1950

Coal 38%

Oil & Gas 58%

Hydro 5 %

1900

Coal73%

Wood 18%

Oil & Gas 9 %

Hydro<1%

2000

Coal 23%

Oil & Gas 63 %

Hydro 8 %

Alt3 %Nuc

3 %

1850

Wood91%

Coal 9%

After Miller 1975 & World Almanac 2004

1975

Coal18%

Oil & Gas 73%

Hydro 4 %

Nuc 3 %

Alt2 %

USA ENERGY

Oil Production Problems:

Blowouts: main problem: (must use heavy muds & blowout preventers) Spindletop 1901- 60 m hi gusher- lost 100,000 bbl/day Lakeville Gusher (1910) 544 days- lost 9 million bbl Deepwater Horizon 2010 lost ~ 5 M bbl

Brines- largest volume of liquid hazardous waste Subsidence (e.g., Long Beach, CA) Earthquakes (due to Hydrofracking)

Deepwater Horizon April 21, 2010 11 fatalities 4.9 MBbl lost Cost to BP by 11/2012: $36B for cleanup + fines + penalties + reparations

US Coast Guard

http://www.uwsp.edu/geo/faculty/ozsvath/images/long_beach.htm

Long Beach, CA1928-1968 Subsidence (m) due to Oil Production

NYT 2016

Transportation Sea transport: 60% Huge supertankers (e.g., 200’ x 1350’; cannot go thru Suez Canal!); Many spills- Table 7.5 Kesler p. 142

Hijacking Pipelines: Safe but expensive many check valves (can have some trouble, e.g. w/ permafrost) e.g. $8 bil Alyeska pipeline- Prudhoe Bay to port of Valdez = 1265 km 1.5 Mbbl/day 14 spills since 1977, largest was 15,000 bbl loss by sabotage Keystone >875 miles; $8B; stalled, recently approved (dilbit=diluted bitumen)

Sirius Star Hijacked Nov 2008Saudi Arabia Somali Pirates offshore Kenya

1080 ft 25 crew 2 Mbbl oil ($100M) NYT 11/18/08

NOAAAmoco Cadiz 1.6 M bbl slick 16 x 80 miles off Brittany CoastMarch 1979

Kesler 21

Exxon Valdez Oil Spill 240,000 bbl5/89 Prince William Sound

Kesler 22

Oil Spill6/92 Prince William Sound

Kesler 40

“Patriot” double-hulled tanker250 m long 692,000 bbl Korean shipyard

Lakeview Gusher SiteJuly 2014

Criss

1910

Kesler 39

Alyeska Pipeline near Fairbanks AKElevated (permafrost)

2.6 Million Miles135 oil pipeline spills/y60,000 bbl oil lost/y

Largest Oil Spills

Wikipedia

CAUSES OF LARGEST SPILLSINTERNATIONAL CONFLICTSPRODUCTIONSUPERTANKERS

Tar Sands & Heavy Oils Black viscous HC's, do not flow easily; generally high S (3-6%)

Derived from oil at shallow depths by loss of light fractions Oxidation, biodegradation, thermal maturation

Energy content of Heavy oil + Tar sand reserves ~ Oil reserves

Tar sands yield heavy oil products, but little gasoline

Environmental problems: high S, N & metal content Athasabaska tar sands, NE Alberta, Canada World’s largest reserve of tar sands, 1 TBBL, 75,000 km2 60 m thick Only 35 bil. bbl extractable at present Sand has 8-14% bitumen Oil contains 5% S

Large commercial production $3.6G Syncrude plant: mines 160 MT/yr => 95 Mbbl/y Strip mine, hot H2O wash, get tar, process (add H) In situ production being investigated

Also, Orinoco district, Venezuela & Olenec deposit, Russia

Kesler 41

SYNCRUDE Tar Sand Mine & Processing PlantFt. Murray, Alberta95 Mbbl/y @ 0.5 bbl/ton

Syncrude

Wikipedia public domain

Washington Post

KEYSTONEPIPEINE

NYT 11/23/16

Will Cross: Missouri River (2x)Sioux RiverDes Moines RiverMississippi RiverIllinois River

Lac Megantic Derailment35,000 bbl; 47 fatalities 7/6/2013

Surete du Quebec/ Wikipedia

Hercules CA oil refinery Criss

Refining Heat crude to ~500°C; distill; different HC's condense @ different T Early refining: threw gasoline away- too explosive Fractional Distillation Increase lighter fractions Catalytic cracking Hydrogenation Modern Refinery can produce: Petrochemicals 3% Gasoline 44 % Jet Fuel 9% Fuel Oil 21 % Heavy oils 14 % Coke, Lubricants 9 % Seasonal: More fuel oil produced during winter; more gasoline during summer

http://www.schoolscience.co.uk/content/4/chemistry/fossils/p8.html

Crude OilFractional Distillation Column

Gasoline44 %

Diesel21 %

Jet Fuel 9 %

Heavy Oils 14 %

Coke &Lubricants 9 %

Petrochemicals 2.7 %

Crude Oil Productsafter Craig et al. 2001, p. 166

USA: One of world’s least energy efficient industrialized countries

Reasons for Inefficiency Poor public transportation Urban sprawl (e.g., St. Louis!) Low fuel cost, low tax (e.g., MO 17c ~#46) Fed Tax 18.4c/gal since 1993

=> High automobile use 85% of use for short trips No carpooling (< 1/5 of cars have passenger) Auto MGP lower by 25% Many possibilities for improvement !

Hi MPG auto prototypes for 63 MPG city, 81 MPG hwy!

More efficient appliances, motors, lights: e.g., compact fluorescent lights; Energy Star appliances; High Efficiency Furnaces => 24 - 44% electrical savings is possible

Appropriate pricing & tax structures

Think Locally: St. Louis Metrolink expansion; Bike paths; MO Gas Tax too low

WHATS NEXT ? Rapid decline in global oil production anticipated ~2020 ff AD? Get more: Extreme, costly sites: Deep offshore, Arctic… BP $4.5B settlement; $36 B total so far Secondary Recovery Oil shales, Tar Sands Oil mining- USA still has est 63% of oil in orig. reservoirs, but not pumpable Synthetic Oil ? Coal Liquefaction WWII Germany- synthetic gasoline South Africa today- import reduction Conserve? Develop alternate energy sources?

History of Use of Gas

Ancient China- bamboo pipes; burned to boil brines to get salt 600 AD: temples- eternal flames Caspian area

1600's Gas from coal, wood or peat used for lighting in Europe (coal + steam = coal gas)

1812 ff commercial gas light companies = Manufactured gas that can be produced where and when needed Water gas C (coke) + H2O = CO +H2 Miner’s Lamps CaC2 + H2O = C2H2 (acetylene) + CaO

USA 1775 Burning springs, W Va seen by George Washington 1821 Fredonia NY natural gas well => commercial company in 1865 1872 Gas pipelines in PA & NY; 2004 > 1 million miles of pipelines in USA

Now provides ~22% of world’s energy; used mostly for heating

Advantages of Gas Gas burns cleanly Gas is easily handled, Gas requires no refining, only minor processing (remove H2S etc.; add scent) Gas has very high energy content Gas is useful for petrochemicals Gas is important for homes, businesses- heating; cooking…

Slow Gas Industry Growth Vast quantities of gas are "flared" off Middle East (8.5% flared), Africa (20%) Russia; Mid East, Nigeria, North Sea…! Nat Geo., 10/1998

Morrow Co, OH 1960’s Flaring is less common now but still continues LNG Tankers (liquified natural gas, -160°C; 1/600 volume Easy transport

Astonishing to Waste

GAS Distribution & Reserves = 5460 Tcf = 154 T m3 Source of ~22% of world’s energy; used mostly for heating; increasing use for transportation & electricity generation All continents, but very irregular distribution Southern hemisphere has low share (Africa 7%; S Am 4%); 31 % of reserves occur in Russia 35 % of reserves occur in Middle East Mega province 46% OPEC 3 % USA

Strange trade pattern- Most major exporters are countries with moderate reserves Canada, Norway, Netherlands, Algeria, Malaysia, Indonesia Russia is exception

Iran: Huge reserves, no production

Gas Reserves = 5460 Tcf = 154 T m3 In terms of energy content, Gas reserves ~ Oil reserves

Conventional Reserves Russia: leader by far Iran: huge reserves but flares off! USA: well-endowed, but is a major importer

Unconventional Reserves

Coal bed methane

Geopressured Aquifers

Tight Sands- low f and k

Gas Hydrates

Landfill Gas

Shale gas (Marcellus, Woodford,…)

GAS RESERVES5460 TcfOGJ 2002

UARNigeria

Iran

Other OPEC

Qatar

USA, Mexico, Canada

Russia

AustraliaOther

Norway

Venezuela

Iraq

USA now 2x greatershale gas

eia

Composition of Gas Mostly methane CH4 Some ethane, propane & butane Also CO2 N2 Ar NH3 H2S undesirable, all decrease caloric value

He – comes from gas wells; & very valuable- U, Th decay!

Sour gas (> 1 ppm H2S) Acid, corrosive, poisonous Sweet gas (< 1 ppm H2S) Neutral pH

Wet gas: has easily condensable gases like ethane, propane & butane…. => problems in pipelines & UG storage reservoirs Dry gas: mostly CH4

=> Dry, sweet gas = best; most valuable Composition of Typical Gas (Skinner 1986, p. 39) C 65-80 % H 10-25 S trace - 0.2 N 1-15 O -----

Geologic Occurrence of Gas Most gas occurs in sedimentary rocks, both terrestrial & marine. to > 10 km depth Most carbon from biological precursors

Source: Mostly fine-grained, organic-rich marine shales, low 13C EPR Methane- abiogenic – rare; non commercial- high 13C

Low Temperature Production Anaerobic methanogenesis: biogenic CH4 Shallow; e.g., swamp gas (~ 20% of commercial gas) 2 CH2O = CO2 + CH4

Medium Temperature Production

Heat shales to 50 - 150°C, buried organic matter => oil Higher T: thermogenic gas (~ 80% of commercial gas) Wet gas, then dry gas if deeper

Conventional Traps Gas accumulates in structural & stratigraphic traps, like oil

http://www.geo.ucalgary.ca/~macrae/timescale/timescale.html

World GasReserves after Craig et al. 2001

Slow Gas Industry Growth Vast quantities of gas are "flared" off Middle East (8.5% flared), Africa (20%) Russia; Mid East, Nigeria, North Sea…! Nat Geo., 10/1998 Morrow Co, OH 1960’s

Flaring is less common now but still continues LNG Tankers (liquefied natural gas, -160°C; 1/600 volume Easy transport Advantages of Gas Gas burns cleanly Gas is easily handled, Gas requires no refining, only minor processing (remove H2S etc.; add scent) Gas has very high energy content Gas is useful for petrochemicals Gas is. important for homes, businesses- heating; cooking…

Astonishing to Waste

http://www.ferc.gov/images/photogallery/lng_sksummit.jpgLNG Tanker