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Humanitarianism and Hollywood Films

Courtney Jensen Peacock Humanitarianism Michael Barnett

20 May 2009

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The release of Beyond Borders in October 2003 marked a novel attempt to produce a

Hollywood Blockbuster focused so heavily on humanitarian issues. Yet, the film incited fierce

protest and controversy in the aid sector. The fictional story, in which the heroic lead doctor and

his NGO decide to engage in weapons dealing in exchange for funding and resources from the

CIA, met intense criticism for possibly endangering the lives of real aid workers as well as the

reputation and funding efforts of NGOs. Furthermore, the filmmakers’ claims to UN general

staff and UNICEF approval met with vehement denials from these organizations, who were

receiving some heat for their supposed tacit endorsement.1 This episode with Beyond Borders

highlights interesting and important questions regarding both the role of media in reflecting and

shaping perception as well as contemporary discourse and tensions relating to humanitarianism.

The present study will seek to explore these two areas by investigating the socio-

economic-political context of a number of Hollywood Blockbuster films and how this relates to

the meanings they ascribe to humanitarian efforts. While measuring the direct impact of these

films on people’s behavior and perceptions is extremely difficult, if not impossible, films can

provide insight into the discourses that shapes subjects’ actions and understanding of the world

and their role in it. This endeavor will hopefully offer greater understanding of the tensions

facing humanitarianism as a conceptual movement in the twenty-first century and how aid work

is perceived both within and outside the aid sector.

While a number of analyses and critical reviews of individual films have been

undertaken, this paper will attempt a systematic examination of trends and patters in the

portrayal of humanitarianism in a number of feature films, with a focus on how these films

engage with the broader discourses concerning power relations between those who give aid as 1Nick Cater, “New Jolie movie risks aid worker lives” AlertNet Thomas Retuers Foundation, 4 November 2003, available online at http://www.alertnet.org/thefacts/reliefresources/106794248631.htm, accessed 20 April 2009.

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well as receive it. The first section will explain the relevance of this type of study by explaining

the significance of fictional media in the social construction of reality. The next section will

briefly outline key elements of humanitarianism that will be explored in the films, particularly

consequentialist and virtues ethics and humanitarian intervention. Then the films themselves

will be analyzed, beginning with an-depth look at Beyond Borders and its championing of

consequentialist ethics, followed by an analysis of humanitarian themes in a number of films,

including Behind Enemy Lines (John Moore dir., 2001), Tears of the Sun (Antoine Fuqua dir.,

2003), Sahara (Breck Eisner dir., 2005), Rambo IV (Sylvester Stallone dir., 2008). Focus on

how aid workers and organizations included in narratives of these films legitimate humanitarian

intervention and The inclusion of aid workers and organizations in these films reinforce current

power structure of the international system.

Why care what Hollywood films say?

Scholars, policymakers, and the media have long recognized that a substantive

relationship exists between mass media and international relations. Discussions of a “Vietnam

Syndrome”2 and “CNN effect”, though sometimes criticized for being exaggerated, assert the

connection between representations in news media and the development of policies.3 These

observations may be especially pertinent for perceptions and understanding of the humanitarian

sector by the general public, whose main exposure to this related information comes from the

media.4

2 Barkawi, Tarak. “Globalization, Culture, and War: On the Popular Mediation of "’Small Wars’” Cultural Critique 58 (2004): 115. 3 Robert Rotberg and Thomas Weiss, eds. From Massacres to Genocide: the media, public policy, and humanitarian crisis (Washington DC: The Brookings Institution, 1996), 138 & 163. 4 Cater.

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Despite these observations, however, some may question the impact of fictional media on

people’s opinions and understanding of the world. Increasing empirical evidence indicates that

fictional narratives affect spectators’ beliefs and perceptions of social problems as much as non-

fiction sources.5 Mass media, such as Hollywood films, contribute to the construction and

reconstruction of societal values and serve as an instrument through which certain narratives and

values that contribute to self-awareness and behavior are circulated.6 In regards to awareness of

humanitarianism specifically, the rise of infotainment and celebrity involvement may blur the

line between reality and fiction.7 Added to this, the portrayals of humanitarian crises in films

share great similarities to their portrayal in news media, as will be discussed below.

While the main purpose here is not to demonstrate the direct impact of films on behavior,

as a point of interest a number of examples will be provided that demonstrate the perceived

connection between fictional media and people’s socio-political-economic perceptions and

actions. First off is the NGO outcry against Beyond Borders and the threat to aid workers’ safety

already mentioned. Another example is diamond companies’ organization of an extensive PR

campaign leading up to the release of Blood Diamond to combat any possible damage to

diamond sales.8 Furthermore, military leaders have attributed “24”, the wildly popular television

show, with influencing military personnel’s perception of torture as an acceptable interrogation

technique.9

5 L.J. Shrum, The Psychology of Entertainment Media: Blurring the Lines Between Entertainment and Persuasion (Hillside, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum, 2003), 163-164 6Ciaran MacCullagh, Media power: a sociological introduction (New York: Palgrave, 2002), 143 and Janet Wasko, How Hollywood Works (London: Sage Publications Ltd, 2003), 2. 7 For a discussion of infotainment, see Daya Kishan Thussu, News as Entertainment: The Rise of Global Infotainment (London: Sage Publishers, 2007). For analysis of celebrity humanitarian work, see Alex de Waal, “The Humanitarian Carnival: A Celebrity Vogue” World Affairs (Fall 2008). 8 Frank Langfitt, “Industry Braces for Blowback from 'Blood Diamond'” National Public Radio 20 Oct. 2006, available online at http://www.npr.org/templates/story/story.php?storyId=6353402, accessed 15 March 2009. 9 Jane Mayer, “Whatever It Takes” The New Yorker 19 Feb 2007.

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As humanitarianism sees continual growth in numbers and importance in the

international system, the portrayal of the aid sector in mass media may have significant impact

on both expectations for and outcomes of humanitarian efforts. Investigating its representation

in a number of Hollywood films is just one way of exploring some aspects of contemporary

understanding of concept of humanitarianism.

Humanitarianism and Hollywood in the Twenty-First Century

In the past eight years, a number of Hollywood films featured aid workers and

organizations as central characters and protagonists. Films such as Black Hawk Down (2001),

Behind Enemy Lines (2001), Beyond Borders (2003), Tears of the Sun (2003), Hotel Rwanda

(2004), Sahara (2005), Constant Gardner (2005), Blood Diamond (2006), Last King of Scotland

(2006), and Rambo IV (2008) all incorporate humanitarian themes into their narratives. While

this type of inclusion is not entirely novel, the plethora of these types of films within such a short

time span seems to indicate a new trend in the prominent role of humanitarian actors and issues

in popular narratives; this trend reflects the increased significance of humanitarianism in the

international system.10 In the post-Cold War era, humanitarianism has flourished, as indicated

by the swell in funding and the growth of organizations, states, agencies, and staff committed to

a humanitarian agenda.11

While each of these films offer interesting and compelling texts to explore perceptions of

and tensions within humanitarianism, the limit of the present study necessitates a narrowing of

10 Tony Vaux, “Humanitarian Trends,” in Ingo Richter, Sabine Berking and Ralf-Müller-Schmid, eds., Building a Transnational Civil Society: global issues and global actors (New York: Palgrave Macmillan, 2006), 192, and Michael Barnett and Thomas Weiss, “Humanitarianism in Question,” in Michael Barnett and Tom Weiss, eds., Humanitarianism in Question: Politics, Power, Ethics (Ithaca: Cornell University Press, 2008), 29. 11 Barnett and Weiss, 8.

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focus. The aim here will be to investigate how five Hollywood Blockbusters reveal critical

dynamics in the contemporary humanitarian discourse, particularly the increased role of

consequentialist ethics and its relation to the aid sectors participation in humanitarian

intervention projects. Each of the films, Behind Enemy Lines, Beyond Borders, Tears of the Sun,

Sahara, and Rambo IV, were released after the first “humanitarian war” in Kosovo12 as well as

9/11, two events which significantly impacted world’s view of humanitarianism.

A discursive analysis of the social, political, and economic context of these films will

seek to demonstrate how they contribute, maintain and reproduce structures of power13 in which

humanitarianism plays a key role and the relationship of humanitarianism with “politics, power,

and ethics.”14 The films will be read according to a Western, predominantly U.S., context as

each movie was produced within the Hollywood studio system and are, therefore, products of

American culture. Furthermore, in regards to the humanitarian discourse, the focus will be on

issues relating to expatriate, international organizations, as the aid sector is still dominated by

North American and Western European actors.15

The first section will examine the film Beyond Borders as a springboard for explicating

the various ethical paradigms that influence humanitarian action. The next section will briefly

outline the plots of the other four films. Following this will be an analytical description of the

Hollywood industry in order to elucidate how economic factors relate to the production and

distribution of major motion pictures and influence their content. The subsequent segment will

read all five films in connection with each other as well as news media and humanitarian

12 Fiona Terry, “Humanitarian Action: victim of its own success,” in OCHA, The Humanitarian Decade: challenges for humanitarian assistance in the last decade and into the future vol. 2 (Geneva: The United Nations, 2004), 43. 13 Wasko, 10. 14 Barnett and Weiss, 9. 15 Ibid., 32.

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organizations to better comprehend the predominant ideological framing of humanitarian crises

in Western discourse. Then an analysis will expound the function of these films in the attempt to

redeem a U.S. morality especially in connection with armed humanitarian interventions or

“virtuous wars.” This will be followed by the conclusion.

Beyond Borders: An Ethical Challenge

Perhaps Beyond Borders serves as the best place to start as it overtly presents itself as a

film about humanitarianism. A passionate adventure, the film follows the evolution of the

relationship between Sarah Jordan (played by Angelina Jolie), a wealthy American socialite, and

Nick Callahan (played by Clive Owen), a doctor and co-leader of an NGO, that parallel’s Sarah’s

personal journey from ignorant naivety to an active involvement as a U.N. employee. The

melodrama provides a glimpse into the difficulties experienced by aid workers by tracing the

efforts of one NGO throughout crises in Ethiopia, Cambodia, and Chechnya from the period of

1984-1995.

The film’s publicity and advertising campaign, a key part of film production process,

presented it as a love story set against the backdrop of humanitarian work and emphasized its

engagement with refugee issues.16 The region 1 DVD cover contains the tagline “In a place she

didn't belong, among people she never knew, she found a way to make a difference” (see image

1) which corresponds well with the notion of humanitarianism as “the desire to reduce the

16 Victoria Jones, “Victoria Jones interviews Martin Campbell,” Talk Radio News Service. 20 October 2003, available online at http://talkradionews.com/2003/10/victoria-jones-interviews-martin-campbell-director-of-beyond-borders-the-movie-opens-october-24-and-stars-angelina-jolie-and-clive-owen-a-vivid-portrayal-of-the-lives-and-heroism-of-i/, accessed 2 May 2009; and http://www.paramount.com/paramount.php

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suffering of distant strangers.”17 While the concept of humanitarianism remains fluid depending

on its context, this paper focuses on the global humanitarian public-private network consisting of

states, international governmental organizations (IGOs), non-governmental organizations

(NGOs) and private actors(see Weiss book). As Jolie attributed the film as her inspiration for

getting involved with the United Nations and Beyond Border’s release coincided with the

publication of Jolie’s Notes from My Travels (2003), a collection of journal entries from her real-

life experiences as a Goodwill Ambassador for the United Nations High Commissioner for

Refugees (UNHCR) from 2001-2002.18 Also, Kofi Annan, then U.N. General-Secretary, and

Ruud Lubbers, High Commissioner for Refugees, attended the film’s premiere in New York.19

Directed by Martin Campbell, known for his action films, Beyond Borders exemplifies

the Blockbuster film, with its reliance on spectacle, effect, and star appeal;20 yet despite the

Hollywoodization of a serious topic, the film’s creators exerted great effort to present a realistic

version of humanitarian work. Campbell described the film as a romantic adventure that would

help people learn about the world and claimed that all the details were meticulously researched.

He asserted that filmmakers made changes to the script in response to U.N input and that Kofi

Annan and forty of his top staff gave their approval of the film’s realism.21 They also consulted

veteran aid worker Steven Hansch, a researcher at Georgetown University’s Institute for the

Study of International Migration, who commended the film’s realistic depiction of feeding

17 Michael Barnett, “Humanitarianism,” Syllabus, Graduate Institute of International and Development Studies., Geneva, Spring 2009. 18Linda Lopez, “Interview with Angelina Jolie, Beyond Borders” E News Live, 2003, available online at http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=MUZqMor7TQw, accessed 10 March 2009 19 Cater. 20 Geoff King, Spectacular Narratives: Hollywood in the age of the Blockbuster (London: I.B. Taruis, 2001), 2. Martin Campbell directed, among other things, Golden Eye (1995), Casino Royale (2006) and the Zorro series (1998 and 2005) 21 Cater; and Jones.

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centers, immunization programs and well-drilling.22 Despite its sometimes superficial

contextualization, the film provides a nice overview of the scope of issues and places aid the

sector deals with: a famine in Ethiopia, refugees and internally displaced people along the Thai-

Cambodian, and victims of conflict in Chechnya.

In addition to the film’s technical details and the accuracy of settings, the story itself

corresponded with actual dilemmas confronting many aid operations in the post-cold war era.

The most compelling example of this occurs in the film’s engagement with the various ethical

positions taken by the humanitarian community, which have been forced into new, tense

relationships in the post-Cold War period. Humanitarianism defines itself as primarily

concerned with saving lives and reducing suffering and is generally regarded as the ultimate

ethical or moral undertaking. Yet, the humanitarian community faces a number of possible

ethnical positions that impact priorities and outcomes.23 The traditional approach espoused by

humanitarian actors is a deontological or duty-based ethics, which determines the goodness of an

act to be inherent regardless of the consequences.24 This view relates to a principle-centered

approach in which ethical acts are based on the core humanitarian principles of independence,

impartiality, and neutrality.25

Tragic failures, such as Rwanda, prompted intense reflection by aid agencies and a

newfound emphasis on actual outcomes and effects.26 These concerns support a consequentialist

ethical view that evaluates the rightness of an action based on its outcomes in comparison to

alternative deeds. Similarly, a pragmatist perspective acknowledges the need to violate or bend 22 Cater. 23 Barnett and Weiss, 9-11. 24 Ibid., 43-44. 25 Antonio Donini, “Is Universality Under Threat? Humanitarian Aid and Intervention in the 2000s” in Ingo Richter, Sabine Berking and Ralf-Müller-Schmid, eds., Building a Transnational Civil Society: global issues and global actors (New York: Palgrave Macmillan, 2006), 223. 26 Vaux, 190-191.

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principles in order to take action in complicated, politicized situations.27 The increasing

incorporation of business discourse into the aid sector, with its stress on efficiency and outcomes,

only further supports these viewpoints.28

Virtue ethics provides a third possible framework. In this case, the character of the acting

individual determines the rightness of the action and this view corresponds with the typical

stereotype of aid workers as inherently virtuous, heroic, compassionate and courageous.29

These internal tensions in regards to various ethical approaches guiding humanitarian

efforts have been intensified due the increased instrumentalization and securitization of

humanitarianism as well as changes in funding. While the adoption of humanitarian rhetoric to

justify interventions is not a new phenomenon, this type of manipulation has appeared far more

frequently in the past two decades. By the late 1990s humanitarianism became coupled with the

Western security agenda and, after 9/11, humanitarianism became a central element

counterterrorism strategies and global politics.30 Concurrent with these shifts, the major donors,

for the most part states, increased their earmarked funds and bilateral aid.31 The new emphasis

on outcomes and eagerness for funding pressure aid agencies to become part of the strategic

framework of humanitarian interventions, like in Afghanistan and Iraq, that are often referred to

as ‘coherence’ or ‘integration.” 32 This increasing trend of humanitarian cooperation with states

and militaries blur the lines between humanitarian and non-humanitarian actors and threatens to

subordinate humanitarian concerns to the political agendas of the U.N, and states.33

27 Donini, 223. 28 Barnett and Weiss, 28. 29 Ibid., 45. 30 Ibid., 25; and Vaux, 192. 31 Barnett and Weiss, 34. 32 Vaux, 192. 33 Rafael Vila San Juan, “Humanitarian Engagement,” in OCHA, The Humanitarian Decade: challenges for humanitarian assistance in the last decade and into the future, vol. 2 (Geneva: The United Nations, 2004), 24.

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Reflecting these tensions and contradictions within the aid sector itself, Beyond Borders

does not present a monolithic humanitarian ethic but captures the complexity in the positions

adopted by various characters in the film. While Nick represents consequentialist ethics and

virtue ethics, Sarah symbolizes a more principle, duty-based approach and the tension between

these two viewpoints is embodied in two confrontations between the two.34 The first deals with

the question of triage in regards to a seemingly doomed woman and her baby that arises with

Sarah’s first trip to the Ethiopian camp and first exposure to a humanitarian crisis. Whereas the

seasoned Nick disagrees with “wasting” energy and resources on these two, the freshly-arrived

Sarah resists Nick’ mocking condescension and insists on offering some kind of treatment for the

baby. While the mother dies, seeming to justify Nick’s position, the baby miraculously lives due

to Sarah’s determined refusal to quit; this serves as impressive proof for the film’s other tagline,

“Where hope survives.”

The second altercation relates to the stories central conflict that highlights the challenges

many humanitarian organizations face in their efforts to acquire funding. The film opens with a

charity gala in London which Nick crashes to publicly condemn the decision to the cut of

funding to his camp in Ethiopia as a result of its communist leanings. Following this spectacle,

Nick is approached by a seedy undercover CIA agent, Mr. Steiger, who offers to give him money

in exchange for access to Ethiopia under the cover of his NGO. After Nick insists that he is “no

warrior” but “in the relief business” and not interested, Steiger points out that “passion is cheap”

and “freedom is an expensive commodity.” Still, Nick resolutely refuses: “If you’re looking for

a dancing bear, try the fucking circus.”

34 Nick and Sarah’s reactions also offer interesting way of examining psychological coping of long-term aid workers versus “fresh” arrivals, see Fiona Terry, Condemned to Repeat: the paradox of humanitarian action (Ithaca, NY: Cornell University Press, 2002), 224-230.

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After failed appeals to a variety of donors, including Oxfam, USAID, private donors, and

even wealthy relatives, Nick suggests the possible acceptance of Steiger’s offer to his friend and

co-runner of the NGO, Eliot (Noah Emmerich), who vehemently rebuffs the idea. However,

after a failed appeal to the Ethiopian government, Nick accepts Steiger’s conditional offer. This

begins the use of Nick and Eliot’s NGO as a means to traffic weapons hidden in supplies of food

and drugs, and Steiger implies that this practice extends beyond Nick, who is “not [Steiger’s]

only child.”

Five years later, 1989, sees Nick and Eliot working in Cambodia along the Thai border

during the Vietnam occupation. Due to the volatile situation, Nick and Eliot appeal to Sarah,

now an UNHCR employee, to put a UN stamp on their transit. During the transportation of the

supplies, Vietnamese troops stop the trucks and search the boxes. Upon discovering the weapons

and other strategic materials (intelligence files), the General proceeds to physically attack Nick.

When he stops, Sarah continues and even spits on him in order to show that she, and the UN,

were ignorant of the weapons.

The ensuing showdown between Sarah and Nick dramatically articulates the

contradictory positions of principle-based versus consequentialist ethics.

Nick: I came here to help these people and the only way I can do that is if I transport guns. Sarah: You don’t have to transport guns to help people. Nick: You do here. Sarah: So fuck the next person who tries to bring a shipment full of medicine in for people…As long as you get what you need today, fuck everybody else. Nick: Nobody else comes here, so what do you want me to do? You want me to watch thousands of kids die of measles because I wouldn’t bend the rules. Is that a price worth paying? Or am I actually killing more than I’m saving? You seriously believe that I don’t worry about that? That I don’t think about that every minute of every day? What’s worse, you tell me? Tell me what I should do.35

35The key points of this argument are also presented in the film’s trailer, so even those who do not actually see the film grasp this central dilemma.

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The camera then shifts to Sarah’s stricken face and music dramatically fills the silence left by her

failure to provide an answer. The only resolution to the argument, and related ethical dilemma,

comes in the next scene when Sarah angrily commands Eliot to “never compromise another

organization for your own ever again”, and Sarah never repudiates Nick’s justifications for his

questionable actions.

It is difficult to determine which, if any, of the ethics the film prioritizes or champions.

Despite his good intentions, Nick’s consequentialist approach could seem to be the cause of

several tragic outcomes, including the murder of Eliot by the Khmer Rouge, Nick’s own

kidnapping, and, ultimately, Sarah’s death during an attempt to rescue Nick.

However despite these questionable outcomes, Nick remains a charismatic, heroic figure,

whose sincere commitment to reducing suffering and saving lives is never questioned.

Immediately after being tainted by his weapons trafficking, Nick’s virtue is reestablished by his

refusal to flee the Khmer Rouge (angry at losing the weapons and files) without first using all the

vaccinations even though it may risk his life. That evening, following Eliot’s death, Sarah

declares her romantic feelings and they sleep together. Yet, despite his love for her, Nick forces

Sarah to leave to protect her and prevent the breakup of her family.

Critics lament Beyond Borders as a lost opportunity to educate the public regarding

humanitarian issues.36 As Angelina Jolie has highlighted in interviews, Sarah’s journey could

serve as a metaphor for many of its Western audience and encourage greater engagement with

global issues. However, the stress on the dangers aid workers face and the related death of two of

the film’s main characters could also serve to discourage “ordinary” people from getting

involved. The film’s critical and box office failure has been read by some as a confirmation of 36 Paul Bartrop and Samuel Totten,, Dictionary of Genocide vol. 1 (Westport, Connecticut: Greenwood Press, 2007), 38-39.

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people’s general disinterest in subjects relating to humanitarianism;37 however, the film’s at

times incoherent and disjointed plot, lack of chemistry between the stars, and the unexpected,

“unhappy” ending makes this conclusion difficult to substantiate.

Yet, whatever the film’s shortcomings, Beyond Borders provides insight into tensions

and contradictions with the notion of humanitarianism itself, especially the its possible ethical

dilemmas. While no one ethical approach is indisputably championed at the expense of the

others, Nick’s character presents a compelling embodiment of both consequentialist and virtue

ethics. Although the film pays little attention to the actual impact of Nick’s ethical approach on

aid recipients, his effectiveness is implied by his “success stories” and scenes portraying him

performing medical procedures. In contrast, Nick’s virtue receives great attention as

demonstrated by his courage and boundless, genuine dedication to his work. In a promotional

interview for the film, Clive Owen nicely outlines the way in which his character is meant to be

perceived:

He’s a complicated character and there some people who were nervous about the character before we started shooting because he’s obnoxious, arrogant, and unlikable. I never saw that. I finished the script and I felt him completely redeemable because he was actively out there trying to save people’s lives and that’s the bottom line…. It wasn’t about being charming, it wasn’t about being likeable it was about achieving his objective. Often unorthodox, often inappropriate behavior, he’s fallible, he’s a human being, he’s not perfect or a hero but to me it was all redeemable because of what he was trying to do.38

While NGOs expressed outrage at Nick’s portrayal of NGO principles, Beyond Border

may reflect the realities of contemporary humanitarianism more than those in the aid sector are

willing to admit or recognize. Although the rise of consequentialist ethics indicates a desire to

37 Bartrop and Totten, 38. For a variety of reviews see “Beyond Borders,” Rotten Tomatoes, available online at http://www.rottentomatoes.com/m/beyond_borders/, accessed 2 May 2009. 38Caroline Memnon, “Beyond Borders: An Interview with Clive Owen” Blackfilm October 2003, available online at http://www.blackfilm.com/20031024/features/cliveowens.shtml, accessed 2 May 2009.

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better address problems and create more effective outcomes, this approach has, in practice,

sometimes contributed to greater problems. Perhaps the most controversial outcome is the

augmented importance of humanitarianism in states’ foreign policy and the integration of the aid

sector into the strategic framework of armed humanitarian interventions.39 As will be explored

throughout the rest of the paper, media portrayals of the aid sector reflect the increased role and

significance of humanitarian efforts and concerns in global politics.

The Plots of Behind Enemy Lines, Tears of the Sun, Sahara, and Rambo IV

At this point, a summary of the rest of the film’s content seems helpful to setting up for

the following discursive analysis. For each movie, a short description will outline the basic plot

and the role of humanitarian actors in the narrative.

Very loosely based on the experience of Naval Officer Scott O’Grady, Behind Enemy

Lines tells the story of an American naval aviator, who ends up in enemy territory during the

final stages of a NATO peacekeeping deployment during the Bosnian War. After violating a no-

fly zone, Naval Flight Officer Lieutenant Chris Burnett (Owen Wilson) and his partner are shot

down by Serbian forces. While attempting to reach safety, Burnett discovers mass graves that

reveal the secret genocide being committed by Serbian forces against the Bosnian people. The

film traces Burnett’s conversion from disillusionment to ardent engagement in and belief in the

morality of a humanitarian intervention.

Tears of the Sun presents a rescue mission by U.S. Navy SEALs into the middle of a

conflict zone during a fictional civil war in Nigeria. The SEAL team, commanded by Lieutenant

A.K. Waters (Bruce Willis), is sent to rescue a Dr. Lena Fiore Kendricks (Monica Belluci), US

39 Vaux 188-193; and San Juan, 24.

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citizen (by marriage) along with other expatriate volunteers working at a Catholic mission.

Although their orders are to only bring the expatriates, Waters reluctantly allows the able-bodied

refugees (or internally displaced people) to accompany the group to the border due to Kendricks

refusal to leave otherwise. Although Waters originally planned to just leave the locals behind

upon reaching the pickup point, the SEALs observation of the destroyed mission from the air

prompt him to turn around and escort the Nigerians to the Cameroon border. During this trek, the

SEAL team rescues a village from the brutal attack of rebel fighters and discover the atrocities

being committed. This leads to a moral awakening among the American fighters, who continue

to disobey orders and escort the group to the border, even after discovering they are being hunted

by rebel forces because their party includes the only surviving member of the assassinated

President’s family, a man named Arthur.

Based on the best-selling book of the same name by Clive Cussler, Sahara follows the

adventures of, explorers and former U.S. Navy Seals, Lieutenant Dirk Pitt (Matthew

McConaughey) and Lieutenant Jr. Al Giordino (Steve Zahn) as they search for a long-lost U.S.

Civil War ironclad warship CSS Texas, supposed to house great treasure in Mali. The

humanitarian sector is represented by Doctor Eva Rojas (Penélope Cruz), a doctor with the

United Nations World Health Organization, who attempts to locate the source of what seems to

be a plague outbreak. After saving Rojas from an assassination attempt and realizing the

disease’s source may lie in the same direction as the treasure ship, Pitt and Giordino team up

with the doctor. Together, the three discover that an industrial waste plant is causing the disease

under the evil greed of a European businessman and Malian dictator. Pitt and his associates at

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the National Underwater and Marine Agency (NUMA) again rescue Rojas, stop the

contamination from spreading, and manage to find their lost ship.40

Rambo IV is a continuation of the series following the life of former U.S. soldier (John

Rambo (Sylvester Stallone). While trying to live a quiet life in a small Thai town along the

Burmese boarder, Rambo is approached by a group of American Christian missionaries who

want him to escort them up the Salween River to perform a humanitarian mission. After initially

refusing the male leader, Michael Burnett (Paul Schulze), Rambo is convinced by the Sarah

Miller (Julie Benz) and he drops them off in dangerous territory. When missionaries fail to come

back on time, Rambo is convinced to escort a group of hired mercenaries on a rescue attempt. In

their attempts to rescue the missionaries, the group engages in violent conflict with members of

the Burmese army, but Rambo’s entourage, aided by Karen rebels, ultimately defeat the Burmese

force and bring the surviving missionaries to safety.41

While each of these films has a unique production and story, they do share some elements

common to most major, successful Hollywood motion pictures. As the market dynamics of

Hollywood largely dictates the content of these films, an overview of the Hollywood film

industry will be helpful to elucidate some chief factors that play a role in the production of these

texts.

The Blockbuster Film

In the same interview mentioned above, Campbell revealed that at first no studio wanted

to touch Beyond Borders due to its heavy, grim subject matter.42 In the profit-driven film

40 “Sahara” Official Site, available online at http://www.saharamovie.com/main.html, accessed 30 March 2009. 41“Rambo IV” Official Site, available online at http://rambofilm.com/, accessed 30 March 2009. 42 Jones.

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industry, filmmakers want to produce products that will match the consumer/audience’s

preferences and expectations. Media studies specialists have demonstrated that media content

largely results from private ownership and a desire for profit. “The profit motive and the

commodity nature of film have implications for the kinds of films that are produced (and not

produced), who makes them, how they are distributed, and when/where they are viewed.”43

As Hollywood films are ultimately commodities, studios produce movies that are mostly

likely to bring in large profits. The general characteristics most successful films share include

big-budgets, star cast, simplistic, conservative, predictable and emotive narratives and messages,

fast-paced action sequences, spectacular settings and special effects, and protagonist plagued by

moral and/or or romantic dilemmas. The increasing drive to capitalize on overseas markets

encourages action-driven formats in particular, where the plot unfolds through mostly physical

action rather than other kinds of dialog.44 Action and violence hold cross-linguistic/cultural

appeal, and international audiences, like American ones, prefer escapist entertainment that

prioritizes action and adventure over social commentary and, for the American media industry,

violent content entails the least amount of risk 45

The impact of the Hollywood industry is clearly demonstrated in the films selected for

this study. With the exception of Rambo IV, these films were each produced and distributed in

conjunction with major studios that serve as branches of media conglomerates responsible for

43 Wasko, 59. 44 Eric Lichtenfeld, Action Speaks Louder: Violence, Spectacle, and the American Action Movie (Lebanon, NH: Wesleyan University Press, 2007), 5. 45 Wasko, 1-4 & 59-60; and Richard Pells, Not Like Us: how Europeans have loved, hated, and transformed American culture since World War II (New York: Basic Books, 1997), 226-230; and MacCullagh , 9& 150; and Lawrence H. Suid, Guts and glory: the making of the American military image in film (Lexington, KY : The University Press of Kentucky, 2002), 673.

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producing motion pictures for mainstream audiences.46 These studios, and their parent

corporations, dominate the production and distribution of media products themselves, but also

play a critical role in shaping mainstream culture. The media conglomerates exert not only

vertical control but also horizontal hegemony across various media formats, including film

studios and broadcast networks.47 In regards to humanitarianism, market incentives and interests

of private companies impact the portrayal of humanitarian issues and actors in feature films and,

thus, play a powerful role in shaping and disseminating certain types of discourse.

The films selected for this study embody most of the key ingredients for a Hollywood

Blockbuster. They each include big stars, exotic locales, intense action and violence, and

romantic tensions. When it finally got produced, Beyond Borders attempted incorporated

excitement, drama, romance and adventure, though as indicated by reviews and the film’s

popularity, not necessarily successfully.48 Sahara fits the action-adventure model while Rambo

IV is more of a “pure” action film. Behind Enemy Lines and Tears of the Sun belong to the

popular subset of the action genre, known as a war film.49

The impact of market considerations also impacts a film’s release, which often relate to

socio-political-economic factors. One consideration is studios’ attempts to time the release in

accordance with public sentiment or recreational opportunities. For example, immediately

46 Beyond Borders and Sahara were both produced/distributed by Paramount Pictures part of Viacom Inc., Behind Enemy Lines was produced/distributed in conjunction with Twentieth Century Fox owned by News Corp, Tears of the Sun was produced by Bruce Willis’ own production studio Cheyenne Enterprise but in conjunction with Revolution Studios and distributed by Columbia Pictures, both owned by Sony. And even Rambo IV produced by Lionsgate, Hollywood's largest remaining independent studio, which has a reputation for releasing films possibly considered too risky by the big studios for political reasons or questionable content. William M. Kunz, Culture conglomerates: consolidation in the motion picture and television industries (Lanham, MD: Rowman & Littlefield, 2006), 46 & 33; Pamela McClintock, “Lionsgate: the hidden enigma” Variety 7 May 2006, available online at http://www.variety.com/article/VR1117942674.html?categoryid=13&cs=1, accessed 18 May 2009. 47Kunz, vii, 18; and James der Derian, Virtuous War: mapping the military-industrial-media-entertainment network, 2nd ed. (New York: Routledge, 2009), 253-254. 48 See note 36. 49 Suid, xiv.

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following 9/11, Twentieth Century Fox decided to move up the release of Behind Enemy Lines

from 2002 to 17 November 2001 in the hopes of benefiting from the swelling patriotism across

the country; this strategy may have contributed to the film’s success.50

These films also exemplify another key quality of many popular films with their

sophisticated blending of reality and fiction. Films in general and war films in particular, have a

long history of attempts to craft products that increase the effect of “authenticity,” through

location shooting, consultation with experts, high-tech special effects, and sometimes access to

real equipment, costumes or buildings or, in occasion where this impossible, a detailed-

recreation.51 In addition to these techniques, Rambo IV, Behind Enemy Lines and Tears of the

Sun include either a voiceover over video montage echoing a news report, hinting at a kind over

verisimilitude to the film’s events.

This illusion of “realism” appeals to audiences’ desire to experience some kind of “truth,”

yet also creates a hyper realism and blur between the “facts” and the constructed elements that

may make discursive analysis more challenging. A Film’s ability to “recreate” reality may

disguise or distract from the latent socio-political-economic-cultural elements shaping the text.

However, while a film may “provide information about the "psychology" of an era and its

tensions, conflicts, fears, and fantasies, … it does so not as a simple representation or mirroring

of an extra-cinematic social reality. Rather, films refract social discourses and content into

specifically cinematic forms which engage audiences in an active process of constructing

meaning.”52 By comparing the depiction of humanitarian events and issues in these films with

50 Suid, 670. 51 Ibid., 673; der Derien, 65. 52 Douglas Kellner, “Hollywood Film and U.S. Society: Some Theoretical Perspectives” available online at http://www.gseis.ucla.edu/courses/ed253a/MCkellner/HOLSOC.html, accessed 2 May 2009.

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their representation in other sources, important insights may come to light regarding the way that

humanitarianism is used to legitimize and reinforce current power structures.

Humanitarianism in the Media

A systematic examination of the portrayal of humanitarian crises, workers and

beneficiaries in Rambo IV, Beyond Borders, Behind Enemy Lines and Tears of the Sun reveals

striking parallels with the with the humanitarian narratives offered in the news media and

publicity of other organizations. This would seem to make sense, as the humanitarian

community, state, international organizations, and global media play a key role in shaping the

humanitarian discourse, and may seem like a positive aspect for these films in regards to their

ability to “educate” the public.

However, critics highlight some the deficiencies of these groups’ representations and

their potential to negatively affect general understanding of humanitarian problems and desirable

or possible solutions. In his outline of key factors that make suffering “a good story,” Rony

Braumann explains that a compelling story must include “pictures, not words…isolated

upheaval…a personality or volunteer from a humanitarian organization to ‘authenticate’ the

victim.”53 Three of the main criticisms regarding the inadequacies of reporting of humanitarian

issues include: oversimplification, the reliance on stereotypes, and a Western bias.54 The

portrayal of humanitarian themes in these films will be examined through the lens of these three

areas in order to demonstrate a dominant, coherent narrative regarding aid work and its role in 53Rony Braumann, “When Suffering Makes a Good Story” in Life, Death and Aid: the Medicines Sans Frontiers Report on World Crisis Intervention, ed Francois Jean (London: Routledge, 1993), 150; quoted Charli R. Carpenter, ‘Innocent Women and Children’: gender norms and the protection of civilians (Burlington, VT: Ashgate, 2006), 110. 54 Colin Scott, Larry Minear and Thomas G. Weiss, The News Media, Civil War, and Humanitarian Action (London: Lynne Rienner Publishers, 1996), 36-37; and Carpenter, 109-112.

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the international system. While each film does not portray every single one of these elements

consistently or in the same way, overall, their narratives suffer from similar problems.

News coverage of complex humanitarian emergencies is commonly criticized as paying

“too much attention to breaking events” and providing “too little historical and political context.”

The general emphasis on entertainment and pleasure in contemporary media has reinforced the

portrayal of disasters as a form of commercial entertainment. The need to attract an audience

necessitates sensational, spectacular images that leave little room for geopolitical context or in-

depth explanations.55 Humanitarian agencies face similar dilemmas and, in attempts to generate

public sympathy that will hopefully lead to financial and moral support, they too present

simplistic framings of events that are most likely to engage people’s interest.56

As already demonstrated, major motion pictures almost always follow this format and

this is especially true in action-adventure films that require fast-paced, adrenaline-pumping

sequences rather than explanatory information. While some of these films attempt to present

brief contextual information, these rely on general archetypes and Manichean struggle between

“good-guy” hero and “bad-guy” villain, with the ultimate triumph of good over evil.57

When applied to a humanitarian situation, this type of model can often highlight and

reinforce stereotypes and related negative images based on ethnocentrist views.58 Stereotypical

characterizations are often employed as they seem to require little background information to

understand. The stereotypical presentation of the bad-guy is tied up in the portrayal of the ethnic

conflicts that create the backdrop for the films events in Rambo IV, Sahara, Behind Enemy Lines,

55 Kevin Rozario, The culture of calamity: disaster and the making of modern America (Chicago: The University of Chicago Press, 2007), 195. 56 Carpenter, 110. 57 Lichtenfeld, 64. 58 Minear, Scott and Weis, 37.

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and Tears of the Sun. While this emphasis on ethnic division as the root cause of conflict may

seem to merely reflect reality, this construction ignores the underlying socio-politico-economic

factors that drive these struggles for power. Furthermore, these types of portrayals often present

the bad-guys as mindless, illiberal, irrational, and sadistically cruel.59 The implication follows

that violence is the only possible mechanism to stop their brutal atrocities, thus legitimizing the

hero’s immediate physical response as opposed to a more diplomatic, verbal interaction.

Another key stereotype seen in both film and other media is the “helpless victim.”

Braumann points out that successful efforts to engender sympathy by the media, humanitarian

organizations, and governments seeking to justify interventionist policies must establish “100 per

cent victim status” for recipients; a key part of this is the portrayal of the local population as

completely lacking in agency and the ability to help themselves as well as totally free from any

possible guilt contributing the miserable situation.60

A victim’s innocence can be established in a number of ways. One is to highlight the

suffering of children, who symbolize innocence and unaccountability. In Beyond Borders, the

Khmer Rouge give a potentially lethal grenade to a baby, in Rambo IV many of the abducted

population include women and children, and in Tears of the Sun rebel forces mercilessly

slaughter a baby. Additionally, the framing of conflicts as ethnically-motivated contribute to a

feeling of the victim’s innocence, as persecution only derives from blood and not any socio-

politico-economic factors to which victim populations may contribute.

59 Philip Spencer and Howard Wollman, “Good and Bad Nationalism: a critique of dualism” Journal of Political Ideologies 3(3) (1998): 257, and Rogers Brubaker and David Latin, “Ethnic and Nationalist Violence” Annual Review of Sociology 24 (1998): 425. 60 Braumann, 150; quoted in Carpenter, 111. Disempowering images also relate to what has been called the “pornography of suffering” which relates to the way in which sensational imagery can de-humanize and strip away the dignity of victims. See Minear, Scott and Weiss, 37.

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Another way to demonstrate the helplessness of victims is through their

disempowerment; this is indicated by the inability of the persecuted to engage in defensive

behavior. In Tears of the Sun, Sahara and Rambo IV, each of the victim populations only gains

the courage to fight back when encouraged and materially supported by the Western fighters.

So, although start out helpless and unable to act, the arrival of the heroic rescuers inspires them

to overcome their immobilizing fear and act. While the film only covers the first triumphal

moments of these counterattacks, the transition from helpless victim to active self-defender gives

comfort for the future when the intervening force inevitable departs at the end of the film.

The construction of the helpless victim is furthered revealed in the commonly gendered

presentation of humanitarian relief efforts; most humanitarian operations employ images of

female victims to “function as political symbols, as policy justification, as military propaganda”

to justify a call to arms” because women can more easily be viewed as innocent and helpless.61

The films employ a similar framing of the female-victim versus male-savior through their

portrayal of gendered violence. In Rambo IV, the Burmese army and harass and rape a number of

women, and attempt to rape Sarah. In Tears of the Sun, the SEAL team rescues women being

raped by rebels only to discover the sexual mutilation of their bodies; it is these atrocities to

women and children that serve as the moment of these men’s moral conversion. Furthermore,

when the marginalized populations do begin to fight back in the films, their ranks primarily, if

not only, include men.

The gendered element is further augmented by the fact that the humanitarian workers

themselves are often female, as in Tears of the Sun and Sahara. Although in Sahara Dr. Rojas

does get involved in some of the fighting, ultimately she requires rescuing by the male heroes

61 Carolyn Nordstrom, “Girls and War Zones: Troubling Questions,” in Doreen Indra, ed,, Engendering Forced Migration (NY: Bergahn Books, 1999), 65, quoted in Carpenter 110-111.

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repeatedly throughout the course of the film. In Rambo IV, the gendered aspect is manifested in

the different roles played by the male versus female missionary. At the beginning of the film,

Rambo rebuffs the entreaties of the male missionary (Michael) and is only convinced to escort

the group by the pretty Sarah. His first use of violence in the film comes in reaction to Burmese

pirates threatening to kidnap Sarah. Later, he only chooses to join the rescue force because of

his worry for Sarah. While Michael’s humanitarian beliefs have him initially informing Rambo

that “Taking a life is never right,” by the end of the film Michael himself is ready to kill in self-

defense and the protection of others. However, despite her endurance of similar trials, Sarah is

overcome by fear and only weeps while watching the males defeat the Burmese threat.

Despite these gendered asymmetrical power relations between the male hero and female

aid worker, the expatriate humanitarian workers still places above the recipients in the hierarchy

of humanitarian intervention. These films also hint at the asymmetrical, paternalistic relationship

between the humanitarian worker and aid recipient, resulting from dynamics of dependency, aid

organizations’ control over and distribution of resources, and aid workers connections to the

international network.62. In Tears of the Sun, Dr. Kendricks becomes the leader and voice for the

victims, mediating between them and the rescuing force. In Beyond Borders, attempts to address

various problems only include aid workers, with no feedback or inclusion of recipient’s

perspective in regards to issues that directly affect them.

The relationship between the aid workers and the “military” forces also reveals the

potential and at times disguised power of humanitarian actors. While Beyond Borders seems to

leaves the impression of humanitarian workers’ subservience to geopolitical realities, Tears of

the Sun reveals the influence aid workers can have on governmental and other actors. Dr. 62 Carpenter, 110 and Michael Barnett, “Humanitarian Governance?” Class Lecture, Graduate Institute of International and Development Studies, Geneva, 23 March 2009.

26

Kendricks helps Lt. Waters and his team become aware and engaged in humanitarian cause with

no apparent self-interested motivations. While sovereign states seem to remain the most

powerful actors in international affairs, dynamics of new forms of global governance also

provide opportunities for humanitarian actors to impact agendas and events.63

Each of these films, creations of Western studios for a largely Western audience, clearly

demonstrate the last charge of a exclusively Western perspective. Critics of the international

media highlight the high emphasis on issues thought to pique the interest of a Western audience,

like the threat to Western values or the endeavors of expatriate aid organizations.64 Each of these

films is centered on the experiences of the Western leads in distant lands, cultures and

geopolitical contexts. Also, much of the violence and intervention efforts are motivated by

concern for the Western aid workers. The only real times when the non-western characters are

given a voice are to highlight their victim status and their cries for help.

The obvious overall coherence between various players in the humanitarian discourse in

their presentation of humanitarian crises raises interesting questions about the function of the

humanitarianism concept in global politics. This quote by a UNICEF official provides a nice

summary of the key characteristics and motivations in Western narratives of humanitarianism:

It’s in many people’s best interests to maintain [the association of women and children with civilians]. Think of the media, who create many of our visions and images of such situations. They want a story and the story is about the relationship between good and evil, it’s about bad men with guns and good, innocent, women and children who suffer and they are starving and raped. It’s a hell of a story. You don’t want to complicate it.65

63 Ibid.; Barnett and Weiss, 37-38; and der Derien, 209-210. 64Minear Scott and Weiss, 37. 65 Respondent #30, Phone Interview, October 2002; quoted in Carpenter, 109.

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These kinds of narratives serve a critical purpose in justifying outside intervention,

whether it is strictly humanitarian or other forms of engagement. However, in the post-Cold War

world, these types of humanitarian framings are being employed more frequently to justify

armed interventions, which can be referred to as “virtuous wars”, “just wars” or humanitarian

interventions.66

Media, Violence and Humanitarian Interventions

What exactly is a virtuous war or humanitarian intervention? Virtuous war refers to the

notion that a war with all of his associated horror and devastation can be justified because of its

cause.67 Mertrus defines humanitarian intervention refers to the “use of force with the stated aim

of preventing or ending widespread and grave violations of fundamental human rights other than

their own citizens.”68 In order for a military intervention to be defined as humanitarian, it has to

establish that innocent people are at risk from their own government and that security can only

be guaranteed by a third party. Central to this narrative is the presence of innocent, helpless

victims who need rescuing. As demonstrated above, media framing plays a critical role in how

governments and the public identify and perceive humanitarian situations and the required

resolutions; thus, they also are crucial to establishing an intervention as humanitarian.

Significant to understanding the contribution of media to the legitimization of

humanitarian interventions is the recognition that media’s portrayal of violence, in general,

serves important social functions. Violence is an almost ubiquitous component of media content,

and studies have revealed “consistent underlying structure in media presentation of violence”

66 Carpenter, 73-80; der Derien. 67 der Derien, xviii-xx. 68 Julie Mertus, “Legitimizing the Use of Force in Kosovo,” Ethics and International Affairs 15(1) 2001: 133-150.

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that have important ideological implications.69 Victims of interpersonal violence in media

parallel the trends seen in humanitarian narratives, with a concentration on “helpless” women,

children and elderly people. Their need for protection justifies any violence the villain, usually a

minority group, may receive. This framing symbolizes social values and legitimizes the

dominant social structures as necessary for order and safety.70 Similarly, the media’s framing of

humanitarian interventions by predominantly Western powers as altruistic efforts to save

helpless victims reinforces current power structure and legitimizes the asymmetrical international

system.

In regards to the U.S. discourse of humanitarian intervention specifically, these types of

framing coincide with the traditional ideological view of U.S. as the world’s moral leader.71

Cynthia Weber offers a reading of Behind Enemy Lines that stresses its redemption of American

morality after the loss of moral grounding following Vietnam. A similar reading can be applied

to the other action-adventure films, especially in Sahara, which like Behind Enemy Lines,

highlights the uber-Americanness of the hero, a common motif in action films.72 The iconic

status of Rambo IV in U.S. popular culture in the 80s established him as a symbol American

strength and invincibility and in Rambo IV, he has a similar role.73 Constantly haunted by his

violent past as soldier in Vietnam solider, Rambo now avoids violence unless necessary to

protect and save; thus, Rambo, like Burnett, can be read as a symbol of Americas moral

redemption in humanitarian interventions.

69 MacCullogh, 8. 70 Ibid., 9. 71 Michael Hunt, U.S. Ideology and U.S. Foreign Policy (New Haven, CT: Yale University Press, 1988). 72 Lichenfeld, 64. In Sahara, this is achieved through the use of classic American rock songs, like “Sweet Home Alabama” and “American Man” accompanying appearances of the hero. In Behind Enemy Lines, the opening scene includes Burnett performing a cool trick with an American football. 73 Susan Jeffords, Hard bodies: Hollywood masculinity in the Reagan era (Camden, NJ: Rutgers University Press, 1994).

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Conclusion The current study was not meant to serve as a cinematic history or comprehensive

analysis of the portrayal of humanitarianism in film. Instead, the discursive analysis of these five

films has hopefully demonstrated some of the main themes and tensions within contemporary

humanitarian discourse and provided insight into the possible meanings of “new

humanitarianism.” The depiction of humanitarian efforts in Beyond Borders, Tears of the Sun,

Behind Enemy Lines, Rambo IV and Sahara correlate with shifts in the humanitarian sector itself

as well as its role in the international system, including a prioritization of consequentialist ethics.

While coherence with armed humanitarian intervention is still greatly contested with the aid

sector itself, these films, read in conjunction with other media sources, seem to indicate an

increasing pairing of humanitarian actors with armed humanitarian interventions.

As a fluid, socially constructed concept, humanitarianism is vulnerable to encroachments

on its traditional scope and space;74 a key dimension of the defining of humanitarianism occurs

within media. As demonstrated here, the portrayal of humanitarian work in entertainment media,

like these Hollywood Blockbusters, coincides and reinforces the representation produced in news

media, aid organization’s publicity efforts, and government rhetoric. Collectively, these

narratives reinforce the current system of global governance that grants Western states and aid

agencies privileged positions of power. These observations hopefully raise awareness of the

importance of paying more attention to humanitarian narratives that appear across medium and

format. In a world of increasingly virtualized global politics,75 these types of studies can provide

important contributions to an understanding of the forces that shape perceptions and attitudes.

74 Barnett and Weiss, 41. 75 der Derien, 253.

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