future Russian czar.” (Rit Nosotro; HyperHistory.Net)

Summary:

The Russian history is a long, repetitive one that features many czars, both bad and good. Ivan the Terrible, the first czar, was first named so because of the terrible crimes to his own people that he committed. After his death, there came a series of czars, though the one that stood out was Peter Great, who moved to finally westernize Russia, it being the only European country not to do so. After a trip to Europe, he built St. Petersburg, the icon of the west for Russia. After Peter’s death, Catherine the Great was the next important czar, notable not only because of her dallyings in changing the way the czars rule, but also because she was a woman.

Portugal (1500s-1800s)

Top Ten Events/Developments

1. Exploration under Prince Henry the Navigator (1394-1460)1. Three main objectives in exploration: ally with a Christian kingdom against the Muslims, spread

Christianity, and find new trade opportunities for Portugal. Portuguese maritime technology became more advanced; founded a school for navigators.

2. New slave-trade route (1441 onwards)2. 1441, Portuguese ships reached Senegal and took several Africans as slaves. From then on,

Europeans would attack coastal towns, in search of potential slaves.3. Trade with African states in the interior → GOLD! (1471)3. First discovered gold in the so-called Gold Coast of West Africa in 1471. Later established

contact with other states (Bakongo and Benin), traded gold, ivory, and slaves.4. Bartolomeu Dias (1450-1500), Vasco de Gama (1460/69-1524), Ferdinand Magellan (1480-1521)4. Dias was the first to round the Cape of Good Hope, but feared mutiny and stopped (1487).

Magellan’s ship was the first to circumnavigate the world, though he himself did not. De Gama explored the coast of East Africa & the western coast of India (1497). Portuguese crown later sponsored his voyages; Portugal became a major player in the Asian spice trade.

5. The Spice Trade5. Determination to dominate Asian spice trade, already dominated by Muslims. Portuguese

trading posts in India (Admiral Afonso de Albuquerque’s headquarters at Goa), but the goal was the Spice Islands (the Moluccas). But Portugal was too small, too few resources → could not maintain status.

6. Acquisition of Malacca & Interaction with the Moluccas (c.1510)6. 1511, Portuguese, under Albuquerque, seized Malacca, strategically located. 1514, explored

farther east—especially the Moluccas. Portuguese and local sultans signed treaties encouraging Portuguese involvement in the Asian spice trade.

7. Takeover of Brazil / Brazil’s Independence7. Portugal’s only strong, long-lasting colony in the Americas. Important in exporting American

raw materials. Most significantly, plantations in coastal Brazil were the main incentive for much

of the Portuguese-African slave trade. A governor-general (viceroy) maintained executive power.

8. Portuguese Contact with China (1514)8. Landed in modern-day Hong Kong in 1514. Tended not to trade directly, but became part of the

general regional trade network. Otherwise limited to the territory of Macao. Introduced Western technology and Christianity to the Chinese, and were impressed by Chinese advancements.

9. Portuguese Contact with Japan (1543)9. The Japanese were far more accepting of the Portuguese and possibilities of trade at first. They

found European weaponry especially useful. But the Portuguese tended to intervene in local politics, and the Japanese eventually became suspicious.

10. Missionary Efforts in Japan (1549)10. Jesuits succeeded in converting good number of Japanese (sometimes because of

miscommunication). Still, they were disrespectful of native religions, and Hideyoshi tried to prohibit them from proselytizing.

Quotations

“Don't you know, priests, why our sermons do not touch the people's heart? Because we do not preach to the eyes, only to the ears.”

– Antonio Vieira “What wealth, holy Lord, is that whose possession brings on the ruin of the State?”

– Paulo Prado [in reference to Brazil] “They shot so many arrows at us and hurled so many bamboo spears (some of them tipped

with iron) at the captain-general, besides pointed stakes hardened with fire, stones, and mud, that we could scarcely defend ourselves.”

– Antonio Pigafetta

Summary

Portugal, a small country—especially in comparison to its Iberian neighbor, Spain—tried to establish its power overseas, since it couldn’t do so on the European continent. It was determined to control the Asian spice trade, and so it spent a fair amount of energy securing its position in Asia—in the Spice Islands themselves, China and Japan, and India. Additionally, the Portuguese can be credited with “beginning” the West Africa-Europe slave trade, and it had some territory in southern Africa. Portugal also had a good chunk of land in the Americas, in the form of Brazil. Unfortunately for the little country, it was never able to establish itself as a major power for very long, as the Spanish, British, and Dutch were never very far behind.

Southeast Asia (1450-1750)

Top Ten

1. Although western presence began in the sixteenth century with the arrival the Portuguese, the Dutch, the British, and the French joined the scramble for rights in lucrative spice trade during the seventeenth century.

2. Between 1500 and 1800 Southeast Asia experiences the last flowering of traditional culture before the advent of European influence in the nineteenth century.

3. During the Early Modern Era, both Buddhism and Islam became well-established religions in the Southeast Asia. Temple education for Buddhists and schools for Islamic scholars led to the

introduction of new religious and moral restrictions on human behavior, such as Muslims refraining from eating pork and drinking wine.

4. The four main types of political institutions established in this region were imported from abroad and reformed to adequately respond to local circumstances (Buddhist and Javanese kings, Islamic sultans, & Vietnamese emperors).

5. The majority of societies in Southeast Asia were based predominantly on agriculture prior to European influence. Commerce took on a new role as farming became more commercialized and soon began to impact everyday life.

6. With increased Western presence and influence, the region increased the amount of manufactured goods it imported even though Southeast Asian countries produced high quality goods on their own.

7. Although the majority of the population was poor by European standards, this region is recognized for having higher standards of living than its counterparts elsewhere in Asia. Many of the regions were thinly populated and therefore, overcrowding and hunger did not pose a threat.

8. Little social stratification existed in Southeast Asia, especially in comparison to the social hierarchies of India and China. The nuclear family continued to be of high importance in these civilizations.

9. Women fared better in this region than in other areas of the world during this time period. Daughters were granted the same inheritance rights as sons and women were permitted to divorce. Additionally, monogamy was viewed as a rule rather than a suggestion and the husband and wife jointly ruled the family.

10. Southeast Asia experienced relative prosperity during this era due to fertile land and a favorable climate. The population, significantly lower than in Western regions, did not threaten the production or surplus of agriculture.

Quotations:

"Golden age of medicine in Thailand." (refers to Ayutthaya period with significant medicinal developments) History of Thailand. Wikepedia, n.d. Web. 17 Apr. 2011.

"The greatest Spanish fortress in the western Pacific” (refers to British capture of Manila Bay in the Philippines) History of Philippines. Wikepedia, n.d. Web. 17 Apr. 2011.

“Scheme for taking Manila with some Troops, which are already in the East Indies” British Occupation of Manila. Wikepedia, n.d. Web. 17 Apr. 2011

Summary:

Southeast Asia includes Cambodia, Laos, Burma (Myanmar), Thailand, and Vietnam on the mainland. It, however, also consists of Peninsular and East Malaysia, Brunei, Indonesia, Singapore, and East Timor off the coast. Ayutthaya (Thailand) was practicing a policy of expansion and established themselves as a border between French and British colonial holdings so as to not fall under imperial authority. Cambodia, once a powerful land empire, was in a state of decline due to expensive wars with Thailand and Cambodia. Burma was divided under several different powers and gradually falling under Indian control. Indonesia was dominated by Muslim merchants focused on commerce (i.e. Sumatra).

Tokugawa Japan 1450-1750

Top Ten

1. Isolation from the west- The Tokugawa government attempted to keep their economic relationships open without letting western religion in, but in the eventually, the Japanese

closed all contact from the outside world, bar one small Dutch community that lived almost in Imprisonment.

2. Oda Nobunaga- He was a military commander of the previous shogunate, the Ashikaga, before he overtook the imperial capital of Kyoto and the reigning shogun. He spent much of his reign trying to consolidate power, by brutal treatment and violence against rebels against him, as well as by cutting the power of the Buddhist estates.

3. Toyotomi Hideyoshi- The military commander which succeeded Nobunaga after he was murdered, Hideyoshi continued to try and take away the power of the local daimyo and expanded his borders from his new capital in Osaka. When he finally did end his conquests over all registered lands, he used that land as fiefs for the daimyo he conquered, who in turn obtained more samurai by disarming the regular populace.

4. Tokugawa Ieyasu- The Edo daimyo, Ieyasu, took over for Hideyoshi after his death in 1598, and declared himself a new shogun. After this, the power of the shogun began to re-centralize itself, increasing its dominance.

5. Christian missionaries expelled- The Japanese had immediate interest in commerce with the European traders when they first arrived in 1543, but with this came the introduction of Christianity to Japan. As the missionaries began to convert more Japanese and gain more power, Hideyoshi prohibited their activities in Japan in 1587. After the Jesuits appealed, Toyotomi gave them another chance, but then executed several Franciscans when they engaged in violent activities. Once the missionaries attempted to get the daimyo to rebel, Tokugawa Ieyasu formally ordered their eviction in 1612. As a result, there were more bloody riots and revolts throughout Japan.

6. Daimyo centralized- In order to centralize rule, the Tokugawa shogunate composed coalition of daimyo called bakufu, and divided the state into hans (domains), which took up about what 250 daimyo had ruled.

7. Rise in manufacturing & commerce- Caused by a rising standard of living, the spread of industrialization spread from the cities to the countryside in Japan, as more and more people were apt to buying local goods from merchants. This system, as it developed, became more and more like capitalism, or a form of free-market economy

8. Fall of the samurai- With this economic advancement, however, the samurai became an unnecessary part of Japanese culture, prevented by tradition from the commercialism which spread across Japan. The jobless warriors, known as ronin, rebelled against new authority, but were suppressed and eventually they were forced to commit suicide.

9. Conflict between old and new society- The culture of Japan, as industrialization continued, began to split into two parts in dispute with one another. Inside the cities, a new innovative era took the place of the classical culture, abandoning the Confucianism and Buddhist quietism of before.

10. Nuclear family- In a new age for Japan, the family unit became the basic unit due to a rise in farm income. The Tokugawa Japanese family reflect the role which the Chinese family had, in which the majority of the family property was given to the eldest son.

Quotations

“The edict on frugality issued by the han at the end of the year must be observed” (504. Dukier, Spielvogel. World History Sixth Edition).

“Thus there is no distinction between God and Buddha and no distinction between sovereign and ministers. Through heresies you intend to destroy the righteous law” (406. Dukier, Spielvogel. World History Sixth Edition).

“The deteriorating customs and morals of the village must be rectified” (406. Dukier, Spielvogel. World History Sixth Edition).

Summary

As Japan transitioned from the Ashikaga shogunate to the Tokugawa shogunate, it emerged into the early modern era as well. Power on the Japanese mainland became centralized, exposure to European ideas, and a new, higher standard of living allowed for the Japanese to develop a new free-market economy. This and an advancement in technology helped for the Tokugawa Japanese themselves to advance, despite cutting themselves off from the rest of the world. However, the Japanese would fall behind the rest of the world as time went on and would not become modernized again until the United States came in the 1850’s.

Environmental, Cultural & Intellectual Changes (&Other)

Spread of Religions

Top Ten

1. Islam made significant additions to its religious territory through the Muslim monopoly on the spice trade, In particular, Malacca served as a focal point for Islamic growth.

2. Through Islamic trans-Saharan trade, Islam made a serious addition of the Kingdom of Songhai through the particular support of Askia Mohammed, the most successful King of Songhai.

3. A primary interest of Spanish and Portuguese explorers building their trade empires was to facilitate the spread of Christianity. They often forcefully converted natives, and they frequently killed anyone who opposed them.

4. While he was exploring Africa, Prince Henry the Navigator of Portugal sought not only to expand his maritime trade opportunities, but he also wanted to find allies against Islam and spread Christianity. Though he was not initially successful, the seeds of Christianity found limited root. This pattern of religiously motivated expansion became a common practice in the early modern era.

5. By the late sixteenth century, Islam had gained territory along the Malay Peninsula, Java, and Sumatra. Buddhism spread into and took hold of the Southeast lowlands of the mainland such as Burma. Christianity had also made small gains within the Philippines.

6. Despite his mainstream lack of popularity, Luther made considerable gains within individual states throughout the Holy Roman Empire under the protection of Fredrick of Saxony.

7. The Peace of Augsburg settled the religious civil; war within the Holy Roman Empire. States became free to choose their religious associations, and Protestantism was guaranteed an existence within the religious community of Europe.

8. Another reason that Protestantism grew territorially throughout Europe and its colonies was the fact that many sects of Protestantism existed to conveniently fit the user. As a theme, its policies were much more diverse and convenient to individuals compared to Catholicism. Some primary sects included, Lutheranism, Calvinism, Zwinglianism, and Evangelicalism.

9. Throughout the sixteenth century, Catholicism engaged in significant missionary activity throughout East Asia. Under the strength of the Jesuits, a significant amount of converts appeared in India, Malacca, Japan, and China. Though conversions were frequently short-lived, this missionary activity marked one of the first major minglings of cultures between Europe and Asia.

10. Under the new Mughal reign throughout the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries, Islam was initially successful in making some converts to Islam, however due to the official practice of religious toleration and the resistance of Hindus, Islamic culture gradually drifted into a Hindu dominated hybrid culture. Similarly, the Ottomans invaded the Balkans and Austro-Hungary in the west; however Islam gained little ground as a religion. In addition, the Ottomans were soon pushed out of the Balkans.

Quotations

“Christians should be exhorted to seek earnestly to follow Christ, their Head, through penalties, deaths, and hells.”-Martin Luther

“Some Christians (of Caucasus), guided by God’s grace, embraced Islam voluntarily; others found it difficult to abandon their Christian beliefs and felt revulsion at the idea.”-Eskander Beg Monshi

“When he (the King) performs an action, he considers God as the real doer of it.”-Akbar

Summary

Between 1450 and 1750, international cultural conflict reached a higher level than ever due to increasing amounts of economic and political expansion. The spread of religion often acted simultaneously as a cause, catalyst, and result of such expansion. Worldwide, Islam and Christianity in particular saw massive territorial growth due to heavy missionary activity. This missionary activity often became the first contact between cultures, which issued a foundation for the growing world economy and political interaction.

The Renaissance I

1. The Importance and Stress on Antiquity- during the Renaissance a resurgence of Greek and Roman ideals, artistry techniques and interests. The word “Renaissance” actually means “rebirth”, this refers to the rebirth of ideals from the ancient Greek and Roman eras.

2. The Intellectual Renaissance- During the Renaissance era there was a large growth of individualism and secularism.

3. Renaissance Humanism- Was an intellectual movement based on the study of Greek and Roman ideals (i.e. literature, sculpture, painting, fine arts). One of the most famous Renaissance Humanists was Petrarch, who was considered one of the movement’s founding fathers.

4. Leonardo da Vinci- (1483-1520) Was arguably the most renowned High Renaissance painter. He initiated the High Renaissance school of painting’s extreme infatuation with nature and attempted to idealize the more realistic style that came before the Renaissance.

5. Michelangelo- Was a renowned sculptor, painter and architect of the High Renaissance era. Known for work on the Sistine Chapel, Michelangelo was a very accomplished Renaissance man. He was also responsible for the famous David sculpture, completed in his prime around 1504.

6. Recovery- The Renaissance era is truly considered an era of recovery. The Renaissance was a time to recover from disasters like the Black Death and its reign of terror, the economic recession and the extreme political disorder.

7. Taille- An annual tax on land and property, put into use by King Louis XI (1461-1483), allowing for a steady source of income to fund building and artistic projects during the Renaissance.

8. The Tudor Dynasty’s Foundations- In 1483 Henry Tudor VII took over and wanted to establish a strong monarchial government. He laid the foundation for his descendants to follow him as the king later after his death.

9. Frescoes- Many artists during the Renaissance began to paint frescoes. Frescoes were made famous by Masaccio (1401-1428) in Florence. Many artists followed this trend including Michelangelo and da Vinci.

10. Architecture- Architecture took a dramatic turn during the Renaissance. Many architects were inspired by Roman buildings and attempted to re-create buildings with a Roman effect. The most prominent Renaissance architect was Filipo Brunelleschi (1377-1446), famous for his work in churches at the time.

Summary:

Renaissance happened during the 14th ~ 16th C.E. It happened first in the Italy, and spread on to other European countries. Renaissance was the recovery period from the disasters that happened in the 14th C.E, such as the Black Death or the political corruption. In the Renaissance, the new –ism evolve, which is the humanism. Humanists studied the liberal arts based on the writings of ancient Greeks and Roman authors. Many great artists flourished; for example, Leonardo da Vinci, Raphael, and Michelangelo. The Italian Renaissance was a time of rebirth and recovery for the people of Italy. After the dark ages filled with plague and confusion people were ready for a time of luxury and enlightenment. Many artists and architects and authors during the time were heavily influenced by Greek and Roman works and attempted to model their own works off of Greek and Roman works. During the Renaissance there was a scramble for autocratic rule that ended in the founding of the infamous Tudor dynasty

Quotations

“People who lived in Italy between 1350 and 1550 or so believed that they were witnessing a rebirth of classical antiquity- the world of the Greeks and Romans.” (385 Textbook)

“Renaissance humanism was an intellectual movement based on the study of the classics, the literary works of Greece and Rome.” (385 Textbook)

“This marked the shift to the High Renaissance, which was dominated by the works of three artistic giants, Leonardo da Vinci, Raphael, and Michelangelo.” (387 Textbook)

The Reformation:

Top Ten

1. 1517: Martin Luther nails the Ninety-Five Theses to the door of the Wittenberg Cathedral.2. 1520s: Luther moves toward a definite break with the Catholic church. He calls for the

establishment of a new, reformed church in Germany and affirms his belief in salvation by faith alone.

3. 1521: Luther is excommunicated and summoned to appear before the Reichstag. The Reichstag orders him to recant his beliefs, but he refuses. Luther’s ruler, Elector Frederick of Saxony keeps him from being arrested.

4. 1555: With the Peace of Augsburg, Lutheran states gain the same legal rights as Catholic states.5. 1531: War erupts between the Swiss Protestant and Catholic states. Ulrich Zwingli, the Great

Minister of Zurich, is killed in battle. The leadership of the Swiss Protestant movement passes the John Calvin.

6. 1536: John Calvin publishes the first edition of the Institutes of the Christian Religion. He works to reform the city of Geneva, which eventually becomes a center of Protestantism.

7. 1534: The Act of Supremacy declares that the king (Henry VIII) is “the only supreme head on earth of the Church of England.”

8. 1540: Pope Paul III recognizes the Society of Jesus, also known as the Jesuits, as a religious order.

9. 1537: The reform commission appointed by Pope Paul III blames the church’s ills on the corrupt practices of popes and cardinals.

10. 1545-1563: The Council of Trent affirms the authority of scripture and tradition, salvation by faith and good works, and prohibits the sale of indulgences.

Quotations

The Ninety-Five Theses: (page 431)“27. It is mere human talk preach that the soul flies out [of purgatory] immediately [when] the

money clinks in the collection box. 28. It is certainly possible that when money clinks in collection box greed and avarice can increase;

but the intercession of the Church depends on the will of God alone” A Reformation Debate: Conflict at Marburg: (page 433)“Luther: Prove that Christ’s body is not there where the Scripture says, “This is my body!” Rational

proofs I will not listen to…God is beyond all mathematics and the words of God are to be revered and carried out in awe. It is God who commands, “Take eat, this is my body.” I request, therefore, valid scriptural proof to the contrary.

Zwingli: I insist that the words of the Lord’s Supper must be figurative. This is ever apparent, and even required by the article of faith: “taken up into heaven, seated at the right hand of the Father.” Otherwise, it would be absurd to look for him in the Lord’s Supper at the same time that Christ is telling us that he is in heaven. One and the same body cannot possibly be in different places…”

Modern History Sourcebook: John Calvin: On Predestination (http://www.fordham.edu/halsall/mod/calvin-predest.html)

“We shall never be clearly convinced as we ought to be, that our salvation flows from the fountain of God's free mercy, till we are acquainted with His eternal election, which illustrates the grace of God by this comparison, that He adopts not all promiscuously to the hope of salvation, but gives to some what He refuses to others…Predestination we call the eternal decree of God, by which He has determined in Himself what would have to become of every individual of mankind. For they are not all created with a similar destiny; but eternal life is fore-ordained for some, and eternal damnation for others. Every man, therefore, being created for one or the other of these ends, we say, he is predestinated either to life or to death.”

Summary:

The Protestant Reformation began, in 1517, as an ideological disagreement between Martin Luther and Johannes Tetzel, a seller of indulgences. Within Luther’s lifetime, however, it changed from a reform movement to a revolution, resulting in a definite separation between the Catholic and Protestant churches. The Protestant Reformation spawned debates about salvation, the nature of the Eucharist, and the laity’s role within the church. Martin Luther contended that salvation is accomplished through faith alone, that the Eucharist is the body of Christ, and that the Bible should be translated into the vernacular. The Catholic Church contended that good works are necessary for salvation, agreed that the Eucharist is the body of Christ, and contended that scripture and tradition are equal authorities. The disagreements, however, were not limited to those between Luther and the Catholic Church; other Protestant leaders disagreed with Luther as well. Ulrich Zwingli argued that the Eucharist is figuratively the body of Christ and John Calvin believed that salvation is predestined—that earthly good works and faith are ultimately useless. The English Reformation occurred in the midst of the Protestant

Reformation. Its motives, however, were political, rather than religious. Henry VIII’s break with the Catholic Church represents his desire to have absolute authority over England.

Baroque Art

Top Ten

1. Exaggerated Style- Many would say that this dramatic style was used to evict attention. There were bold colors, motions, and details in each piece.

2. Roman Catholic Church-After the Council of Trent the Catholics decided they needed to use art as a means to communicate religious ideas.

3. Power- Baroque art was a means to show wealth and power. There was such opulence because Baroque developed in a time of wealthy aristocrats trying to impress each other.

4. Peter Paul Rubens- A significant painter from the Baroque period. He was from Flanders. He spread Baroque art from Italy to the rest of Europe. He used rich colors, nude bodies in motion, dramatic light and dark shadows to spread intense emotion.

5. Gian Lorenzo Bernini- He completed Saint Peter’s Basilica (at the Vatican). He was an architect. Throne of Saint Peter and Ecstasy of Saint Theresa were two important sculptural works.

6. Emotional depths- Baroque art didn’t display the every-day life of man, but rather displayed the deep emotional currents that people felt for monarchism and their renewed faith.

7. Sculpture- There was emphasis on dramatic shapes, deep volumes and voids, domes, and colonnades. Also in the interior there were more dramatic rooms like chamber rooms and throne rooms.

8. Theater- Opera was the most important form of theater. Stage technology developed allowing for more dramatic forms of theater because the set could follow. Monteverdi’s Orpheus is a major theater piece of this time.

9. Literature- Metaphor, allegory, realism, virtuosity, psychological questions, and virtuosity were developed in the Baroque period.

10. Music- Baroque art doesn’t completely overlap with Baroque music. Baroque music was a little later. Baroque music is highly ornamented. Also, to name this style of music Baroque is a tad anachronistic because it was first called “Baroque” music in 1919. Operas, concertos, and a repeated bass line were musical techniques of this period.

Quotations

“Baroque artists sought to harmonize the classical ideals of Renaissance art with the spiritual feelings of the sixteenth-century religious revival”

“In large part, Baroque art and architecture reflected the search for power that was characteristic of much of the seventeenth century. Baroque churches and palaces featured richly ornamented facades, sweeping staircases, and an overall splendor meant to impress people.”

Summary

The Baroque period was one of lavish style: deep colors, intricate poses and details, and deep contrasts in shadows. Baroque art responded to the absolutism and power of the church by celebrating the emotional pull of both of these powers. Art celebrated the religious and political powers of this period.

Mixed Races (South America) 1450-1750

Top Ten List

1. Treaty of Tordesillas (1494) ~ A treaty between Portugal and Spain that divided the New World into Portuguese and Spanish spheres. The lands fo the East woudl belong to Portugal, the west to Spain.

2. Hernan Cortes ~ A 15th century spanish conquistador who landed in Veracruz and was welcomed by Montezumma. He brought large portions of Mexico under the rule of King Castille, christianizing many natives by force. His conquests are responsible for the fall of the Aztec empire.

3. Francisco Pizarro ~ A 15th century spanish conquistador who explored and settled South America. His conquests destroyed the Inkan civilization with disease from 1531-1536.

4. Encomienda System ~ Government system that allowed Spaniards to use natives as laborers if they provided for material and spiritual needs (although often ignored). This system enabled forced labor, especially in gold and silver mines. It was finally abolished with the help of Catholic priests (particularly Dominican monk Bartolome de Las Casas) who saw it as a hindrance to making conversions.

5. Council of the Indies/Repartimiento System ~ The Council of the Indies replaced the encomienda system with a nominated viceroy who oversaw activities and religious affairs. The viceroy held chief civil, military, and governmental authority. The repartimiento system compelled natives to supply labor, but only for a limited amount of time and for fair wages.

6. Gold/Silver ~ The discovery of gold and silver resulted in increased European domination of Mexico and the South American Andes region. The mining industry powered the Spanish economy, enabling it to build up its military trade with China (who demanded silver coins). It also led to forced labor or the local populations and stimulated a world-wide economy and commercial capitalism.

7. Columbian Exchange ~ A global diffusion of plants, food, crops, animals, slaves, and diseases. The most devastating effect of the Exchange was the spread of smallpox to the Americas, which the native populations had no immunity for. The Aztecs lost 95% of their population within a century. The diffusion of crops, however, helped to improve the quality of life (nutrition, farming practices, etc.) and resulted in a worldwide population increase.

8. Sugar ~ The development of sugar plantations, particularly in the Caribbean and Indies, combined with the limited amount of Native American slave labor after the smallpox outbreak led to more demand for African slaves and stimulated the African slave trade. These sugar plantations were financed for one product and produced strictly one product, making it a model for future industries during the Industrial revolution.

9. Social Hierarchy ~ There was a specific social hierarchy within European settlements in Latin America. The peninsulares were the highest social class and were direct descendants form the Iberian peninsula. Descendants of the peninsulares were the Creoles. Mestizos were the mix of European and Native Americans and the mix of Europeans and Africans were the

mulattoes. At the bottom of the social ladder were the Native Americans, Africans, and mixed class called zambos.

10. Slave Trade ~ The increased demand for labor on sugar plantations in the Caribbean stimulated shipment of African slaves to the area beginning in the 16th century and would last into the 19th century. Millions of slaves died on their voyage to the America’s on what was called the Middle Passage.

Quotations:

. "For the natives, they are neere all dead of Small poxe, so as the Lord hathe cleared our title to what we possess." - John Winthrop, first gov. of Massachusetts Bay Colony

. “We Spaniards know a sickness of the heart that only gold can cure.” - Hernan Cortes

. “The Middle Passage did not begin with the transatlantic voyage, but with the capture and sale of Africans, and ended with their forced ‘adjustment’ to life in the Americas. It is one of history’s most horrific chapters, showing the human capacity for both cruelty and insensitivity and strength and survival. It is difficult to calculate the numbers of Africans that were transported; estimates have ranged from five million to 30 million.” - RecoveredHistories.org

Summary:

The subjugation of Native American and South American populations began with the Spanish conquistadors Columbus, Cortes, and Pizarro. European settlement of the America’s resulted in forced conversions to Christianity, new social hierarchies, mixed races, and devastating spread of small pox and STD’s, often enough to wipe out entire populations. The depletion of Native American’s through extreme forced labor and disease, coupled with the rise in world economies and new industries in silver, gold, and sugar led to a growing demand for African slaves by the end of the 16th century.

Enlightenment

Top Ten

1. Isaac Newton - He explored the “world machine,” and created the rules of reasoning that explained how to discover the natural laws that governed politics, economics, justice, and religion.

2. John Locke - Known for “tabula rasa” (or blank slate,) he believed that people were molded by their environment. He was very existential.

3. France - The country played host to the most valued thinkers and leaders of the enlightenment. This is where the majority of the philosophers, or philosophes, were from, and in turn their knowledge changed the way the world was perceived.

4. Montesquieu - He wrote The Spirit of Laws and applied the scientific method to social and political spheres, as well as identified his belief that a separation of powers was the best form of government.

5. Voltaire - He supported religious toleration and preached deism.6. Deism - The idea that religion was based on the world machine and that God was essentially

a clockmaker and set the universe to run according to its natural laws.

7. Adam Smith - Founder of modern economics, the laissez-faire system, where the government leaves the economy alone.

8. Jean-Jacques Rousseau - He wrote the The Discourse on the Origins of Inequality of Mankind, and The Social Contract.

9. Denis Diderot - He wrote the Encyclopedia, Classified Dictionary of the Sciences, Arts, and Trades. He changed the general way of thinking through his works.

10. Feminism - Beginning with Mary Wollstonecraft, who was the founder of feminism and published her beliefs in The Vindications of the Rights of Women, women finally began to fight for their personal freedoms.

Quotations

“If an individual put his self-interest above the general will, he should be forced to abide by the general will.” (Jean-Jacques Rousseau).

“They were literary people, professors, journalists, economists, political scientists, and above all social reformers.” (Duiker 515).

“To the philosophes, the role of philosophy was not to just discuss the world but to change it.” (Duiker 516).

Summary

The Enlightenment began with the philosophes in France, though by no means did it end there. It was known as a time for change in the way of thinking, from new scientific ideas to existential viewpoints. Prominent philosophers and Enlightenment thinkers were Adam Smith, Voltaire, John Locke, and Isaac Newton, among others. The cultural shift and transition that occurred from out of the gothic age and into a subtler art movement that stressed grace and charm.

Agricultural Revolution

Top-Ten

1. The Seed Drill: The Seed Drill was invented by Jethro Tull and was a machine that distributed seeds across fields efficiently. He was not the first person to invent the seed drill as it was originally invented in S.E. Asia.

2. The Iron Plow: While the Iron Plow was not originally invented by Joseph Foljambe, his Rotherham plough was the first one to become widely used in Europe.

3. Selective Breeding:Selective breeding is the idea of mating animals with desirable characteristics to ensure that the offspring have those characteristics. This method was first introduced by Robert Bakewell and Thomas Coke in the mid-18th century.

4. Three-Field Crop Rotation: The Three-Field System was a system in which crops would be rotated between three fields. Legumes would be planted once every three years to restore the nitrogen in fields. This method greatly increased the amount of food that a farmer could produce.

5. The Threshing Machine: The Threshing Machine was invented by Andrew Meikle. It separated the outer husks of wheat from the stalk. This machine eliminated one of the last jobs that had to be done by man.

6. The Swing Riots: The Swing Riots, which happened in 1830, were a direct result of the invention of the Threshing Machine. Now preforming less and less work, and facing lower wages, farmhands went on strike. Their protests were directed at landowners.

7. Rise in the Output of Food: These changes that occurred during the Agricultural Revolution led to an abrupt spike in food production.

8. Increase in population: This extreme surplus of food brought about a large increase in population. This increase in population helped propel the cottage industry to new heights.

9. The Change in the Role of Women: Women, who previously worked in the fields with men, after the agricultural revolution did not. This was because women could not operate the heavy machinery now used in farming. Women now had to find a new way to produce income. Many joined the textile industry.

10. Flanders: In Flanders, because of the large population, there was very little land available for farming. This caused them to invent the four-crop rotation system as well as drainage systems.

Quotations

"Thus not only will the same amount of land be able to feed more people; but each of them, with less labour, will be employed more productively and be able to satisfy his needs better." --Condorcet

“British agriculture could now feed more people at lower prices with less labor...” “A number of factors or conditions coalesced in Brittan to produce the Industrial Revolution.

Improvements in agricultural practices in the eighteenth century led to a significant increase in food production.”

Summary

The Agricultural Revolution, which began in England, changed Europe forever. The Agricultural Revolution was caused by the enclosure acts, selective breeding, as well as the four-crop rotation system. During this revolution, such great inventions such as the threshing machine and the seed drill were invented. Not only did it increase the food production of Europe, it also led to urbanization and inequality for women in terms of pay.

Joint-Stock Company:

1. Definition: a company or association that raises capital by selling shares to individuals who receive dividends on their investment while a board of directors runs the company.

2. Mercantilism: It is important to understand that the joint stock companies emerged because of the practice of mercantilism. As more European powers were establishing overseas colonies, they used mercantilism. Therefore, it was easier to expand by using the new joint-stock companies in conjunction with mercantilism.

3. Joint-Stock Investment Bank: a bank created by selling shares of stock to investors. Such banks potentially have access to much more capital than private banks owned by one or a few individuals.

4. 16th -17th Centuries: European countries were expanding and establishing colonies, thus the joint-stock companies emerged during this time and grew to become significant aspects of overseas expansion.

5. East India Company: this was one of the first joint-stock companies. The British founded it in 1600 as a private company. The main goal of its creation was to provide a steady source of capital for future use, mainly for more expeditions. It seemed to be a precursor to the British East India Company.

6. British East India Company: This was established with intentions of further pursuing trade with the East Indies. Its rule led to a transfer of capital (profits) to Britain. Cotton, silk and tea were some of the common items that were traded. This group grew to rule parts of India around 1757 (because of the Battle of Plassey) and exercise political and military control. It lasted until 1874.

7. Dutch East India Company: a government established (sponsorship) company. This sponsorship began in 1602 and grew to become a huge financial asset to the Dutch. They used it to succeed in “The Era of Spice Trade”, but also to consolidate their political power in their colonies. They extended military control to Batavia in Java. The Dutch East India Company also established pepper plantations at Java and Sumatra and monopolized the clove trade in their South East Asia colonies.

8. Dutch West India Company: This was formed in 1621 as a way to contend with the Spanish and Portuguese and their interest in America. It had some success in Brazil and the Caribbean, but was never as large as the Dutch East India Company.

9. The Virginia Company: this was formed in 1606 by a charter from King James I of Britain. Its goal was to be in charge of the settlement of Virginia. This was relatively short-lived, as it only lasted until 1624.

10. The Plymouth Company: (Virginia Bay Company) was also founded by King James I. Its purpose was to establish settlements along the North American coast, specifically along the north east coast next to the Atlantic.

Quotations:

“The joint-stock company made it easier to raise large amounts of capital for world trading ventures.” “The joint-stock company was the forerunner of the modern corporation. In a joint stock venture,

stock was sold to high net-worth investors who provided capital and had limited risk. These companies had proven profitable in the past with trading ventures. The risk was small, and the returns were fairly quick. But investing in a colony was an altogether different venture. The risk was larger as the colony might fail. The startup costs were enormous and the returns might take years.”

“Money was raised by selling shares to investors, who became partners in the venture. By law, individual shareholders were not responsible for actions undertaken by the company, and, in terms of risk exposure, shareholders could lose only the amount of their initial investment.”

Summary:

The Joint-Stock Companies that emerged during the 16th – 17th centuries are excellent examples of how the economy was developing worldwide. States were experimenting with new methods in making more capital, while expanding their empires. The main goal of these companies was to make money through trade, and then use that money to fund further voyages and future trading. These corporations became fairly practical and some of the bigger ones, like the British East India Company and Dutch East India Company, succeeded not only economically, but also politically. The strength of these companies was evident in how they were able to establish political control and exercise military authority on some of their colonies.