impact of homework on learning james robert …
TRANSCRIPT
IMPACT OF HOMEWORK ON LEARNING
by
James Robert McPherson
A capstone project submitted in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of
Masters of Arts in Education.
Hamline University
Saint Paul, Minnesota
May 2020
Capstone Project Facilitator: Trish Harvey
Content Expert: Rudy Kim
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Project Description
My project is a training seminar and workbook for my fellow teachers in
Malaysia. Under ideal circumstances the seminar and workbook would be presented
simultaneously. However, in my current setting the workbook will be presented alone.
The project aims to answer the research question, how does homework impact learning in
middle and high school? The seminar and accompanying workbook present the research
discovered during the literature review and also establish a way of engaging teachers in a
professional and informed dialogue about homework. The seminar includes two sessions.
The first session is longer and focuses on sharing information and generating
conversations. The second session is more reflective and allows teachers an opportunity
to share their experiences and growth after learning during the first session. The
workbook follows the presentations, but also stands on its own. It includes space for
teachers to write and take notes. Ideally, this workbook is completed in the seminar along
with colleagues, but it could also be completed alone.
The target audience for the project is middle and high school teachers in
international schools in Malaysia. The material is relevant to other middle and high
school teachers around the world, but some aspects of the Malaysian cultural
understanding of homework were considered in the presentation of ideas. It is also
possible that elementary level teachers would find benefit in the research and discussion,
but most of the data focuses on learning at the middle and high school level.
The project begins with an introduction of the topic of homework and asks
participants to share their own ideas about homework. It then goes on to give an overview
of the different purposes for which homework can be assigned. During the discussion of
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purpose, teachers are asked to reflect on those purposes and determine if homework can
have a positive impact. According to Van Voorhis (2004), the 10 purposes of homework
are, “practice, preparation, participation, personal development, parent-teacher
communication, parent-child relations, peer interactions, policy, public relations, and
punishment” (p. 207). The goal here is twofold, to help develop a consciousness while
assigning homework and to determine exactly what homework accomplishes. Homework
is often assigned with little thought, but can be significantly improved if care and
consideration are put towards its design and implementation. There are five key features
of well-designed homework as described by Vatterott (2010), “purpose, efficiency,
ownership, competence, and aesthetic appeal” (p. 10). Teachers will explore these
features as they progress through the project.
Next, the design of homework assignments is addressed. Teachers are asked to
share their own ideas as well as respond to suggestions from the literature review.
Darling-Hammond, Hyler, and Gardner (2017) suggest that the best professional
development involves teachers through active participation and collaboration (p. 4). To
incorporate this, teachers will be involved throughout the project and get many
opportunities to share their own ideas and discuss with their colleagues. Teachers are also
presented with data about various topics including the effectiveness of homework, its
perception by students and parents, and the effects of stress on adolescents.
Finally, participants are asked to consider how teachers and school leaders should
evaluate assigning homework. At the end of the first session, teachers should be able to
bring the various ideas together in some form to represent the choices that must be made
when assigning homework to students. Teachers should emerge more conscious of their
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homework design and armed with the knowledge to create more effective homework.
They should also be conscious of the consequences of assigning homework and be
prepared to put more thought into the necessity of it.
In the second session, teachers will meet after having a chance to practice what
they learned. They will reflect on how those ideas impacted their classrooms and their
homework design. They will also share an improved homework design based on the ideas
in the first presentation. This approach is supported by Darling-Hammond, Hyler, and
Gardner (2017) when they argue that professional development is effective when it takes
time to study students’ work (p. 5).
The primary objective is to empower teachers with a better understanding of the
impact of homework on students. This project should equip teachers with concrete steps
to improve their homework assignments, but also give them the understanding to
consider if those assignments are necessary. Overall, teachers should walk away with a
deeper and more comprehensive understanding of something that is often carelessly
thrown around, homework.
Agenda
The training seminar should be presented to teachers during the school year to
provide them with the opportunity to immediately implement and experiment with the
ideas presented. It should also be timed to avoid holidays, exams, or other disruptive
activities so that the experience is more conducive to implementing homework changes.
The first session can be presented in about an hour and a half. Longer can be
taken if the presented wishes to allow more time for teachers to discuss their own ideas
and reactions. Participants should be informed of the topic ahead of time, but they do not
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need to prepare anything in advance. After the initial introduction is made and the
background for the presentation, the workbook should be distributed. Participants may
then follow along with the presentation while taking notes in the workbook. At the end of
the session, participants should be told about the second session and asked to try out
some of the ideas that they have learned about. They should also be asked to revise one of
their past homework assignments with these new ideas in mind and bring both the old
and the revised version to the second session.
The second session should take place about two to three weeks after the first
session. There should be sufficient time for teachers to experiment with new ideas, but
not so much time that they forget what was discussed during the first session. During this
session, participants will mainly share their reflections and revised assignments and
discuss what they have experienced during the previous weeks. This session can last 30
minutes to an hour.
In my setting, the training sessions will be omitted, but the workbook will be
distributed to the teachers at the middle and high school level. Departments will be
encouraged to discuss the ideas from the workbooks at their department meetings and I
will make myself available for discussion and questions. This method is preferable in my
current setting due to the nature of the school leadership and their attitude towards
homework and dissenting perspectives. Presenting the research in such a fashion is less
confrontational and more respectful towards the established understanding.
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REFERENCES
Darling-Hammond, L., Hyler, M. E., Gardner, M. (2017). Effective teacher professional
development. Palo Alto, CA: Learning Policy Institute.
Van Voorhis, F. (2004). Reflecting on the homework ritual: assignments and designs.
Theory into Practice, 43(3), 205-212.
Vatterott, C. (2010). 5 Hallmarks of Good Homework. Educational Leadership, 68(1),
10-15.
HOMEWORKWHAT IS THE IMPACT OF HOMEWORK ON LEARNING?
LET’S TALK ABOUT HOMEWORK
We are here to talk about homework
We are here to learn and to improve our teaching
We are here to question ourselves and each other
We are here to be honest and open without judgement
We are here because we care about our students’ education and their whole being
I am currently finishing my Masters of Art in Education from Hamline University in
Minnesota, USA
This is part of my final project
I’ve been researching and writing about homework for the last 6+ months
Thank you for being here and giving me the privilege of sharing my work with you
GETTING STARTED
A. What was the last homework you assigned?
1. Explain what students were assigned
2. What were your expectations? (Due date, quality of work, etc)
3. What were you hoping to accomplish with this homework?
B. What feedback do you typically give students on their homework.
Remember, be honest and open without judgement
IMPLEMENTING HOMEWORK
Purpose – Why was the homework assigned?
Efficiency – Can the homework be completed in a reasonable amount of time?
Ownership – Do students feel connected to the homework? Is it meaningful?
Competence – Do all students feel they can complete the assignment?
Aesthetic appeal – Does the homework feel inviting and appealing?
Vatterott (2010)
PURPOSE OF HOMEWORK
Practice
Preparation
Personal Development
Participation
Parent-Teacher Communication
Parent-Child Relations
Peer Interaction
Public Relations
Policy
Punishment
Van Voorhis (2004)
Why do we assign homework?
PRACTICE AND PREPARATION
What characteristics should homework have, if the purpose is practice and preparation?
Are there other ways to achieve this learning aim?
Why should homework be necessary for students to succeed in school?
PERSONAL DEVELOPMENT
What non-academic skills and attributes do schools try to inculcate in students?
How does homework help achieve some of these aims?
Are there other ways to achieve these aims?
COMMUNICATION
Participation (Student-Teacher communication)
Parent-Teacher Communication
Parent-Child Relations
Peer Interaction
Public Relations
Parent Perspectives
Student Perspectives
What messages are communicated through homework assignments?
How else could these messages be communicated?
PARENT’S PERSPECTIVE
Kukk et al. (2015) shows that parents are decreasingly viewing homework as very important
Parents aren’t always able to help students when homework introduces new topics (Hargis, 2015)
Instructional methods and phrases have changed since parents learned the topics (Hargis, 2015)
Parents may not have free time to help students (Hargis, 2015)
Homework can create stress in family dynamics (Kohn, 2006)
Studies by Cooper (1989), Dudley-Marling (2003), Kralovex and Buell (2000), and Nordmo and Samara (2009) suggested
that homework could create tension in the home and impair family communication
“When Mom senses that her parenting skills are being evaluated, you may be sure her offspring will share the burden”
(Kohn, 2006)
STUDENT PERSPECTIVE
Burriss and Snead (2017) reported that only 50% of students believe homework serves a learning purpose
12% believed it was assigned as busy work
10% believed it was assigned as punishment!
“Teachers need to have an understanding of homework difficulties that students are experiencing and the reasons students do not complete their assignments” (Hong, Wan, and Peng, 2011)
What reasons could cause students to have incomplete homework?
What inequalities are being introduced through homework assignments?
For example: projects that require purchases may put families with financial challenges at a disadvantage
POLICY
Schools often set a policy around homework.
What is the purpose of a policy?
What are the advantages and disadvantages of a homework policy?
What are the characteristics of a good policy?
PUNISHMENT
Practice or Punishment?
Many students do poorly on a quiz so the teacher assigns more homework.
Student misbehave in class so the teacher assigns more homework.
Students are unfocused in class and don’t accomplish much, so the teacher assigns
extra homework.
The teacher doesn’t have enough time to cover the material, so the unfinished
part becomes homework.
Students do poorly in a review session so the teacher assigns homework.
What other ways could these challenges be addressed?
HOMEWORK DESIGNONCE A CLEAR PURPOSE HAS BEEN ESTABLISHED, HOW CAN HOMEWORK BE WELL DESIGNED?
IMPLEMENTING HOMEWORK
Purpose – Why was the homework assigned?
Efficiency – Can the homework be completed in a reasonable amount of time?
Ownership – Do students feel connected to the homework? Is it meaningful?
Competence – Do all students feel they can complete the assignment?
Aesthetic appeal – Does the homework feel inviting and appealing?
Vatterott (2010)
EFFICIENCY
Daily schedule for students
6am: wake up, get ready for school
7am: leave for school
7:45am – 3pm: school
4pm: arrive home, change, wash up, snack
5pm – 7pm : free time
7pm: eat dinner
8pm-10pm: free time
10pm: sleep
What is important for students to do?
Destress and relax time
Spend time with family
Spend time developing a hobby
Spend time playing sports
Interact with friends to develop social skills
Learn an instrument or how to sing
Volunteer or have a job
Read for fun
Learn to cook or help with chores
• National Sleep Foundation recommend 8-10 hours of sleep for teens
• WHO recommends AT LEAST 1 hour or more of physical activity a dayHow much time is there for homework?
RESEARCH
Students with too much homework actually perform worse in school (Cooper et al., 2006, Shumow, 2011)
These studies indicated a maximum of 90 minutes per day, however, this is without considering any of the other effects of
homework
Sallee and Rigler (2008) reported that 49% of students had 2 or 3 hours of extracurricular activities each day
• Time spent
• Stress
• Academic Benefit
Most would probably agree that if one hour of homework each night
raised a student’s grade 10%, it would probably be worth it.
What if it was only 6%?
Where is the line?
How do we determine if it’s worth it?
Negatives Positives
We’ll revisit this question
OWNERSHIP
Who is primarily responsible for developing a student’s sense of ownership?
How can teachers help students feel a sense of ownership in their homework? (or classwork?)
One way to build ownership is to provide students with some degree of choice (Carr, 2013)
Brief checks for completed homework communicates the message that the assignment is meaningless (Sallee &
Rigler, 2008)
According to Sallee and Rigler (2008), about half of students do not see a learning purpose in homework
COMPETENCE
Think of something you struggled with and just couldn’t figure out. How did you feel?
I had an oil leak in my car that I could never get fixed despite trying many different things, it was a constant
source of frustration
How do students feel when they can’t figure out their homework?
How should homework be designed to ensure ALL students can feel competent to complete it?
We don’t want to introduce inequalities or widen performance gaps!
Cooper and Nye (1994) suggest allowing students to start their homework assignments in class
so they have an opportunity to ask questions and get clarification.
AESTHETIC APPEAL
It is important to make homework appealing so students feel inclined to complete it
Directions should be clear and easy to understand
There should be no extraneous information
Consider the students’ age when designing the appearance
How can teachers make homework appealing to students?
Are there any “quick fixes” to save teachers time and effort?
CONSEQUENCES AND OUTCOMES
ACADEMIC RESULTS
Some studies have shown improvement in academic results from homework
Typically the peak academic improvement is seen around 90 minutes of homework per day
Parental involvement has the potential to benefit student achievement
Can accelerate learning by increasing the efficiency or effectiveness of homework (Patall, Cooper, & Robinson, 2008)
Other studies indicate an opposite effect – negative involvement can interfere with learning
Likely, the type of involvement is the key difference
STRESS
We need to view students as human beings, with all the complexity that entails
We care about the whole student
Homework is a significant cause of stress for students - Galloway, Conner, and Pope (2013), Bauwens & Hourdcade (1992), Conner et al. (2009), Hardy (2003), Kouzma & Kennedy (2002, 2004), West & Wood (1970), Ystgaard(1997), and Markow et al. (2007)
A 2002 study found a direct relationship between time spent on homework and levels of anxiety, depression, anger, and other mood disturbances (Kohn, 2006)
Homework is often the reason for students’ sleep deprivation (Yang, Kim, Patel, and Lee, 2005)
“Adolescence is a developmental period when children may be particularly vulnerable to the negative effects of stress” (Suldo, Shaunessy, and Hardesty, 2008)
There is a link between stress and academic underachievement as well as diminished life satisfaction (Suldo, Shaunessy, and Hardesty, 2008)
Stress has been shown to cause a myriad of negative effects including: headaches, muscle tension or pain, fatigue, sleep problems, anxiety, restlessness, lack of motivation, irritability and anger, depression, over or under eating, drug and alcohol use, tobacco use, and social withdrawal (Mayo Clinic, 2019).
BACK TO OUR QUESTION OF SCALES
Considering everything we have discussed, is it worth it?
Positives Negatives
Consideration Weight Consideration Weight
Total Total
CONCLUSION
List your top 3 ‘take-aways’
What was surprising for you?
Redesign some of your past homework assignments and bring the new version next session
What things will you consider when redesigning your assignments?
REFLECTION
IMPACT
Share what messages had the biggest impact on your homework choices
Share your original and redesigned homework – What improvements did you make?
What questions do you still have?
REFERENCES
Brown, S., Nobiling, B., Teufel, J., & Birch, D. (2011). Are Kids Too Busy? Early Adolescents' Perceptions of Discretionary Activities, Overscheduling, and Stress.
Journal of School Health, 81(9), 574-580.
Burriss, K., & Snead, D. (2017). Middle school students' perceptions regarding the motivation and effectiveness of homework. School Community Journal,
27(2), 193-210.
Carr, N. (2013). Increasing the effectiveness of homework for all learners in the inclusive classroom. School Community Journal, 23(1), 169-182.
Cox J. (2020) Homework and Parents: Purposes, Amounts, and Effects. Teach Hub. Retrieved from https://www.teachhub.com/homework-and-parents-
purposes-amounts-and-effects
Danielson, M., Strom, B., & Kramer, K. (2011). Real Homework Tasks: A Pilot Study of Types, Values, and Resource Requirements. Educational Research
Quarterly, 35(1), 17-32.
Galloway, M., Conner, J., & Pope, D. (2013). Nonacademic Effects of Homework in Privileged, High-Performing High Schools. The Journal of Experimental
Education, 81(4), 490-510.
Gill, B., & Schlossman, S. (1996). "A Sin against Childhood": Progressive Education and the Crusade to Abolish Homework, 1897-1941. American Journal of
Education, 105(1), 27-66.
Ginnis, P. (2002). The Teacher’s Toolkit: Raise Classroom Achievement with Strategies for Every Learner. Bethel: Crown House Publishing Company.
Glanville, P. (2002). Making Homework Matter. Knowledge Quest, 30(4), 22-23.
Hargis, T. (2015, July 14). A parent’s view of homework: I waver between tolerance and outright hatred. The Guardian. Retrieved from
https://www.theguardian.com/teacher-network/2015/jul/14/parents-view-homework-tolerance-hatred
Hattie, J. (2012). Visible learning for teachers maximizing impact on learning. New York: Routledge.
Hong, E., Milgram, R., & Rowell, L. (2004). Homework motivation and preference: A learner-centered homework approach. Theory Into Practice, 43(3), 197-204.
Hong, E., Wan, M., & Peng, Y. (2011). Discrepancies Between Students' and Teachers' Perceptions of Homework. Journal of Advanced Academics, 22(2), 280-308.
Kackar, H., Shumow, L., Schmidt, J., & Grzetich, J. (2011). Age and gender differences in adolescents' homework experiences. Journal of Applied Developmental Psychology, 32(2), 70-77.
Katz, I., Buzukashvili, T., & Feingold, L. (2012). Homework Stress: Construct Validation of a Measure. The Journal of Experimental Education, 80(4), 405-421.
Knore, C. (1996). Grade Inflation in Elementary or Secondary Students' Progress Reports: The Contribution of Homework or Extra-Credit Projects. American Secondary Education, 24(3), 11-18.
Kohn, A. (2006). The Homework Myth. Cambridge: Da Capo Press.
Kouzma, N., & Kennedy, G. (2002). Homework, Stress, and Mood Disturbance in Senior High School Students. Psychological Reports, 91(1), 193-198.
Kukk, A., Rajalaane, R., Rei, M.L., Piht, S. (2015). Parents opinions on homework in the II stage of primary school (Estonian example). Procedia – Social and Behavioral Sciences, 171, 134-144.
Llewellyn, G., & Silver, A. (2001). Guerrilla Learning: How to Give Your Kids a Real Education With or Without School. New York: John Wiley & Sons.
Mayo Clinic Staff. (2019, April 4). Stress symptoms: Effects on your body and behavior. Mayo Clinic. Retrieved from https://www.mayoclinic.org/healthy-lifestyle/stress-management/in-depth/stress-symptoms/art-20050987
Murphy, J., & Decker, K. (1989). Teachers' Use of Homework in High Schools. The Journal of Educational Research, 82(5), 261-269.
Núñez, J., Suárez, N., Rosário, P., Vallejo, G., Cerezo, R., & Valle, A. (2015). Teachers' Feedback on Homework, Homework-Related Behaviors, and Academic
Achievement. The Journal of Educational Research, 108(3), 204-216.
Patall, E., Cooper, H., & Robinson, J. (2008). Parent Involvement in Homework: A Research Synthesis. Review of Educational Research, 78(4), 1039-1101.
Sallee, B., & Rigler, N. (2008). Doing Our Homework on Homework: How Does Homework Help? English Journal, 98(2), 46-51.
Suldo, S., Shaunessy, E., & Hardesty, R. (2008). Relationships among stress, coping, and mental health in high‐achieving high school students. Psychology in the
Schools, 45(4), 273-290.
Tough, P. (2012). How Children Succeed: Grit, Curiosity, and the Hidden Power of Character. New York: Houghton Mifflin Harcourt Publishing Company.
Van Voorhis, F. (2004). Reflecting on the Homework Ritual: Assignments and Designs. Theory into Practice, 43(3), 205-212.
Van Voorhis, F. (2011). Costs and Benefits of Family Involvement in Homework. Journal of Advanced Academics, 22(2), 220-249.
Xu, J. (2011). Homework Completion at the Secondary School Level: A Multilevel Analysis. The Journal of Educational Research, 104(3), 171-182.
Xu, J., & Wu, H. (2013). Self-Regulation of Homework Behavior: Homework Management at the Secondary School Level. The Journal of Educational Research,
106(1), 1-13.
Zuzanek, J. (2009). Students' study time and their 'homework problem'. Social Indicators Research, 93(1), 111-115.
THE IMPACT OF HOMEWORK ON LEARNING
Training Workbook
2
Introduction
Homework is utilized in almost every school and every classroom. It may be used for a
variety of reasons and the teacher assigning homework may have different objectives in
mind when selecting what is an appropriate task. However, not all homework is equal.
Assignments vary in their requirements and effectiveness. With adequate understanding
and practice, teachers can make better use of their assigned homework and make more
informed decisions about what its impact will be on learning. The aim of this project is to
help teachers understand how homework impacts learning in middle and high school. This
research examines the purpose of homework to understand why teachers assign homework
and what they hope to achieve, it also discusses how homework can be effective and
meaningful. Finally, it examines the connections between homework and stress, and the
impact that it has on students in middle and high school.
Historically, homework has undergone several changes based on educational philosophy
and societal needs. Our understanding of educational practices during the nineteenth
century is not complete, but based on the need to memorize and recite during many
lessons, it can be assumed that some degree of homework was expected (Gill & Schlossman,
1996, p. 30). In the early twentieth century, the debate over homework continued. Anti-
homework sentiments were founded in the perceived health hazards associated with
physical and mental health as well as a loss of educational activities outside of school (Gill &
Schlossman, 1996, p. 39). While the specifics of the health concerns may have been less
precise, the concern that too much work for young students has not gone away. Also
consistent across history is the belief that there is more to a holistic upbringing than
academic pursuit. Towards the middle of the twentieth century, new arguments emerged
that homework did not achieve its academic aims and failed to improve learning (Gill &
Schlossman, 1996, p. 45). During the second half of the twentieth century, homework loads
have been estimated at a few hours per week (Murphy & Decker, 1989, p. 261). A 2004
survey conducted by the University of Michigan found that the amount of homework is up
51% since 1981 (as cited in Sallee & Rigler, 2008, p. 46). As homework levels continue to
increase, it is unsurprising that these concerns of health, time, and usefulness continue to
enter into the debate today.
3
Getting Started
What was the last homework you assigned?
What were your expectations (due date, quality of work, etc)?
Implementing Homework
Purpose – Why was the homework assigned?
Efficiency – Can the homework be completed in a reasonable amount of time?
Ownership – Do students feel connected to the homework? Is it meaningful?
Competence – Do all students feel they can complete the assignment?
Aesthetic appeal – Does the homework feel inviting and appealing?
Vatterott (2010)
Why do we assign homework?
4
Purpose of Homework
Practice
Preparation
Personal Development
Participation
Parent-Teacher Communication
Parent-Child Relations
Peer Interaction
Public Relations
Policy
Punishment
Van Voorhis (2004)
It is important that the purpose of homework is well established and considered before
making any decision on what to assign. School leaders and teachers need to have a clear
understanding of what they hope to achieve with any homework that students bring home.
5
Practice and Preparation
Practice and preparation both function as primarily academic motives. Practice homework
seeks to consolidate what was learned at school and to further develop skills already
introduced by the teacher. A common example of practice homework is a set of math
problems. Typically, these practice problems will be of a similar difficulty to those
introduced in class, but they sometimes include more challenging problems meant to
stretch students.
Preparation homework is aimed at getting students ready for the next lesson by introducing
a topic or engaging prior knowledge. Preparation homework could be used to make lessons
or class discussions more beneficial. A common example of preparation homework is
reading the appropriate pages in the textbook before the topic is taught in class.
What characteristics should homework have if the purpose is practice and preparation?
Are there other ways to achieve this learning aim?
Why should homework be necessary for students to succeed in school?
6
Personal Development
Personal development captures many of the non-academic perceived benefits of
homework. It includes the development of self-regulation, time management, and self-
motivation. It also includes self-teaching and learning. Students should develop some ability
to manage homework as well as a degree of self-learning in their preparation for college,
where these skills will be required. One challenge with this purpose is that these skills are
rarely explicitly taught or modeled to students and they are often left to flounder.
What non-academic skills and attributes do schools try to inculcate in students?
How does homework help achieve some of these aims?
Are there other ways to achieve these aims?
7
Communication
Participation (Student-Teacher communication)
Parent-Teacher Communication
Parent-Child Relations
Peer Interaction
Public Relations
Participation can give students an opportunity to demonstrate their understanding and skill
in a setting outside the classroom. Not all students may actively engage in the classroom,
but homework can give them a way to demonstrate their abilities or to identify areas of
struggle. An essential aspect of this purpose is attentive teacher marking and feedback.
Homework can allow parents more knowledge of what their children are learning and foster
a bond between parent and child, but it can also have a negative effect when homework is
perceived as a task to be completed rather than a tool for learning. Kohn (2006) outlined the
stress that homework places on family relationships. He argued that communication is often
diminished to the parents assuming the role of taskmaster (p. 12). If homework is unclear or
challenging it can have negative effects on family life. Teachers must work with parents to
communicate the role of homework in learning.
Peer interactions have a similar risk as those associated with parents. Homework can often
be used in an effort to develop communication and teamwork skills between students. An
example of this is a group project. However, they can also degrade relationships between
students if efforts are perceived to be imbalanced.
What messages are communicated through homework assignments? How else could the
messages be communicated?
8
Perspectives
Kukk et al. (2015) shows that parents are decreasingly viewing homework as very
important
Parents aren’t always able to help students when homework introduces new topics
(Hargis, 2015)
Instructional methods and phrases have changed since parents learned the topics
(Hargis, 2015)
Parents may not have free time to help students (Hargis, 2015)
Homework can create stress in family dynamics (Kohn, 2006)
Studies by Cooper (1989), Dudley-Marling (2003), Kralovex and Buell (2000),
and Nordmo and Samara (2009) suggested that homework could create
tension in the home and impair family communication
“When Mom senses that her parenting skills are being evaluated, you may be
sure her offspring will share the burden” (Kohn, 2006)
Burriss and Snead (2017) reported that only 50% of students believe homework
serves a learning purpose
12% believed it was assigned as busy work
10% believed it was assigned as punishment!
“Teachers need to have an understanding of homework difficulties that students are
experiencing and the reasons students do not complete their assignments” (Hong,
Wan, & Peng, 2011)
What reasons could cause students to have incomplete homework?
What inequalities are being introduced through homework assignments? (For example:
projects requiring purchases may put families with financial challenges at a disadvantage)
9
Policy
Homework may be assigned because of policy that is out of the control of the teacher or it
may be assigned because of parent and public expectation. Many schools have policies in
place to help regulate homework durations, frequency, and procedures. These can help
balance homework loads, but they can also place pressure on teachers to assign homework
simply to fulfill an expectation. Public relations can compel schools to create homework so
that parents feel like learning is happening. Parents may only interact with the academic
process through homework assignments. In this case, a lack of homework could be
perceived to indicate a lack of academic rigor. Teachers and schools should take care to
communicate their educational philosophy and academic expectations regardless of
homework standards so that those trained and skilled in education have the power to make
decisions based on the learning needs of students, rather than as a response to outside
whims.
What is the purpose of a policy?
What are the advantages and disadvantages of a homework policy?
Advantages Disadvantages
What are the characteristics of a good policy?
10
Punishment
It is widely accepted that assigning homework as punishment is improper. However, it is
possible that teachers may still assign heavy homework loads in response to poor
performance on an exam or quiz. Extra practice in response to struggling students is not
inherently wrong, but teachers must be careful to analyze the problem and their own
intentions. They should consider if the poor performance is due to unclear teaching,
confusing instructions on the assessment, lack of practice, poor study routines, or any
number of other challenges. It would likely be more productive to reconsider how the topic
was taught or how students study, rather than overloading them with extra homework.
Practice or Punishment?
[ ] Many students do poorly on a quiz so the teacher assigns more homework.
[ ] Student misbehave in class so the teacher assigns more homework.
[ ] Students are unfocused in class and don’t accomplish much, so the teacher
assigns extra homework.
[ ] The teacher doesn’t have enough time to cover the material, so the
unfinished part becomes homework.
[ ] Students do poorly in a review session so the teacher assigns homework.
What other ways could these challenges be addressed?
11
Homework Design
12
Efficiency
Homework should be completed in a reasonable amount of time and teachers should
account for the age of the students as well as the other subjects they are studying. A
common guide is 10 minutes of homework per grade level, so a grade 8 student should have
80 minutes or less each night according to this guideline. Studies have shown that students
with too much homework actually perform worse in school (Cooper et al., 2006; Shumow,
2011, as cited in Carr, 2013, p. 174). At the middle school level, 90 minutes is considered the
maximum according to these studies.
Daily Schedule for Students
6am: wake up, get ready for school
7am: leave for school
7:45am – 3pm: school
4pm: arrive home, change, wash up, snack
5pm – 7pm : free time
7pm: eat dinner
8pm-10pm: free time
10pm: sleep
National Sleep Foundation recommend 8-10 hours of sleep for teens
WHO recommends AT LEAST 1 hour or more of physical activity a day
What is important for students to do?
How much time is there for homework?
13
A Grade 8 student receiving homework in each class and taking six subjects should only have
about 13 minutes of homework from each teacher according to this guideline. A small
increase to 20 minutes from each teacher adds up to 120 minutes, well over the 90-minute
threshold indicated by Carr. At this point, homework is detrimental to student learning.
Even if the teacher has the best of intentions and designed a perfect assignment to achieve
that purpose, the mere time spent and associated stress causes a negative effect on
learning. Certainly, lower quality homework that exceeds that time is far more damaging. It
should also be noted that this time threshold is merely for a negative impact on academics
and completely ignores the negative effects on health, social activities, family life, and
other aspects of growing up.
Sallee and Rigler (2008) reported that 49% of students surveyed said they had
extracurricular activities for 2 or 3 hours each day (p. 48). This further adds to the
commitment of many students and could leave little time for family or social interaction.
Extensive homework loads could also cut into students’ sleep such that they fall significantly
below the recommended 8-10 hours of sleep. If a teacher decides that a particular
homework assignment is important and they want to ensure that it is efficient, they must
also remember to consider the range of student ability. What takes one student 10 minutes,
may take another student 30 minutes or more for a multitude of reasons.
How do we determine if homework is worth the time?
14
Ownership
Students should feel a connection to the assignment so that it has an impact on them. Carr
(2013) suggested one way to achieve this is by providing students with some degree of
choice (p. 174). Ownership can also come from a genuine understanding of why it matters.
When students feel their time is respected and that an assignment serves a learning
purpose, they will feel a strong sense of ownership in the work and get more out of the
assignment.
The common, “practice of ‘checking in’ homework and giving completion grades
communicates the message that many assignments are relatively meaningless” (Sallee &
Rigler, 2008, p. 47). Students that feel disconnected from the work and perceive it as
busywork are more likely to adopt an attitude focused on completion rather than learning.
Sallee and Rigler (2008) reported that an equal number of students described their
impression of homework as busywork as said it was a valuable way to prepare for class
(21%). Additionally, 13% said it was a chance for easy points and another 13% said it was an
opportunity to deepen understanding (p. 48). This indicates that half of students do not see
a learning purpose in homework since they view it as easy points or busywork.
Who is primarily responsible for developing a student’s sense of ownership?
How can teachers help students feel a sense of ownership in their work?
15
Competence
Students need to feel that they are able to complete their homework. Homework should be
clear and concise, and it should be of the appropriate difficulty for students. Differentiation
is one way to help improve this aspect of homework. A suggestion of Cooper and Nye (1994)
is to allow students to start on their homework assignments during class so they have an
opportunity to ask questions and get clarification (as cited in Carr, 2013, p. 176). When
students do not feel competent to complete the assignment, they may feel stressed or
frustrated or disengage from the work. The assignment should also be something that is not
too easy and requires some thinking.
How do students feel when they can’t figure out their homework?
How should homework be designed to ensure ALL students can feel competent to
complete it?
16
Aesthetic Appeal
Homework assignments should feel inviting and its design should be easy for students to
understand. Students need to be able to clearly find directions, have enough room to
answer questions, and not be distracted by extraneous information. Teachers should
consider the students’ ages when deciding what appearance is appropriate. Homework that
appears confusing or overwhelming could cause students to be less inclined to approach the
assignment with a positive attitude or even cause them to avoid it altogether.
Compare these worksheets, which seems more appealing at first glance?
How can teachers make homework appealing to students?
17
Consequences and Outcomes
Some studies have shown improvement in academic results from homework
Typically, the peak academic improvement is seen around 90 minutes of
homework per day
Parental involvement has the potential to benefit student achievement
Can accelerate learning by increasing the efficiency or effectiveness of
homework (Patall, Cooper, & Robinson, 2008)
Other studies indicate an opposite effect – negative involvement can
interfere with learning
Likely, the type of involvement is the key difference
How can teachers balance the advantages and disadvantages of homework?
Advantages Disadvantages
How should teachers decide on if implementing homework is the right choice after
considering the whole student?
18
Homework and Stress
Large amounts of homework are often linked to increased stress among students and
parents. High stress levels over extended periods can lead to negative physical and
emotional consequences, especially during adolescence. “A study published in 2002 found a
direct relationship between how much time high school students spent on homework and
the levels of anxiety, depression, anger, and other mood disturbances they experienced”
(Kohn, 2006, p. 11). This is a concerning reality that must be strongly considered when
assessing the impact of homework on students.
Key Findings
Homework is a significant cause of stress for students - Galloway, Conner, and Pope
(2013), Bauwens & Hourdcade (1992), Conner et al. (2009), Hardy (2003), Kouzma &
Kennedy (2002, 2004), West & Wood (1970), Ystgaard (1997), and Markow et al.
(2007)
A 2002 study found a direct relationship between time spent on homework and
levels of anxiety, depression, anger, and other mood disturbances (Kohn, 2006)
Homework is often the reason for students’ sleep deprivation (Yang, Kim, Patel, and
Lee, 2005)
“Adolescence is a developmental period when children may be particularly
vulnerable to the negative effects of stress” (Suldo, Shaunessy, and Hardesty, 2008)
There is a link between stress and academic underachievement as well as diminished
life satisfaction (Suldo, Shaunessy, and Hardesty, 2008)
Stress has been shown to cause a myriad of negative effects including: headaches,
muscle tension or pain, fatigue, sleep problems, anxiety, restlessness, lack of
motivation, irritability and anger, depression, over or under eating, drug and
alcohol use, tobacco use, and social withdrawal (Mayo Clinic, 2019).
These are serious consequences facing young students who may have limited experience in
coping with stress in a healthy way. Developing healthy and constructive habits for stress
management is not always an easy task, and feeling overwhelmed, a common effect of
stress, makes it that much more difficult to handle. Additionally, many students are
experiencing a host of other changes including puberty, changing social structures,
increased expectations of responsibility, and major life decisions. The stress from homework
mixed with the stress of growing up is a recipe for serious long-term consequences.
19
Impact on Family Life
Homework can change the dynamic of family interactions and increase the stress on
parents. Suldo, Shaunessy, and Hardesty (2008) cited several studies that demonstrated the
negative effect of homework on home life including reducing the time for family activities,
social life, cultural or religious enrichment, and leisure pursuits (p. 493). These studies by
Cooper (1989), Dudley-Marling (2003), Kralovex and Buell (2000), and Nordmo and Samara
(2009) also suggested that homework could create tension in the home and impair family
communication.
Kohn (2006) suggested that, “children orient to homework as an organizer of their time, and
a gate-keeper from other activities if there is homework to complete” (p. 14). This dynamic
of home life is not limited to the children, but also to parents who may neglect other
matters so that their children can finish their homework. Family visits or outings, social
events, sports and clubs may all be put aside so that homework can be completed.
Compounding this situation is that homework is rarely discussed at home as a learning tool,
but only as a chore to be completed. There is little interaction between parents and children
about the content of the homework, or how it aided in learning a subject (Kohn, 2006, p.
15). This indicates a minimal value of homework as a learning tool and certainly shows that
parents and teachers are not in alignment on the benefits of homework.
What responsibility do teachers have towards students’ families?
20
Summary
Homework has become an integral part of the education system, but it is often assigned
without proper consideration. Teachers must consider all aspects of homework before
assigning students work. They must consider the purpose of the assignment, and the most
effective means of reaching that purpose. It is essential that the purpose of homework is
explicit, specific, and clearly articulated by the teacher. Homework typically falls into 10
different purposes, some of which are beneficial while others may not be. Those categories
are: practice, preparation, participation, personal development, parent-teacher
communication, parent-child relations, peer interactions, policy, public relations, and
punishment.
Once the purpose and specific learning objective has been established, effective homework
has five key features: purpose, efficiency, ownership, competence, and aesthetic appeal.
Designing homework that contains these characteristics can help that homework to achieve
its objective and to make the homework beneficial for learning. However, other factors
must also be considered.
Even the most academically sound homework has the potential to negatively affect
students’ lives because of its non-academic consequences. Certainly, the negative
consequences of poorly designed homework are far worse since there is little or no positive
to balance out any negatives, but even the best homework should be considered cautiously.
Homework can take away time for social activities, family time, extra-curricular activities,
sports, leisure time, hobbies, and much more. It can also lead to increased stress and
frustration that can manifest in physical and emotional ways. The consequences of stress
are exacerbated by the developmental stage of middle and high school students. It is
important to consider not just the academic merit of the homework, but also the tradeoff of
non-academic life. Students are growing human beings, with complex lives and needs. They
deserve the utmost respect and consideration when teachers have the ability to impact
their lives either positively or negatively. It is important that choices are made from a
position of knowledge and appreciation for the benefit of the students learning and growth
needs.
21
Reflection
What new things did you learn?
What new ideas do you have after learning more about homework?
How should teachers determine what is worth assigning?
What questions do you still have?
22
Create a flow chart for considering if assigning homework is worthwhile
Does the homework
have a learning
purpose?
Don’t Assign
NO YES
23
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IMAGES
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https://onlinedegrees.sandiego.edu/wp-content/uploads/2017/12/education_inequity_and_homework.jpg
https://this.deakin.edu.au/wp-content/uploads/2016/09/student-stressed.jpg
https://www.ccdaily.com/wp-content/uploads/2019/09/stressed.jpg
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https://www.hebronhawkeye.com/wp-content/uploads/2019/12/Stress-900x600.jpg
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https://compote.slate.com/images/2a243e9f-de1f-4088-9556-05cc774bbfc7.jpg
REFLECTIVE EVALUATION
1. How have you made use of homework in the past?
2. What new ideas do you have about homework after working through this project?
3. How will you make sure your use of homework inspires equality between students?
4. What support will help you to utilize homework more effectively going forward?
5. How do you think distance learning impacts this discussion?
6. What questions do you still have about homework?
7. Was this training helpful for you as a teacher? Why or why not?
Thank you for taking the time to reflect on this project and provide feedback. I
hope that this has been a positive experience for you and has made you think a
lot about homework usage in education. The answers are not always clear, but
it is always worth asking questions and striving to do better for our students.
As teachers, we must remember to consider the whole aspect of a student so
that they can achieve in many different ways.