HUMANS ANDHUMANS ANDNON-HUMANSNON-HUMANS

A Spectrum

““Western” paradigm emphasizes gulf Western” paradigm emphasizes gulf

between humans and animalsbetween humans and animals

■ Religious traditions: humans as “the crown of creation”, e.g. Judaism, Christianity, Islam.

■ Secular traditions: humans as unique autonomous, rational, moral. technological language users e.g. Aristotle, Kant.

■ “Evolutionary ethics”: humans as “the crown of

evolution”, e.g. Huxley (but not Darwin!)

Ecological perspective: fate of humans Ecological perspective: fate of humans is bound up with fate of the rest of is bound up with fate of the rest of

nature.nature.

■ Midgley: natural human affinity towards other

animals.

■ Norton: scientific perspective implies harmony

with nature.

■ Traditional societies e.g. Maaori: all living things are related, as descendents of Tane.

■ Animal liberation: we have duties to all animals,

and their interests are (nearly) always equal to those of Humans. (Singer)

■ Biocentric egalitarianism: we have duties to all living things. (Taylor)

■ Nonanthropocentric environmental ethics: we ought to pursue environmental justice because all species are equal. (Sterba)

■ We have duties to at least some “environmental

objects” (Stone).

■ We have (largely unspecified) duties to “the land”. (Callicott, Leopold)

■ We have duties to inanimate objects e.g. buildings, works of art.

AnthropocentrismAnthropocentrism

■ Concept

All and only human beings have moral standing; or, the appropriate criterion of moral standing is membership in Homo sapiens.

ApplicationsApplications■ We have duties concerning animals (as we do concerning works of art or cars) but not

to animals.

►We may treat animals as we wish, except where the interests of others are affected, eg dog owners, recreational hunters, bird watchers (Baxter)

► We ought not to mistreat animals because if we do we are likely to become the kind of person who mistreats humans (Aquinas, Kant).

■ “Weak anthropocentrism” - the human

interest requires a respect for natural systems (Norton).

►Sustainability - obligations to future generations.

► Personal spiritual development - Buddhist monks, Jains, Ghandi.

Sentience Based EthicsSentience Based Ethics

■ Concept

All and only sentient beings have moral standing.

►Sentience: ability to have sensations, to experience pleasure and pain.

Key Philosophical IssuesKey Philosophical Issues

■ What counts as having a sensation?

► How do we know that an animal is having a sensation?

► Is “sensation” talk just an inference from behaviour?

■ Can we talk about anything except behaviour?

►Is there anything except behaviour?

ApplicationsApplications

Descartes (and/or his followers): animals are non-sentient “machines” and so have no moral standing.

►Bentham, Singer: most animals are sentient, and it is wrong to cause them to suffer except where that would be the only way to create the best outcome.

UTILITARIANISM UTILITARIANISM SingerSinger

Utilitarianism requires that all interests (or preferences) be taken equally into account.

►“Speciesism” - ignoring the interests of a being just because it belongs to another species - is wrong, just like racism and sexism.

■ All sentient beings have an equal interest in

avoiding suffering, e.g. farming of animals inflicts suffering – and also denies food to starving people.

►We do not need (e.g.) to eat animal products.

► So we ought (e.g.) to become vegetarians.

■ Similar argument against painful use of

animals, e.g.

► research

► product testing

► sport and entertainment.

■ Is the analogy with racism and sexism valid?

■ Are the consequences the ONLY thing that matters, morally?

■ How do we know that animals suffer?

■ Isn't “sentientism” just as bad a form of discrimination as speciesism?

Would PAINLESS farming and killing of animals be

wrong?

What difference will MY actions make to animals

- or to starving people?

Is “moral atomism” adequate to deal with environmental issues?

Sentience Based EthicsSentience Based Ethics

■ Concept:

All and only beings with specific properties have moral standing.

ApplicationsApplications

Regan: subjects of a life.

MA Warren, Tooley: self-concept.

Huxley: language.

RIGHTSRIGHTS

Regan

■ All beings with certain properties are PERSONS, regardless of race, sex or species.

■ Many non-humans are persons e.g. gods, aliens (ET?), some animals - and e.g. irreversibly comatose humans are not.

■ All persons have inherent value and not mere instrumental value.

■ All inherently valuable beings have rights:

► independently of consequences

► regardless of how many people recognize their rights.

■ Rights may not be violated in order to

bring about good consequences.

► (e.g.) Killing animals for food violates their rights.

■ So we ought (e.g.) to become vegetarians

(etc.).

SOME QUESTIONS FOR REGANSOME QUESTIONS FOR REGAN

■ Is the analogy with racism and sexism valid?

■ Isn't “personism” just as bad a form of discrimination as speciesism?

■ Why should we accept Regan's account of

personhood?

■ How do we know that animals have the

properties of persons?

■ Is “moral atomism” adequate to deal with

environmental issues?

RIGHTS FOR WHAT?RIGHTS FOR WHAT?Humans?

Selected sentient beings?All sentient beings?

All living beings?Individual natural objects?

Places?Works of art?Corporations?

Cultures, peoples, nations?Species?Planets?

The universe?Everything?