““Vigorous writing is concise. A Vigorous writing is concise. A sentence should contain no sentence should contain no unnecessary words, a paragraph no unnecessary words, a paragraph no unnecessary sentences, for the same unnecessary sentences, for the same reason that a drawing should have no reason that a drawing should have no unnecessary lines and a machine no unnecessary lines and a machine no unnecessary parts. unnecessary parts. ““

From : William Strunk ‘s (1918) From : William Strunk ‘s (1918) The The Elements of StyleElements of Style..

The The Dalhousie Dalhousie

Writing Writing CentreCentre

Computer scienceComputer science

OutlineOutline

Dalhousie help and resources you can use.Dalhousie help and resources you can use.

Getting started.Getting started.

Proposal writingProposal writing

Good writing practices/science writing tips.Good writing practices/science writing tips.

RevisionRevision

ReferencesReferences

The Dalhousie Writing The Dalhousie Writing CentreCentre

http://writingcentre.dal.ca/Visit us onlineVisit us online,,or in person: or in person:

Room Room G40CG40C Killam Killam Library Learning Library Learning CommCommonsons

6225 University 6225 University AvenueAvenue

My contact My contact information:information:

Janice.Eddington@dal.ca

Other recommended Other recommended resources:resources:

LibraryLibrary Subject librarian Subject librarian Gwendolyn McNairnGwendolyn McNairn Ref worksRef works Online Writing Style Online Writing Style

guidesguides Online assignment Online assignment

calculatorcalculatorwww.library.dal.ca/assignment/calculator

Academic Integrity at Academic Integrity at DalhousieDalhousie

http://http://academicintegrity.dal.ca/academicintegrity.dal.ca/

Online Writing Lab (OWL at Online Writing Lab (OWL at Purdue) Purdue)

A great online resource A great online resource (grammar, structure, (grammar, structure, etc.):etc.):

http://owl.english.purdue.edu/

Please also seePlease also see

the Writing Centre LibGuide the Writing Centre LibGuide http://dal.ca.libguides.com/content.php?pid=174958&hs=a

Australia’s Australia’s University of Adelaide Writing University of Adelaide Writing Centre Centre for a webinar on intellectual for a webinar on intellectual property (and other materials)property (and other materials)

http://www.adelaide.edu.au/clpd/online/http://www.adelaide.edu.au/clpd/online/learningmodules/avoidingPlagiarism/player.htmllearningmodules/avoidingPlagiarism/player.html

The writing ...The writing ...

Planning, thinking, researching (reading, note Planning, thinking, researching (reading, note taking)taking)

Outlining (going back)Outlining (going back) Writing in stages (especially for longer papers) Writing in stages (especially for longer papers) Getting feedbackGetting feedback Rewriting/revisionRewriting/revision Researching, rewritingResearching, rewriting RewritingRewriting Finishing – final check & submittingFinishing – final check & submitting

Before you start…Before you start…some things to considersome things to consider

Developing good organizational and writing Developing good organizational and writing skills skills

KnowKnow your assignment guidelines (read, your assignment guidelines (read, re-read, ask)re-read, ask)

Create good notes (at all stages)Create good notes (at all stages)

Research/incorporate responsibly. Research/incorporate responsibly. Remember what is yoursRemember what is yours

Give yourself time –be prepared to revisit Give yourself time –be prepared to revisit and revise the plan as you go.and revise the plan as you go.

Know your audience, audience,

purpose, purpose,

content,content,

contextcontext

(who, why, what, how/when)(who, why, what, how/when)

When you begin the When you begin the processprocess

Recall that reading is part of the Recall that reading is part of the ongoing process…ongoing process…

As you read, read As you read, read actively…actively…

Annotate the text with thoughts, questions, ideas…

Ask yourself:Ask yourself:

What is the author’s thesis?What is the author’s thesis?

Have they supported their arguments? If so, Have they supported their arguments? If so, how did they do so?how did they do so?

What have they left out?What have they left out?

Have they thought of…?Have they thought of…?

As you researchAs you research

Limit your topic – continue to develop a Limit your topic – continue to develop a strong thesisstrong thesis

Use acceptable evidenceUse acceptable evidence

Keep the reader in mind (tell them what Keep the reader in mind (tell them what you are doing – share your logic)you are doing – share your logic)

Make notes in your own voiceMake notes in your own voice

We’ll talk more specifically about your research We’ll talk more specifically about your research proposals,proposals,

But now that you’ve done some research But now that you’ve done some research

How do you go about How do you go about incorporatingincorporating

other writers’ work into other writers’ work into your own?your own?

Recall that other scholars’ Recall that other scholars’ ideas should provide ideas should provide support, support,

evidence, contextevidence, context for your for your argument…argument…

……they should not be the backbone of your they should not be the backbone of your writing— writing—

You are becoming a part of the ‘culture of You are becoming a part of the ‘culture of enquiry’ in which your ideas are … enquiry’ in which your ideas are …

““informed by but separate from those of informed by but separate from those of [your] sources” [your] sources” (Gallant, 2011)(Gallant, 2011)

**Especially avoid “the world according to ____” and Especially avoid “the world according to ____” and excessive quotation…)excessive quotation…)

Writing academicallyWriting academically

Know the rules on using intellectual propertyKnow the rules on using intellectual property

Carefully indicate the work of others and your Carefully indicate the work of others and your own work in your notes own work in your notes

Integrate source material into your work with Integrate source material into your work with clear citations. clear citations.

Use a standard documentation/source guide (e.g. Use a standard documentation/source guide (e.g. APA, Vancouver, IEEE)APA, Vancouver, IEEE)

Double (or triple) check everything before Double (or triple) check everything before submission —submission —and don’t forget to check the work and don’t forget to check the work of group members***. of group members***.

Some techniques that have Some techniques that have worked for othersworked for others

Find a way to keep track of your references Find a way to keep track of your references without losing the flow of your writing.without losing the flow of your writing.

(But start the literature cited page immediately, (But start the literature cited page immediately, and add to it as you go.) and add to it as you go.)

Student tips:Student tips: Cue cards– can be shuffledCue cards– can be shuffled Insert/comment featureInsert/comment feature Organize topics— numbering? Organize topics— numbering? Create clear file namesCreate clear file names

What exactly do we have What exactly do we have to cite? to cite?

The quick answer is:The quick answer is:

Everything!Everything!

Well, okay. There are two big exceptions:Well, okay. There are two big exceptions:

Your own thoughts and ideas*Your own thoughts and ideas*

General knowledge (but be careful about General knowledge (but be careful about what is general knowledge).what is general knowledge).

Although much depends on the nature of the Although much depends on the nature of the material and your purpose, you’ll see and use the material and your purpose, you’ll see and use the incorporation of incorporation of

QuotationsQuotations

ParaphrasesParaphrases

SummariesSummaries

Back to the how. Back to the how. Generally speaking, there are Generally speaking, there are

three main three main techniques or methods techniques or methods of incorporation.of incorporation.

Quotations Quotations

Must be Must be identicalidentical to the original – word for word. to the original – word for word.

Must be indicated as a quotation in the text Must be indicated as a quotation in the text (with quotation marks or blocking)(with quotation marks or blocking)

Should have a ‘lead-in’Should have a ‘lead-in’

Must be attributedMust be attributed

Should be used sparingly, if at all, in Should be used sparingly, if at all, in academic (especially in scientific) academic (especially in scientific) writing.writing.

When do we use direct When do we use direct quotations?quotations?

When we need a sample of a writing style or dialect.When we need a sample of a writing style or dialect.

When the When the wayway the speaker/author has said the speaker/author has said something is as important as something is as important as whatwhat they have said. they have said.

To state the exact phrasing of a policy or law. To state the exact phrasing of a policy or law.

For specific words or phrases pulled from the text.For specific words or phrases pulled from the text.

There are special considerations when using a There are special considerations when using a chart, graph, etc. from another source. chart, graph, etc. from another source. Follow your Follow your citation style guidelines. citation style guidelines.

As always, remember to include proper citations in As always, remember to include proper citations in each of the above cases.each of the above cases.

ParaphrasingParaphrasing

Interpreting or restating source material in your Interpreting or restating source material in your own words.own words.

Please note:Please note: It is It is notnot just a rewording or just a rewording or rearrangement of words, and it is rearrangement of words, and it is notnot just just replacing words with synonyms (Beware of replacing words with synonyms (Beware of reaching for your thesaurus here!)reaching for your thesaurus here!)

Remember, even though you have used your own Remember, even though you have used your own wordswords, the , the thoughtthought still belongs to another still belongs to another scholar.scholar.

Paraphrases must be attributedParaphrases must be attributed

SummarizingSummarizing

Synthesizing and extracting the main Synthesizing and extracting the main idea(s) and expressing it in your own words. idea(s) and expressing it in your own words.

Significantly shorter than original and takes Significantly shorter than original and takes a broader overview of material than a broader overview of material than paraphrases or quotations.paraphrases or quotations.

Must be attributedMust be attributed

The research proposal The research proposal

Is an action plan that provides the rationale, Is an action plan that provides the rationale, justification, and description of your study.justification, and description of your study.

Clearly states problem and associated Clearly states problem and associated hypotheses hypotheses

Frames your research and links it to Frames your research and links it to previous researchprevious research

Explains proposed method & plans for data Explains proposed method & plans for data analysis analysis (qualitative/quantitative, both?)(qualitative/quantitative, both?)

Three key questions to keep in Three key questions to keep in mind mind

1. What are we going to learn from as the result of 1. What are we going to learn from as the result of the proposed project that we do not know now?the proposed project that we do not know now?

2. Why is it worth knowing?2. Why is it worth knowing?

3. How will we know that the conclusions are valid?3. How will we know that the conclusions are valid?

From From Adam Przeworski Department of Political Science Adam Przeworski Department of Political Science University of Chicago University of Chicago and and Frank Salomon Department of Frank Salomon Department of Anthropology University of Wisconsin . The Art of Writing Anthropology University of Wisconsin . The Art of Writing Proposals Proposals http://www.ssrc.org/workspace/images/crm/new_publication_http://www.ssrc.org/workspace/images/crm/new_publication_3/%7B7a9cb4f4-815f-de11-bd80-001cc477ec70%7D.pdf3/%7B7a9cb4f4-815f-de11-bd80-001cc477ec70%7D.pdf

Refining your research Refining your research questionquestion

• Read over sourcesRead over sources

• Ask questions such as:Ask questions such as:– What is known about the topic?What is known about the topic?– What are the gaps on the topic?What are the gaps on the topic?– What has been proposed as ‘future directions’?What has been proposed as ‘future directions’?– How can existing studies be improved?How can existing studies be improved?– Can similar ideas be explored from a different perspective, Can similar ideas be explored from a different perspective,

different focus group, etc?different focus group, etc?

• Come up with a specific question of interestCome up with a specific question of interest– Ask: Do I want to analyze, explain, or take a position on a Ask: Do I want to analyze, explain, or take a position on a

topic?topic?– Ask: “How” or “Why” questions about a topicAsk: “How” or “Why” questions about a topic

http://owl.english.purdue.edu/owl/resource/545/01/

goodaboutlife.blogspot.com

Identifying GapsIdentifying Gaps

• Is the evidence in a study convincing?Is the evidence in a study convincing?—Is it clear how evidence supports Is it clear how evidence supports the argument? If no, how the argument? If no, how improve?improve?

—Are alternatives considered?Are alternatives considered?—Are limitations considered?Are limitations considered?—Is the evidence weak or strong?Is the evidence weak or strong?

www.leimo.info

Research Proposal - Research Proposal - purposepurposePersuasion?Persuasion?

Convince readers that it is interesting Convince readers that it is interesting and worthwhile-and worthwhile-

How will your work make a difference in your field How will your work make a difference in your field of study?of study?

To do this need to explain to readers:To do this need to explain to readers:

Big picture – general area of researchBig picture – general area of research

Specific area of research and gapsSpecific area of research and gaps

Rationale for your project Rationale for your project

Research questionResearch question

MethodologyMethodology

Significance of your projected findingsSignificance of your projected findings

Research Proposal - Research Proposal - structurestructure

General area of researchGeneral area of research

Specific area of researchSpecific area of research

RationaleRationale

QuestionQuestion

ApproachApproach

SignificanceSignificance

Exercise (for another Exercise (for another time)time)

Discuss with a partner (in any order):Discuss with a partner (in any order): General area of researchGeneral area of research Specific area of researchSpecific area of research RationaleRationale Research questionsResearch questions ApproachApproach SignificanceSignificance

Write down a point or two for eachWrite down a point or two for each

Literature reviewsLiterature reviews

Lit. review generally organized around ideas Lit. review generally organized around ideas or groups of ideas rather than by author, or groups of ideas rather than by author, publication etc. , or subjectpublication etc. , or subject

Not only a presentation of what is out there, Not only a presentation of what is out there, but a critical analysis and synthesis of the but a critical analysis and synthesis of the existing literature in the field. existing literature in the field.

Why include it?Why include it?

Sets up theoretical, conceptual framework, Sets up theoretical, conceptual framework, appropriate methodologyappropriate methodology

Establishes importance of topic, justifies Establishes importance of topic, justifies choice of question.choice of question.

Practically, it provides background and Practically, it provides background and context to your contributioncontext to your contribution

How much detail?How much detail?

Handlon’s (1998) film shot analogy:

Long (background-acknowledged), medium(X2),, close-ups (foreground –most direct relevance –most careful scrutiny.)

Circles represent topics,

constructs, ideas, concepts.

The revision processThe revision process

From the editors of From the editors of Nature Nature Structural and Molecular BiologyStructural and Molecular Biology

““Making your story clear is not the same thing as dumbing Making your story clear is not the same thing as dumbing it down. No reviewer has ever said that a paper was too it down. No reviewer has ever said that a paper was too easy to read ...easy to read ...

...We do, however, get complaints from reviewers about how ...We do, however, get complaints from reviewers about how complicated, convoluted or downright confusing a paper iscomplicated, convoluted or downright confusing a paper is. .

...Clear, simple language allows the data and their ...Clear, simple language allows the data and their interpretation to come through. Remember that clarity is interpretation to come through. Remember that clarity is especially important especially important when you are trying to get when you are trying to get complicated ideas acrosscomplicated ideas across.” .” pg 139pg 139

Scientific Writing 101, Scientific Writing 101, Nature Structural and Molecular Biology Nature Structural and Molecular Biology 17 (2010) 17 (2010) doi:10.1038/nsmb0210-139doi:10.1038/nsmb0210-139

As you examine the As you examine the draftdraft

Read aloud (you will notice more errors)

Question yourself critically. Would it make sense if you hadn’t written it?

Anticipate readers’ questions and try to identify gaps.

Some science (and other) Some science (and other) writing/revising tipswriting/revising tips

Provide reader with essential information Provide reader with essential information (decide on relevant details) (decide on relevant details)

One idea per sentence general rule of thumbOne idea per sentence general rule of thumb

Try short sentences -especially in first draft, Try short sentences -especially in first draft, can combine them later (short/long=good can combine them later (short/long=good flow).flow).

*Each paragraph should be centered around a *Each paragraph should be centered around a main point or idea –use topic and concluding main point or idea –use topic and concluding sentences, and remember to pay attention to sentences, and remember to pay attention to links between ideas (more on transition later)links between ideas (more on transition later)

Writing/revision tips Writing/revision tips continuedcontinued

Be clear and unambiguous; use key words, define others Be clear and unambiguous; use key words, define others

Give the Give the sensesense in the fewest words. in the fewest words.

Value Value eacheach word and know the meaning & context. Make word and know the meaning & context. Make every word count. every word count.

““Extra” words & phrases divert attention.Extra” words & phrases divert attention.

Avoid quite, some etc. (vague qualifiers) – be specific.Avoid quite, some etc. (vague qualifiers) – be specific.

Say what you mean (and Say what you mean (and carefully consider subject carefully consider subject

and action)and action)

Smith’s (2003) research investigated the Smith’s (2003) research investigated the effect…effect…

Who did the work?Who did the work?

Consider: Consider: Smith (2003) investigated the Smith (2003) investigated the effect…effect…

Be specific: Be specific:

Many insect species have been described.Many insect species have been described.

Nearly one million insect species have been Nearly one million insect species have been described.described.

The copper chloride treatment was not affected.The copper chloride treatment was not affected.

Cells exposed to copper chloride divided at Cells exposed to copper chloride divided at normal rates.normal rates.

Build “bridges” for your Build “bridges” for your reader (or, more on achieving reader (or, more on achieving

transition)transition)

Use transition, or in some cases Use transition, or in some cases headings and titles, to guide headings and titles, to guide reader through material. reader through material.

Don’t make the reader work, go Don’t make the reader work, go back, or search for missing back, or search for missing ideas/material. Share your logic.ideas/material. Share your logic.

Transitions may be Transitions may be neededneeded

Between sections: Between sections: paragraphs summarizing material paragraphs summarizing material just covered and specify how relevant to next section.just covered and specify how relevant to next section.

Between paragraphsBetween paragraphs: a summarizing statement with : a summarizing statement with clue to context (at end of one, beginning of another.)clue to context (at end of one, beginning of another.)

Within paragraphsWithin paragraphs: usually just a word or two used as : usually just a word or two used as cuescues

[Adapted from Day (1998)][Adapted from Day (1998)]

(e.g. furthermore, however, therefore, indeed, then, by (e.g. furthermore, however, therefore, indeed, then, by contrast, subsequently, although, consequently, equally contrast, subsequently, although, consequently, equally important,…) important,…) ** remain aware of usage and context. remain aware of usage and context.

Closing remindersClosing reminders

Look for help when (or before!) it’s needed…Look for help when (or before!) it’s needed…

Approach your TA, professor, advisor, Approach your TA, professor, advisor, subject librarian or study skills coachsubject librarian or study skills coach

Come in to see us for an appointment!Come in to see us for an appointment!

Resources/References:Resources/References:

Canadian Press. 2008. The Canadian Style GuideCanadian Press. 2008. The Canadian Style Guide Chinneck, John, W. Department of Systems and Computer Engineering, Carleton UniversityChinneck, John, W. Department of Systems and Computer Engineering, Carleton University Dalhousie University Writing Centre-resources and direct communication, consultation, and slide Dalhousie University Writing Centre-resources and direct communication, consultation, and slide

preparation with Margie Clow-Bohan, Paul Hardman, Krista Patriquinpreparation with Margie Clow-Bohan, Paul Hardman, Krista Patriquin Day, Robert A. 1998. How to write and publish a scientific paper.Day, Robert A. 1998. How to write and publish a scientific paper. Gallant, K. (2011, January) Gallant, K. (2011, January) Addressing unintentional plagiarism by introducing students to the Addressing unintentional plagiarism by introducing students to the

‘culture of enquiry‘culture of enquiry’. [Presentation handout] Centre for Learning and Teaching, Dalhousie ’. [Presentation handout] Centre for Learning and Teaching, Dalhousie University, Halifax, NS. University, Halifax, NS.

Greene, L. 2010. Greene, L. 2010. Writing in the Life Sciences: A Critical Thinking Approach. Oxford Writing in the Life Sciences: A Critical Thinking Approach. Oxford University PressUniversity Press

Hacker, Diana. 2009. A Canadian Writer’s ReferenceHacker, Diana. 2009. A Canadian Writer’s Reference Handlon, Joseph, 1998, as described in Rudestam 1998Handlon, Joseph, 1998, as described in Rudestam 1998 Hart, Chris. 2003. Doing a Literature Review: Releasing the Social Science imagination. Hart, Chris. 2003. Doing a Literature Review: Releasing the Social Science imagination.

Sage Publications limited, LondonSage Publications limited, London Howard, Rebecca Moore, Tanya K. Rodrigue, and Tricia C. Serviss. "Writing from Sources, Howard, Rebecca Moore, Tanya K. Rodrigue, and Tricia C. Serviss. "Writing from Sources,

Writing from Sentences." Writing from Sentences." Writing and PedagogyWriting and Pedagogy 2.2 (Fall 2010): 177-192. 2.2 (Fall 2010): 177-192. Keene, M., K. Adams and M. Clow-Bohan. 2007. Instant AccessKeene, M., K. Adams and M. Clow-Bohan. 2007. Instant Access Knisely, Karen. 2005. A Student Handbook for Writing in Biology. Knisely, Karen. 2005. A Student Handbook for Writing in Biology. Levine, S. 2008. Writing proposals. MSULevine, S. 2008. Writing proposals. MSU Paul, Alana. 2006. Purpose of Writing Lab Reports in Psychology & A Survey of Anxiety in Paul, Alana. 2006. Purpose of Writing Lab Reports in Psychology & A Survey of Anxiety in

Vampires and University Students.Vampires and University Students. MacDonald, Brock. 2011.Oral presentation at CASDW (MacDonald, Brock. 2011.Oral presentation at CASDW (Canadian Association for the Study Canadian Association for the Study

of Discourse and Writingof Discourse and Writing) conference in Fredericton, May 27, 2011.) conference in Fredericton, May 27, 2011. Pechenik., Jan A. 2004. A Short Guide to Writing about Biology.Pechenik., Jan A. 2004. A Short Guide to Writing about Biology. Rudestam, K. & R. Newton. 1998, 2007. Surviving your Dissertation. Library of CongressRudestam, K. & R. Newton. 1998, 2007. Surviving your Dissertation. Library of Congress

For further details or questions on references please contact Janice.Eddington@dal.ca, Dalhousie Writing For further details or questions on references please contact Janice.Eddington@dal.ca, Dalhousie Writing CentreCentre