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Marek Kiczkowiak, Instituut voor Levende Talen

Ten top tips to boost your

academic writing skills

Tip 1: Introduce each chapter or

big section

Marek Kiczkowiak – Instituut voor Levende Talen3

In this chapter the data collected from the study is presented and analysed. Since this project uses a MMR approach (see 3.2), both quantitative and qualitative tools were utilised to gather data on each of the five RQs. In addition, the data was gathered from three distinct groups of participants, namely teachers, students and recruiters (see 3.3.3). Consequently, for reasons of clarity, and to highlight how the data from quantitative and qualitative strands complements each other, it seems appropriate to divide this chapter into five sections, each of which corresponds to individual RQs.

Hence, the chapter is organised as follows. First, data on students’, teachers’ and recruiters’ definitions of who a ‘native speaker’ is are presented (RQ1). This is followed by results on the participants’ attitudes to and preference for ‘native speaker’ teachers (RQ2). Next, the reasons the three cohorts give for their preference of one or the other group of teachers are shown (RQ3). The following section focuses on the qualities and skills of effective English teachers as identified by the three groups of participants (RQ4). Finally, the importance of these skills and qualities is compared to the importance of being a ‘native speaker’ (RQ5).


Tip 1: Introduce each chapter

3.2 Research Approach: Definition, Advantages and Justification for MMR

As pointed out above (see 3.1.1), Mixed Methods Research (MMR) offers a

possibility to reconcile postpositivism and constructivism. It has also been

successfully utilised by other researchers to investigate native speakerism and

English as a Lingua Franca (ELF), and hence seems to be an appropriate choice of

research paradigm for this project. However, a different research design to that

applied in most previous studies is used here, combining exploratory qualitative,

explanatory quantitative and explanatory qualitative strands. Before the research

design is presented in more detail, though, it is necessary to first define MMR.

Secondly, this section outlines the advantages of using this approach, and ends by

providing justification for employing MMR in this project.

3.2.1 Definition of MMR


Tip 1: Introduce each big section

Tip 2: Provide links between

sections


a) The last definition might suggest that someone born in a non-English-speaking country could also be considered a ‘native speaker’ if the majority of their linguistic life is conducted in English. This proposition is explored further in the following section.

b) However, as one participant pointed out, “there are a lot of grey areas in between what we normally think as a ‘native speaker’ and a ‘non-native speaker’” [T5]. One such possible grey area is someone born and raised in a non-English-speaking country in a bilingual household. This situation is explored in the next section.

c) Having presented the results concerning the definition of a ‘native speaker’, the following section focuses on participants’ attitudes to and perceptions of English teachers who are ‘native’ and ‘non-native speakers’.


Tip 2: Provide links between sections

a) Similarly to the preceding section, both quantitative and qualitative tools were used to gather data on RQ 2. This section is divided into four main parts, each of which begins with a presentation of the quantitative data, which is then supported by the qualitative results. In the first part, […]

b) Another possible reason for a preference for ‘native speaker’ teachers might be a belief that only a ‘native speaker’ can teach correct English, while the student will learn bad English from a ‘non-native speaker’ teacher. Hence, the participants were asked to […]

c) Having looked at respondents’ attitudes to the use of English only and L1 in class, this section focuses on their beliefs about the English language itself to explore whether the participants recognise its global status. More specifically, the respondents […]


Tip 2: Provide links between sections


paragraphs


[…] Stern (op.cit.) argued that good language learners are characterized by positive learning strategies, among which he included experimenting, planning, developing the new language into an ordered system, revising progressively, searching for meaning, practising, using the language in real communication, self-monitoring, developing the target language into a separate reference system, and learning to think in the target language.

Consequently, Rubin (1975: 42) further argued that we needed to learn about what good language learners do so that “we might be able to teach these strategies to poorer learners to enhance their success record”. However, the early optimism that merely teaching about strategies would enable all learners to learn a language successfully and effortlessly has proven to be overly simplistic […][Adapted from Griffiths, C. 2015. What have we learnt from good language learners? ELT Journal Volume 69/4 October 2015; doi:10.1093/elt/ccv040 425]


Tip 3: Provide links between paragraphs

The relationship between strategies and successful learning has also been hotly disputed. Although Rubin (1975) recommended learning strategies as a means to promote successful learning, in fact this relationship has proven to be not so straightforward. Porte (1988), for instance, discovered that his unsuccessful learners frequently used a large number of strategies, although their choices were not always appropriate, and they did not always coordinate (orchestrate) their strategy repertoires effectively.

________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________

Green and Oxford (1995), for instance, during a study of 374 students at the University of Puerto Rico, found a significant relationship between language proficiency and learning strategy use, indicating that the more proficient students used strategies more frequently than the lower-level students.[From Griffiths, C. 2015. What have we learnt from good language learners? ELT Journal Volume 69/4 October 2015; doi:10.1093/elt/ccv040 425]



The relationship between strategies and successful learning has also been hotly disputed. Although Rubin (1975) recommended learning strategies as a means to promote successful learning, in fact this relationship has proven to be not so straightforward. Porte (1988), for instance, discovered that his unsuccessful learners frequently used a large number of strategies, although their choices were not always appropriate, and they did not always coordinate (orchestrate) their strategy repertoires effectively.

Other researchers, however, have discovered a positive relationship between strategy use and successful learning. Green and Oxford (1995), for instance, during a study of 374 students at the University of Puerto Rico, found a significant relationship between language proficiency and learning strategy use, indicating that the more proficient students used strategies more frequently than the lower-level students.

[From Griffiths, C. 2015. What have we learnt from good language learners? ELT Journal Volume 69/4 October 2015; doi:10.1093/elt/ccv040 425]




sentences


The current difficulty in obtaining a permanent contract means that jobs

previously sought after because of their associated security are now less

attractive, which is particularly evident in the teaching profession. In the past,

teachers, even if they were low paid, usually earned more than people in either

clerical occupations or manual employment and they enjoyed higher prestige.

Although this was partly due to their educated status, it was also partly because

their profession held more responsibility. Over the past thirty years or so,

however, the need for skilled blue collar workers has risen above that of

educators. Furthermore, a general increase in educational opportunity has

meant that the job market is saturated with overqualified graduates.

Consequently, graduates are becoming even more qualified, which is ironically

devaluing higher degrees such as doctorates.


Tip 4: Provide links between sentences

The current difficulty in obtaining a permanent contract means that jobs

previously sought after because of their associated security are now less

attractive, which is particularly evident in the teaching profession. In the past,

teachers, even if they were low paid, usually earned more than people in either

clerical occupations or manual employment and they enjoyed higher prestige.

Although this was partly due to their educated status, it was also partly

because their profession held more responsibility. Over the past thirty years or

so, however, the need for skilled blue collar workers has risen above that of

educators. Furthermore, a general increase in educational opportunity has

meant that the job market is saturated with overqualified graduates.

Consequently, graduates are becoming even more qualified, which is ironically

devaluing higher degrees such as doctorates.





In the past a newspaper was the most commonly used medium to keep readers informed. Online news blogs have started to present considerable competition to newspapers. It might be useful to consider the advantages and disadvantages of this ‘new’ medium. It is much easier to keep up to date by reading blogs. They can be updated more quickly. Blogs allow more interaction between readers. Most blogs have a discussion board where readers can share their opinions. Blogs are not as accessible to everyone as newspapers. They cannot be read everywhere. Readers need an internet connection. Most blogs are less objective. They often only present the views of one person. Both news blogs and traditional newspapers have their strengths. They complement each other well and should continue to co-exist.


Tip 4: Provide links between sentencesWhile in the past a newspaper was the most commonly used medium to

keep readers informed, online news blogs have started to present

considerable competition to newspapers. It might hence be useful to

consider the advantages and disadvantages of this ‘new’ medium. First, it is

much easier to keep up to date by reading blogs as they can be updated

more quickly. In addition, blogs allow more interaction between readers

thanks to a discussion board where they can share their opinions.

Nevertheless, blogs are not as accessible to everyone as newspapers since

they cannot be read everywhere. For example, readers need an internet

connection. Moreover, most blogs are less objective, often only presenting

the views of one person. To sum up, due to the fact that both news blogs

and traditional newspapers have their strengths, they complement each other

well and should continue to co-exist.

Tip 5: Build logical paragraphs



Tip 5: Build logical paragraphsIt could be argued that a duothenographic approach might introduce a

fundamental bias into the data. Nevertheless, as with other constructivist

approaches, the conclusions and results do not purport to be universally true,

objective or replicable, but rather tentative and suggestive (Creswell, 2013). In

other words, participants’ recollections retrieved through a duoethnographic

dialogue do not aim to accurately reflect or represent one true external reality (if

such exists), but rather the subjective lived experiences of the researchers.

Furthermore, duoethnography acknowledges that beliefs are not static and

distinct entities (as postpositivist researchers might claim), but fluid, changeable

and often emerge from social interaction and are influenced by the sociocultural

and geographic context (Dufva, 2003; Kalaja & Barcelos, 2003). Hence, through

dialogue, duoethnographers aim to question and reconceptualise their own

subjective beliefs which form the topic of the research (Sawyer & Norris, 2013).

[extracts from Lowe, R. and Kiczkowiak, M. 2017. Native-speakerism and the complexity of personal experience: A duoethnographic study.

Cogent Education 3, p.1-16; retrieved from: https://www.cogentoa.com/article/10.1080/2331186X.2016.1264171]


An ideal topic sentence

1. Post-secondary education in Belgium

2. Earnings for anyone with a post-secondary education are on

average 20 percent higher.

3. A post-secondary education can have positive effects.

Post-secondary education in Belgium has been found to

have very positive effects on income and employment.

_______________________________________________________________________

___________________________________________________________

For example, both quantitative and qualitative researchers use empirical observations to

address research questions. Furthermore, Sechrest and Sidani (1995, p. 78) point out

that both methodologies "describe their data, construct explanatory arguments from their

data, and speculate about why the outcomes they observed happened as they did."

Additionally, both sets of researchers incorporate safeguards into their inquiries in order to

minimize confirmation bias and other sources of in-validity (or lack of trustworthiness) that

have the potential to exist in every research study (Sandelowski, 1986). Consequently,

despite the differences between them, quantitative and qualitative methodologies also

share important similarities.

[adapted from Johnson, R. B., & Onwuegbuzie, A. J. (2004). Mixed Methods Research: A Research Paradigm Whose Time Has Come. Educational Researcher, 33(7), 14–26.]

Although there are many important paradigmatic differences between qualitative

and quantitative research, there are also some similarities between them that are

sometimes overlooked. For example, both quantitative and qualitative researchers use

empirical observations to address research questions. Furthermore, Sechrest and Sidani

(1995, p. 78) point out that both methodologies "describe their data, construct explanatory

arguments from their data, and speculate about why the outcomes they observed

happened as they did." Additionally, both sets of researchers incorporate safeguards into

their inquiries in order to minimize confirmation bias and other sources of in-validity (or

lack of trustworthiness) that have the potential to exist in every research study

(Sandelowski, 1986). Consequently, despite the differences between them, quantitative

and qualitative methodologies also share important similarities.

[adapted from Johnson, R. B., & Onwuegbuzie, A. J. (2004). Mixed Methods Research: A Research Paradigm Whose Time Has Come. Educational Researcher, 33(7), 14–26.]

Tip 6: Avoid ‘I’ or ‘we’




This project attempts to use quantitative and qualitative methods in a manner

that complements the strengths and minimises the weaknesses of each of the

two approaches. As pointed out above (see 3.1.2), this research is rooted in

pragmatist worldview, mixing the postpositivist and constructivist paradigms with

the aim of arriving at a fuller picture of the studied phenomena. On the

continuum of methods referred to above, it relies more on the quantitative

approach, and therefore could be classified as quantitative mixed (see 3.3.4).

Nevertheless, scholars caution that MMR should not be used for its own sake,

but rather only if there is a need for a more mixed approach. Consequently, the

choice of methodology is justified in the following section, by outlining some of

the advantages of MMR, as well as by highlighting how these allow to answer

the RQs (see 3.3.2) more fully than if either qualitative or quantitative method

was used on its own.



1. Use the passive voice

• We conducted the study The study was conducted

2. Use ‘it’ structures

• We can observe that It can be observed that (it + modal verb +

be + 3rd form)

• We think it is evident that It is evident that (it + is + adjective +

that)

• We think it is important to clarify It is important to clarify (it + is

+ adjective + to + verb)

Tip 7: Hedge your bets




1. Consumers have less confidence in the economy.

2. These exit criteria are not specified with sufficient precision.

3. All participants portray themselves in a socially desirable manner.

4. It is argued that other goals are best achieved as part of a general policy.

5. These results correspond well with our earlier findings.

6. 20th century warming has contributed significantly to the observed sea level

rise.



1. A maj…………… of consumers have less confidence in the economy.

2. In mo…… cases these exit criteria are not specified with sufficient precision.

3. All participants te…………. to portray themselves in a socially desirable

manner.

4. It ________ be argued that other goals are best achieved as part of a

general policy.

5. These results se………… to correspond r_____ well with our earlier

findings.

6. It is very lik…………. that 20th century warming has contributed significantly

to the observed sea level rise.

Tip 8: Use words from

Latin and French



Tip 8: Words from Latin and French

1. Expert Systems can help out the user in the diagnosis of problems.

2. The government has enough progress in solving environmental problems.

3. We got the results by analysing the conversations with the participants.

4. The results of the experiments have been good.

5. The study was done in a remote rural area of Japan.

6. There are lots of problems with this approach.

7. Jones’ (1999) results are wrong due to an error in calculations.


Tip 8: Words from Latin and French

1. Expert Systems can assist the user in the diagnosis of problems.

2. The government has sufficient progress in solving environmental problems.

3. We obtained the results by analysing the conversations with the

participants.

4. The results of the experiments have been promising/convincing.

5. The study was conducted in a remote rural area of Japan.

6. There are numerous/multiple problems with this approach.

7. Jones’ (1999) results are incorrect due to an error in calculations.

Tip 9: On-line sources


Faculty, department, unit ... 35

Faculty, department, unit ... 36

Tip 10: Come to the Writing

Centre



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