Alexander II (1855-81): emancipation of the serfs; military, legal, educational, local government reforms; later reaction

o Alexander II Proactive

o Emancipation of the serfs 1861 Allowed for the formation of committees Amounted to the liquidation of serf dependence previously suffered by

peasants of the Russian Empire Serfs were granted the full rights of free citizens

Gaining the rights to marry without having to gain consent Own property Own a business

Peasants would be able to buy the land from the landlords However many could not get enough money to buy back the land

and were forced to choose between being homeless and going back to working for their previous landlords so that they can get back their land

“Indentured Servitude”o Reforms

A reaction to the failure at the Crimean War Humiliating to Russia It’s considered to be the beginning of the fall of the Tsar From there on, militarily, they just get crushed all the time Alexander II comes in at the end of the Crimean War Also a reaction to an awareness of military advances implemented in

other European countries Military

Restructuring Universal military conscription

o Rich and poor had to serve in the military

Army reserve and military district system were set upo Still in use a century later

Strategic railways were built Emphasis on the military education of the officer corps Corporal punishment in the military and branding of the soldiers as

a punishment was banned Judicial administration

Based on the French model Introduced security of tenure New penal code Simplified system of civil and criminal procedure Trial in open court Judges appointed for life A jury system Creation of justices of the peace to deal with minor offences at a

local level Was previously corrupt

o Judges were getting very little money Rich always bribed them

o Increased the money of the Judges So corruption went down

o Peasants couldn’t go to court Local Government Reforms

Zemstvoo Bureaucracyo For the rural districts (1864) and the large towns (1870)o New rural and municipal police under the direction of the

Minister of the Interior Educational reforms

Russificationo Everyone was taught to learn Russiano Builds up nationalism

o Later reaction When people get a little taste of freedom they are ok at first

But then they realize that they could have more Political voice was stifling

Tsar still had the chance to veto anything Nothing really changed

The serfs were free but they had to work to pay off their debt Indentured servitude

o Although you are free, you have so much obligation or debt that you’re still not really free

o Servant of the systemo Where many peasants were given freedom but were not

educated or skilled enough to find a job good enough to own their own land

End up working for their old landlords Alexander II gets assassinated

Comes from the university structureo He allows them a voice and it turns extremisto Educated peopleo The Tsar doesn’t really understand it

He says he’s giving them freedom of speech and they’re saying he’s not giving it to them

Everyone wants democracyo Just like Western Europeo Devine right is crap, according to the Western thought

People are happy from around 1861 but by around 1872 all those things have time to developed to the point where the people realize they want more

Legal system Innocent until proven guilty There’s still always some corruption By giving them more freedom of speech

o Corruption becomes more of a problem later even though it improved earlier

Once you give people freedom you can’t take it away Policies of Alexander III (1881-94) and Nicholas II (1895-1917): backwardness and attempts

at modernization; nature of tsardom; growth of opposition movementso Policies of Alexander III

Reactive Angered by his father’s death Super reactionary He changes pretty much everything except He can’t bring serfdom back

He can’t just send peasants back to their “owners” He extends Russification

Goes crazy with it Pogroms

o Killing of Jewso Attached to the idea of Russificationo The May Laws

Banning Jews from working in civil service Direct anti-semmetic violence Encourage emigration Ignatyev “1/3 convert, 1/3 leaves, 1/3 dies”

Positive integration and negative integration Positive integration

o Original Russification People are taught Russian

Negative integrationo Like the pogromso Just getting rid of everyone who isn’t like them

Educational structure is put back Don’t get to speak against the Tsar Will literally go around and kill people if people speak about the Tsar He kills Lenin’s brother

This is considered part of the chain reaction that makes Lenin who he is

He develops work camps If you do something bad you do work that they need done

o Policies of Nicholas II Has some more attempts at modernization Doesn’t really want to be Tsar

Family man Not really into all this political stuff

o Attempts at modernization Industrialization

The big decision he makeso Borrowing money from Franceo Sells grain

Sergei Witteo All these reforms are made under himo Major cause of 1905 revolutiono After, Tsar creates the fundamental laws

Counter acts the Duma Almost adds to the problems as opposed to making solutions

o Although he thinks he’s fixing themo He’s fascinated with industrialization

Doesn’t really know how to make it happen but he wants it to happen

Somewhere in between Alexander II and Alexander III Within the city and the country side it goes to shit Other issues

Politicalo Soviet begins to formo Duma isn’t happy

They have very little voiceo The Nature of Tsardom

The concept that the people are in a structure where they don’t see any other structure

Especially with the cutting down of educated voices Hard thing to change the minds of people and the way they view

things The general uneducated population is generally not educated enough to

know that there’s something else Same in France (prior to the French Revolution)

o Until enough people realize that there is another option they’ll basically just accept it

Kind of like a father figure Even though the people complain and bitch about the situation or

the Tsaro If someone else tells them he’s bad then they are wrongo People don’t go against it too much

Especially in the face of someone elseo Growth of Opposition Movements

Despite greater police surveillance Opposition became more organized

Great range of political parties came into being during the period Industrialization, urbanisation, rapidly increasing population and bouts of

economic depression Caused opposition Contributed to undermine social order and the stability of the

regime As a result, Nicholas II made concessions

In October Manifestoo Reluctantly gave in to demands for the creation of the dumao The declaration of the Fundamental Laws showed his lack of

commitment to the concept of constitutional reform Significance of the Russo-Japanese War; 1905 Revolution; Stolypin and the Duma; the

impact of the First World War (1914-18) on Russiao Russo-Japanese War

Russia is Militarily weak The Mutiny

o Russian ships are asked to sail out of the Black Sea to go around Africa to Port Arthur

o By the time they get there Japan wono The guys on the ship actually mutiny

They rise over the captain and take over Just shows the big weakness of the military

In the military there’s no rising up unless they’re really unhappy or starved etc.

Economically Lost Port Arthur Positives of Nicholas II (industrialization)

o Built a lot of railroadso Russia was building their railroad

They’re generally ill-equipped and slow so it took them a very long time to build it

Von Shleiffen plan was built knowing this Wilhelm and Von Shleiffen knows that they

can hold Russia off not only because we can

defeat France but because we know Russia will be slow to mobilize, proved in the Russo-Japanese War

Socially Chaos Lost a lot of faith in the Tsar

Foreign relations Russia is a Joke The rest of the world has a lot less respect for them They are the first Western Power to be defeated by an Asian power They lose a lot of face This proves a good thing for Japan

o Who is suddenly noticed 1904 = War

1906 = Peace treaty happenso Within this: 1905 Revolution

Different groups complaining about different things No one has a real leader

Father Gapon (During Bloody Sunday) Organized a peaceful “workers” procession to the Winter Palace to

deliver a petition to the Tsaro Freedom of speecho Better work dayo More woman’s rightso All over the placeo Begins peacefully in Petrograd

Suddenly turns violent Not like he’s the unified leader

o Organically doing it with a smaller group of people in the city

So the Tsar (Nicholas II) says he’ll fix ito October Manifesto

Creation of the Duma Better hours He says some things about Freedom of Speech Doesn’t say anything about free healthcare Even the things he says he’s going to appease, he

doesn’t say howo The people are appeased for a bit

Prevents the overthrowing of the Tsar This was due to the lack of leadership and ideology October Manifesto

o Just enough to get people to step back But then, Nicholas II creates the Fundamental Laws

Basically says what the relationship is between the Tsar and the Duma

The Tsar has the power to say no to anything the Duma says Nicholas II essentially named himself the “Supreme Autocrat” Two housed Russian parliament

o State Council Upper house Half appointed by the Tsar Other half elected by various governmental, clerical

and commercial interestso State Duma

Lower house Members were to be chosen by various classes of

the Russian people Complex scheme of indirect elections System was weighted to ensure the ultimate

preponderance of the propertied classes Held the power of legislation and the right to

question the Tsar’s ministers They did not have control over their appointment or

dismissalo Stolypin

Appeases the peasants more Changes to Imperial Russia’s agricultural sector Reforms

Initiation of cooperation in agriculture Large-scale development of individual farming (Khutors) Improvement of existing land areas Formation of an Agrarian Party

o Representing the peasant interests Improvement of education

o Increase in the agricultural productivites 1913 Stolypin gets killed

WWI breaks out in 1914o Which was the biggest cause of revolution?

Regardless of Stolypin’s reforms doing well for economy, the problems with the Duma wouldn’t be address, leading to chaos

o Is WWI the biggest impacting piece or is it all the other things?

Duma Lots of problems The combination of the Duma and Rasputin almost shows that the

Duma is going against the Tsar

o They have freedom of speech but not really They’re given a voice but aren’t listened to WWI During the War the Tsar still has to make decisions Starts working directly toward forcibly getting soldiers Starts forcing people to make arms and food to go to the soldiers All of the workers feel like they’re the most important part of the

system but they’re not getting the benefits Gold mine strike

o They’re working with the gold but aren’t getting any of it

Tsars Decisions Getting council from Mongliev Not seen as seeing council just as a vacation He directly goes to the Front

o He doesn’t know what he’s doingo No one respects him

Tsarina sends him letters saying that people are kind of unhappy

o But they have no clue just how unhappy the people are

o Impact of the First World War on Russia Russian troops were slaughtered in their millions

Russia didn’t really have a strategy They just used their large numbers

Nicholas made things worse by going to the front Made him directly responsible for the defeats in most people’s eyes Left the government in the hands of the Tsarina and Rasputin

Economic Chaos People in the towns were starving and freezing

Triple Entente (1907) Britain, France and Russia

A very big cause of the revolutions 1917 Revolutions: February/March Revolution; Provisional Government and Dual Power

(Soviets); October/November Bolshevik Revolution; Lenin and Trotskyo The Nature of the 1917 Revolution

Initiated by the women Men were off fighting the war So really most of the workers were women March 8 1917 they went on a march demanding bread

o Turned into rioting Lots of arguments

Militaryo Figes would support that it was the military who gave

permission to people to attack the Tsar and revolto They were the ones who captured the Tsar on his way back

Social and political

o Pipes would have said Social and Political Provisional Government

Half Soviet – Half Duma Idea is that the soviet actually has a lot more power

Growth of opposition movementso February/March Revolution

Centred around Petrograd (modern day St. Petersburg) Immediate result

Abdication of Tsar Nicholas IIo Renunciation of his office

The end of the Romanov dynasty The end of the Russian Empire

o Provisional Government and Dual Power (Soviets) Tsar was replaced by a Russian Provisional Government

Under Georgy Lvov Alliance between liberals and socialists

At the same time socialists formed the “Petrograd Soviet” Ruled alongside the Provisional Government Dual Power

o October/November Bolshevik Revolution Petrograd Capitalization of the February/March revolution of the same year Overthrew the Russian Provisional Government

Gave power to the soviets Dominated by Bolsheviks

Since the revolution was not universally recognized outside of Petrograd Russian Civil War

Winter Palace was capturedo Lenin and Trotsky

Why did it succeed? (Perhaps Seven Powers Gave Lenin An Opportunity) Provisional Government problems Slogans

o Bolsheviks had good slogans “Peace, bread, land” “All Power to the Soviets”

o Simple, straight forward, easy for people to understand Pravda

o Party ran its own propaganda machineo Newspaper Pravda (“truth”) got their ideas across

German Moneyo Germans financed the Bolshevikso They knew Lenin wanted to take Russia out of the war

Lenino Strong leader who was able to move the public

Armyo The Red Guardso Set up and trained under Trotsky

Organisationo Bolsheviks were concentrated into one area

Even though they were surrounded, they were still all together and able to come together

Trotsky’s name grew to stand for cruel discipline He was the one going out and actively doing things for the

revolution Lenin was the one who organized it For the white propagandists Trotsky was evil

o For the red propagandists Trotsky was a saint Trotsky believed that war was not just through the army but also conducted

in people’s minds and that’s what he valued the most Trotsky believed psychological warfare was the most powerful

Trotsky was basically a combination of Lenin and Marx Lenin’s Russia (1917-24): consolidation of new Soviet state; Civil War; War Communism;

NEP; terror and coercion; foreign relationso Consolidation of new Soviet state

How Lenin consolidated power Lenin opened talks for an armistice with the German government

o Lenin withdrew Russia from the war (what many people wanted)

o By signing the humiliating but critical Treaty of Brest-Litovsk How the Bolsheviks stayed in power

Weak oppositiono Opponents were weako So many opposition groups with different goals that they

never managed to organize themselves to find a common enemy in the Bolsheviks

o Instead, they fought against each other Political misjudgement

o Underestimation Collapse of army

o The Tsarist army was mainly compromised of people who wanted freedom

o After the Tsar abdicated, a lot of soldiers revolted against their officers

o Many returned home or joined the Bolsheviks Workers and peasants wanted change

o Awful conditions in cities and the country sideo Bolsheviks offered them change in exchange for support

Attacks on oppositiono Bolsheviks underlined the shortcomings of the opposing

parties Use of class warfare

o Made the peasants and workers more aware of the classes above them that were exploiting them

o Civil War Whites vs. Reds When the Bolsheviks were on the brim of losing the war:

Trotsky was everywhere and very effective Violent Civil War

White guards shot the Red prisoners Red Army killed White prisoners

Bolsheviks were basically in command Behind the scenes

Extreme famineo Many dead from starvation

The Civil War had left the nation in chaos The Sailors wanted communism but not the Bolsheviks

o War Communism Perspective of certain revisionist historians

“War Communism was a conscious attempt to create a new social order”

Perspective of Bolshevik supporters “War Communism originated in a series of emergency measures

introduced to deal with the increasingly difficult economic and military situation”

“The Bolshevik was therefore inclined to see the essential features of fully fledged Communism embodied in the war economics of 1918-19

People are physically acting out against it Ineffectiveness is proven by creation of NEP

o NEP System introduced to replace War Communism

Created to “strengthen the foundations of Socialism and lead to its complete victory”

Unemployment begins and grows Brought some form of economic sense No industry was obligated to supply the state Inflation Bartering was reintroduced in rural areas (since economic modernization

hadn’t reached the countryside) Encouraged workers to work harder so they could make more money

Causes competition, not so communist Scissor Crisis

Industrial prices were 3 times higher than agricultural Lots of food is produced rapidly Farmers began producing food rather than any other products (ex.

Cotton) Eventually, government interferes

o Force down the prices of manufacturing produce and decrees were issued that controlled prices

Tax on food produced The very notion was a simple recognition that food produced was

private property (capitalism)o Terror and coercion

Trotsky claims Lenin emphasized the absolutely necessity of terror as early as 1904

"The dictatorship of the proletariat is an absolutely meaningless expression without Jacobin coercion."

o Jacobin: An extreme political radical. (Comes from a term used to describe a member of a

democratic club in the French revolution)

In 1905, Lenin directed members of the St. Petersburg "Combat Committee" to commit acts of robbery, arson, and other terrorist acts

He opposed the use of terrorism as a mindless act but endorsed its use to advance the communist revolution

Lenin had abandoned any reluctance to using terrorist tactics by 1917, believing all resistance to communist revolution should be met with maximum force.

Trotsky: "The man who repudiates terrorism in principle, i.e., repudiates measures of suppression and intimidation towards determined and armed counterrevolution, must reject all idea of the political supremacy of the working class and its revolutionary dictatorship."

o Foreign relations Treaty of Brest-Litovsk (1918)

Marked Russia’s exit from WWI Provided relief for the Bolsheviks

o Who were tied up fighting the Civil War Lenin believed good foreign relations would define how communism would

be in the future Good relations were important to national security

Economy also required trade with the industrial countries Treaty of Rapallo (1922)

Germany and Russia agreed on mutual recognition Cancellation of debt claims Normalization of trade relations Secret cooperation in military development

Soon after the treaty Soviet Union obtained diplomatic recognition from other major

powerso Britain (1924)o Private US firms began to extend technological assistance

And develop commercial links in the 1920s But withheld recognition until 1933

Active policy in China Aided the Guomindang (Nationalist party) Stalin wanted the Chinese Communist Party to join the Guomindang

and infiltrate the government from withino Trotsky proposed an armed communist uprising and forcible

imposition of socialism Although Stalin’s plan was finally accepted

o It came to naught when in 1927 the Guomindang leader Chiang Kai-Shek ordered the Chinese communist massacred and soviet advisers expelled

European diplomacy and the changing balance of power after 1870o 1871: Bismarck unifies the German stateso 1873: Dreikaiserbund (League of the Three Emperors) between Germany, Austria

Hungary and Russia Great powers make alliances in case of war

o 1878: Congress of Berlin Bismarck played the ‘Honest Broker’ Treaty of San Stefano

Took away Russia’s gains from San Stefano Bulgaria was divided into 3 parts Coastline part and Macedonia were returned to the Ottoman

Empire Austria-Hungary takes firm control of Bosnia-Herzegovina

Russia was frustrated with Bismarck and Britaino 1881: Austria-Hungary alliance with Serbiao 1881: Renewal of Dreikaiserbund (military treaty)o 1882: Austria-Hungary alliance with Romaniao 1882: Triple Alliance was formed

Germany, Austria-Hungary and Italy Italy’s joining was good for Germany

Both were against France More of a military alliance

o 1887: Reinsurance Treaty Secret alliance between Germany and Russia Both would maintain neutrality in case Germany attacks France or Russia

attacks Austria-Hungary Aims, methods, continuity and change in German foreign policy to 1914; global colonial

rivalry

o Bismarck was in office from 1870-1890 Tried to keep peace in Europe Also tried to keep France isolated Tried to keep Germany in the middle of the balance of power

o 1890: Wilhelm II kicked Bismarck out of office Introduced Weltpolitik as a foreign policy (1897)

Replaced realpolitik Went from concentrating efforts on eliminating the possibility of a

two front war in Europe to being the leading power on the continento By means of its army and subtle diplomacy

AIM: Transform the country into a global power by means of aggressive diplomacy and large navy

o Frustrated with the limits of Germany’s geographical position in the centre of Europe

Weltpolitik: Primarily a naval policy Let German-Russia treaty overlap Created tension and uncertainty between allies and enemies

o Colonial Rivalry 1875: British Disraeli buys shares for Suez Canal 1882: British occupation of Egypt (Suez Canal) 1884: Germany agrees to protect Namibia (becomes German colony), Togo,

Cameroon (business purposes) Bismarck: Does not wish to colonize, just protect business

establishments 1884-85: Partition of West Africa decided peacefully by European Powers

West Africa Conference in Berlino Regulated European colonization and trade in Africa (during

New Imperialism period)o Coincided with Germany’s sudden emergence as an imperial

powero Organized by Bismarcko Eliminated most existing forms of African autonomy and

self-governance 1885: Germany colonized Tanzania and New Guinea 1911: Italy succeeds in Libya

Relative importance of: the Alliance system; decline of the Ottoman Empire; Austria Hungary and Balkan nationalism; arms race; international and diplomatic crises

o The Alliance System

o Decline of the Ottoman Empire 1876: Serbia vs. Turkey

Seeks Russian supporto Russia says: western Balkans are under Austria’s influence

not Russias

1877: Russia declares war on Turkey Fighting over Bulgaria Russia wins Declares the treaty of San Stefano

1878: Treaty of San Stefano Large independent state of Bulgaria but had to be administered by

Russiao In exchange for access to Bulgaria’s coast line

Russia took access to Danube from Romania, Serbia, Montenegro Russia received land in Georgia and Armenia

o As well as access of the Dardanelles (only this sea access was taken away from Russia in the Berlin treaty)

Serbia resents Austrian influence in Bosnia Herzegovina Serbia wanted that land

o Austria-Hungary and Balkan nationalism Policy of the Dual Monarchy (Austria Hungary)

To suppress the nationalist movements both inside and outside the empire

Wanted to gain political control over the Balkan Peninsulao Where nationalist movements were rife and always giving

encouragement to the nationalist movements within the Austro-Hungarian empire

Centre of Balkan nationalism was Serbia Always hoped to unite with the Serbs in the Austro-Hungarian

Empire to create a large Serbian state Therefore, the first enemy of Austria-Hungary was Serbia

Austria-Hungary also hated Russia because they, being a Slav country, always backed up Serbia in any Austro-Serbian disputes

1908: Bosnian Crisis AKA Annexation crisis or First Balkan Crisis Austria-Hungary announced the annexation of Bosnia and

Herzegovina Treaty of Berlin

o Amended to accept the new status quo bringing the crisis to an end

Crisis permanently damaged relations between Austria-Hungary vs. Russia and the Kingdom of Serbia

Annexation and reactions were contributing causes of WWI 1912-1913: Balkan War

Montenegro, Bulgaria, Greece and Serbia had achieved independence from the Ottoman Empire

Large parts of their ethnic populations remained under Ottoman rule

1912: They formed the Balkan League First Balkan War (1912)

o League attacked Turkeyo Ended seven months later by Treaty of London

Turkey lost virtually all of its possessions in the Balkans

Second Balkan War (1913)o Bulgaria attacks Serbia and Greece

Bulgaria did not like the division of the spoils in Macedonia made in secret by her allies: Serbia and Greece

o Serbian and Greek armies repulsed the Bulgarian offensive and counter-attacked

While Romania and Turkey also attacked Bulgaria to gain territory

o Treaty of Bucharest ends the war Bulgaria lost most of its territories it gained in the

First Balkan war Assassination of Franz Ferdinand (1914)

What sparked the First World War Assassinated by the Black Hand (nationalistic Serbian Group)

o Gavrilo Princip (member of Black Hand)o Arms Race

1897: Weltpolitik German “World Policy” German industrial expansion was so dependent on imports of raw

materials from oversees that a vast colonial empire was required with a large navy to support it

Weltpolitik was a programme of naval expansion and heavy involvement in colonial affairs

o By way of justification to match UK’s forceo And increase support for authoritarian rule

Unsuccessful and expansive colonization coupled with the financial expansion into the Middle East and build-up of its navy

o Lead other European states to fear its neighbour and question their motives

o Creates tension between the Triple Entente (England, France, Russia) and Triple Alliance (Germany, Ausria-Hungary, Italy)

1898: Naval Bill Germany begins to develop naval power

1906: UK release the Dreadnought Bigger, better than others Suspicion and distrust amongst all of Europe

1907-10: British naval expenditure increases To compete with German expansion

1908-10: Anglo-German arms race climaxed Causing international tension

o International and diplomatic crises July Crisis

Diplomatic crises among the major powers of Europe in the summer of 1914

Led to the First World War Immediately after Gavrilo Princip assassinated Archduke Franz

Ferdinando Series of diplomatic manoeuvrings led to an ultimatum from

Austria-Hungary to Serbia and ultimately to war Ultimatum was part of a coercive program

o Meant to weaken the Kingdom of Serbia as a threat to Austria-Hungary’s occupation of the northern Balkans

Weakening of Serbia was to be achieved either through diplomacy or by localized war (I the ultimatum were rejected)

o Austria-Hungary preferred war To ensure war, the terms of the ultimatum were so

harsh that they were certain to be rejected Germany’s Blank Cheque

Offered “blank cheque” to Austria-Hungary Austria-Hungary was promised unconditional support from Germany

regardless whatever action Austria Hungary decided to take in punishing Serbia

Germany was agreeable to war with France and Russia but hoped to avoid it with Britain

British reaction Britain was committed to France’s defence

o But British government was aware that in order to enter the war, a better reason that vague commitments to France would be necessary to convince British public opinion

Belgian neutrality agreed at the Treaty of London (1839) served its purpose

o When Germany initiated Von Schlieffen Plano Britain joined the war and declared war on Germany

Effects on civilian population; impact of war on women socially and politicallyo Civilians

Civilians became a military target Economic impact

Shortages of all produce (most importantly food) Rationing of bread, tea, sugar and meat The Great Depression

Living standards plummeted Population losses were enourmous

Propaganda gave the false impression to the public that everything was ok When in reality many were dying

o Under strict rules of DORA people weren’t going to know this

o Women Socially Britain

Women played a new role in the economy As the total war of attrition demanded the mobilisation of all of

society’s resourceso Many women moved into traditional male roles

Early 1915: Women were employed as nurses, ambulance drivers, postal workers, bus conductors, police women and fire fighters

Late 1918: More than 7 million women employed in ‘war work’ Ministry of Munitions

o Largest single employer for women Women’s Land Army (1916)

o Attract women to work on the lando Food production had become a priority

Women’s Armed Forceso Women drove ambulances, operated food canteens,

entertained soldiers, worked as cooks, waitresses, clerks, typists, telegraphics, telephonists, packers, drivers and mechanics

Wages were higher Conditions improved Increased women’s opportunities WWI pushed the constraints of gender roles Since men were off at war, women were employed in all sectors of the

economy Women no longer needed escorts to maintain their reputations New sexual freedom Skirts became shorter, women wore trousers, bras replaced the corset Women wore short hair, smoked and wore make up in public

o Women Politically Independence was enhanced Started to focus on suffrage (right to vote)

Since they had to do the jobs that men had been doing for years But right after the war men tried to go back to the way it was Women couldn’t be pushed aside as easily

Factors leading to the defeat of Germany and the other Central Powers (Austria Hungary, Ottoman Empire and Bulgaria); strategic errors; economic factors; the entry and role of the United States

o Factors leading to defeat Germany

Weak allies Entrance of US British blockade

o Led to the lack of materialso Starved of supplies, German army was weakened and lost

support from German peopleo Caused shortage of weapons and decrease in food

production Russian army attacked Germany sooner than expected

o Germany fought over two countries at the same time, so it had to split its army

German morale had collapsed on both the Western and Home Fronts

Strategic errorso Von Schlieffen Plan

Violated Belgian neutrality Belgian army and British forces fought better

Austria-Hungary Army was not prepared for what it would face

o Not suited for aggressive war Strategic errors

o Strategy for the first months of the war could nto be decided upon

o Plan R Plan was to send huge forces across the border into

Russia Within a week they retreated over 200 kilometres

Left heavy guns and ammunition behind Defeated by Russia

Ottoman Empire Financially crippled A conspiracy was discovered in Constantinople against Germans and

the Committee Revolt in Adrianople

o Against German military mission Committees formed around the country to rid the country of those

siding with Germany Army and navy officers protested against the assumption of

authority by Germans Anti-war demonstration by women

Bulgaria Lack of proper diplomatic preparation and support from some of the

Great Powers

Serbian and French troops made a breakthrough the Macedonian Front

o Led to the final victory of WWI Russian Revolution

o Spread anti-war and anti-monarchist voices among the troops and in the cities

Riots and strikes spread around the country Women’s revolt

o Protested food and clothing shortages Government was impaired when the details of the Treaty of

Bucharest were announcedo Treaty divided Romania among the Central Powers

Conditions at the front and anti-war propagandao Thoroughly undermined the morale and discipline of the

Bulgarian Armyo Entry and role of the US

Causes of US entry (April 1917) Elites (including president Woodrow Wilson) wanted to ensure a

liberal, capitalist world order in contrast to reactionary militarism and colonialism or widespread revolution and communism

Strategic situation of USo Leading neutral industrial and financial power

Both Germany and Britain violated US neutral maritime rightso Sinking of the Lusitania (British passenger liner)

German submarine warfare seemed more ruthless American trade with the Allies

o Tripled to $3 billion a year (1914-1916)o Helped economic recovery in the US

Pro-British elites and the urban press increasingly emphasized German immorality

o Invasion of neutral Belgiumo Sinking of Lusitania

Woodrow Wilson issues a warning to the Germanso To abandon its submarine warfare against passenger and

freight-carrying vesselso Germans temporarily cease submarine warfare until 1917

1917: Germany announces the continuation of submarine warfareo Ends diplomatic relations with US

Zimmerman (German Foreign Minister)o Attempts to provoke Mexico and Japan into attacking US

with the promise of German assistance after the European front was conquered

o The Zimmerman Telegram Decoded by the British and sent to the US

Pissed US off Role

Fresh American troops were enthusiastically welcomed by the war-weary Allied armies

o Arrived at the rate of 10,000 a dayo Germans were unable to replace their losses

Hundred Days Offensiveo Final period of WWIo Series of offensives against Central Powers on Western

Fronto Forced German armies to retreat beyond the Hindenburg

Line Followed by an armistice

Post-war peace treaties and their territorial, political and economic effects on Europe: Versailles (St Germain, Trianon, Neuilly, Sevres/Lausanne)

o Treaty of Versailles Vengeance, not reconciliation, was the treaty’s dominant tone

Allies hated Germany becauseo Money they had to spend on the waro For starting the waro Causalities/Deaths

War Guilt Clause Germany had to accept everything as their fault

Reparations Payments for the cost and damage caused by the war

Disarmament Reduced their army to only defensive Limited navy

Officially ended the state of war between Germany and the Allied Powers Required Germany to accept responsibility for causing the war Not ratified in the US War Guilt Clauses

Germany was forced to disarm Make territorial concessions Pay heavy reparations to certain countries

Pushes Germany into The Great Depressiono Treaty of Neuilly (sur-Seine) (1919)

Dealing with Bulgaria for its role as one of the Central Powers Required Bulgaria to give Western Thrace to the Entente

Thereby cutting off its direct outlet to the Aegean Seao Treaty of Saint-Germain (en-Laye) (1919)

Signed between Allies and the new Republic of Austria Declared that the Austro-Hungarian Empire was to be dissolved Include war reparations to be paid by Republic of Austria

Austria could not enter into political or economic union with Germany Without the agreement of the council of the League of Nations

Broke up Austria-Hungary Reduced territory Austrio-Hungarian army became limited Result - The vast reduction of territory, population, and resources of the

new Austria severely affected its economy and made them resentful

o Treaty of Trianon (1920) Between the Allies and Hungary

Hungary: One of the successor states to Austria-Hungary Regulated the status of an independent Hungarian state

Defined its borderso Treaty of Sevres (1920)

Peace treaty between Ottoman Empire and the Allies Never ratified, replaced by Treaty of Lausanne

o Treaty of Lausanne (1923) Ended the state of war that existed between Turkey vs. Allies Defined the borders of the modern Turkish state

Germany 1919-33: political, constitutional, economic, financial and social problemso Political

Sparticists Uprising (January 1919) in Berlin Soviet Republic in Munic Political assassinations (Rathenau, Erzberger) Weimer Republic signed the Treaty of Versailles (against the better

judgement of Politicians) Humiliating for Germany and her government

Various attempts to overthrow the government by force failed or were supressed

Government by emergency decrees became commonplace (1930 onwards) In the end, system of government was paralyzed This is when Hitler rose to power

Weimer Republic falls Result of protests People lost faith in the Republic

Army was not fully under the government’s control Led by the right-wing General Hans von Seeckt German army had failed to help the government during the Kapp

Putsch and invasion crisis of 1923o Constitutional

System of proportional voting (system within the Weimer Republic) Result: 28 parties

o Made it impossible to establish any majority in the Reichstago Caused frequent changes in the government

Constitution was ineffective No one listened to the government States have too much power

Germany adopted a new constitution in 1919 Seemed to work

o Economic/financial 1923: French and Belgians claimed the Germans had not paid reparations

Occupied the Ruhro Germany’s main industrial areao Violation of Treaty of Versailles

Hyperinflation (Great Depression) Prices for everything skyrocket Value of money lessens One incident says that a lady left a basket of money outside the

store and when she went out found the basket stolen but the money perfectly intact

Germany relied heavily on loans repayable in full on demand Especially from the US

Reparations needed to be paid On top of Germany starving

High unemploymento Social

People began to turn more radical Starvation Percentage of women in the workforce had risen Former soldiers were of the opinion that they had not lost the war

Believed that the army had been cheated (Hitler later phrased this as “the stab in the back”)

Result: Germans looked for people to blameo Some the Kaiser, most the new Weimer Republico Some even blamed communists or jews

Suspicion within Germany Under the Kaiser: armed forces and aristocratic Prussian elite enjoyed many

privileges These groups now had to try and re-establish their authority First president of the Weimer republic worked hard to try and win

the support of the elite groups and the army Italy 1919-39: Mussolini’s domestic and foreign policies

o Domestic Emphasis on National Glory and Patriotism Coordination of the economy

While allowing private property Emphasis on production and banning of activities which hurt production More order and efficiency in Italian life Crushing the mafia Several public construction programs and government initiatives throughout

Italy to combat economic setbacks or unemployment levelso Foreign

Shifted from pacifist anti-imperialism to an extreme form of aggressive nationalism

Believed that conquered foreign territory was the sign of a great nation and a great power

Army nearly doubled in size Mussolini wanted to establish a modern Roman Empire in the

Mediterranean (rivalling that of the ancient Caesers) A successful foreign policy might distract the Italians from their miserable

conditions at home Wanted more territories

To settle the surplus Italian population and acquire raw materials for industries

The impact of the Great Depression (case study of its effect on one country in Europe)o Germany

Gave Hitler the opportunity he needed to rise US government was providing loans before the depression (Dawes Plan)

When the depression hit, US had to reduce its payments (Young Plan)

Germany depended on this revenue so it fell apart Still had to pay reparations

Printing of more money to keep up caused hyperinflation Collapse of the Weimer Republic

People lost faith in government Weimer Republic eventually fell

Unemployment

Starvation/poverty Low wages Many Germans believed to despair the very idea of progress

Became convinced that the prosperity of post-war Germany was irrevocably lost

Allowed for the growth of political extremism Concerned that their money was not safe, Germans withdrew their money

from their banks Many of the banks became insolvent and had to close

America even asked for repayment of loans Germany was in no condition to do so

Government responded to depression by cutting back in production and consumption

Cutting public services Decreased trade amongst countries Protests and demonstrations against the government

o Britain/UK UK was far from having recovered from the effects of the First World War Loss of foreign exchange earnings

Left British economy more dependent on exports More vulnerable to any downturn in world markets

War had permanently eroded Britain’s trading position in world markets Through disruption to trade and losses of shipping Overseas customers for British produce had been lost

Industries struggled to survive without the military to create a demand for goods

Cutbacks in production resulted in mass unemployment Tariffs on foreign imports were raised

Only decreased international trade and pushed the country further into the Depression

Return to the Gold Standard (1925) Method fixing the value of currency to an amount of gold However, inflation during the war resulted in the Pound Sterlin to

become an overvalued currencyo Result: British exports were more expensive on world

marketso Discouraged foreign countries from importing Britain’s

goods Relied on payment of reparations

But Germany could not afford to pay them Often resulted in default (failure to make payments)

With the outbreak of WWII Britain was able to fully free herself Unemployment dropped as workers were organised into preparing

the country for war

Spanish Civil War: background to the outbreak of the Civil War; causes and consequences; foreign involvement; reasons for Nationalist victory

o Background Began after a pronunciamiento (declaration of opposition) by a group of

generals against the government of the Second Spanish Republic Uprising was authoritarian and anti-separatist War ended with the victory of the conservative Nationalists

Overthrow of the democratically elected government Exile of thousands of left-leaning Spaniards

o Causes Spain had made little progress, lost her empire and fallen behind in the

industrialization process Deep divisions in Spanish society

Landowners vs. Peasants Church vs. Anti-Clerical

o Church had enormous power in Spaino Opposed to social reform

Led to groups that sought to reduce the Church’s influence

Conservatives vs. Liberalso Lack of a political middleo Extremist elements were increasingly popular

Countryside vs. Towns Spanish army had a tradition of interfering in politics Long standing tradition of violence in Spanish politics

Democracy had never really been establishedo Therefore parties tried to reverse election results through

violence ‘Democracy’ in Spain had brought about corrupt governments

Undermined the concept of democracy There was electoral fraud and continuing landlord control under

Spanish ‘democracy’ Desire for autonomy in several regions

Conservatives saw this as a threat Anarchism was a powerful force in Spain Weakness of the Second Republic

It’s failure to carry out reforms Failure to act against those that were plotting against them Failed to maintain law and order

Army concern at the possibility of a communist takeover Assassinating of the right wing leader Calvo Sotelo

o Consequences Many killed (around 700,000) 200 buildings burned and made uninhabitable

Priests and members of the Church were killed Republicans were sent to concentration camps and executed Hitler and Mussolini were brought together by their cooperation in the Civil

War This formed the alliance that pitted them against the other

European powers in WWIIo Foreign involvement

Nationalist side Germany

o Signed the non-intervention agreement but still got involvedo Offered various forms of aid and military support to both

sideso Almost all in support of the Nationalist factiono Operation Ursula

German U-boats active around Spain Whole mission was kept secret Difficulties in identifying legitimate targets and

concerns about discover limited their operationso Condor Legion

Spearheaded many Nationalist victorieso Provided training to Nationalist force

Technically proficient Covered: Infantry, tanks and anti-tank units, air and

anti-aircraft forces, and naval warfareo Financial support

Italyo Provided “Corps for Volunteer Troops”

Supported political goals of the German and Italian fascist leaderships

Tested new tactics Provided blooding so they would be ready for battle

in any future waro Contributed more than 60,000 troops at the height of the

waro Involvement helped increase Mussolini’s popularity among

Italian Catholicso Italian military help to Nationalists against the anti-clerical

and anti-Catholic atrocities committed by the Republican side worked well in Italian propaganda targeting Catholics

o Sent large amount of material aid to the nationalists Cruisers, destroyers, submarines, aircraft, bombers

etc. Loyalist (Republican) side

USSR

o Material aido Purchased arms only from the Soviet Uniono Sent more than 2,000 personnel

Mainly tank crews and pilots who actively participated in combat

o Soviet foreign policy considered collective security against German fascism as a priority

o Soviet actions could hardly had been further from the goal of spreading the revolution

Mexicoo Refused to follow the French-British non-intervention

proposalso President saw the war as similar to Mexico’s own revolutiono Moral comfort to the Republic

Especially since Argentina, Brazil, Chile and Peru sympathized more or less openly with the Nationalists

o Material assistanceo Financial assistance

o Reasons for Nationalist victory Loyalist ranks

Riven by factional strife Intensified as the loyalist military position worsened

On the Nationalist side internal conflict also existed Especially between the military and the fascists But Franco was able to surmount it and consolidate his postion

Gradually, the Nationalists wore down Loyalist strength Bilbao, the last republican centre in the north

Fell in June1937 Nationalists drove to the Mediterranean and cut the Republican territory in

two Late 1938: Franco mounted a major offensive against Catalonia

Barcelona was taken With the loss of Catalonia Loyalist cause became hopeless

Republican efforts for a negotiated peace failed Communists were divided into the Stalinists and the Trotskyites

Mutiny began within the communists Nationalists had popular support from people who had experienced

Bolshevik tyranny at first hand Support from Fascist Italy and Nazi Germany

Much more foreign aid than Republicans Deficiency in arms and equipment among the Republicans proved to

be one of their greatest shortcomings against the better equipped Nationalist forces

Nationalists were better organized than the Republicans Didn’t suffer the same political disunity as the Republican camp Franco had absolute control of the arm Republicans were disoriented and disorganized Military officers were of a better standard (being middle class men,

usually well educated) than the average Republican ones

Hitler’s domestic and foreign policy (1933-39)o Domestic policy

Church Aim: Bring Church under state control as church can be a potential

source of dissent Religion came under state control Many Christians protested and spoke up against treatment of Jews

as well as the persecuted handicapped and mentally illo Most were sent to camps

Workers Aim: To reduce unemployment and to provide for their needs (work

and bread) Public works scheme was introduced to create jobs A large party bureaucracy was set up providing office and

administrative posts Purges of Jews and anti-Nazis from the civil service and across all

other professions leaving a lot of vacancies 1934: Rearmament started 1935: Conscription was introduced Once employment levels rose

o Care was also taken to keep the support of workers Women & Children

Aim: Indoctrinate and ensure that all of German population was working toward Nazi goals

Women were seen as homemakers and caregivers for childreno Role primarily at home and nowhere else

Made to feel as contributing to the nation by given the task of perpetuating the German race

o i.e. women were just baby machines, producing the next generation of Germans

Family planning centres and contraception was bannedo To increase childbirth and therefore population (and in turn

soldiers to fight the war) Cross of Honour of the German mother

o Medals given to recognize women who had birthed many children

Education and Youth groups were the primary ways to indoctrinate children

Subjects were manipulated to fit Nazi ideaso Ex. Biology focused on the Nazi race theory and justified the

superiority of the Aryan race All teachers and professors were closely watched

o To assure they did not stray from Nazi ideas

At 14 all boys and girls had to join youth groupso Boys: Hitler Youtho Girls: League of German maidenso Traditional family bonds were attacked as children were

taught to put loyalty to the Fuhrer firsto Children were encouraged to tell on their parents as well as

figures of authority to the Gestapo (Nazi police) if they expressed anti-Nazi views

o Foreign policy 1933: Germany left the League of Nations

Hitler protested that the Allies had not disarmed after WWI 1934: Attempted Nazi coup in Austria crushed

Attempt by Austrian Nazis to overthrow the government failed Austrian Prime Minister Dollfuss was killed in the attempt Hitler at first supported the attempted coup but disowned the

action when it was clear it would fail 1934: Poland and Germany sign alliance

o The first of his infamous ten year non-aggression pactso Caused a surprise in Europe at the timeo Alliance broke Germany’s diplomatic isolationo Also weakened France’s series of anti-German alliances in

Eastern Europeo However, like many of his agreements, this was only a

tactical move Hitler had no intention of honouring the agreement

in the long term 1935: Germany broke the military clauses of the Treaty of Versailles

Using the pretext that the other powers had not disarmed Hitler announced that Germany was going to reintroduce

conscription Created an army of 36 divisions Germany was going to build up an air force (the Luftwaffe) and

expand her navy All these were against the terms of the Treaty of Versailles

o But very popular in Germany Britain, Italy and France form the Stresa front in protest

o But took no further measureso This front was weakened when Italy invaded Ehtiopia

1936: German troops reoccupied the Rhineland British were not prepared to take any action There was a lot of sympathy in Britain for the German action

o Without British support, the French would not acto French built the Maignot line: series of forts on the German

border and felt secure behind it

He drew the conclusion that Britain and France were weak and that he could get away with more aggressive actions

o This is what finally convinces him to invade Poland, but does not get the reaction he expected

Rome-Berlin Axis signedo Alliance between Italy and Germanyo Agreement to pursue a joint foreign policyo Both agreed to stop the spread of communism in Europeo Pact of Steel

Open declaration of continuing trust and cooperation between Germany and Italy

Encouraged a union of policies concerning the military and economy

1938: Anschluss with Austria Nazi party in Austria and the many that supported the union made

this happen Austrian Prime Minister, after being threatened, tried to stop

spreading German influence by calling a referendumo This enraged Hitler and Prime Minister was forced to resigno New Nazi Prime Minister invited German troops in

1938: Sudetenland handed to Germany as a result of the Munich conference Hitler encouraged the Germans living in the Sudetenland to

demonstrate against Czech rule Munich Conference

o Britain, France, Germany and Italy (Czechs were not invited)o British and French agreed to Hitler’s demands and it seemed

as if the threat of war was averted 1939: Rest of the Czech lands occupied by the Germans

Hitler took over the rest of the Czech lands after encouraging the Slovaks to declare independence under German protection

Czech president was invited to Berlin and threatened with the bombing of Prague, should he not agree to German occupation

This was the first non-Germanic land that Hitler had seized This occupation outraged public opinion in Britain and marked the

end of appeasement 1939: Germany invaded Poland (WWII began)

Britain guaranteed Poland, after occupation of the rest of Czechoslovakia, that if she were attacked Britain would come to her aid

Under the Treaty of Versailles, Poland was given the German speaking port of Danzig and the Polish Corridor

o In order to give it access to the sea Hitler wanted to destroy Poland in order to gain living space

(Lebensraum)

Britain/France and Germany were trying to gain support of USSRo Stalin did not trust Britain and France (felt that they were

encouraging Hitler to attack Russia)o Stalin was also greatly angered by the Munich agreement

Ten Year Non-Aggression pacto Pact is signed between Germany and Soviet Uniono Soviet Union benefits

Given more time to prepare for war Gained a lot of territory in Eastern Europe

o German benefits If she attacked Poland she would not have to face a

two-front war Hitler was hoping that the pact with Russia would keep France and

Britain from going to war if Germany attacked Polando But within 2 days of the invasion of Poland, Britain and

France declared war on Germany (WWII begins) Search for collective security; appeasement in the interwar years; the failure of international

diplomacy; outbreak of war in 1939o Collective security

Creation of the League of Nations Originally thought up by Woodrow Wilson Wilson’s Fourteen Points

o Proposed a fair deal for Germany and the establishment of a League of Nations

Disarmament was meant to ensure collective securityo But the League had no way to enforce thiso When Germany rearmed there was very little it could do

about it Weaknesses of the League

o USA, USSR and Germany were not part of the League US isolationism kept them from joining international

affairso Appeasement in the interwar years

Appeasement: the policy of granting concessions to potential enemies to maintain peace

Britain adopted the policy of appeasement Appeasement began when Great Britain recognized Italy’s

annexation of Ethiopia Britain did nothing when Hitler annex Austria Munich Agreement

o Without Czechs there, Britain basically hands over all Sudeten territories to Germany

In return, Hitler promises to respect the sovereignty of the remaining parts of Czechoslovakia

Essentially, appeasement was a failed policyo Failure of international diplomacy

At first, internationalism had a chance to succeed It was a battle between internationalism and national self interest

The Great Depression deepened in intensity and duration National self-interest won out

Major shift toward authoritarian forms of government in the 1930s became a dominant issue of the interwar period

People didn’t care about helping others when they were dying within their nation

o Outbreak of war in 1939 Hitler invades Poland: Britain and France declare war

Second World War in Europe; Cold War: impact on Germany, NATO and military cooperationo Second World War

Allies vs. the Axis

Total war Holocaust Germany set out to establish a large empire in Europe Ends in the total victory of the Allies over the Axis in 1945 UN is established to foster international cooperation and prevent future

conflicts Soviet Union and US emerge as rival superpowers

Setting the stage for the Codl Waro Cold War: Impact on Germany

Germany divided conferences (US, Britain, Soviets = Roosevelt, Churchill, Stalin)

Tehran Conferenceo Agree to focus on defeating Hitler firsto Agree that after defeating Hitler they can come back and

help American with their war against Japan Yalta Conference

o Move Poland’s boundary westwardo Priority: Unconditional surrender of Nazi Germany

Germany was split into four occupied zones

Berlin was also split (so that no single nation had Berlin)

France was allowed to have the fourth occupation zone in Germany and Austria

Demilitarization and denazification in Germanyo Open up a second front to relieve some of the stress that

Russia is feelingo Russia agrees that they will mobilize to open up a front

against Japan Potsdam Conference (Roosevelt dies, Truman takes over)

o Truman is less lenient toward Stalin And also receives a phone call to inform him that

the US has reached the ability for nuclear warfare It is now just a matter of time and place

o Division of Germany and Austria into four occupation zones Splitting Vienna the way Berlin was split

o Reversal of all German annexations after 1937 Sudetenland, Alsace-Lorraine, Austria, Poland etc.

Economic infrastructure collapsed Inflation Shortage of food Millions of homeless East Germany

Established as a Stalin-style Socialist state Became a member of the Warsaw Pact Came to have one of the most advanced economies and standard of

living of the Soviet-bloc states West Germany

Became a surprisingly stable western democracy Even more so than East Germany

Allies were making sure that the Germans could never again begin the expansionism that had led to the two previous wars

Germany became the centre for all the tensions between Democracy and Communism

Russia, with its new found territory, replaced Germany as the country that was getting too big

o NATO (North Atlantic Treaty Organization) 1949 Treaty of Brussels is considered the precursor to the NATO agreement

Belgium, Netherlands, Luxembourg, France and UK Constitutes a system of collective defence

Its member states agree to mutual defence in response to an attack by an external party

Not much more than a political association But: Korean War galvanized the member states

o Raised the apparent threat of Communist countries working together

o Integrated military structure was built First NATO Secretary General (Lord Ismay)

The organizations goal was “to keep the Russians out, the Americans in, and the Germans down”

o Military cooperation

Post-war problems and political and economic recovery in Western Europe: devastation; debt 1945-9

o Establishment of United Nations (UN)o Military requirements of war had generated enormous advances in technology,

medicine, communications and the implements of war Radar devices had uses later

o Research that went into development of the atomic bomb Produced information about the phenomenon of radiation How it applied to such things as x-ray technology

o America is pulled out of Great Depression with the victory Along with Great Britain and France (who were still trying to pay US back

from WWI) Since US gave money to Germany to help pull them out of a

depression, and Germany gave that money to Great Britain and France for war debts

o Colonialism started to disappearo Militarily

New technologies Much improved tanks and airplanes Deadly atomic bomb Made wars faster and more brutal

o Economy Depression was over Massive government spending during the war had ended unemployment

and created new jobs for men and women Demands of the Cold War kept government spending at high levels Demand for consumer goods and new homes kept the economy moving

upwardo Politics

Weaker influence of Western Europe Previously, western Europe had shaped much of the way the world

ran But when these nations were exhausted economically, militarily etc.

they began to be shaped Result: bipolar equilibrium

o That is: Two superpowers: US and USSR

Women could vote in France and Italyo Capitalism vs. Communismo 1949: NATO

Establishment and consolidation of the Federal Republic of Germany to German reunification

o 1949: Establishment and consolidation of the Federal Republic of Germany Federal Republic of Germany = West Germany US and Great Britain combine their occupation zones into what came to be

known as Bizonia France agreed to become part of this arrangement, making the

three zones the Federal Republic of Germany Formally established as a separate and independent nation

Marked the effective end to any discussion of reuniting East and West Germany

Arrangement of divided Germany was supposed to be temporary But as the Cold War went on it was clear West and East would not

join together German reaction

Many Germans did not agree with this, since they were hoping that Germany might be reunited

Soviet reaction German Democratic Republic (East Germany) was officially

announced Marked the end of any talk to reunify Germany East and West Germany served as symbols of the divided world, and

of the Cold War animosities between the Soviet Union and the United States

o German reunification 1990: German Democratic Republic joined the Federal Republic of Germany 1989: Fall of the Berlin Wall Germans in both states welcomed the joining

Moves toward political and economic integration, cooperation and enlargement post-1945: EEC, EC, EU

o Moves toward European integration were seen by many as an escape from the extreme forms of nationalism which had devastated the continent

o European Economic Community (EEC) International organisation created with a view to bring about economic

integration among its six original members Belgium, France, Germany, Italy, Luxembourg and the Netherlands

Created by the Treaty of Rome (1957) Subsumed into the EU when it was created

o European Commission (EC) Executive body of the European Union Responsible for proposing legislation, implementing decisions, upholding the

Union’s treaties and the general day-to-day running of the Union

o European Union (EU) An economic and political union or confederation

Spain: Franco’s regime and transition to, and establishment of, democracy under Juan Carloso Franco’s regime

Political structures Represented pragmatic approach Had great flexibility in dealing with changing domestic and

international situationso Since he never formed a true, comprehensive, constitutional

system Fundamental Laws

Labour Chartero Set forth the social policy of the regimeo Stressed the mutual obligations of the state and its citizenso All Spaniards had the duty to work

The state was to assure them the right to worko Adequate wages, paid vacations and a limit to working

hours It ensured labour’s compliance with the new regime

by labelling strikes as treason Constituent Law of the Cortes (1942)

o Provided the trappings of constitutionalismo Cortes (Spanish Parliament) was purely an advisory body

Did not have the right to initiate legislation or to vote against the government

It could only approve laws presented by the executive

The Charter of Rightso More cosmetic than democratic

Government bestowed them and could suspend them without justification

o Placed more emphasis on the duty of all Spaniards to serve their country and obey its laws

o Ex. Spaniards have the right to express their opinions freely but were not to attack the fundamental principles of the state

Law on Referendao Attempt by Franco to make his regime appear less arbitraryo Provided that issues of national concern would be submitted

for the consideration of Spanish citizens by means of popular referenda

o Decreed this law without having consulted the Cortes Law of Succession

o Spain would be a “Catholic, social and representative monarchy”

o Franco would be regent for life Unless incapacitated

o Franco had the authority to name the next king when he thought the time was appropriate and also revoke his choice at a later date if he so desired

o Solidified Franco’s rule and legitimized his position as head of state by popular suffrage

Passed with over 90% approval Law on the Principles of the National Movement (1958)

o Law reaffirmed the nature of Spain as a traditional, Catholic monarchy

o All top government officials were required to pledge their loyalty to the principles embodied in this law

Organic Law of the State (1966)o Designed to codify and clarify existing practiceso Established a separation between the functions of the

president of government (prime minister) and the head of state

o Outlined procedures for the selection of top government officials

To make his regime seem more democratic Included pardons and reduced terms for prisoners convicted of civil

war crimes Guaranteed that refugees who returned would not be prosecuted if

they did not engage in political activitieso Transition

Ambitious plan that counted on ample support both within and outside of Spain

Proved challenging as the spectre of the Civil War still haunted Spaino Establishment of democracy under Juan Carlos (1975)

Death of Franco elevated Juan Carlos to the throne Until Franco’s death, Juan Carlos remained in the background and

seemed to follow the dictator’s plans of appointing him his successor as head of state with the time of King of Spain

Once in power, Juan Carlos facilitated the development of the current political system

Case study of one Western European state between 1945 and 2000 (excluding Germany and Spain): the nature of the government; domestic policies; opposition and dissent

o