History HL Notes

19th Century Russia The Russian people are descendants of the Rus who are thought to be a mixture of Scandinavian and Slavic origin and settled in that region out of 800 AD

Byzantine Empire

A major legacy of the Byzantine Empire for the Russians was the eastern orthodox or Greek Orthodox Church With the decline of Byzantium came a wave of conquest from the East, the Mongols until the 15th century (Tatars)

To a large extent, the Mongols allowed Russians to maintain their way of life:

Slavic based languages including writing system (Cyrillic)

Orthodox religion

The Russians adopted much from Asian culture and this led western Europeans to think less of the Russians

Geographically Russia was isolated from the rest of Europe:

Entirely land locked (mostly)

Huge Plains of Eastern Europe prevented overland travel

During these early years there were a series of muscovite princes based in Moscow and called themselves Tsars

By the 17th century the Romanov family became the ruling dynasty:

Alexander I (1801-1825)

Nicholas I (1825-1855)

Alexander II (1855-1881)

Alexander III (1881-1894)

Nicholas II (1894-1917)

Under the rule of Peter the Great (1689-1728) Russia grew greatly in size and entered the European World

The Russia of 1800 was one of the greatest autocracies in Europe where:

The Tsars rule was absolute

There was a small, but powerful landowning elite The vast majority of the population existed in a state called serfdom

Serfdom: refers to the legal and economic status of peasants (serf).

In Russia Serfdom practically equaled slavery

In 1646, landowners registered peasants living on their land. From then they are considered property of the estate.

Serfs could not leave the estates unless sold or relocated by owner

Serfs could not marry who they wish

Background to Anti Semitism

Hostility and prejudice against Jewish people

The Jewish people have a long history of discrimination in Europe

They were expelled from the Promised Land by the Romans, so, many Jews settled throughout medieval Europe.

Jerusalem destroyed at 70 AD

As the church in Rome grew in power, the persecution of the Jews also grew

This caused many Jews to move to Eastern Europe, where at that time, the Orthodox Church was more tolerant

During the reformation (1500s), the climate of religious intolerance grew

Protestants were also guilty of anti-Semitism, with Luther himself being very hateful towards Jews.

Every major European country experienced waves of anti-Semitism in which Jews had limited rights/ were driven out of countries/ slaughtered by the thousands

By the late 19th Century Russians actually adopted this violence against Jews as official policy approved by government

These sanctioned campaigns are known as pilgrims

By the late 19th century many Europeans believed the myths and propaganda that had grown to blame the Jews for almost every conceivable social/economic/political problem

Background of Alexander I

Alexander I (1801-1825) had taken Russia through a turbulent period in terms of foreign affairs, which included:

Napoleonic Wars and the congress of Vienna

The attempted revolutions of the early 1800s in Europe

During his reign Russia grew geographically with Alexander securing most of Poland, Finland and Bessarabia

Domestically Alexander I did very little to improve Russias social or political development The death of Alexander I in December 1825 gave anti-autocracy conspirators their cue to plan a revolution

The Decembrist Revolt

As the revolt took place on the first day of Nicholas Is reign, he was inheriting the legacy of Alexander I, his eldest brother Although a miserable failure, this revolt marked the first political movement directed against established system of Russian Imperial Autocracy.

Prior to this point the position of the Tsar was never questioned by any inside Russia.

The leaders of this revolt were not united in their arms, however they all agreed that Russia needed some significant changes

Some were calling for a constitutional monarchy

Others wanted to get rid of the Tsar altogether and establish a republic

Some wanted the emancipation of the serfs, as well as judicial reform

The leaders of this revolt were a handful of army officers who had seen a more liberal world while in the west during the Napoleonic wars, they wanted these same kind of reforms for their own country

Nicholas I (1825-1855)

Orthodoxy, Autocracy, Nationalism

Nicholas upbringing and training had prepared him for the military, not ruling Russia

Nicholas was opposed to any political reform or change in Russia and was convinced that military discipline was needed to control Russia

This was due to:

His personality which was very rigid and controlling

His suspicions about any dissent after the December Revolt

Political climate in the rest of Europe

Russias Domestic Scene To stamp out any opposition to the autocracy, Nicholas established a secret police (Okhrana) which quickly became notorious for its brutality

He viewed education and universities as the nourishment of subversive ideas, so he closed down many schools

Nicholas did nothing to improve the economy, which became weaker than other European empires

Russian Foreign Affairs

Having the largest empire in Europe, both in terms of mass and population, Nicholas felt he had a special position and role in European politics

He saw himself as the guardian of the status quo, and as such thought it was his responsibility to use his great army to put down any liberal revolts in other autocratic empires

He did this successfully in 1848 in Hungary where his armies crushed a revolt against the Habsburgs Like all previous Tsars, Nicholas had visions of Russian expansion to the south east along the black sea

However, it was this goal that ultimately saw his demise in the Crimean War of 1855

Serfdom in Russia

Impact on the population:

1) Peasants

Kept them uneducated and illiterate

Very little awareness of politics especially at the national level

2) Gentry

Were very dependent on their surfs and lacked a strong work ethic (lazy!)

A small minority felt guilty exploiting their fellow human beings

Impact on the country:

1) Economy

Due to restrictions of moving off, the Land lords holdings, serfs did not tend to migrate to cities

This hindered the development of towns and industries

2) Society

The reduced economic development in turn stunted the development of a middle class which is typically the moderating influence of a society

3) Politics

Because there were very few people with moderate or liberal ideas, when new ideas did develop they tended to be quite radical

The Eastern Question

During the 19th century Europe was dominated by the great powers

Russia

Austria

Prussia

France

Britain

Italy (after 1859)

Germany (after 1871)

After the defeat of Napoleon in 1815, these powers worked together in a system called The concert of Europe or the Congress system

The goal of this system was to maintain the balance of Power in Europe and the rest of the world

This goal was threatened by the fact that the Ottoman Empire was in decline which meant possible changes to the European map In the 19th century the great powers had interests in the geographical area of the Ottomans

A) Britain

a. Didnt want Russian warships to be able to exit the Black Sea via the Aegean

b. Didnt want the Balkans states, who were pushing for independence from the Ottomans, to fall into the hands of the Russians

c. Wanted to ensure that their shortened route (via the Suez Canal) stayed in Ottoman hands not Russian hands

B) Russia

a. Wanted the straights (dardinel and

b. Viewed themselves as the natural heir to rule the Balkans

C) Austria-Hungary

a. Was in a very precarious situation because there were many ethnic groups within their borders that were seeking independence

b. Hope Ottoman Empire would maintain control over the Balkans, lest newly independent would cause minorities in Austria to want to do the same

D) France

a. Was interested in trying to gain trade and influence in Egypt

The Crimean War (1853-1856) This was the first war involving most of the great powers since 1815

It marked the beginning of the end of the balance of powers

Causes:

Diplomatic concerns over long standing eastern question lay behind the conflict

The more immediate fuse lay in the conflict about which European powers should have control over the interest of Christians and Christian sites within the Ottoman Empire

Nicholas I was not prepared to hand over his protectorate of some 12 million orthodox subjects

When negotiations failed, Russia occupied the Ottoman territories of Moldovia and Wallachia in an attempt to win control over the religious issue

The Turks protested and in 1853 declared war on Russia

The Russians were very successful against the Turks and in March 1854, France and Britain felt compelled to help the Ottomans against what they saw as a Russian threat

Britain and France attacked Russias soft underbelly, the Crimea, and that is where the fighting largely contained Russias home court advantage of a larger army and shorter supply lines were eventually outweighed by the greater ineptitude of her military leaders and the poor training/equipment of the soldiers

With the fall of Sevastopol, in September of 1855, and the Austria ultimatum, the Russians surrendered in January 1856 with the treaty of Paris signed shortly there afterSignificance of Crimean War

Marked some major changes in warfare:

Artillery and rifles replacing cavalry and bayonets

The scale of casualties was large some 675,000 men died

Field hospitals and army nurses introduced

First war covered live in the newspaper

Marked the end of the congress system that had kept the peace of Europe for some 40 years

It showed everyone that Russia was weak and forced the new Tzar to implement a program of internal reform

Imperial Russia Until 1905 Russia was an absolute monarchy

This is the way the Tzars wanted it and kept it that way through the control of these institutions

1) The bureaucracy, which acted as a personal staff to the Tzars, rather than as civil servants to the nation

2) The police force, which was divided into two branches

a. One to maintain law and order among the people

b. One to protect the state from the people

3) The army which traditionally stayed out of politics. They simply followed the order of whoever was in power

4) The landed gentry who had no real function within Russia. They were essentially a parasitic class having money but no responsibilities.

5) The Orthodox Church, which was used as a tool to educate Russians in correct political belief.

The Development of the Intelligentsia

The Intelligentsia- who were they?

They were educated Russians that were open to Western ideas and were obsessed with Russias destiny

Students, university graduates, people who had leisure time to read (wealthy)

Also included a new generation of educated Russians coming from the children of the rising merchant class- it wasnt just the aristocracy and landed gentry

The Decembrists of 1825 were the forerunners and martyrs of the Intelligentsia during the reign of Nicholas I not much had changed with regard to reform within Russia

Nicholas I banned all open discussion on the subject of reforming Russia and thus those interested were forced underground to discuss their dangerous ideas.

This led some to become more radical in their desire for change

By the time of Alexander II they became known as the Intelligentsia

Because they were educated, they saw themselves as above the Russian masses and therefore took on the role of social engineer trying to build a perfect society

The more extreme Intelligentsia dreamed of molding a whole new society which made them hostile towards reforms

The Russian masses did not tend to support them and their revolutionary ideas

Significance of 19th century Russian Intelligentsia

They were the only group that raised and debated questions concerning serious political and social change in Russia This group included some of Europes foremost literary giants

Pushkin

Gogol

Tolstoy

Introduction to the reforms of Alexander II

Social reform was needed because:

There were fears of wide-spread peasant revolt

The immobile peasants population was impairing attempts to industrialize

The general level of education was far lower than in the other Great Powers

Political and Economic reform was needed because:

After the humiliating Crimean defeat the Russian administration needed to be modernized

Crimean War left the Russian economy strained

Serfdom was no longer economically advantageous

Military reforms were needed because:

The Russian army was poorly equipped, poorly supplied and poorly trained

The army was too large and was taking up between 40 and 50 percent of Russias peacetime budget

The existence of a large, trained, armed group of peasants was dangerous given the general mood of unhappiness within the serfs

Alexander said to the nobles:

It is better to abolish bondage from above than to wait for the time when it will begin to abolish itself from below

The reforms of Alexander II

In 1858 Alexander II stated his aims for reform:

Stage 1: The peasant must immediately feel that his life has improved

Stage 2: The landowners must immediately be reassured that their interests are protected

Stage 3: The government must never be weak in maintain law and order

The first major reform was the Emancipation Act of 1861 which took the form of 22 separate pieces of legislation between 1851 and 1863 resulting in:

Serfs being given the right to marry, own property and set up in business

Serfs still being tied to the mir The mir- a peasant commune where the land was owned commonly, controlled paternalistically (oldest man)

The mir acted as the unpaid civil service collecting taxes

Serfs having to pay redemption payments for the next 49 years

Judicial reforms were passed to create the image of equality before the law with:

Open courts and jury trials

The introduction of justices of the peace and a bar of lawyers that gave the peasants two sources of legal support

However:

Officials could only be tried under special circumstances and with the governments permission Military courts retained their own jurisdiction

Ex-serfs were restricted to special courts and the governments kept informal pressure on the judges to comply with official policies and attitudes

Elected districts and provincial assemblies called Zemstva (zemstvo in singular) were created and represented the first form of popular involvement in the government of Russia

Although all classes of men could vote/enter, the assemblies were dominated by the upper class

The zemtsva had limited powers over public health, public education and prisons, but the provincial governor could veto their decisions if they were deemed to be contrary to the laws and the general welfare of the state

Zemstva = baby step towards democracyOther reforms included:

1) The introduction of a public budget of government finances

2) Universities having greater autonomy over their curricula and opening up admission to lower class

3) Restrictions on vodka production and sales were lifted

4) Legislation was introduced to limit censorship

5) Military service became compulsory for all classes and the term of service was reduced from 25 years to 6 years

After the Polish rebellion in 1863, Alexander began to follow the advice of more reactionary people and became more repressive

Background to 19th Century Philosophies

After 1815 the combined forces of industrialization and of the French Revolution led to the multiplication of doctrines and movements of many sorts.

Absolute monarchism and reaction began to challenge with new ideas

Conservationism, nonetheless, remained strong

Support of traditional institutions:

Autocracy

Church

Nobility

Military

Opposed the idea of a constitution or representative government

Liberalism

Supported a parliamentary/ representative form of government

Not as supportive of traditional institutions

Made up of businessman and enterprising landowners, so naturally they supported capitalize free enterprise

Nationalist

Socialism

Called for a radical solution to the problems of society:

The whole population should own and control the means of production, rather than private individuals

Grew out of the Enlightenment faith in progress, belief in the basic goodness of human race, and concern for social justice There were many different groups of socialists that were influenced by a number of writers, one of the most significance being Karl Marx

For Marx the entirety of human existence could be boiled down to an economic struggle between the haves and the have nots. Eventually the proletariat (urban poor) would rise to power and overthrow the bourgeoisie and then all would live happily (and equally) after

Under the Marxist model, societies pass through stages of development

The last stage was socialism, but that was preceded by capitalism

Radical Response to the Reforms of Alexander II

Members of the Intelligentsia saw Alexanders reforms as a fraud.

Initially their goals were not outrageousthey wanted land for the people, union and a parliamentary style government

However, as they met more fierce reaction from the tsar, they become more radicalPopulism (Narodnost) (1960s and 1870s) They had great faith in the peasants as a political force

They believed that Russia should follow a unique path to socialism by using the existing style of communal peasant living the mir They were also influenced by a strong anarchist streak believeing that the deed of violence was the ultimate expression of practical politics

Populism then split into two factions

1) Those following Lovrov who proclaimed the peaceful movement of Going to the People

2) Those following Bakunin who believed that the peasants were ready to overthrow the government

Lovrov, prevailed and the summer of 1874 was known as the Mad Summer when thousands of wealthy students left their studies to go out to the country side and prepare the people

With the failure of Going to the People, another movement emerged known as Land and Liberty, led by Chaikovtsi and Plekhanov, which saw massive demonstration organized

Out of Land and Liberty came a more radical group called The Peoples Will whose goals were:

a) Murder the Tsar

b) The violent destruction of the state

c) The redistribution of economic power on socialist lines

Their use of terror alienated the populists from the liberals and from the public at large Nonetheless, they did inspire all the revolutionaries from the 1870s onward by their challenge to Tsardom

The Social Revolutionaries (SRs)

Growing out of the populist movement were the radical ideologies of Nihilism and AnarchismLater, in the 1890s, various radical groups formed the social Revolutionary party, led by Chernov

The party gained support by recruiting from the growing urban workforce, all the while maintaining the destruction of the tyrant system as their goal

The party was riddled with internal conflict and splits between left and right elements

A) Anarchistswanted to continue in the tradition of political terror and assassination

B) Revolutionarieswho allocated a more moderate stance of cooperating with other parties in working for an immediate improvement in the condition of the workers and peasants

Between 1900 and 1905 the terrorist faction dominated and were responsible for over 2000 political assassinations

After the 1905 revolution the situation charges

The Social Democrats (Marxism) (1898)

By the 1880s, with the failure of other movements, many intellectuals began to consider Marxism.

Marxist theory received a boost in Russia in the 1890s due to the great spurt of industrialization that occurred of that time making the fullillment of a proletarian revolution seem possible

Plekhanov was one of the earliest leading figures in the Russian Marxist movement.

Like other political movements, those that followed Marxism in Russia often ended up quarrelling with each other over doctrinal issues

Some found Plekhanov too theoretical in his approach and urged more active revolutionary policies

The most outstanding spokesman for this viewpoint was Vladimir Ulyanov (AKA Lenin!!!)

Lenin promoted the idea of a small revolutionary elite to lead the masses rather than a broad grouping of progressive, reformist and anti- tsarist elements.

Russia at the Turn of the CenturyThe People

The total population was about 125 million, made up of more than 20 ethnic groups

Russians (56 million)

Poles (8 million)

Jews (5 million)

The people of the Russian Empire Lived in a highly stratified social structure which saw a great underdevelopment, of the commercial, professional and proletariat class.

Peasants remained outside of active participation in Russian citizenship.

Economics

Russia was rich in oil and minerals

By 1900 Russia had only recently begun to industrialize under Sergei Witte, Russias finance minister

Witte focused heavily on developing communications and transportation as a prerequisite to industrial growth.

By 1913, with the help of foreign investment, Russia was the worlds fifth largest industrial nation

However, considering Russias size and resources, its manufacturing, as well as agriculture output was low

The opposition to AutocracyA) Liberalism

a. Liberal minded men had continued to work through the Zemtsvo system towards making piecemeal local reforms

b. Between 1895 and1905 Russian liberalism had broadened its base to include the new industrial professional classes

c. By 1902, under the reactionary Minister of the interior, Plehve, the system of local government was eliminated and Nicholas had publicly called hopes for a constitutional parliament a senseless dream

d. However, libearals continued to meet and even formed a coherent political party called the Liberation league

B) Socialism

a. Was led primarily be empires living in Western Europe

b. Leaders and members of the various socialist groups met to organize themselves in congresses held in Western Europe

c. Out of these meetings came a split in the social Democrats

The Russo-Japanese War

Given the repressive social, political and economic situation, by the early 20th century the Russian people were ripe for radical change

Recognizing this, the government looked in deflect attention from its internal troubles as well as gain prestige by expanding its eastern frontiers in Asia. It was believed that a short, victorious war would give the Russian government back the support of the people

There had existed some tension between Russia and Japan for control of Manchuria and the Korean peninsula

Russia used this tension to justify a war with Japan which resulted in the Russo-Japanese war of 1904-1905 It took less than a year for the Japanese to soundly defeat the Russians on land and at sea

The 1905 Revolution

The poor performance in the Russo-Japanese war brought to the surface discontent that had been brewing for a time

In January a series of strikes and anti-government demonstrations occurred throughout Russia

On January 22 1905, about 200,000 unarmed workers marched to the Tsars Winter Palace in St. Petersburg to petition the Tsar fore forms aimed at achieving a better system for distribution of food and employment opportunities

This petition, written by a priest, Father Gapon, was really about social issues

Initially the protests of 1905 were not political

When the marchers neared the palace, the officers at the gate panicked and opened fire

This day became known as Bloody Sunday and was the spark that ignited the 1905 Revolution because it:

Caused many of those people who had still respected the Tsar to hate him

Increased support for revolutionaries in that they claimed (albeit illegitimately) leadership roles in the ensuing unrest1905 Revolution Continued

Started a wave of riots, strikes and murders in the empire

Caused many non-Russian areas to start to demand independence

In May 1905 news of the Baltic Fleet defeat further fueled unrest

In June there were mutinies within the navy

In October a general strike brought the nation to a standstill and the Tsar was forced to make some concessions

Political Reactions to the Chaos of 1905

As the unrest continued throughout 1905, various political groups were also establishing themselves

The Kadets (constitutional democrats)

This was the largest and most radical of the liberal parties

They wanted Russia to develop as a constitutional monarchy in which a democratically elected national assembly would restrict the powers of the Tsar This was part of the liberal intelligentsia, containing:

Progressive landlords

Smaller industrial entrepreneurs

Professionals and academics

Paul Milyukov was a prominent Kadet

The Octobrists

Were the voices of the conservatives among the liberals?

They were mainly drawn from large commercial, industrial and landowning interestsThe Soviets These workers councils were formed at the spontaneous initiative of workers in an attempt to co-ordinate strikes and other activities

Although the original goal of these soviets was to push for better working conditions, some revolutionaries quickly realized potential for political purpose

Lev Trotsky, an independent socialist sympathetic to the Mensheviks, became the leader of the St Petersburg Soviet

The Tsars Response

The government recognized that some concessions had to be made, but in giving ground, they intended to divide the oppositionA) The October Manifesto was designed to placate the liberals. It Promised:

a. The creation of a legislative Duma, elected by a wide franchise

b. Fundamental civil libertiesB) The next concession was the Peasants Manifesto which promised to:

a. Abolish the collective responsibilities of the Mir. Thus giving peasants individual ownership of land

b. Cancel all pre-existing tax debtsc. Cancel all redemption fees after January 1907

Immediately the general lawlessness and number of land seizures dropped

C) With only the proletariat left to worry about, the government changed from a position of concession to one of suppression

a. They used the troops that had returned from the far east to destroy the soviet

b. By December 1905 the soviets had all been disbanded

The Dumas, 1906-1914

I have a constitution in my head, but as to my heart, I spit on it.

-Nicholas II

The Fundamental Laws

Issued in May 1906, these laws were to be the basis for the new constitutional government

They were contradicted the October Manifesto in several ways:

By affiring that supreme autocratic power belonged to the tsar

Declaring that the Duma would have two chambers, one elected, one appointed by the Tsar

The appointed chamber would have the power of legislative veto

Declaring that the Tsar would have exclusive control over foreign affairs

Through article 87 giving the Tsar the right to rule by decree during emergencies

Although with a few broken ribs, the stardom came out of the experience of 1905 alive and strong enough.

-Trotsky

The First Duma (April- June 1906) The liberal and reformist parties who immediately voiced their dissatisfaction with the fundamental laws and demand further reforms dominated the First Duma.

The Tsar would not tolerate this and dismissed the duma after less than 3 months

During this time he also appointed Peter Stolypin as Prime Minister who dealt harshly with those calling out for revolution

The Second Duma (February- June 1907)

Saw a decrease influence of the middle (Kadets) and an increase in strength for both the left and right However, they were too critical of the government and dissolved after 3 months

Rather than eliminating the duma altogether and thus risk

a. More domestic chaos and

b. Losing international support

Stolypin introduced restrictions to the electoral system which would ensure a more docile duma

Proportional Representation1906

% of populationRepresentation in the Duma

Peasants8050

Propertied2050

1907 and onwards% of populationRepresentation in the Duma

Peasants8020

Propertied2080

Stolypin was a firm supporter of the autocracy, however, the realized that in order to save it, a large degree of reform was needed

Although his views and actions won him enemies on both sides of the spectrum, even they confessed that he was an honest, courageous and honorable man

After ensuring that the revolutionary chaos was quelled through suppression and terror, he turned to reform

Stolypins strategy was to nurture the conservative outlook amongst the peasants that would act as a counter- revolutionary force

He did this agricultural reforms which led to the further growth of a new class of wealthy peasant, the Kulaks, who were loyal to the Tsar

However, there is evidence to suggest that these reforms did not go far enough to make a real change to the social and economic structure of Russia

Stolypin was assassinated in 1911 by a SR who was also an Okhrana agent

Problems Plaguing Russia to 1914

A) Foreign Debt

a. Although Wittes policy of obtaining foreign investment and loans to expand industry helped in the short term, in the long run Russia could not cope with the payments

B) Rural Life

a. I terms of social and economic improvements, not much had happened since 1861

C) Urban Life

a. With the introduction of social insurance and trade unions after 1905, conditions did improve, but not enough to deal with the rabid urbanization

b. The harsh methods used by the government to deal with strikers increased proletarian tension

D) Political Life

a. Growing revolutionary tendencies

b. Continued political stagnation due to the reactionary views and ineptitude of the Tsar

E) Foreign Affairs

a. Russia now had WWI to fight which brought social, political and economic chaos

1906-1907

Throughout these years Russia was in constant turmoil and chaos

The peoples grievances included:

Disappointment over the limitations of the Duma

The terrible working conditions of the Proletariat

The peasants still had to pay high taxes and rents

The harsh winter of 1917 also added to the misery of the people

Rasputins influence

The effects of the WWI

It seemed as though only the tsar and those he took advice from failed to take note of the extreme distress of the Russian People

The Role Of Rasputin in the Downfall of Tsardom

Rasputin was a peasant who:

Claimed to be a holy man with supernatural powers

Was a drunker and a womanizer

Became a trusted member of the royal court

Came to have considerable power due to his strong influence over the tsar

Brought great shame and scandal on the royal family

Became the focus of much hatred on the tsarist system

On December 29, 1916, in an attempt to save the Monarchy, a group of aristocrats assassinated Rasputin

The Great War and its impact on Russia

Russia entered WWI on August 1, 1914 when Germany declared war on her

Initially the war was greeted with great enthusiasm and a sense of nationalism that united Russia

WWI impacted almost every part of Russian society, ultimately, some historians say, heading to the demise of the autocracy

Socialists and WWI

Prior to the outbreak of WWI, there was a high level of unity between socialists from different countries across Europe

The obvious socialist response to WWI would have been to:

a. Welcome it as the conflict that would usher in the utopian era (Marx)

b. Not participate, but rather prepare for the post-war era

However, in 1914 socialists internationalism collapses into hostile nationalism

Rather than seeing each other as members of the same class struggle team, many socialists saw themselves in terms of their nationality and chose to support their country rather than the socialist movement

Lenin was a rare exception. His response was Revolutionary Defeatism

He proposed that soldiers stop fighting because they were really only fighting for the ruling classes, not for the people

Defeat in WWI, according to Lenin, could mean Civil War, within countries and it was out of this chaos that worldwide socialist revolution could erupt

March (February) Revolution

7th 20,000 steel workers locked out, other workers strike in sympathy8th Thousands of women demonstrate calling for bread, bringing even more workers out to strike

9th Large crowds are repeatedly dispersed by police and soldiers

10th 250,000 workers on strike, Petrograd are paralyzed.

Tsar orders army to end strikes

11th Troops fired on crowds, killing 40.

Duma advises Tsar to form a new government

Tsar orders Duma to disband

12th Soldiers in Petrograd perform mutiny

Duma refuses to dissolve, instead it forms itself into a 12 man committee to take over the government of Russia

Now named the Provisional government Workers re-established Petrograd Soviets

13th Tsar Telegrams the Duma offering to share power, Duma refuses

Army generals telegram the Tsar informing him of the withdrawal of support from the armed forces

14th Petrograd Soviet issues order no.1 which deprives all army officers of authority, giving it instead to the elected representations of the soldier Tsar leaves army headquarters for Petrograd to take control

15th The Tsars train is stopped 250km from Petrograd by revolutionaries

Nicholas II abdicates in favor of his brother

16th Grand Duke Michael renounces the title

300 years of Romanov rule ends

The Provisional Government

Initially this body was quite liberal (center-right) in its composition, but became increasingly socialist (center-left)

The three main parties were the Kadets, and the Social Revolutionaries and Mensheviks

The Socialists parties became frustrated, and thus more open to radical ideas, with what seemed like the governments lack of action

The Provisional Government main concerns were:

1) To continue the war

2) To set up a western-style parliamentary government

3) Land Reforms

However to continue the war was inevitable as during this time Russias economy relies on their allies loans and if they were to surrender they must pay reparations

Also, the chaos of the war prevented for a proper election to take place, thus there wasnt a chance to set up a western-style parliamentary government

Finally, land reforms could not be made because of large population of the country out in war

The Provisional Government under attack

With the governments determination to continue the war, it was decided that a major offensive against Austria was needed

The June Offensive was a miserable failure and sparked significant unrest

This grew into the July days which saw Petrograd workers, soldiers and sailors rioting to have the soviets be given the role of becoming the government

The Bolsheviks played a significant role in these riots

On July 8, the provisional government appointed Alexander Kerensky as its new prime minister in the hope that he could quell the riots

Kerensky was a logical choice to try to unite the ever more left wing government because he had been

A member of the Duma (made him acceptable to liberals)

Minister of Justice in the provisional government

Minister of war in the provisional government

A socialist revolutionary

However, neither the right, nor the extreme left (Bolsheviks) found him acceptable

In July, Kerensky was successful in putting down the riots by labeling the Bolsheviks as German Collaborators

This was so because Lenin used German railways to reach Russia and received money from the German government for Bolshevik growth

The military was also used to arrest and harass the leaders of the demonstration

However, General Kornilov, commander in-chief of the army wanted even more counter revolutionary actions

Kerensky knew that this would bring the Provisional Government into a potential war situation with the Petrograd Soviet, and therefore did not agree with Kornilov

As a consequence, in August Kronilov tried to mount a military attack against the Soviet and the provisional government which was known as the Kornilov Revolt

Kerenskys only option was to use the leftists to defend Petrograd, which resulted in:a. Using agitators to destroy the loyalty of Kornilovs soldiers

b. Using workers to deny Kornilov use of the railways and telegraphs

c. Releasing Bolsheviks that had been jailed in July

d. Arming the Petrograd Soviet, including the Bolshevik Red Guards

Petrograd Soviet

Initially the Petrograd Soviet established itself as the supervisors of the Provisional Government to ensure that the interests of the soldiers and workers were guarded

However, the Petrograd Soviet gained in importance because The Provisional Government often times failed to take action

New Soviets were springing up in other cities and looked to Petrograd for leadership

Soviet Order Number 1

Initially moderate socialists had a bigger influence on the Petrograd Soviet, however as the year wore on it became more radical, eventually being taken over by the Bolsheviks

The Bolsheviks Takeover the Soviets

After the abdication of Nicholas II, Bolsheviks in exile returned to Petrograd

Prior to the return of Lenin, The Bolsheviks were willing to work with other socialists groups

When Lenin arrived back in April, he declared that the March Revolution had created a bourgeois republic and called for the overthrow of the Provisional Government

Lenin planned to use the Soviets as the tool through which the Bolsheviks would take over the state

However, his April Theses succeeded only in isolating the Bolsheviks from other Socialist groups

The non-Bolshevik members of the Soviet decided instead to work with the Provisional Government- which had the unfortunate effect of connecting them to the failures of the provisional government

This, along with the increasing radicalization of the masses, made the Bolsheviks more popular

The Bolsheviks also had the advantage of German Funding with which to produce propaganda and build an army of their own- Red Guard

Although the Bolsheviks suffered a setback during the July days, they capitalized on the situation in August after the Kornilov Revolt

By early September, the Bolsheviks had become the majority in most of the Soviets and began making plans for the takeover of the state

The Collapse of the Provisional Government / (The October/November/Bolshevik Revolt)

The Bolsheviks did not seize power, it fell into their hands

-Lynch

Was November 1917 a coup by the Bolsheviks, or an abdication by the Provisional Government? Since the March Revolution, Lenins unswerving aim was to overthrow the Provisional Government and seize power

By September he was calling for an immediate seizure

He felt this urgency because:

1) There was an all-Russian Congress of Soviets planned for early November

a. There was no guarantee that this meeting would result in support for a revolution, so Lenin wanted to take over power before the meeting

2) The Constituent Assembly was to be elected in November and again, there were no guarantees of Bolshevik electoral success

3) Lenin feared another, potentially successful counter-revolutionary attack

4) After the Kornilov Revolt, Bolshevik popularity was at an all-time high, and Lenin wanted to capitalize this

However, Lenin had to work hard to convince the Bolshevik control committee that an immediate attack was wise Kerensky suspected that a Bolshevik attack was imminent and began to act against the Bolsheviks on November 6

Lenin took this as the cue to begin the revolution

The groundwork had already been laid by Trotsky through the formation of the Red Guards and the Military Revolutionary Committee (MRC)

Red Guards Combat forces of the Bolshevik Party- initially made up of fairly elderly men recruited from the workers in the factoriesMilitary Revolutionary Committee Set up by the Petrograd Soviet in late October to organize the defense of Petrograd against the Germans or another reactionary attack

It was the only effective military force in Petrograd and Trotsky controlled it.

On the night of November 6/7 the Red Guards and the MRC secured strategic locations throughout Petrograd and were able to announce at the meeting of the All Russian Congress of Soviets that the Revolution was complete

The Bolsheviks Get Organized

At the All Russian Congress of Soviet, the Bolsheviks announced the structure of their new government

The Sovnarkom would consist of 14 commissars all of whom were Bolsheviks, and Lenin was the chairman

The Mensheviks and the Right Social Revolutionaries did not agree with this and walked out of the meeting in protest

At these meetings Lenin also declared that there would be peace and land

The Bolsheviks Early Struggles

After the defeat of the Provisional Government, the Bolsheviks initial opposition came from the left- the Mensheviks, Kadets and Social Revolutionaries

The Treaty of Brest- Litovsk, March 1918

Central Powers Germany, Austria-Hungary, Ottoman Empire, Bulgaria

Armistice an agreement to stop fighting so that a peace treaty can be made

The Bolsheviks asked the central powers for an armistice in early December

However, the German demands were very high and this caused further confusion and division among the left in Russia, even among Bolsheviks

Bukarin argued that they should fighting and that would encourage the outbreak of a workers revolution in Germany The Bolsheviks continued the debate about whether to make peace or not, hoping that revolution would break out in the rest of Europe

Meanwhile, the Germans resumed hostilities against Russia, and by February 1918 they had occupied the Ukraine and were even threatening Petrograd

Therefore, on March 3, 1918, the treaty of Brest-Litvosk was signed with very high cost for the Bolsheviks:

a) They lost; Poland, Finland, Estonia, Lithuania and parts of the Ukraine

b) Humiliation

c) The support of many Russians, especially the Social Revolution whose base of support was in the Ukraine

However this enabled them to:

a) Keep the armys support

b) End hardship at home

c) Give their new government a bit of breathing space

The Formation of the Cheka

Formed on December 20, 1917 On August 30, 1918, Fanny Kaplan, a Right SR assassin, seriously wounds Lenin with 3 pistol shots

On the same day, another SR assassin kills M.S. Uritsky, President of the Petrograd Cheka Other attempts were made against Trotsky, V. Volodarsky and Bakharin

With tensions rising inside Russia, the Bolsheviks felt it necessary to from a body to combat counterrevolution and sabotage

With this group, the main instrument of Bolshevik repression, the revolution entered a period known as the Red Terror.

Felix Dzerzhinsky was the director of the Cheka during these early years. The Cheka was responsible for the assassination of the Tsar and his family on July 16, 1918.

The Russian Civil War, 1918-1921

Foreign Reaction to Bolshevism in Russia:

Frustration and anger from the allies that Russia dropped out of the war Anger from foreign investors, especially the French, that all foreign debts incurred by the Tsarist government were now void

Fear from all capitalist governments that there would be a spreading of the revolution to the rest of Europe.

Foreign Actions toward the Bolsheviks: Various countries gave support to Russian forces fighting against the Bolsheviks

The new Russia was excluded from the League of nations

At the Paris Peace Conference in 1919, the boundaries of the new Russian state were revised

The peacemakers decided to build a dam against the spread of Communism This was known as the cordon sanitaire and included Finland, Estonia, Latvia, Lithuania, Poland and Romania

The newly recreated Poland declared war on the Bolsheviks in an attempt to gain the Ukraine in 1920

Domestic Reactions to Bolshevism:

Mass exodus of people not wishing to live under Communism

Counter-Revolutionary White movements:

An All-Russian government in Siberia which came to be dominated by admiral Kolchak, a strong reactionary

The formation of a Volunteer Army in southern Russia under Generals Kornilov and Denikin

In Moscow and Petrograd Social Revolutionaries took up arms against the Bolsheviks

Independence Movements: Ukrainian peasants called Greens fought both the Reds and the Whites for Ukrainian independence.

Regions such as the Caucasus, Georgia, Armenia and Azerbaijan tried to get their independence. There was a short lived attempt at Siberian independence.

The anti-Communist Russians represented every hue of the political spectrum

During this time, the left wing were filled with the Mensheviks and SRs, the right wing were filled with white reactionaries such as Kornilov and on the middle there are anti-Bolsheviks as well such as the Kadets.

From the radical Mensheviks to the liberal Kadets and all the way to the reactionary Whites, the political spectrum was filled with anti-Bolshevik groups.

The allies were using White generals like dogs to take down the BolsheviksBolshevik Victory

Reasons for:

A. They had gained popular support because of their reforms, whereas the Whites had lost support because:

a. They could be associated with the Tsar, landlords and foreign intervention

b. The harsh treatment of the people in the lands that they had captured

B. Trotsky and his outstanding military leadership of the Red Army.

C. The Reds held a strategic location:a. Moscow and Petrograd with their factories

b. The railways allowed them to quickly move their supplies and troops

c. Their area held the majority of the population

D. The Cheka was effectively used to hunt down people who sympathized with the Whites and to force the peasants to hand food over to the government

E. The Bolsheviks were united in fighting for a single purpose and for their very survival

a. They had strong leadership with Lenin and Trotsky

b. The Whites lacked unity in purpose and central leadership

F. War communism kept the Red Army supplied with food and weapons. It involved:

a. Nationalization of all factories with more than 10 workers. Sovnarkom decided what each factory would produce.

b. Tight military type control over all workers.

i. Labor conscription was introduced (cant choose your own job)

ii. These measures caused discontent among the workers and a fall in industrial output

c. Peasants were forced to give all surplus food to the state with no opportunity to make profit (requisitioning). This caused:

i. Food shortages in 1919-1920

ii. Full scale famine by 1921 which was made worse by bad weather and disease

d. Food clothing and fuel rationing was introduced in the cities

e. As the money lost value due to overprinting, many formerly cash payments such as rent, fares, etc. were abolished

In some instances people were expected to barter for their goods instead of using money

Results of the Civil War:

1. The survival of Bolshevik rule

2. The extension of Bolshevik rule over a wider area

3. Huge loss of life

4. The permanent Soviet fear that the capitalist powers would seek to destroy the Bolshevik state5. Famine, industrial collapse and the New Economic Policy

Global Impact

1. Colonial independence movements began to see an ally in the BolsheviksWhy did Lenin place so much emphasis on trying to get colonies to rise up against their European colonizers?1. Colonies were prone to propaganda because they were unhappy

2. European countries would be weaker without the resources coming from the colonies

Communist state By 1922 the communist party was the only legal political party in the USSR (Bolsheviks = communist party now)

Communist party members became the favored class in the USSR

Within the party, Lenin had banned all opposition groups (ban on factionalism)

Although the government appeared to represent the will of the people as expressed through their Soviets, in reality Soviet Russia had become a one party state ruled by a dictator

Under the new constitution of 1923, Russia became the Union of Soviet Socialist Republics (USSR)

Autonomy was given to the republics in:

Cultural issues such as use of language, education and folkways

The administration of justice

The organization of agriculture

Federal authority was retained over:

Foreign policy

International trade

Defense

Economic planning

The New Economic Policy (NEP)

By 1921 it was apparent that the Russian proletariat was opposed to the dictatorship of the proletariat as can be confirmed by the

Large scale anarchist revolts of 1920-1922

The Kronstadt mutiny of March 1921

Lenin realized that he would need to make some drastic changes to save his government

His NEP represented a temporary return to a capitalist economy with the main goals to:

Improve agricultural productivity

Overcome the famine

When recovery was assured, all would revert back to state control

Highlights:

Grain requisitioning was replaced by a tax, but only on about half the amount that had been previously requisitioned, AND any surplus could be freely sold for profit.

An agrarian reform law ensured that small landowners (not the peasants) would keep their land; therefore the peasants remained dispossessed wage earners, while the landowners (Kulaks) gained in wealth.

Small factories were turned back over to capitalists who were known as NEPmen or neo-bourgeois. (Larger industries remained in state hands.) A limited amount of private commerce with foreigners was allowed

The government made several trade agreements with other countries under the NEP.

The impact of the NEPAlthough there were some improvements in agricultural production, there were still some major problems:

The increased production caused a fall in the price of agricultural goods which combined with increased prices for manufactured goods resulting in the Scissors Crisis with the peasants being very disgruntled.

The free operation of the market system in agriculture was not ideologically sound for many party members.

Growth in industry:

Iron production increased

Coal and textile production doubled

Transport and communications showed slow improvement

A money system was reintroduced

The state tightened its control over banking, transport, foreign trade and large-scale domestic industries. In order for a Marxist system to succeed, production levels and distribution networks must be sufficient to meet the needs of all people before the move to collective or cooperative ownership can take place. Under the NEP these improvements were taking place, but because the system was essentially capitalist, it was also creating a mentality which would resist collective or cooperative ownership

This meant that in order for a move to collective or cooperative ownership to take place, force and coercion would need to be used

Why do art and literature exist?

Expression of creative essence of the human soul (God) People who have nothing better to do. Enrich cultural heritage. Its inherent human nature. Fulfill our artistic needs. Propaganda.

To express feelings and emotions Communication Entertainment To hyperbolize everything.

What do you think of the notion that artistic expression had to serve the state? You cant censor spirit; you cant censor love.

Religion

Respond to Marxs claim that religion is the opium of the people and that it only existed in order to deaden the pain of life. Lenin tried to eradicate religion. He was not ultimately successful. Why do you think that is?

Humans have an innate need to place their faith in something bigger than themselves (Religion: God. Atheism: humanity)Women and Family

Love is a bourgeois concept based on a false view of the relations between the sexes and between parents and children.

The state should be responsible for the raising of children.

The Power Vacuum Lenin Left by Lenin Lenins death left a vacuum in the leadership of the Communist Party

Possible successors included:

Zinoviev

One of Lenins earliest Bolshevik comrades

Leader of the Petrograd Soviet

First president of the Comintern and member of Politburo

Kamenev

Early Bolshevik who spent time in exile in Siberia

More moderates than others in that he was willing to work with other socialist parties

Trotsky

Early Menshevik, didnt switch to Bolshevism until May 1917

Chairman of the ST Petersburg soviet during the 1905 revolution and the Petrograd Soviet in 1917

Organized the MRC which was the force behind the October revolution

Became Lenins commissar of foreign affairs responsible for taking Russia out of the war

Became Commissar for war and organized the Red Army to fight the civil war

Member of the Politburo

1924-1929 The Power StruggleUltimately Stalin was successful in becoming the absolute dictator of the USSR through: Behind the scenes maneuverings as General Secretary

Manipulating factions within the upper levels of the party

Eliminating all possible opposition, both within and outside of the party

Factions and issues

1922-1924

Stalin working to fill the party at all levels with his supporters

1924

Lenin died, his testament revealed that he wanted Stalin removed as General Secretary

Stalin formed a triumvirate with Kamenev and Zinoviev against Trotsky

They agreed to suppress Lenins testament and quickly establish the Cult of Lenin

Stalin moved all Trotskyites in the Party to posts far from Moscow

Trotsky was calling for:

Party reform

Continued World Revolution

Rapid industrialization

An end to the NEP

Stalin supported NEP and Socialism in one country

1925

Trotsky was forced to resign as Minister of War

The triumvirate fell apart

Stalin joined with Bukharin and other right-wing members of the Politburo who wished to continue with the NEP and a gradual shift to industrialization

1926

Stalin attacked Zinoviev and Kamenev on matters of policy, so they joined forces with Trotsky

Zinoviev was expelled from the Politburo and Comintern Trotsky and Kamenev were expelled from Politburo

1927

Trotsky was expelled from the Party and exiled in Central Asia

1928

Stalin turned on Bukharin and had him removed from the Politburo, Pravda and the Comintern

Stalin ended the NEP, moved towards rapid industrialization and began the campaign against the Kulaks1929

Trotsky was expelled from Russia

Stalin was in supreme control

Stalins rise to power in the Soviet Union was more a matter of luck than of ability.

The Elimination of Dissent

Stalin realized his methods and policies were bound to bring criticism and dissention, two things he could not tolerate

Therefore, he set out to systematically remove any threat to himself- real or imagined

This became a campaign of terror known as the great purges that reached their climax in 1936-38

The murder and subsequent show trials for the murder of Kirov in 1934 began this period Millions of Soviet citizens were executed or sent to the prison camps (Gulags) of which the secret police were the administrators

The Party 70% of those in the 1934 Central Committee were executed in the next 5 years

Ordinary delegates: 1,108 of 1,966 were arrested or executed in the next 5 years

The purges also decimated the command of all parts of the military

A KGB report to the Politburo in 1960 said that between Jan. 1935 and Dec. 1941, 19.8 million people were arrested of whom seven million were shot

The purges were successful in crushing all opposition to Stalin and producing a climate of fear and suspicion in which any criticism of the regime was impossible.

Styles of Government

Nicholas II- autocracy

Provisional government democracy

LenincommunismStalin communismThe Great Terror

The historiographical controversies

State versus societal control over the terror

How planned was the terror

Number of victims

Byproduct of Marxist-Leninism? Or a unique product of the time?

What purpose does it serve?

The Totalitarian model

Stalins terror was rooted in Lenins Bolshevik past

The terror was intentionally initiated by Stalin to further his own agenda:

Eliminating rivals

Consolidating his dictatorship

Modernizing the USSR

The terror was a smooth running operation

Leading historians: Conquest, tucker, pipes.

Revisionism: the Conflict School

Rather than Stalin at the apex of the totalitarian pyramid, there were opposing groups and key figures within the Party.

This is still a top down model.

Leading historians: Cohen, Getty

Revisionism: the Social Model

The masses played the greatest role in shaping Soviet history.

While Stalin initiated change, the regime only had limited control over the outcome of their plans.

The terror provided the peasantry the opportunity to settle old scores, assign blame for disasters and further their own ambitions.

Socialism in One Country Goal:

To transform the USSR into a highly industrialized state, able to compete with more advanced countries and of putting up a good fight against aggression by capitalist nations. Method:

The use of economic plans, which encompassed all fields of economic activity in all parts of the country. These came to be called the five year plans and were begun in 1928

Before Soviet industry could be transformed, Stalin had to ensure the success of Soviet agriculture in order to:

a) Feed the increasing number of urban industrial workers

b) Produce surplus for export in order to generate foreign currency needed for investment into industry

Collective Farms would be the vehicle through which agriculture would be transformed because:

a) It would facilitate the use of modern methods and machines

b) There would be a surplus of labor that could move to the heavy industriesc) Collectivization would strengthen the grip of the government on rural life

d) Ideologically it fit with communism as it would end the ownership of private property and the inequality of incomes

The Kulaks resisted collectivization fiercely.

The government responded by eliminating the kulaks as a class. They used the poorer peasants, the police and the military in this class warfare.

Kolkhoz The first and most common collective farms, which came under, the state plans

In addition to the vast collective fields, farmers were allowed small private lots to farm for their own use There was an obligation to provide the state with a fixed quota of produce per year in order to receive payment for work

Sovkhoz

State farms where peasants were hired as workers of the state

They were paid wages regardless of the harvest; however, all produce went to the state

They had to use their wages to buy food and other necessities

The break with the NEP was a preemptive strike of the central party-state apparatusSoviet society and Culture under Stalin: The reversal of radicalism (compared to under Lenin)

1. Education

2. Egalitarianism

3. Women and the family

4. Legal matters

5. Religion

6. Art and literature

7. HealthTraditional View

Stalin controlled his political system and exerted ruthlessness. Through this he had a successful and effective regime. His agriculture policies caused problems but his industrial policies were effective. Revised View

Although his crimes were unjustified. He is now viewed in a more realistic manner other than a mass murderer dictator. The central power had no control over the scattering of local authorities and therefore the result has often failed or blown out of proportion. European Diplomacy and The First World War (1870-1919)

Post Napeleonic Europe

Forces Shaping European Politics:

Conservatism or Reaction

Liberalism

Nationalism

The Peace of Vienna Once they had defeated Napoleon, the major European powers were determined to restore order, keep peace and squelch the ideals of the Revolution.

To decide on the best way to do this, they came together in a meeting called the Congress of Vienna in 1815.

Main figures at the Vienna Congress:

Metternich of Austria

Castlereagh of Britain

Alexander I of Russia

Hardenberg of Prussia

Talleyrand of France

Principles of the Congress of Vienna1. Legitimacy

All former ruling families should be restored to their thrones

2. Containment

The map of Europe was redrawn to ring France with stronger countries

3. Compensation

This principle ensured that countries that had suffered loss of land under Napoleon would be compensated and that no important power suffered a loss as a result of the Congress work

4. The restoration of the Balance of Power in Europe

The distribution of military and economic power that prevents any one nation from becoming too strongHighlights from the Congress of Vienna:

There was no great, long lasting war in Europe for the next 100 years

Nationalist groups in Italy and Poland were frustrated by the fact that they were placed under hated foreign rule

Nationalist groups in Austria were frustrated because they were denied self-government

The German desire for national unity came closer to fulfillment

Britain was recognized as the strongest European imperial nation

Both Prussia and Russia gained in influence further west in Europe

The Great Powers agreed to hold future congresses to review the political situation and enforce the peaceThe Peace of Settlements of 1814-1815 Reading Summary:

Possession of colonial islands

Peace in Europe for 100 years.

Poland

Territory problems

Nationalism and Liberalism was thwarted

Prussia and Russia shifted powers westwardsThe Concert of Europe

After the Congress of Vienna ended in June of 1815, the major participants wanted to ensure that the Balance of Power they so carefully established would last

So in November 1815 the four members of the Grand Alliance came together to form the Quadruple Alliance. (Later, in 1818, France joined and it was called the Quintuple Alliance.)

Through this Alliance System they hoped to work together, by meeting periodically, to avoid major wars and to suppress any emerging nationalism and/or liberalism.

This Alliance System came to be called The Concert of Europe and Metternich was the driving force behind it This was a forerunner of the more modern international organizations dedicated to maintaining peace.

The Long Term Causes of WWI

1. Nationalism The general atmosphere nurtured through new means of communication:

The increase in literacy and mass printing techniques caused newspapers and magazines to be widely read

The often promoted nationalistic stories

Examples of aggressive nationalism:

A. Germany, under the leadership of Otto von Bismarck, had fought a series of wars aimed to unify the German states:

a. 1864 defeated Denmark

b. 1866 defeated Austria

c. 1871 defeated France

The German Empire came into being in 1871.

Germany was very proud of its new position and was looking to extend its power and territory.

In 1980 Bismarck was forced to resign by the new German Kaiser, Wilhelm II.

Kaiser Wilhelm set the German empire on a New Course (nueu Kurs) in terms of a more aggressive foreign policy then what Bismarck had been building.

B. The French were still bitter about losses from the 1870-71 Franco-Prussian War and wanted revenge for the loss of Alsace-Lorraine

C. Pan-Slavism

a. As the largest Slavic country, Russia felt a duty to lead and defend all Slavs.

2. Economic and Imperial Rivalries

Most European countries felt threatened by Germanys rapid economic growthGermanyFrance

65 million population40 million population

18 million tons of steel5 million tons of steel

190 million tons of coal40 million tons of coal

Italy (unified in the 1860s) and Germany wanted to catch-up with the other Great Powers to become World Powers. Imperial rivalry in Asia between Russia and Japanese had brought the first war between major powers since the 1870s in the form of the Russo-Japanese War of 1904-05.3. Militarism and the Arms Race

Militarism is a situation in which a nations military has too much influence on its politics.

How does a country come to the point where its military has too much influence?

a) Which part of the population supports a big military? Weapons manufacturers. They make money by selling weapons thus they are rich thus they have a lot of say in politics. Of Prussia it was said: other states have an army, in Prussia, the army has a state. Junkers b) Also, weapons manufacturing was good for the countries economy. Look at page 44 of Pope and read all the info regarding Source F The rise of militarism grew partly out of the ideas of Social Darwinism and the survival of the fittest. (The strong got what they wanted as shown by Prussia against Denmark, Austria and France, and Italy in losing in its African imperialist attempts.)

As international rivalries intensified, each country believed that they needed to keep their armed forces stronger than any potential enemy. This led to:

Conscription, compulsory military service An arms race Look at military spending figures on page 20 of Pope Look at chart on page 20-21 of Pope

From a British cartoon at the time:We must build a bigger navy than the enemy will build when he hears were building a bigger navy than hes building.

The arms race was encouraged by the new technologies of the Second Industrial Revolution (Alfred Noble explosives technology applied to small caliber weapons, especially machine guns and heavy long-range artillery, new iron-clad ships, and railways essential for mobilization)

The fiercest competition was the naval rivalry between Britain and Germany. Germanys strength, under Bismarck, lay in its army. Bismarck had wanted Germany and Britain to be friends A land rat has no quarrel with a water rat, but the Kaiser didnt like the fact that Britain was so much stronger navally and also saw a strong navy as a means to acquire more colonies.Look at pages 40-41 Source B info. And pages 42-43 Source D. In 1906 Britain launched a new kind of super-battleship called the H.M.S. Dreadnought which became the standard for all battleships of this era

Soon Germany was producing Dreadnoughts of their own and the race was on. (When the war broke out in 1914 Britain had 28 and Germany had 18, although the quality of the Germany ships were slightly better.

Kaiser William II boasted:All the long years of my reign, my colleagues, the monarchs of Europe, have not paid attention to what I have to say. Soon, with my great navy to endorse my words, they will be more respectful.

Fear of war gave military leaders more influence with governments turning to the generals and admirals for advice on matters of peace and war.

The overall effect of militarism is that it increased the tensions between the Great Powers and led to a cyclical process that was difficult to stop.

4. The Entangling Alliances (By the 1870 the Metternich system, of Balance of Power was in serious danger because of the emergence of Italy and Germany. Nations of Europe began to deal with this new political situation by forming alliances. They were acting in pride, competition, revenge and fear of each other.)

By 1907 the alliance system threatened the peace because it divided Europe into two armed camps. (Triple Alliance & Triple Entente)(The process by which this came to be began in 1870 with the creation of Italy and Germany and the defeat of France in the Franco-Prussian war.)

Pre-War Crises Short-Term CausesA. Morocco, 1905

Germany vs. FranceBackground:

In 1904, with the formation of the Anglo-French Entente the British recognized French interests in Morocco. Although the Germans themselves had no interest in Morocco, they saw an opportunity to use Morocco as a tool to split up the new entente. Would Britain really support France?The Crisis:

In March 1905 Kaiser Wilhelm on a visit to Tangier declared that he was in favor of a fully independent Morocco and called for an international conference to discuss the future of Morocco. Although the French Foreign Minister, Delcass, opposed the meeting, the Germans were able to force it to go ahead, scoring a diplomatic victory. At the meeting (January 1906), however, while Moroccan independence was affirmed, France was given control over the Moroccan police and state bank.Impact:

Germany, not France was isolated diplomatically. The Entente was strengthened. British suspicions of Germany increased which: a. Led to closer military conversations between Britain and Franceb. Led to an entente between Britain and RussiaB. Bosnia-Herzegovina, 1908-09 (first Balkan Crisis)

(Russia vs Germany and Austria-Hungary; Austria-Hungary vs Serbia)Background:

Bosnia-Herzegovina was mainly populated by Serbs but had been occupied by Austria since the Congress of Berlin 1878.

There was a Turkish revolt in 1908 and Austria used this excuse to annex Bosnia-Herzegovina from the Ottoman Empire. Wheeling and dealing by the Austrians to beat Russia in their own gamethey were each looking for concessions in the Balkans and Russia walked away with not.

Russia had by this time turned their attention back towards Europe, especially the Balkans after their sound defeat in the Russo-Japanese War.

The Crisis:

The Serbs also wanted to claim Bosnia and were backed by the Russians to the point of war.

Russia was forced to back down because Germany offered military support to Austria and Russia was at that time too weak to go against Germany and Austria. (A strategy Germany tried again in 1914.

Impact:

Russia lost face and some Serbs started to doubt Russias commitment to them.

The Serbs continue to claim Bosnia and their hatred of Austria grows.

The rift between Germany and Russia grows.

In an attempt to weaken Austrian influence, Russia encourages formation of the Balkan League. (Dedicated to uniting Slavs in the Balkans)

C. Morocco, 1911 (Agadir Crisis) Germany vs. France - supported by Britain

Background:

The Sultan of Morocco was having problems with rebels.

France sent their army in to occupy Morocco and stop revolts.

The Crisis:

Germany protested and sent gun boat (Panther) to Agadir for a show of strength. (Supposedly to protect German commercial interests.)

Britain supported France and both countries prepared to go to war, but Germany backed off in return for concessions in central Africa. (They didnt get much because Britain was so keen on helping the French in order to make sure that Gibraltar didnt fall into German hands.)

Impact: Diplomatic defeat for Germany and further sensitized Britain and France to the German threat.

France given freedom to act in Morocco.

D. First Balkan War, 1912-13

Serbia, Bulgaria, Montenegro, Greece (The Balkan League) vs. Ottoman Empire

Background:

Serbia was looking for a port on the Adriatic coast Russia supported this, Austria didnt

The Balkan states decided to attack the Ottoman Empire while they were at war with Italy.

Crisis:

Britain and Germany were able to restrain their alliance/entente partners, thus the war stayed localized.

Impact:

Balkan League drives the Ottoman Empire out of the Balkans.

The Balkan states could not decide how to divide up the land they conquered and this led to war amongst them.

E. The Second Balkan War, 1913

Serbia, Greece, Romania, Ottoman Empire vs. Bulgaria.

Background:

Following the First Balkan War, Bulgaria claimed more territory (Macedonia) than the Serbians were willing to let them have.

Both Greece and Serbia want Albania.Crisis:

Serbia, Greece and Ottoman Empire attacked Bulgaria

Russia supported Serbias claim to Albania.

Austria wouldnt allow Serbia to grow in strength by taking Albania.

Impact:

Independent nation of Albania is formed

Serbian nationalism is thwarted and thus fanned

Russia looks weak because they backed down from Austria again. (The Balkan Slavs are really starting to lose confidence in Russia)

Serbia did enlarge its territory and power which becomes a big threat to Austria

The Turks asked for help from the Germans to reorganize their military, thus allowing the Germans to greatly increase their influence in the Ottoman Empire

F. Berlin to Baghdad Railway

There was another factor behind all the tension in the Balkans, and that was the fact that Germany had hopes of dominating the region through their influence with the Ottomans.

Therefore it was in Germanys best interest to prop up the Ottoman Empire instead of letting Austria and Russia basically divide up the Balkans.

G. Assassination at Sarajevo, 1914

(The July Crisis)

Serbian Nationalism vs. Austria; Austria and Germany vs. Serbia and Russia

Background:

Serbia resented the fact that Bosnia had gone to Austria. They, and many Slavs within Bosnia wanted to join Serbia to form a larger Slavic nation. These people were willing to fight Austria for it.

Within Bosnia there was an underground group called the Black Hand whose goal was to unite Serbs living under Austrian and Turkish control

Austria was trying to stamp out this Slavic nationalism before it led to the disintegration of the Empire

Russia realized that if it abandoned its Balkan Slavic brothers again she would lose all influence in that region

Archduke Francis Ferdinand was the heir to the Austrian throne

The Crisis:

After several unsuccessful assassination attempts, the Archduke and his wife were shot by Gavrilo Princip, a member of the Black Hand. (June 28,1914)

Austria were furious and asked the Germans where they stood on this issue

The Kaiser gave the Austrians a Blank Cheque

Austria issued an ultimatum to Serbia (July 23) which would effectively mean the end of Serbian sovereignty

Russia pledged its support for the Serbs and the Serbs put their trust in Russia.

Impact:

World War OneH. Mobilizations and Military Timetables

Technology, especially industrial and military infrastructure played an important role in the outbreak of hostilities in 1914 Moving all the men and equipment to the fronts required the redirecting of all transportation and support facilities for this purpose

This required a highly planned and coordinated effort and therefore came under the leadership of the military generals who were generally bellicose in every country.

Due to the size of the Russian Empire, as well as her relative industrial backwardness, and the fact that she faced two potential enemies on her borders, they had more difficulties when planning their mobilizations.

Once an army was mobilized it was particularly difficult to change those directions midstream

If a nation was mobilizing against you on your borders you had to react because if you didnt they would have the offensive advantage if war was declared.

Tribunal

Pope 55, 80, 33

Lowe 101, 113Martel 95

Russias Balkan Policy, Pan-Slavism

Serbia involvement with Black Hand, wrong to want all Serbian people Serbia embarked on a policy of instilling revolutionary ideas into the Serb subjects of the Austro-Hungarian Monarchy

Serbian press stir up their readers to hatred or contempt towards Austria-Hungary

Large number of agents are employed in carrying on by every means the agitation against Austria-Hungary

Decision for ultimatum: Take new and urgent steps at Belgrade with a view to inducing the Serbian Government to stop the incendiary movement that is threatening the security and integrity of the Austro-Hungarian Monarchy.

Why did the Austrians attempt to eliminate Serbia as a sovereign state?Serbia was a threat to the Austro-Hungarian Empire because they were an expansionist force in the Balkans and they were sparking revolutionary ideas to the already crumbling Austro-Hungarian Empire. Serbia also agitated Austria-Hungary by assassinating the heir to the throne, Archduke Franz Ferdinand.

Why did Russia decide to risk war by mobilizing in support of Serbia?Russia was losing grip on their influence in the Balkans as in previous affairs they have failed to help their Slav brothers. Russia also had a firm idea of Pan-Slavism; they were obliged to help their Slav brothers, Serbia. Russia wanted and needed the Balkans for access to the Bosporus and Dardanelles; therefore they could not risk losing influence in the Balkans. Nicholas II hoped to improve the nationalism in Russia. Germanys actions surrounding the assassination also influenced Russias decision to mobilize in support of Serbia.How did the Germans become involved in a dispute that apparently had little to do with them?Germany was growing rapidly and they wanted to expand. Beginning with the unification of Germany, they wanted to show the world their strength. They began to want colonies in order to become super world powers. Germanys expansion motives (Weltpolitik) led to them become involved in the dispute. They were also under alliance with Austria-Hungary and they were obliged to support Austria-Hungary. Russia was threatening Germany with their economic potential and Germany wanted to finish off Russia sooner rather later. They were also hoping that Britain would not get involved in this affair.Why did the French decide to mobilize their troops when war broke out in the east?The French were furious after the Franco-Prussian War as they lost Alsace-Lorraine. Thus, they mobilized at the opportunity for revenge and to reclaim Alsace-Lorraine. France also had an obligation as they were under alliance with Russia.

Why did the British choose to go to war for the sake of Belgium? Or did they?The British had an obligation to protect Belgium in a treaty they signed. As Germany invaded neutral Belgium, they had to come in the aid of their allies. Another more likely reason is that the British were scared that if Germany claimed France, they would have access to the English Channels. Britain also wanted to maintain the balance of power, as they were scared of Germanys expansionist force.What happened to the Italians?The Italians backed off the Triple Alliance after stating that their Alliance was defensive, thus they were not bound to the Alliance. The Italians then observed the war and decided to enter the Entente side, which seemed to be winning.

Is it not true that the war within Europe was really a contest to see who would be master outside it?Partly. It added to the tension; Moroccan crisis. Other factors contributed more to the war.Beliefs and Attitudes about War in 1914 Although unpleasant and dangerous, war was a legitimate instrument of politics. A war would be short, lasting only a few weeks or months and decided in a few great battles

Some leaders saw in war the potential to unite their populations and take the focus off of their own internal problems. (Austria-Hungary and Russia)

Many saw war as the vehicle through which a new social order could be established and thus it was highly desirable and exciting. (Socialists/Communists)

The Outbreak of the War in the West

The Schlieffen Plan

The underlying rationale as that at some point Germany would face a war on two fronts, against France and Russia. It was designed to quickly knock out France and then fight Russia at a slower pace. It was designed to avoid attacking the heavily wooded and mountainous parts of Eastern France (Ardennes Forest) Rather they would attack through Belgium, Netherlands and Luxembourg using a very strong right-wing to encircle ParisReasons for Failure:

1. The plan was revised before 1914 by Colonel von Moltke because he feared the French offensive Plan 17 (to take back Alsace-Lorraine) would threaten German communications

Changes:

Made the left-wing stronger

Did not pass through the Netherlands or Luxembourg which created a bottleneck in Belgium

2. There was too little attention paid to:

Over-extended supply lines

Inadequate communication systems

Impact of battle

3. It underestimated:

The strength of Belgian resistance

The speed of Russian mobilization

Britains entry into the war.

The Germans never got past the Marne River in their attempt to take Paris.

After the German defeat at the Battle of the Marne, the Western Front became a race to the sea to see who would control the ports that were vital for the Ententes military supplies.

Once on the coast, both armies dug in and what had been a war of mobilization came to a grinding halt with both armies hiding behind a great line of trenches stretching from the English Channel to Switzerland.

For the next four years this line remained largely unchanged despite many unsuccessful attempts by each side to break through.

The Changing Nature of WarfareA. Old Ideas versus New Technology

19th Century Warfare:

Infantry attacks with men standing should to shoulder armed with muskets or early rifles

Cavalry charges providing the decisive breakthroughs

Cannons

Battles lasting days with wars finished in weeks/months

20th Century Technology:

Rifles that could shoot a round every 3-4 seconds

Machine guns that could fire 7-8 rounds per second

Artillery such as the howitzer that had a range of 9-16km and could fire shrapnel shells of between 130-900 kg. These massive increases in firepower led the generals to believe that their attacks were guaranteed.

The number of casualties in WWI was so much higher than ever before because the generals were fighting with 20th century defensive weapons while using 19th century attacking ideas.

Therefore each side searched for new and improved offensive weapons:

Tanks

A British Invention, initially limited in effectiveness, but became a decisive weapon

Poison Gas Although terrifying, this was not a very effective weapon due to the introduction of gas masks, and to the fact that it was wind dependent

Aircraft

Played a limited role in WWI

Mostly used for reconnaissance, although some Zeppelins and planes were used to drop bombs

Later airplanes were equipped with machine guns which led to aerial dog fightsTotal War

WWI lasted so long because it involved industrially advanced alliances which were relatively evenly matched

Therefore each nation began to use every available resource to fight and gain advantage

This involved:

The development of government control over the means of production, communications and the marketing of the nations resources

Government direction of the nations labor resources.

The mobilization of previously unused resources, for example, female labor.

Government control of the allocation of scarce resources

Government control over non-economic areas of the population such as conscription, propaganda, censorship and security.Measures and Efforts Taken As Part of Total War

Political

Military leaders took more control and became more politically active

Royal rulers/monarchs lost power and military leaders took on more responsibilities.

Citizens of the country were not allowed to move freely, needed permission from government

Conscription introduced to complement the needs of total war

Propaganda which contained inaccurate facts.

Social

Anti-German propaganda was used to increase the morale of the citizens.

Censorship; Pro-German articles banned, news that can stir up doubt in the civilians (facts about pre-war crisis)

Working hours in Britain extended to support the war effort and weapons manufacturers maintained their level of production

Rationed resources (flour, wheat) to support the military needs

Decreased the age limits for conscription and allowed more women to help in the war effort

Women given more jobs in the industrial sector

Women wear shorter skirts to save hemp and linen for the war effort

Pub hours limited to maintain focus in the workers

Some sport events were halted; boxing and horse racing in particular

The government controlled transportation.

Economic

Economic enterprises were taken over by the government; communist-esque

Controlled the wage so that some companies can expand and some can decline

Controlled trade, export import, placed heavy importance on raw material for weaponry

Strikes were made legal

Selling bonds to support the war effort

Lowered interest rates which leads to more inflation

Total War caused the governments of the belligerent nations to focus all its resources by taking over most of the countrys affair for the war effort.

Major Battles of the Western Front (1915-1917)

1915 February/March

Battle of Champagne

French Offensive

Gained eight kilometers at the cost of 90,000 casualties

1915 April/May

Second Battle of Ypres

German Offensive

First use of chlorine gas

50,000 British died

1916 February December

Battle of Verdun German Offensive

Goal: to bleed the French white. To kill as many French soldiers as possible.

First use of flame throwers