India Human Development Report 2011

India Human Development Report 2011 TeamTeam Leader Santosh Mehrotra Authors Ankita Gandhi, Chandan Kumar, Partha Saha, Bimal Kishore Sahoo, and Aishna Sharma. Earlier drafts of some chapters were prepared by Anjor Bhaskar, Neha Kumra, Arvinder Sachdeva, and Sachin Sharma. Research Assistance Nupur Chaudhary, Bharati Dash, Justin George, Deboshree Ghosh, Aditya Jagati, Nikhil Joseph, Ajaya Naik, and Atika Pasha. Technical & Administrative Assistance Shagun Bhardwaj, Deepak Kumar, Deepayan Nandi, and Asha Tomar.

India Human Development Report 2011Towards Social Inclusion

Institute of Applied Manpower Research Planning Commission Government of India

1

1Oxford University Press is a department of the University of Oxford. It furthers the Universitys objective of excellence in research, scholarship, and education by publishing worldwide. Oxford is a registered trademark of Oxford University Press in the UK and in certain other countries Published in India by Oxford University Press YMCA Library Building, 1 Jai Singh Road, New Delhi 110001, India Institute of Applied Manpower Research 2011 The moral rights of the author have been asserted First Edition published in 2011

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ISBN-13: 978-0-19-807758-9 ISBN-10: 0-19-807758-0

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Contents

List of Tables, Figures, and Boxes List of Appendix Tables Foreword Acknowledgements Abbreviations 1. Overview: Conceptual Framework and Key Findings Introduction Human Development Index Employment, Asset Ownership, and Poverty The Right to Food and Nutrition Health and Demography Education: Achievements and Challenges Supporting Human Development: Housing, Electricity, Telephony, and Roads Vulnerable Groups 2. Human Development Index Introduction Conceptualizing the Human Development Index Demographic Prole of India Human Development seen through Individual Indicators Gender-related Development Index Concluding Remarks State Proles 3. Employment, Asset Ownership, and Poverty Introduction Employment Asset Ownership Poverty Concluding Remarks

vii xiii xvii xix xx 1 1 2 4 6 8 11 12 14 16 16 17 19 22 31 32 33 94 94 96 104 109 118

vi CONTENTS

4. The Right to Food and Nutrition Introduction Malnutrition: A Conceptual and Empirical Analysis The Status of Hunger across States Malnutrition: Anthropometric Indicators Micronutrients: Current Scenario Major Programmes to Address the Problem of Hunger and Malnutrition Concluding Remarks 5. Health and Demography Introduction Health Outcomes Reproductive and Child Health Health Inputs Demand for Healthcare Sanitation and Drinking Water Concluding Remarks 6. Education: Achievements and Challenges Introduction Literacy Aspects of School Education Physical Infrastructure Indicators Related to Teachers Expenditure on Education Concluding Remarks 7. Supporting Human Development: Housing, Electricity, Telephony, and Roads Introduction Shelter and Quality of Housing Access to Electricity Mobile Telephony Road Connectivity Concluding Remarks 8. Vulnerable Groups Introduction Child Labour The Dierently-abled The Elderly Concluding Remarks Technical Appendix Appendix Tables Data Sources Bibliography

121 121 124 130 131 134 139 143 146 146 149 157 163 169 169 176 179 179 181 185 196 198 202 206 208 208 210 214 216 220 222 224 224 225 235 241 246 249 253 404 409

List of Tables, Figures, and Boxes

TABLES 1.1 Feedback Loops in the Human Development ProcessAt the Micro-economic Level 1.2 All India Incidence of Poverty in Rural and Urban Areas 1.3 All India Unemployment Rate, by Social Group, by Current Daily Status, 20045 to 200910 2.1 2.2 2.3 2.4 3.1 3.2 3.3 3.4 3.5 3.6 3.7 3.8 3.9 3.10 3.11 3.12 3.13 HDI Ranking for Dierent Regions and Countries across the Globe Comparison between Indicators in NHDR 2001 and IHDR 2011 Socio-economic and Demographic Prole of Eight Poor States Ranking of States according to HDI Value Labour Force Participation Rate by Usual Principal and Subsidiary Status, 19934 and 200910 Labour Force Participation Rate by Usual Principal and Subsidiary Status, by Social Groups, 19934 and 200910 Labour Force Participation Rate by Usual Principal and Subsidiary Status, by Religious Communities, 19934, 20045, and 200910 Worker Population Ratio by Usual Principal and Subsidiary Status, 19934 and 200910 Worker Population Ratio by Usual Principal and Subsidiary Status, by Social Groups, 19934 and 200910 Worker Population Ratio by Usual Principal and Subsidiary Status, by Major Religious Community, 19934, 20045, and 200910 Distribution of Households in Rural and Urban India, by Employment Type, 19934, 20045, 20078, and 200910 Unemployment Rate by Usual Principal and Subsidiary Status, 19934 and 200910 Unemployment Rate by Usual Principal and Subsidiary Status, by Social Groups, 19934 and 200910 Unemployment Rate by Current Daily Status, by Social Groups, 20045, 20078, and 200910 Unemployment Rate by Usual Principal and Subsidiary Status, by Major Religious Communities, 19934, 20045 and 200910 Unemployment Rate by Current Daily Status, by Major Religious Communities, 20045, 20078, and 200910 Average Daily Wage, 20078

2 4 6 17 18 21 24 97 98 98 99 99 100 101 101 101 102 102 103 103

viii TABLES, FIGURES, AND BOXES

3.14 3.15 3.16 3.17 3.18 3.19 3.20 3.21 3.22 3.23 3.24 3.25 3.26 3.27 3.28 3.29 3.30 3.31 3.32 3.33 3.34 3.35 3.36 3.37 3.38 3.39 4.1 4.2 4.3 4.4 4.5 4.6 4.7 4.8 4.9 4.10 4.11 4.12 4.13 5.1 5.2

Gini Coecient of Asset Ownership in Rural and Urban India, 19912 and 20023 Distribution of Assets among Rural and Urban Households, 19912 and 20023 Composition of Assets in Rural and Urban India, 19912 and 20023 Distribution of Households and Assets, by Occupational Categories, 19912 and 20023 Access Index of Asset Ownership, by Occupational Categories, 19912 and 20023 Average Value of Assets, by Social Groups, 20023 Distribution of Households and of Assets, by Social Groups, 20023 Distribution of Households and Assets, by Major Religious Communities, 20023 Access Index of Households, by Social Groups among Hindus, 20023 Inequality in MPCE in Rural and Urban Areas (Gini Coecient), by URP, 19934 and 20045 Inequality in MPCE in Rural and Urban Areas (Gini Coecient), by MRP, 20045 and 20078 Share of Expenditure on Food in Rural and Urban, 1983, 19934 and 20045 Average MPCE and Proportion of MPCE Spent on Food, by Occupational Groups (Rural), 19934 and 20045 Average MPCE and Proportion of MPCE Spent on Food, by Occupational Groups (Urban), 19934 and 20045 Average MPCE and Proportion Spent on Food, by Social Groups, 20045 Average MPCE, by Social Groups, 20078 Ratio of Average MPCE for SCs, STs, OBCs as compared to Others, 20078 Incidence of Poverty in Rural and Urban Areas, 1983, 199394 and 20045 Population Below International Poverty Line of US $ 1.25 Per Day, 2005 Incidence of Poverty, by Occupational Categories (Rural), 19934 and 20045 Incidence of Poverty, by Occupational Categories (Urban), 19934 and 20045 Incidence of Poverty, by Social Groups, 19934 and 20045 Incidence of Poverty, by Social Groups, 20078 Incidence of Poverty, by Major Religious Communities, 20078 Poverty Gap, 20078 Rate of Growth of Gross Domestic Product (at Factor Cost) (at 19992000) Prices, 20034 to 200910 Nutritional Status of Children: SAARC and BRIC Countries, 20007 Per Capita Intake of Calories and Protein, 1983 to 20045 Percentage Distributions of Children and Adults by Protein-Calorie Adequacy Status, 2002 and 2006 Changes in Average Per Capita Cereal Consumption in 15 Major States in Physical Terms over 199394 to 20045 Composition of Food Consumption, Rural and Urban 19723 to 20045 Per Capita Per Diem Intake of Calories by MPCE Class, 20045 Total Calorie Consumption by Decile and Quartile of Per Capita Expenditure, Rural India, 1983 to 20045 Hunger Index of Selected Indian States, 2008 Trends in Child Malnutrition, 19989 and 20056 Percentage of Children below -2SD of the Indicator by Religious Groups20056 Percentage of Children below -2SD of the Indicator by Social Groups, 20056 Classication of States by Trend in Percentage of Women with Anaemia, by Social Groups, 19989 to 20056 Anaemia among Children, 19989 and 20056 Infant Mortality Rate, 2000 and 2009 Under Five Mortality Rate

105 105 106 107 108 108 108 109 109 109 110 110 111 112 112 113 113 114 114 115 115 116 116 117 118 118 122 126 127 128 129 130 130 131 134 135 135 137 138 149 151

TABLES, FIGURES, AND BOXES

ix

5.3 5.4 5.5 5.6 5.7 5.8 5.9 5.10 5.11 5.12 5.13 5.14 5.15 5.16 6.1 6.2 6.3 6.4 6.5 6.6 6.7 6.8 6.9 6.10 6.11 6.12 6.13 6.14 6.15 6.16 6.17 6.18 6.19 6.20 6.21 6.22 6.23 6.24

Life Expectancy at Birth, 19812004 Total Fertility Rate of Religious and Social Groups, 19989 and 20056 Overall Sex-Ratio, 19812011 Sex-Ratio at Birth by Religious Community, 2001 Sex-Ratio at Birth by Social Group, 2001 Percentage Distribution of Live Births by Religious Community Percentage Distribution of Live Births by Social Groups Prevalence of Contraception by Religious Communities Prevalence of Contraception by Social Groups Health Services Received by Pregnant Women by Religious Communities Health Services Received by Pregnant Women by Social Groups Health Expenditure in India, 20056 to 20089 Composition of Healthcare Expenditure, 20045 NGP Villages with Proportion of People still Defecating in the Open, 6 States, 2008 Literacy Rate, by Social Groups and Major Religious Communities (Rural), 19992000 and 20078 Literacy Rate, by Social Groups and Major Religious Communities (Urban), 19992000 and 20078 Ratio of Literacy Rates for SCs, STs, and Muslims to National Average, 19992000 and 20078 Gross Enrolment Ratio for School Education, by Social Groups, 20045 and 20078 Gender Parity Index at Primary Level, 2007 Net Enrolment Ratio at Primary Level, 2007 Enrolment of Girls at Primary and Upper Primary Levels, 20078 Net Attendance Ratio at Primary and Upper Primary Levels, 19956 and 20078 Net Attendance Ratio at Primary Level, by Social Groups and Major Religious Communities, 20078 Net Attendance Ratio at Upper Primary Level, by Social Groups and Major Religious Communities, 20078 Net Attendance Ratio at Secondary Level, by Social Groups and Major Religious Communities, 20078 Net Attendance Ratio at Higher Secondary Level, by Social Groups and Major Religious Communities, 20078 Distribution of Persons Attending Dierent Types of Educational Institutions, 19956 and 20078 Out of School Children by Social Groups and Major Religious Community (6 to 17 years), 20078 Major Reasons for Discontinuation/Dropping out 20078 Mean Years of Schooling, 19992000 and 20078 Mean Years of Schooling by Social Groups and by Major Religious Communities, 20078 Distribution of Teachers, by Type of School, 20078 Proportion of Para-Teachers to Total Teachers, 20078 Proportion of Teachers with BEd or Equivalent Degree, 20078 PupilTeacher Ratio at Primary Level, 2007 Proportion of Female Teachers in School Education, 20078 Public Expenditure on Education by Central and State Governments, 20001 to 20078 Total Public Expenditure on Education as Percentage of GNP for Major Regions of the World, 2007

152 156 156 157 157 159 159 161 161 162 162 164 164 174

183 183 184 187 187 188 188 189 189 190 190 191 192 192 193 195 195 199 199 200 201 201 203 203

x

TABLES, FIGURES, AND BOXES

6.25 Public Expenditure on Education as a Proportion of GDP 6.26 Out-of-Pocket Expenditure Per Student (529 Years) in Higher Education, by Social Groups and Religious Communities, 20078 6.27 Distribution of Students (529 years) by Social Groups and Major Religious Communities, 20078 6.28 Participation in Higher Education by Social Groups and by Major Religious Communities, 20078 7.1 7.2 7.3 8.1 8.2 8.3 8.4 8.5 8.6 8.7 8.8 Index of Social and Economic Infrastructure Targets under Bharat Nirman Coverage of Roads Child Workforce Participation Rate, 19934, 20045, and 20078 Aggregate Percentage of Working and Nowhere Children in India Prevalence of Disabilities in India Distribution of Dierently-abled by Broad Activity Status, JulyDecember 2002 Distribution of Dierently-abled Workers by Usual Activity Status in Broad Industrial Sectors, JulyDecember 2002 Distribution of Projected Population by Age Groups and Gender in India Percentage of Persons Aged 60 Years and Above in India Old Age Dependency Ratio in India

204 205 206 206 208 209 220 226 227 236 238 238 242 243 243

FIGURES 1.1 Feedback Loops at the Macro-economic Level 1.2 HDI across States, 19992000 and 20078 1.3 MPCE, All India and SCs (1999, 2000, and 20078) 1.4 MPCE, All India and STs (19992000 and 20078) 1.5 MPCE, All India and Muslims (19992000 and 20078) 1.6 Percentage of Women with BMI < 18.5, All India and SCs (19989 and 20056) 1.7 Percentage of Women with BMI < 18.5, All India and STs (19989 and 20056) 1.8 Percentage of Women with BMI < 18.5, All India and Muslims (19989 and 20056) 1.9 Infant Mortality Rate, All India and SCs (19989 and 20056) 1.10 Infant Mortality Rate, All India and STs (19989 and 20056) 1.11 Infant Mortality Rate, All India and Muslims (19989 and 20056) 1.12 Total Fertility Rate, All India and SCs (19989 and 20056) 1.13 Total Fertility Rate, All India and STs (19989 and 20056) 1.14 Total Fertility Rate, All India and Muslims (19989 and 20056) 1.15 Literacy Rate, All India and SCs (2001 and 20078) 1.16 Literacy Rate, All India and STs (2001 and 20078) 1.17 Literacy Rate, All India and Muslims(2001 and 20078) 1.18 Percentage of Households with Electricity, All India and SCs (2002 and 20089) 1.19 Percentage of Households with Electricity, India and STs (2002 and 20089) 2.1 2.2 2.3 2.4 2.5 Distribution of SC Population within States, 20078 Distribution of SC Population among States, 20078 Distribution of ST Population within States, 20078 Distribution of ST Population among States, 20078 Distribution of Muslim Population within States, 20078

1 3 5 5 5 7 7 7 8 9 9 9 9 9 11 12 12 13 13 19 19 20 20 21

TABLES, FIGURES, AND BOXES

xi

2.6 2.7 2.8 2.9 2.10 2.11 2.12 2.13 2.14 2.15 2.16 2.17 2.18 3.1 3.2 3.3 4.1 4.2 5.1 5.2 5.3 5.4 5.5 5.6 5.7 5.8 5.9 5.10 5.11 5.12 5.13 5.14 6.1 6.2 6.3 7.1 7.2 7.3 7.4 7.5

Distribution of Muslim Population among States, 20078 Human Development Index across States, 20078 Indian States Ranked with respect to HDI in 20078 Percentage change in HDI between 19992000 and 20078 Income Index across States, 20078 Percentage Change in Income Index from 19992000 to 20078 Education Index across States, 20078 Percentage Change in Education Index from 19992000 to 20078 Health Index across States, 2008 Percentage Change in Health Index from 2000 to 2008 Relationship between Level and Growth of HDI, 19992000 to 20078 Relationship between HDI Growth and NSDP Growth between 19992000 and 20078 GDI across States, 2006 Feedback Loops at the Macroeconomic Level Lorenz Curve for Total Assets, All India, 20023 Incidence of Poverty by Major Religious Communities, 19934 and 20045 Conceptual Framework: Determinants of Malnutrition Percentage of Women Suering from Anaemia by Wealth Index, 20056 Synergy between Health and Standard of Living Feedback Loops in the Human Development ProcessA Focus on Health Related Inputs and Outputs Closing Rural-Urban Gap in IMR in Most States, 2000 and 2009 Infant Mortality Rate by Wealth Index, 20056 Structure of Population in India Relationship between TFR and Education Status of Women, 20056 Relationship between Duration of Education and Share of Institutional Deliveries, 20056 Place of Delivery: Distribution of Live Births by Wealth Index, 20056 Prevalence of Contraception by Wealth Index Share of Expenditure on Medical Care in Consumer Expenditure, 20078 Source of Healthcare by Wealth Index: Public v/s Private Households with Improved Sanitation, 2002 and 20089 Distribution of Households by Source of Drinking Water, 2002 and 20089 Percentage of Households with Taps as a Source of Drinking Water (20089) Feedback Loops in the Human Development Process Mean Years of Schooling by Social Groups, 20078 for Population Aged 7 Years and Above Mean Years of Schooling by Religious Communities, 20078 for Population Aged 7 Years and Above RuralUrban Gap in Percentage of Households Living in Pucca Houses, 2002 and 20089 Percentage Distribution of Households Living in Pucca Houses by Socio-religious Groups, 2002 and 20089 RuralUrban Gap in Percentage of Households having Electricity for Domestic Use, 2002 and 20089 Percentage Distribution of Households with Electricity for Domestic Use by Socio-religious Groups, 2002 and 20089 Relationship between Per Capita Net State Domestic Product and Teledensity

21 22 23 23 25 26 26 27 27 28 28 29 32 95 105 117 125 137 146 147 150 150 153 155 160 160 162 165 170 172 175 175 180 196 197 211 212 214 215 217

xii TABLES, FIGURES, AND BOXES

7.6 7.7 8.1 8.2 8.3 8.4 8.5 8.6 8.7

RuralUrban Gap in Teledensity, 1998 and 2010 Percentage Distribution of Wire-line and Wireless Subscribers, 2005 and 2010 Nowhere Children as a Percentage of Total Child Population in India, 19934 and 20078 Child Workforce Participation Rate by Social Groups Child Workforce Participation Rate by Religious Groups All India Distribution of Child Labour by Sector of Employment, based on NSSO Estimates, 20045 Distribution of Child Workers Engaged in Hazardous Occupations in India as per the Census 2001 Percentage Distribution of Dierently-abled Persons by Type of Disability in India Mismatch in the Number of Personnel for the Dierently-abled

218 218 227 229 230 230 232 236 239

BOXES 2.1 Calculating the Human Development Index 3.1 3.2 3.3 4.1 4.2 4.3 5.1 5.2 5.3 5.4 5.5 6.1 6.2 7.1 7.2 7.3 7.4 8.1 8.2 8.3 Occupational Diversication Reference Period Poverty Estimates Recommendations of Commissioners to the Supreme Court on Right to Food Recommendations of the National Advisory Council Recommendations of National Commission on Farmers An Assessment of the National Rural Health Mission Rashtriya Swasthya Bima Yojana (National Health Insurance Programme) Economic Implications of Inadequate Sanitation Community Participation in Promoting Sanitation Facilities Community Participation in Sanitation and Water Supply in Rajasthan Sarva Shiksha Abhiyan (SSA) Right to Education Providing Homes to the Homeless Gram Vikas Participatory Housing Programme Renewable Energy for Electrifying Villages: Lessons from China Application of Mobile Telephony in Rural Areas: Fisher Friend in India ILO-IPEC Jaipur Foot: A Ray of Hope for the Dierently-abled SwavalambanA pension scheme for the unorganized sector

18 100 111 119 141 142 144 168 170 172 173 177 186 197 212 213 216 219 234 240 244

List of Appendix Tables

2A.1 2A.2 2A.3 2A.4 2A.5 3A.1 3A.2 3A.3 3A.4 3A.5 3A.6 3A.7 3A.8 3A.9 3A.10 3A.11

Percentage Distribution of Population within a State by Social Groups, 20078 Percentage Distribution of Social Groups among States, 20078 Percentage Distribution of Population within a State by Major Religious Communities, 20078 Percentage Distribution of Major Religious Communities among States, 20078 Human Development Index and its Components by States, 19992000 and 20078 Labour Force Participation Rate by Usual Principal and Subsidiary Status, by Social Groups (Rural), 19934 and 20045 (per cent) Labour Force Participation Rate by Usual Principal and Subsidiary Status, by Social Groups (Urban), 19934 and 20045 (per cent) Unemployment Rate by Usual Principal and Subsidiary Status, by Gender (Rural), 19934 and 20045 (per cent) Unemployment Rate by Usual Principal and Subsidiary Status, by Gender (Urban), 19934 and 20045 (per cent) Unemployment Rate by Current Daily Status, by Social Groups (Rural), 20045 and 20078 (per cent) Unemployment Rate by Current Daily Status, by Social Groups (Urban), 20045 and 20078 (per cent) Unemployment Rate by Current Daily Status, by Religious Communities (Rural), 20045 and 20078 (per cent) Unemployment Rate by Current Daily Status, by Religious Communities (Urban), 20045 and 20078 (per cent) Monthly Per Capita Consumption Expenditure, 1983, 19934, and 20045 (Rs) Incidence of Poverty (Rural and Urban Combined), 1983, 19934, and 20045 (per cent) Distribution of Population and Incidence of Poverty, by Religious Communities, 19934 and 20045 (per cent) Percentage of Adult Population with BMI