HOW TO WRITE CORRECT ENGLISH

R.K.Singh

ABHISHEK PUBLICATIONS

CHANDIGARH

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Contents

I. Introduction 1

2. Essentials of English Language 7

3. The Sentence 103

4. Figurative Language 116

5. Punctuation 123

6. Letter Writing 189

7. Errors 206

8. Pitfalls to A void 218

9. Style 233

10. Suggestions 243

1I. Slang 252

12. Writing for Newspapers 260

13. Choice of Words 269

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Chapter 1

Introduction

APPROPRIATE ENGLISH

Most people believe that there is a very definite set of English rules which, when followed, will produce correct English. In reality, this is not true. A better question to ask is, "What is appropriate English?" The answer to that question depends on many things:

• The relationship of the spsakers (e.g., good friends speak to each other different than an employer speaks to employees).

• The situation in which the communication takes place (e.g., people have to provide different kinds of information when talking over the telephone than when talking face-to-face).

• The topic of the communication (e.g., you may speak differently in telling a joke than you would in discussing a math principle), etc.

You should aim at teaching students language that will help them achieve their goals appropriately. For example, they may want to be able to request help in a store. You would teach them to do it in such a way that they would get the help and that the people helping them would not think that they were rude, stupid, nor snobbish. Overall, teachers have a tendency to try to teach styles of English that are too formal for most of the situations their students will encounter. Try to avoid this fault. Contractions (I'm,

2' Introduction ~ I~-----------------------------------

he's, they'll) are always used except in very formal situations.

We can assure you that you do not know what correct English is. If you are a native speaker of English and pick up any of the weighty books on English usage, it will probably be an illuminating and humiliating experience. It always is for me, at any rate.

Our grasp of unusual vocabulary is dubious, our grammar is not complete, and we make many of the mistakes the authorities mock: If you are an British English speaker, you will be just horrified by the number of Americanisms you use (like the one I inserted just now); if you are an American, I think you'll be horrified by how corporate and tech speak have changed your language (it is disgusting, American authorities railed not too long ago, to say "authored", but now it is something every time it click the button on Movable Type; "donut" was until fairly recently spelt "doughnut").

There are huge sections of "The King's English" which it simply cannot understand - and since we have studied Latin and went to a posh English private school - and through that book, it's obvious that the authors had a sense, pretentious or not, of "beauty" and how it applied to English words, a sense which we know that at least it should lack completely.

ENGLISH LANGUAGE A NUTSHEll

All the words in the English language are divided into nine great classes. These classes are called the Parts of Speech. They are Article, Noun, Adjective, Pronoun, Verb, Adverb, Preposition, Conjunction and Interjection. Of these, the Noun is the most important, as all the others are more or less dependent upon it. A Noun signifies the name of any person, place or thing, in fact, anything of which we can have either thought or idea.

There are two kinds of Nouns, Proper and Common. Common Nouns are names which belong in common to a

Introduction r3 race or class, as man, city. Proper Nouns distinguish individual members of a race or class as John, Philadelphia. In the former case man is a name which belongs in common to the whole race of mankind, and city is also a name which is common to all large centres of population, but John signifies a particular individual of the race, while Philadelphia denotes a particular one from among the cities of the world.

Nouns are varied by Person, Number, Gender, and Case. Person is that relation existing between the speaker, those addressed and the subject under consideration, whether by discourse or correspondence. The Persons are First, Second and Third and they represent respect,ively the speaker, the person addressed and the person or thing mentioned or under consideration.

Number is the distinction of one from more than one. There are two numbers, singular and plural; the singular denotes one, the plural two or more. The plural is generally formed from the singular by the addition of s or es.

Gender has the same relation to nouns that sex has to individuals, but while there are only two sexes, there are four genders, viz., masculine, feminine, neuter and common.

Sometimes things which are without life as we conceive it and which, properly speaking, belong to the neuter gender, are, by a figure of speech called Personification, changed into either the masculine or feminine gender, as, for instance, we say of the sun, He is rising; of the moon, She is setting.

Case is the relation one noun bears to another or to a verb or to a preposition. There are three cases, the Nominative, the Possessive and the Objective. The nominative is the subject of which we are speaking or the agent which directs the action of the verb; the possessive case denotes possession, while the objective indicates the person or thing which is affected by the action of the verb.

An Article is a word placed before a noun to show

---:;;-""14 Introduction ~ I~---------------------------------

whether the latter is used in a particular or general sense. There are but two articles, a or an and the.

An Adjective is a word which qualifies a noun, that is, which shows some distinguishing mark or characteristic belonging to the noun.

IMPROVING YOUR ENGLISH

So you're looking to improve your writing skills, are you? Are you finding out that all of the lessons from your book weren't as thorough as you once thought? Even if you've got the basics of English punctuation under your belt, it's always a good idea to brush up on your English punctuation skills. Especially if you're trying to impress a potential boss with a stellar resume, you need to make sure that you are using English punctuation correctly. For writing correct english follow these pointers:

Periods: Use a period at the end of a sentence that isn't a question or an exciting point. Anytime you've used a short form of a word or an abbreviation, you'll also need to use a period where you've cut the word short (for example, instead of "et cetera", you would write "etc."). In this case, you need to know that it's okay to have the period there and at the end of the sentence, since they are being used for different reasons.

Commas: This is perhaps the most confusing punctuation mark in the English language. It's very versatile, almost too much so. You can use a comma to separate a list of words, to separate two phrases in the same sentence, or even to separate the parts of a date. You need a comma when you are using more than one adjective to describe something (like a big, fat, expensive mortgage). And you also need to use a comma if you're inserting something into a sentence that breaks up the natural flow of it (I thought, as I was sitting here, that I should mention this one as well).

We see that the section within the commas breaks up the flow of an otherwise normal sentence, so it needs to be

Introduction \5

separated by commas. Each place is followed by a comma. And if you can handle one more, you'll need to use a comma before you quote something (for example, she said, "I really enjoyed meeting you"). Believe it or not, this is not an exhaustive list, but it covers most of the key uses for a comma.

Exclamation marks: Use an exclamation mark to end a sentence that is exciting. If someone is yelling, use an exclamation mark at the end of their words. Or, if you've included sound effects that are loud or dramatic, use an exclamation mark

Question marks: Okay, this is a no-brainer, but just in case, let's review. Use a question mark at the end of a sentence that asks a question. Moving on ....

Quotation marks: If someone is speaking, you need to separate their words with quotation marks. Or, if you have borrowed words that someone else has written, you need to separate their words from your own with quotation marks.

Apostrophes: Apostrophes have two uses in correct English punctuation. Use an apostrophe when using contractions (didn't, couldn't, isn't). In this case, the apostrophe replaces the missing letters - "did not" loses the 0, and the 0 is replaced with an apostrophe to look like "didn't". Also, an apostrophe is used when talking about someone's possessions, or things that belong to them. For example, that is Santa's sleigh, and Rudolph's nose. Leaving out the apostrophe here would simply make the words look plural, and that's not the correct use of English punctuation here.

Colons: Use a colon before you insert a list of words or phrases after an otherwise complete sentence. (I'm a great writer for four reasons: my passion, dedication, education and qualifications.) You should also use a colon when you're linking two clos,ely-related sentences, or if you're wanted to separate a really important word or phrase from the rest of a sentence (for example, She made my favorite meal:

--;-16 In~oduction o I~ __________________________________ _

spaghetti). And you also need a colon when you're introducing a long quote (instead of using quotation marks) or when you're beginning a letter.

Semi-colon: Use a semi-colon when separating indepen­dent clauses (smaller sentences that make sense on their own in part of a bigger sentence). Use a semi-colon if before the word however or therefore if it falls in the middle of a sentence. You'll also need to use a semi-colon if you've got a long and complicated list (instead of using a comma).

Chapter 2

Essentials of English Language

DIVISIONS OF GRAMMAR, DEFINITIONS, ETYMOLOGY

In order t9 speak and write the English language correctly, it is imperative that the fundamental principles of the Grammar be mastered, for no matter how much we may read of the best authors, no matter how much we may associate with and imitate the best speakers, if we do not know the underlying principles of the correct formation of sentences and the relation of words to one another, we will be to a great extent like the parrot, that merely repeats what it hears without understanding the import of what is said.

Of course the parrot, being a creature without reason, cannot comprehend; it can simply repeat what is said to it, and as it utters phrases and sentences of profanity with as much facility as those of virtue, so by like analogy, when we do not understand the grammar of the language, we may be making egregious blunders while thinking we are speaking with the utmost accuracy.

DIVISIONS OF GRAMMAR

There are four great divisions of Grammar, viz.: Orthography, Etymology, Syntax, and Prosody. Orthography treats of letters and the mode of

combining them into words.

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Etymology treats of the various classes of words and the changes they undergo.

Syntax treats of the connection and arrangement of words in sentences.

Prosody treats of the manner of speaking and reading and the different kinds of verse.

The three first mentioned concern us most.

LETTERS

A letter is a mark or character used to represent an articulate sound. Letters are divided into vowels and

. consonants. A vowel is a letter which makes a distinct sound by itself. Consonants cannot be sounded without the aid of vowels. The vowels are a, e, i, 0, u, and sometimes wand y when they do not begin a word or syllable.

SYLLABLES AND WORDS

A syllable is a distinct sound produced by a single effort of [Transcriber's note: 1-2 words illegible] shall, pig, dog. In every syllable there must be at least one vowel.

A word consists of one syllable or a combinati'on of syllables.

Many t'u.les; are given for the dividing of words into syllables, but the best is to follow as closely as possible the divisions mad~ by the organs of speech in properly pronouncing them.

THE PARTS OF SPEECH

ARTICLE

An Article is a word placed before a noun to show whether the noun is used in a particular or general sense.

There are two articles, a or an and the. A or an is called the indefinite article because it does not point put any particular person or thing but indicates the noun in its widest sense; thus, a man means any man whatsoever of the species or race.

Essentials of English Language r9 The is called the definite article because it points out

some particular person or thing; thus, the man means some particular individual.

Using Articles

What is an article? Basically, an article is an adjective. Like adjectives, articles modify nouns.

English has two articles: the and a/an. The is used to refer to specific or particular nouns; a/an is used to modify non-specific or non-particular nouns. We call the the definite article and a/an the indefinite article.

the = definite article a/an = indefinite article For example, if I say, "Let's read the book," I mean a

specific book. If I say, "Let's read a book," I mean any book rather than a specific book.

Here's another way to explain it: The is used to refer to a specific or particular member of a group. For example, "I just saw the most popular movie of the year." There are many movies, but only one particular movie is the most popular. Therefore, we use the.

"A/an" is used to refer to a non-specific or non-particular member of the group. For example, "I would like to go see a movie." Here, we're not talking about a specific movie. We're talking about any movie. There are many movies, and I want to see any movie. I don't have a specific one in mind.

Let's look at each kind of article a little more closely.

Indefinite Articles: a and an

"A" and "an" signal that the noun modified is indefinite, referring to any member of a group. For example:

• liMy daughter really wants a dog for Christmas." This refers to any dog. We don't know which dog because we haven't found the dog yet.

• "Somebody call a policeman!" This refers to any policeman. We don't need a specific policeman; we need any policeman who is available.

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• "When I was at the zoo, I saw an elephant!" Here, we're talking about a single, non-specific thing, in this case an elephant. There are probably several elephants at the zoo, but there's only one we're talking about here.

Remember, using a or an depends on the sound that begins the next word. So ...

• a + singular noun beginning with a consonant: a boy; a car; a bike; a zoo; a dog

• an + singular noun beginning with a vowel: an elephant; an egg; an apple; an idiot; an orphan

• a + singular noun beginning with a consonant sound: a user (sounds like Iyoo-zer,' i.e. begins with a consonant I y' sound, so 'a' is used); a university; a unicycle

• In some cases where "h" is pronounced, such as "historical," us an:

An historical event is worth recording. Remember that this rule also applies when you use

acronyms: Introductory Composition at Purdue (lCaP) handles first­

year writing at the University. Therefore, an ICaP memo generally discusses issues concerning English 106 instructors.

Another case where this rule applies is when acronyms start with consonant letters but have vowel sounds:

An MSDS (material safety data sheet) was used to record the data. An SPCC plan (Spill Prevention Control and Countermeasures plan) will help us prepare for the worst.

If the noun is modified by an adjective, the choice between a and an depends on the initial sound of the adjective that immediately follows the article:

• a broken egg • an unusual problem • a European country (sounds like Iyer-o-pi-an,' i.e.

begins with consonant 'y' sound) Remember, too, that in English, the indefinite articles

are used to indicate membership in a group:

Essentials of English Language III • I am a teacher. (I am a member of a large group

known as teachers.) • Brian is an Irishman. (Brian is a member of the

people known as Irish.) • Seiko is a practicing Buddhist. (Seiko is a member

of the group of people known as Buddhists.)

Definite Article: the

The definite article is used before singular and plural nouns when the noun is specific or particular. The signals that the noun is definite, that it refers to a particular member of a group. For example:

"The dog that bit me ran away." Here, we're talking about a specific dog, the dog that bit me.

"I was happy to see the policeman who saved my cat!" Here, we're talking about a particular policeman. Even if we don't know the policeman's name, it's still a particular policeman because it is the one who saved the cat.

"I saw the elephant at the zoo." Here, we're talking about a specific noun. Probably there is only one elephant at the zoo.

Count and Noncount Nouns

The can be used with noncount nouns, or the article can be omitted entirely.

• "I love to sail over the water" (some specific body of water) or "I love to sail over water" (any water).

• "He spilled the milk all over the floor" (some specific milk, perhaps the milk you bought earlier that day) or "He spilled milk all over the floor" (any milk).

"A/an" can be used only with count nouns. • "I need a bottle of water." • "I need a new glass of milk." Most of the time, you can't say, "She wants a water,"

unless you're implying, say, a bottle of water.

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Geographical Use of the There are some specific rules for using the with

geographical nouns.

are:

Do not use the before: • names of most countries/territories: Italy, Mexico,

Bolivia; however, the Netherlands, the Dominican Republic, the Philippines, the United States

• names of cities, towns, or states: Seoul, Manitoba, Miami

• names of streets: Washington Blvd., Main St. • names of lakes and bays: Lake Titicaca, Lake Erie

except with a group of lakes like the Great Lakes • names of mountains: Mount Everest, Mount Fuji

except with ranges of mountains like the Andes or the Rockies or unusual names like the Matterhorn

• names of continents (Asia, Europe) • names of islands (Easter Island, Maui, Key West)

except with island chains like the Aleutians, the Hebrides, or the Canary Islands

Do use the before: • names of rivers, oceans and seas: the Nile, the Pacific • points on the globe: the Equator, the North Pole • geographical areas: the Middle East, the West • deserts, forests, gulfs, and peninsulas: the Sahara,

the Persian Gulf, the Black Forest, the Iberian Peninsula

OMISSION OF ARTICLES

Some common types of nouns that don't take an article

• Names of languages and nationalities: Chinese, English, Spanish, Russian

• Names of sports: volleyball, hockey, baseball • Names of academic subjects: mathematics, biologtJ,

history, computer science

A versus An

How do you know when to use the indefinite articles?

Essentials of English Language ru "A" goes before all words that begin with consonants. • a cat • a dog • a purple onion • a buffalo • a big apple With one exception: Use "an" before unsounded h. • an honorable peace • an honest error "An" goes before all words that be{In with vowels: • an apricot • an egg • an Indian • an orbit • an uprising With two exceptions: When u makes the same sound

as the y in you, or 0 makes the same sound as w in won, then a is used.

• a union • a united front • a unicorn • a used napkin • a U.S. ship • a one-legged man Note: The choice of article is actually based upon the

phonetic (sound) quality of the first letter in a word, not on the orthographic (written) representation of the letter. If the first letter makes a vowel-type sound, you use "an"; if the first letter would make a consonant-type sound, you use "a." So, if you consider the rule from a phonetic perspective, there aren't any exceptions. Since the 'h' hasn't any phonetic representation, no audible sound, in the first exception, the sound that follows the article is a vowel; consequently, 'an' is used. In the second exception, the word-initial'y' sound (unicorn) is actually a glide [j] phonetically, which has consonantal properties; consequently, it is treated as a consonant, requiring 'a'.

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NOUN

A noun is the name of any person, place or thing as John, London, book. Nouns are proper and common.

Proper nouns are names applied to particular persons or places.

Common nouns are names applied to a whole kind or species.

Nouns are inflected by number, gender and case. , Number is that inflection of the noun by which we indicate whether it represents one or more than one.

Gender is that inflection by which we signify whether the noun is the name of a male, a female, of an inanimate object or something which has no distinction of sex.

Case is that inflection of the noun which denotes the state of the person, place or thing represented, as the subject of an affirmation or question, the owner or possessor of something mentioned, or the object of an action or of a relation. ,

Thus in the example, "John tore the leaves of Sarah's book," the distinction between book which represents only one object and leaves which represent two or more objects of the same kind is called Number; the distinction of sex between John, a male, and Sarah, a female, and book and leaves, things which are inanimate and neither male nor female, is called Gender; and the distinction of state between John, the person who tore the book, and the subject of the affirmation, Mary, the owner of the book, leaves the objects torn, and book the object related to leaves, as the whole of which they were a part, is called Case.

Count and Non Count Nouns

Definition of Count and Noncount nouns

The main difference between count and noncount nouns is whether you can count the things they refer to or not.

Count nouns refer to things that exist as separate and distinct individual units. They usually refer to what can be perceived by the senses.

Essentials of English Language ItS

Examples: table chair word

finger remark girl

Example sentences:

bottle award candidate

I stepped in a puddle. (How many puddles did you step in? Just one.)

I drank a glass of milk. (Glasses of milk can be counted) I saw an apple tree. (Apple trees can be counted) Noncount nouns refer to things that can't be counted

because they are thought of as wholes that can't be cut into parts. They often refer to abstractions and occasionally have a collective meaning (for example, furniture).

Examples: anger

furniture

courage

education

progress

weather

warmth leisure precision

Example Sentences: I dove into the water. (How many waters did you dive

into? The question doesn't make any sense; therefore water is noncountable.)

I saw the milk spill. (How many milks? Milk cannot be counted.)

I admired the foliage. (How many foliages? Foliage cannot be counted.)

Think of the batter from which a cake is made. Before you put the batter into the oven, it can't be divided into parts because it's a thick liquid. Once it has been baked, it l)ecomes solid enough to be cut into pieces. Noncount nouns are like cake batter; count nouns are like pieces of cake

Note: Since the issue is complicated and almost no rule

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is absolute, there will be exceptions to these definitions; however, we can show some general patterns. Bear in mind that what is counti'lble in another language may not be countable in English, and vice versa.

Uses of Count and Noncount Nouns

Pluralizing

The Rule

From fIe definitions of mass and count given you may have already guessed the rule for pluralizing them:

• Most count nouns pluralize with ~S • Noncount nouns don't pluralize at all This rule works for all of the nouns in the lists of

examples in the first section. Check this rule for yourself before reading further.

An Exception to the Rule

For a number of nouns, the rule needs slight revision. Certain nouns in English belong to both classes: they have both a non count and a count meaning. Normally the noncount meaning is abstract and general and the count meaning concrete and specific. Compare:

Count

• I've had some difficulties finding a job. (refers to a number of specific problems)

• The talks will take place in the Krannert building. (refers to a number of specific lectures)

• The city was filled with bright lights and harsh sounds. (refers to a number of specific lights and noises)

Noncount

• She succeeded in school with little difficulty. (refers to the general idea of school being difficult)

Essentials of English Language ~

• I dislike idle talk. (refers to talking in general) • Light travels faster than sound. (refers to the way

light and sound behave in general) Note: A special case of the use of noncount nouns in a

count sense has to do with classification. Sometimes a usually noncount noun can be understood as one item separate and distinct from other items of the same category. The nouns that function in this way often denote foods and beverages: food(s), drink(s), wine(s), bread(s), coffee(s), fruit(s), and so on.

Examples: • There are several French wines to choose from.

(= kinds of wine) • ~ prefer Sumatran coffees to Colombian.

(= kinds of coffee) • }Ve use a variety of different batters in our bakery.

(= kinds of batter) A recent entry into this class is homework, which at least

among some students has the count plural homeworks in addition to its non count use. (For example, "You're missing three of ,the homeworks from the first part of the course.") Because this usage is not firmly established and is likely to be considered nonstandard, you should check with your instructor before using it in writing.

A Revision of the Rule

These exceptions require that the rule for pluralizing be revised: count nouns and nouns used in a count sense pluralize; noncount nouns and nouns used in a noncount sense do not.

The two possibilities in each half of the rule require different choices. If you know that a particular noun must be either count or noncount and cannot be both, you need to decide only if it is possible to pluralize the noun. On the other hand, if you know that a particular noun may be used in either a count or noncount sense, then you need to decide whether it is appropriate to pluralize.

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To summarize, we may put the rule in a chart, like this:

Pluralizes with -s Doesn't Pluralize

Count Noun XX

Count Use XX

Noncount Noun XX

Noncount Use XX

Nouns and Articles

Choosing which article to use (if any) with a noun is a complex matter because the range of choices depends on whether the noun in question is 1) count or noncount and 2) singular or plural.

Both count nouns (whether singular or plural) and noncount nouns take articles.

Combinations of Nouns and Articles

The following chart shows which articles go with which kinds of ~ouns. Notice that this, that, these, and those have been included because, like the, they mark the noun that they modify as definite, which means that the noun refers 1) to a unique individual or 2) to some person, event, or object known to both the writer and reader from their general knowledge or from what has been previously mentioned in a piece of writing.

a,an

Count XX singular Count plural Noncount

Examples

Count Singular

I ate an apple.

the this, that these, those no article

XX XX

XX XX XX

XX XX XX

Essentials of English Language Ii9

I rode the bus. Does she live in this house? No, she lives in that house

over there.

Count Plural

I like to feed the birds. Do you want these books? No, I want those books up there. Cats are interesting pets.

Noncount

The water is cold. This milk is going sour. Music helps me relax.

Quantity Terms

The following chart shows which quantity words go with which kinds of nouns. Note that quantity words can be used in combinations such as many more, many fewer, much more, and much less, any of which can be preceded by how to form questions or relative clauses. Negatives like not and no can also be applied to many of these terms.

much, less, little, a little, very little

Count singular Count plural

Noncount XX

Examples

Count Singular

I practice every day.

some, any, most,more, all, a lot of, no, none of the

XX

XX

I'd like one donut, please.

many, both, each, several, every, few/fewer/fewest anY,one , a few, one of the, a couple of

XX

XX

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Count Plural

Can I have some chips? She has a lot of books, and many are autographed. I have fewer pencils than you.

Noncount

Can I have some water? She has a lot of strength, and much is due to her

upbringing. I have less courage than you.

Countable Nouns

Countable nouns refer to things that we can count. Such nouns can take either singular or plural form.

Concrete nouns may be countable. There are a dozen flowers in the vase. He ate an apple for a snack. Collective nouns are countable. She attended three classes today. London is home to several orchestras. Some proper nouns are countable. There are many Greeks living in New York. The Vanderbilts would throw lavish parties at their

Newport summer mansion.

Uncountable Nouns

Uncountable nouns refer to things that we cannot count. Such nouns take only singular form.

Abstract nouns are uncountable. The price of freedom is constant vigilance. Her writing shows maturity and intelligence. Some concrete nouns are uncountable (when

understood in their undivided sense). The price of oil has stabilized recently. May I borrow some rice?

Essentials of English Language rn While uncountable nouns do not generally take a plural

form, sometimes they may be pluralized when used in a countable sense.

The difference between the uncountable and countable meanings of nouns that are used in either sense can be seen in the following chart:

Uncountable Sense Countable Sense Art is often called an imitation of life. I read a book about the folk arts of Sweden. Life is precious. A cat has nine lives. He likes to eat pizza. How many pizzas should we order? Religion has been a Many religions are practiced in the United powerful force in history. States. She has beautiful skin. The hull of a kayak is made of animal skins. Dr. Moulton is an expert in ancient Greek We have several sculptures in our home. sculpture. Where are those important papers? We use only recycled paper in our office.

Using Articles with Countable and Uncountable Nouns

A countable noun always takes either the indefinite (a, an) or definite (the) article when it is singular.

When plural, it takes the definite article if it refers to a definite, specific group and no article if it is used in a general sense.

The guest of honour arrived late. You are welcome as a guest in our home. The guests at your party yesterday made a lot of noise. Guests are welcome here anytime. Uncountable nouns never take the indefinite

article (a or an), but they do take singular verbs. The is sometimes used with uncountable nouns in

the same way it is used with plural countable nouns, that is, to refer to a specific object, group, or idea.

Information is a precious commodity in our computerized world.

The information in your files is correct. Sugar has become more expensive recently. Please pass me the sugar.

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Categories of Uncountable Nouns

Abstract Material Generic

advice meat fruit help rice wildlife information bread equipment knowledge cake machinery trouble coffee furniture work ice cream mail enjoyment water luggage fun oil jewelry recreation grass clothing relaxation hair money

Quantity Adjectives with Countable and Uncountable Nouns

Some, Any

Non-Plurals with - s

mathematics economics physics civics ethics mumps measles news tennis (otper games)

Both words modify either countable or uncountable nouns.

There are some cookies in the jar. (countable) There is some water on the floor. (uncountable) Did you eat any food? (uncountable) Do you serve any vegetarian dishes? (countable)

Much, Many

Much modifies only uncountable nouns. How much money will we need? They ate so much cake that they started to feel sick. Much effort will be required to solve this problem. Many modifies only countable nouns. How many children do you have? They had so many books that they had to stack them in

the hall. Many Americans travel to Europe each year.

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A lot of, lots of These words are informal substitutes for much and many. Lots of effort will be required to solve this problem.

(uncountable) A lot of Americans travel to Europe each year. (countable)

Little, Quite a little, Few, Quite a few Little and quite a little modify cnly uncountable nouns. We had a little ice cream after dinner. They offered little help for my problem. (meaning "only

a small amount") They offered quite a little help for my problem. (meaning

"a large amount") (See quite a bit of below.) Few and quite a few modify only countable nouns. A few doctors from the hospital play on the softball team. Few restaurants in this town offer vegetarian dishes.

(meaning "only a small number") Quite a few restaurants in this town offer vegetarian

dishes. (meaning "a large number")

A little bit of, Quite a bit of These informal phrases usually precede uncountable

nouns. Quite a bit of has the same meaning as quite a little and is used more commonly.

There's a little bit of pepper in the soup. (meaning "a small amount")

There's quite a bit of pepper in the soup. (meaning "a large amount")

Enough This word modifies both countable and uncountable

nouns. I don't have enough potatoes to make the soup. We have enough money to buy a car.

Plenty of This term modifies both countable and uncountable

nouns.

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No

There are plenty of mountains in Switzerland. She has plenty of money in the bank.

This word modifies both countable and uncountable nouns.

There were no squirrels in the park today. We have no time left to finish the project.

PRONOUN

A pronoun is a word used in place of a noun; as, "John gave his pen to James and he lent it to Jane to write her copy with it." Without the pronouns we would have to write this sentence,-"John gave John's pen to James and James lent the pen to Jane to write Jane's copy with the pen."

There are three kinds of pronouns-Personal, Relative and Adjective Pronouns.

Personal Pronouns are so called because they are used instead of the names of persons, places and things. The Personal Pronouns are I, Thou, He, She, and It, with their plurals, We, Ye or You and They. I is the pronoun of the first person because it represents the person speaking.

Thou is the pronoun of the second person because it represents the person spoken to.

He, She, It are the pronouns of the third person because they represent the persons or things of whom we are speaking. Like nouns, the Personal Pronouns have number, gender and case. The gender of the first and second person is obvious, as they represent the person or persons speaking and those who are addressed. The personal pronouns are thus declined:

First Person. M.orF.

Sinf<. Plural.

N. I We P. Mine Ours o. Me Us

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Second Person.

M. or F.

Sin~. Plural.

N. Thou You P. Thine Yours 0. Thee You

Third Person.

M.

Sing. Plural.

N. He They P. His Theirs o. Him Them

Third Person.

F.

Sing. Plural.

N. She They P. Hers Theirs o. Her Them

Third Person.

Neuter.

Sin~. Plural.

N. It They P. Its Theirs o. It Them

N. B. In colloquial language and ordinary writing Thou, Thine and Thee are seldom used, except by the Society of Friends. The Plural form You is used for both the nominative and objective singular in the second person and Yours is generally used in the possessive in place of Thine The Relative Pronouns are so called because they relate to some word or phrase going before; as, "The boy who told the truth;" "He has done well, which gives me great

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pleasure. "Here who and which are not only used in place of other words, but who refers immediately to boy, and which to the circumstance of his having done well. The word or clause to which a relative pronoun refers is called the Antecedent.

The Relative Pronouns are who, which, that and what

Who is applied to persons only; as, liThe man who was here."

Which is applied to the lower animals and things without life; as, liThe horse which I sold." liThe hat which I bought."

That is applied to both persons and things; as, liThe friend that helps." liThe bird that sings." liThe knife that cuts."

What is a compound relative, including both the antecedent and the relative and is equivalent to that which; as, "I did what he desired," i.e. "I did that which he desired."

Relative pronouns have the singular and plural alike. Who is either masculine or feminine; which and that

are masculine, feminine or neuter; what as a relative pronoun is always neuter.

That and what are not inflected. Who and which are thus declined:

Sinx. and Plural Sing. and Plural

N. Who N. Which

P. Whose P. Whose O. Whom O. Which

Who, which and what when used to ask questions are called Interrogative Pronouns. Adjective Pronouns partake of the nature of adjectives and pronouns and are subdivided as follows:

Demonstrative Adjective

Pronouns which directly point out the person or object.

Essentials of English Language 127 They are this, that with their plurals these, those, and yon, same and selfsame. Distributive Adjective Pronouns used distributively. They are each, every, either, neither.Indefinite Adjective Pronouns used more or less indefinitely. They are any, all, few, some, several, one, other, another, none. Possessive Adjective Pronouns denoting possession. They are my, thy, his, her, its, our, your, their.N. B. -(The possessive adjective pronouns differ from the possessive case of the personal pronouns in that the latter can stand alone while the former cannot. "Who owns that book?" ''It is mine." Yob cannot say "it is my," the word book must be repeated.)

Using Pronouns Clearly

Because a pronoun REFERS BACK to a noun or TAKES THE PLACE OF that noun, you have to use the correct pronoun so tl'\at your reader clearly understands which noun your pronoun is referring to.

Th~refore, pronouns should: Agree in number: If the pronoun takes the place of a

singular noun, you have to use a singular pronoun. If a student parks a car on campus, he or she has to buy a parking sticker.

(NOT: If a student parks a car on campus, they have to buy a parking sticker.)

Remember: the words everybody, anybody, anyone, each, neither, nobody, someone, a person, etc. are singular and take singular pronouns. Everybody ought to do his or her best. (NOT: their best)

Neither of the girls brought her umbrella. (NOT: their umbrellas)

Note: Many people find the construction "his or her" wordy, so if it is possible to use a plural noun as your antecedent so that you can use "they" as your pronoun, it may be wise to do so. If you do use a singular noun and the context makes the gender clear, then it is permissible to use just "his" or "her" rather than "his or her."

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Agree in person: If you are writing in the "first person" (.1), don't confuse your reader by switching to the "second person" (you) or "third person" (he, she, they, it, etc.). Similarly, if you are using the "second person," don't switch to "first" or "third."

When a person comes to class, he or she should have his or her homework ready.

(NOT: When a person comes to class, you should have your homework ready.)

Refer clearly to a specific noun: Don't be vague or ambiguous.' NOT: Although the motorcycle hit the tree, it was not

damaged. (Is "it" the motorcycle or the tree?) NOT: I don't think they should show violence on TV.

(Who are "they"?) NOT: Vacation is coming soon, which is nice. (What is

nice, the vacation or the fact that it is corning soon?) NOT: George worked in a national forest last summer.

This may be his life's work. (What word does "this" refer to?) NOT: If you put this sheet in your notebook, you can refer

to it. (What does "it" refer to, the sheet or your notebook?)

Pronoun Case

Pronoun Case is really a very simple matter. There are three cases.

• Subjective case: pronouns used as subject. • Objective case: pronouns used as objects of verbs

or prepositions. • Possessive case: pronouns which express ownership.

Pronouns Pronouns as Pronouns that show as Subjects Objects Possession I me my (mine) you you your (yours) he, she, it him, her, it his, her (hers), it (its) we us our (ours) they them their (theirs) who whom whose

Essentials of English Language 129 The pronouns This, That, These, Those, and Which do

not change form. Some problems of case: 1. In compound structures, where there are two

pronouns or a noun and a pronoun, drop the other noun for a moment. Then you can see which case you want. NOT: Bob and me travel a good deal. (Would you say, "me travel"?) NOT: He gave the flowers to Jane and 1. (Would you say, "he gave the flowers to I"?) NOT: Us men like the coach. (Would you say, "us like the coach"?)

2. In comparisons. Comparisons usually follow than or as: He is taller than I (am tall). This helps you as much as (it helps) me. She is as noisy as I (am).

Comparisons are really shorthand sentences which usually omit words, such as those in the parentheses in the sentences. If you complete the comparison in your head, you can choose the correct case for the pronoun.

NOT: He is taller than me. (Would you say, "than me am taU"?)

3. In formal and semiformal writing: Use the subjective form after a form of the verb

to be. Formal: It is 1. Informal: It is me. Use whom in the objective case. Formal: To whom am I talking? Informal: Who am I talking to?

THE VERB

A verb is a word which implies action or the doing of something, or it may be defined as a word which affirms, commands or asks a question.

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Thus, the words John the table, contain no assertion, but when the word strikes is introduced, something is affirmed, hence the word strikes is a verb and gives completeness and meaning to the group.

The simple form of the verb without inflection is called the root of the verb; e. g. love is the root of the verb, -"To Love."

Verbs are regular or irregular, transitive or intransitive. A verb is said to be regular when it forms the past

tense by adding ed to the present or d if the verb ends in e. When its past tense does not end in ed it is said to be irregular.

A transitive verb is one the action of which passes over to or affects some object; as "I struck the table." Here the action of striking affected the object table, hence struck is a transitive verb.

An intransitive verb is one in which the action remains with the subject; as "I walk," "I sit," "I run."

Many intransitive verbs, however, can be used transitively; thus, "I walk the horse;" walk is here transitive.

Verbs are inflected by number, person, tense and mood. Number and person as applied to the verb really

belong to the subject; they are used with the verb to denote whether the assertion is made. regarding one or more than one and whether it is made in reference to the person speaking, the person spoken to or the person or thing spoken about.

Irregular Verbs: Overview and List

In English, regular verbs consist of three main parts: the root form (present), the (simple) past, and the past participle. Regular verbs have ·an -ed ending added to the root verb for both the simple past and past participle. Irregular verbs do not follow this pattern, and instead take on an alternative pattern.

The following is a partial list of irregular verbs found

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in English. Each listing consists of the present/root form of the verb, the (simple) past form of the verb, and the past participle form of the verb.

List of Irregular Verbs in English

Present Past Past Particie.'e

be was, were been

become became become

begin began begun

blow blew blown

break broke broken

bring brought brought

build built built burst burst burst

buy bought bought burst burst burst

catch caught caught

choose chose chosen corne carne corne cut cut cut dealdealt dealt do did done

drink drank drunk

drive drove driven eat ate eaten

fall fell fallen

feed fed fed feel felt felt fight fought fought find found found fly flew flown forbid forbade . forbidden

321 Essentials of English Language

forget forgot forgotten forgive forgave forgiven freeze froze frozen

get got gotten give gave given go went gone grow grew grown have had had hear heard heard hide hid hidden hold held held hurt hurt hurt keep kept kept know knew known lay laid laid leadled led leave left left let let let lie lay lain lose lost lost make made made meet met met

pay paid paid quit quit quit read read read

ride rode ridden run ran run

say said said see saw seen

seek sought sought

sell sold sold

Essentials of English Language rn send sent sent

shake shook shaken

shine shone shone

singsang sung

sit sat sat

sleep slept slept

speak spoke spoken

spend spent spent

spring sprang sprung stand stood stood

steal stole stolen swim swam swum swing swung swung take took taken teach taught taught tear tore torn

tell told told think thought thought throw threw thrown understand understood understood wake woke (waked) woken (waked) wear wore worn win won won write wrote written

TENSE

In their tenses verbs follow the divisions of time. They have present tense, past tense and future tense with their variations to express the exact time of action as to an event happening, having happened or yet to happen.

Sequence of Tenses Strictly speaking, in English, only two tenses are

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marked in the verb alone, present (as in "he sings") and past (as in "he sang"). Other English language tenses, as many as thirty of them, are marked by other words called auxiliaries. Understanding the six basic tenses allows one to re-create much of the reality of time in his writing. The fiix'are

Simple Present: They walk Present Perfect: They have walked Simple Past: They walked Past Perfect: They had walked Future: They will walk Future Perfect: They will have walked Problems in sequencing tenses usually occur with the

perfect tenses, all of which are formed by adding an auxiliary or auxiliaries to the past participle, the third principal part.

ring, rang, rung walk, walked, walked

The most common auxiliaries are forms of "be," "can," "do," "may," "must," "ought," "shall," "will," "has," "have," "had," and they are the forms we shall use in this most basic discussion.

Present Perfect

The present perfect consists of a past participle (the third principal part) with "has" or "have."

It designates action which began in the past but which continues into the present or the effect of which still continues.

1. Betty taught for ten years. (simple past) 2. Betty has taught for ten years. (present perfect) The implication in (1) is that Betty has retired; in (2),

that she is still teaching. 1. John did his homework. He can go to the movies. 2. If John has done his homework, he can go to the

movies. Infinitives, too, have perfect tense forms when

combined with "have," and sometimes problems arise when

Essentials of English Language r35"" infinitives are used with verbs such as "hope," "plan," "expect," and "intend," all of which usually point to the future (1 wanted to go to the movie. Janet meant to see the doctor.) The perfect tense sets up a sequence by marking the action which began and usually was completed before the action in the main verb.

1. I am happy to have participated in this campaign! 2. John had hoped to have won the trophy. Thus the action of the main verb points back in time;

the action of the perfect infinitive has been completed. The past perfect tense designates action in the past just

as simple past does, but the action of the past perfect is action completed in the past before another action.

1. John raised vegetables and later sold them. (past) 2. John sold vegetables that he had raised. (past perfect) The vegetables were raised before they were sold. 1. Renee washed the car when George arrived

(simple past) 2. Renee had washed the car when George arrived.

(past perfect) In (1), she waited until George arrived and then washed

the car. In (2), she had already finished washing the car by the time he arrived.

In sentences expressing condition and result, the past perfect tense is used in the part that states the condition.

1. If I had done my exercises, I would have passed the test.

2. I think George would have been elected if he hadn't sounded so pompous.

Future Perfect Tense

The future perfect tense designates action that will have been completed at a specified time in the future.

1. Saturday I will finish my housework. (simple future)

2. By Saturday noon, I will have finished my housework. (future perfect)

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Review'

1. Judy saved thirty dollars. (past) 2. Judy will save thirty dollars. (future) 3. Judy has saved thirty dollars. (present perfect) 4. Judy had saved thirty dollars by the end of last

month. (past perfect) 5. Judy will have saved thirty dollars· by the end of

this month. (future perfect) Notice: There can be only one "would have" action

group in a sentence. .

Passive Verb Tenses

Simple Present

Active: • The company ships the computers to many foreign

countries. Passive: • Computers are shipped to many foreign countries

Present Progressive

Active:

• The chef is preparing the food. Passive:

• The food is being prepared. Simple Past Active: • The delivery man delivered the package yesterday. Passive: • The package was delivered yesterday.

Past Progressive

Active: • The producer was making an announcement. Passive: • An announcement was being made.

Future

Active:

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• Our representative will pick up the computer. Passive: • The computer will be picked up.

Present Perfect

Active: • Someone has made the arrangements for us. Passive: • The arrangements have been made for us.

Past Perfect

Active: • They had given us visas for three months. Passive: • They had been given visas for three months.

Future Perfect

Active: • By next month we will have finished this job. Passive: • By next month this job will have been finished.

Modals

Active: • You can use the computer. Passive: • The computer can be used.

Active Verb Tenses

Simple Present

Present or Action Condition • I hear you. • Here comes the bus. General Truths

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• There are thirty days in September. Non-action; Habitual Action ' • I like music. • I run on Tuesdays and Sundays. Future Time The train leaves at 4:00 p.m.

Present Progressive

Activity in Progress • I am playing soccer now. Verbs of Perception • He is feeling sad.

Simple Past

Competed Action • We visited the museum yesterday. Completed Condition • The weather was rainy last week.

Past Progressive

Past Action that took place over a period of time • They were climbing for twenty-seven days. Past Action interrupted by another • We were eating dinner when she told me.

Future

With will/won't - Activity or event that will or won't exist or happen in the future

• I'll get up late tomorrow. • I won't get up early. With going to - future in relation to circumstances in the

present • I'm hungry. • I'm going to get something to eat.

Present Perfect

With verbs of state that begin in the past and lead up to and include the present

Essentials of English Language 139 • He has lived here for many years. To express habitual or continued action • He has worn glasses all his life. With events occurring at an indefinite or unspecified time

in the past - with ever, never, before • Have you ever been to Tokyo before?

Present Perfect Progressive

To express duration of an action that began in the past, has continued into the present, and may continue into the future

• David has been working for two hours, and he hasn't finished yet.

Past Perfect

To describe a past event or condition completed before another event in the past

• When I arrived home, he had already called. In reported speech • Jane said that she had gone to the movies.

Future Perfect

To express action that will be completed by or before a specified time in the future

• By next month we will have finished the job. • He won't have finished his work until 2:00.

Verb Tense Consistency

Controlling Shifts in Verb Tense

Throughout this part on verb tense, example sentences with nonstandard or inconsistent usage have verbs in dark ink.

Writing often involves telling stories. Sometimes we narrate a story as our main purpose in writing; sometimes we include brief anecdotes or hypothetical scenarios as illustrations or reference points in an essay.

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Even an essay that does not explicitly tell a story involves implied time frames for the actions discussed and states described. Changes in verb tense help readers understand the temporal relationships among various narrated events. But unnecessary or inconsistent shifts in tense can cause confusion. Generally, writers maintain one .tense for the main discourse and indicate changes in time frame by changing tense relative to that primary tense, which is usually either simple past or simple present. Even apparently non-narrative writing should employ verb tenses consistently and clearly.

General guideline: Do not shift from one tense to another if the time frame for each action or state is the same.

Examples: • The ocean contains rich minerals that washed

down from rivers and streams. Contains is present tense, referring to a current state;

washed down is past, but should be present (wash down) because the minerals are currently continuing to wash down.

Corrected: The ocean contains rich minerals that wash down from rivers and streams.

• About noon the sky darkened, a breeze sprang up, and a low rumble announces the approaching storm.

Darkened and sprang up are past tense verbs; announces is present but should be past (announced) to maintain consistency within the time frame.

Corrected: About noon the sky darkened, a breeze sprang up, and a low rumble announced the approaching storm.

• Yesterday we had walked to school but later rode the bus home.

Had walked is past perfect tense but should be past to maintain consistency within the time frame (yesterday); rode is past, r...ferring to an action completed before the current time frame.

Essentials of English Language 141 Corrected: Yesterday we walked to school but later rode

the bus home. General guideline: Do shift tense to indicate a change in

time frame from one action or state to another.

Examples:

• The children love their new tree house, which they built themselves. Love is present tense, referring to a current state (they still love it now;) built is past, referring to an action completed before the current time frame (they are not still building it.)

• Before they even began deliberations, many jury members had reached a verdict.

Began is past tense, referring to an action completed before the current time frame; had reached is past perfect, referring to action from a time frame before that of another past event (the action of reaching was completed before the action of beginning.)

• Workers are installing extra loudspeakers because the music in tonight's concert will need amplification.

Are installing is present progressive, referring to an ongoing action in the current time frame (the workers are still installing, and have not finished;) will need is future, referring to action expected to begin after the current time frame (the concert will start in the future, and that's when it will need amplification.)

Controlling Shifts in a Paragraph or Essay

General guideline: Establish a primary tense for the main discourse, and use occasional shifts to other tenses to indicate changes in time frame.

Hints: • Rely on past tense to narrate events and to refer

to an author or an author's ideas as historical entities (biographical information about a historical

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figure or narration of developments in an author's ideas over time).

• Use present tense to state facts, to refer to perpetual or habitual actions, and to discuss your own ideas or those expressed by an author in a particular work. Also use present tense to describe action in a literary work, movie, or other fictional narrative. Occasionally, for dramatic effect, you may wish to narrate an event in present tense as though it were happening now. If you do, use present tense consistently throughout the narrative, making shifts only where appropriate.

• Future action may be expressed in a variety of ways, including the use of will, shall, is going to, are about to, tomorrow and other adverbs of time, and a wide range of contextual cues.

Using Other Tenses in Conjunction with Simple Tenses

It is not always easy (or especially helpful) to try to distinguish perfect and/or progressive tenses from simple ones in isolation, for example, the difference between simple past progressive ("She was eating an apple") and present perfect progressive ("She has been eating an apple"). Distinguishing these sentences in isolation is possible, but the differences between them make clear sense only in the context of other sentences since the time-distinctions suggested by different tenses are relative to the time frame implied by the verb tenses in surrounding sentences or clauses.

Example 1: Simple past narration with perfect and progressive elements

On the day in question ... By the time Tom noticed the doorbell, it had already rung

three times. As usual, he had been listening to loud music on his stereo. He turned the stereo down and stood up to answer the door. An old man was standing on the steps. The man began to speak slowly, asking for directions.

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In this example, the progressive verbs had been listening and was standing suggest action underway at the time some other action took place. The stereo-listening was underway when the doorbell rang. The standing on the steps was underway when the door was opened. The past perfect progressive verb had been listening suggests action that began in the time frame prior to the main narrative time frame and that was still underway as another action began.

If the primary narration is in the present tense, then the present progressive or present perfect progressive is used to indicate action that is or has been underway as some other action begins. This narrative style might be used to describe a scene from a novel, movie, or play, since action in fictional narratives is conventionally treated as always present. For example, we refer to the scene in Hamlet in which the prince first speaks (present) to the ghost of his dead father or the final scene in Spike Lee's Do the Right Thing, which takes place (present) the day after Mookie has smashed (present perfect) the pizzeria window. If the example narrative were a scene in a play, movie, or novel, it might appear as follows.

Example 2: Simple present narration with perfect and progressive elements

In this scene ... By the time Tom notices the doorbell, it has already rung

three times. As usual, he has been listening to loud music on his stereo. He turns the stereo down and stands up to answer the door. An old man is standing on the steps. The man begins to speak slowly, asking for directions.

In this example as in the first one, the progressive verbs has been listening and is standing indicate action underway as some other action takes place. The present perfect progressive verb has been listening suggests action that began in the time frame prior to the main narrative time frame and that is still underway as another action begins. The remaining tense relationships parallel those in the first example.

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In all of these cases, the progressive or -ing part of the verb merely indicates ongoing action, that is, action underway as another action occurs. The general comments about tense relationships apply to simple and perfect tenses, regardless of whether there is a progressive element involved.

It is possible to imagine a narrative based on a future time frame as well, for example, the predictions of a psychic or futurist. If the example narrative were spoken by a psychic, it might appear as follows.

Example 3: Simple future narration with perfect and progressive elements

Sometime in the future ... By the time Tom notices the doorbell, it will have already

rung three times. As usual, he will have been listening to loud music on his stereo. He will turn the stereo down and will stand up to answer the door. An old man will be standing on the steps. The man will begin to speak slowly, asking for directions.

In this example as in the first two, the progressive verbs will have been listening and will be standing indicate ongoing action. The future perfect progressive verb will have been listening suggests action that will begin in the time frame prior to the main narrative time frame and that will still be underway when another action begins. The verb notices here is in present-tense form, but the rest of the sentence and the full context of the narrative cue us to understand that it refers to future time. The remaining tense relationships parallel those in the first two examples.

General Guidelines for Use of Perfect Tenses

In general the use of perfect tenses is determined by their relationship to the tense of the primary narration. If the primary narration is in simple past, then action initiated before the time frame of the primary narration is described in past perfect. If the primary narration is in simple present, then action initiated before the time frame of the primary

Essentials of English Language f45 narration is described in present perfect. If the primary narration is in simple future, then action initiated before the time frame of the primary narration is described in fu ture perfect.

Past primary narration corresponds to Past Perfect (had + past participle) for earlier time frames.

Present primary narration corresponds to Present Perfect (has or have + past participle) for earlier time frames.

Future primary narration corresponds to Future Perfect (will have + past participle) for earlier time frames.

The present perfect is also m:ed to narrate action that began in real life in the past but is not completed, that is, may continue or may be repeated in the present or future. For example: "I have run in four marathons" (implication: "so far ... I may run in others"). This usage is distinct from the simple past, which is used for action that was completed in the past without possible continuation or repetition in the present or future. For example: "Before injuring my leg, I ran in four marathons" (implication: "My injury prevents me from running in any more marathons").

Time-orienting words and phrases like before, after, by the time, and others-when used to relate two or more actions in time-can be good indicators of the need for a perfect-tense verb in a sentence.

• By the time the Senator finished (past) his speech, the audience had lost (past perfect) interest.

• By the time the Senator finishes (present: habitual action) his speech, the audience has lost (present perfect) interest.

• By the time the Senator finishes (present: suggesting future time) his speech, the audience will have lost (future perfect) interest.

• After everyone had finished (past perfect) the main course, we offered (past) our guests dessert.

• After everyone has finished (present perfect) the main course, we offer (presenf: habitual action) our guests dessert.

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• After everyone has finished (present perfect) the main course, we will offer (future: specific one-time

. action) our guests dessert. • Long before the sun rose (past), the birds had arrived

(past perfect) at the feeder. • Long before the sun rises (present: habitual action),

the birds have arrived (present perfect) at the feeder. • Long before the sun rises (present: suggesting

future time), the birds will have arrived (future perfect) at the feeder.

Sample Paragraphs

The main tense in this first sample is past. Tense shifts are inappropriate and are indicated in bold.

The gravel crunched and spattered beneath the wheels of the bus as it swung into the station. Outside the window, shadowy figures peered at the bus through the darkness. Somewhere in the crowd, two, maybe three, people were waiting for me: a woman, her son, and possibly her husband. I could not prevent my imagination from churning out a picture of them, the town, and the place I will soon call home. Hesitating a moment, I rise from my seat, these images flashing through my mind. (adapted from a narrative)

Inappropriate shifts from past to present, such .?s those that appear in the paragraph, are sometimes hard to resist. The writer becomes drawn into the narrative and begins to relive the event as an ongoing experience. The inconsistency should be avoided, however. In the sample, will should be would, and rise should be rose.

The main tense in this second sample is present. Tense shifts-all appropriate-are indicated in bold.

A dragonfly rests on a branch overhanging a small stream this July morning. It is newly emerged from brown nymphal skin. As a nymph, it crept over the rocks of the stream bottom, feeding first on protozoa and mites, then, as it grew larger, on the young of other aquatic insects. Now

Essentials of English Language ~

an adult, it will feed on flying insects and eventually will mate. The mature dragonfly is completely transformed from the drab creature that once blended with underwater sticks and leaves. Its head, thorax, and abdomen glitter; its wings are iridescent in the sunlight. (adapted from an article in the magazine Wilderness)

This writer uses the present tense to describe the appearance of a dragonfly on a particular July morning. However, both past and future tenses are called for when she refers to its previous actions and to its predictable activity in the future.

Verbs with Helpers

Recent Past (Present Perfect)

A conjugation of Have + [Verb + ed] describes an action that began in the past and continues into the present or that occurred in the recent past.

Examples: • The child has finished the candy. • I have gone to college for one year. • He has worked hard all day.

Distant Past (Past Perfect)

Had + [Verb + ed] describes actions that began and ended in the past.

Examples: • Mike had promised to repair Joe's bike. • I had eaten dinner before he came.

Present Continuous Action (Present Progressive)

Is + [Verb + ing] shows action that is in progress now or is going to happen in the future.

Examples: • I am taking Spanish this semester. • He is getting ready for the party this evening. • Next week they are going to Florida.

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Past Continuous Action (Past Progressive)

Was + [Verb + ing] shows action that was in progress at a certain time in the past.

Examples:

• Yesterday I was working in the garden. • He was smoking a pack a day before he quit. • The dogs were barking all night.

Other Helping Verbs (Modals)

[Helper] + [Verb], such as can, will, shall, may, could, may, would, should, might must keep the same form. They do not change to agree with the subject.

Examples:

I I you I he I can do that assignment easily. wei There are also modal phrases (some of which don't

change form), such as: • Could Have + Verb • Would Have + Verb • Must Have + Verb (Not could "of" or would "of")

Examples:

• I could have won the prize if I had entered the contest.

• He must have bought the ticket already. Or

• Used to + Verb • Have to + Verb • Have Got to + Verb • Be Able to + Verb • Ought to + Verb • Be Supposed to + Verb

Essentials of English Language 149 Examples: • I used to think that all dogs have fleas. • I am supposed to come back next week.

VOICE AND MOOD

Active and Passive voice

Verbs in the active voice show the subject acting. Verbs in the passive voice show something else acting on the subject. Most writers consider the active voice more forceful and tend to stay away from passives unless they really need them.

Active: Tim killed the chicken hawk. Passive: The chicken hawk was killed by Tim.

Indicative, Imperative, and Subjunctive Mood:

Most verbs we use are in the indicative mood, which indicates something:

Examples: • He was here. • I am hungry. • She will bring her books. Some verbs are in the imperative mood, which

expresses commands or requests. Though it is not stated, the understood subject of imperative sentences is you.

Examples: • Be here at seven o'clock. (Understood: You be here

at seven o'clock.) • Cook me an omelette. (Understood: You cook me an

omelette.) • Bring your books with you. (Understood: You bring

your books with you.) When verbs show something contrary to fact, they are

in the subjunctive mood. When you express a wish or something that is not actually true, use the past tense or past perfect tense; when using the verb 'to be' in the subjunctive, always use were rather than was:

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Examples: • If he were here ... (Implied: ... but he's not.) • I wish I had something to eat. (Implied: ... but I don't.) • It would be better if you had brought your books

with you. (Implied: ... but you haven't brought them.)

Review

Indicative: I need some help. Imperative: Help me! Subjunctive: If I were smart, I'd call for help.

MOOD

There are four simple moods,-the Infinitive, the Indicative, the Imperative and the Subjunctive.

The Mood of a verb denotes the mode or manner in which it is used. Thus if it is used in its widest sense without reference to person or number, time or place, it is in the Infinitive Mood; as "To run." Here we are not told who does the running, when it is done, where it is done or anything about it.

When a verb is used to indicate or declare or ask a simple question or make any direct statement, it is in the Indicative Mood. "The boy loves his book." Here a direct statement is made concerning the boy. "Have you a pin?" Here a simple question is asked which calls for an answer.

When the verb is used to express a command or entreaty it is in the Imperative Mood as, "Go away." "Give me a penny."

When the verb is used to express doubt, supposition or uncertainty or when some future action depends upon a contingency, it is in the subjunctive mood; as, "If I come, he shall remain."

Many grammarians include a fifth mood called the potential to express power, possibility, liberty, necessity, will or duty. It is..formed by means of the auxiliaries may, can, ought and must, but in all cases it can be resolved into the indicative or subjunctive. Thus, in "I may write if I choose," "may write" is by some classified as in the potential mood, but in reality the phrase I may write is an indicative

Essentials of English Language rst one while the second clause, if I choose, is the expression of a condition upon which, not my liberty to write, depends, but my actual writing.

Verbs have two participles, the present or imperfect, sometimes called the active ending in ing and the past or perfect, often called the passive, ending in ed or d.

The infinitive expresses the sense of the verb in a substantive form, the participles in an adjective form; as "To rise early is healthful." "An early rising man." "The newly risen sun."

The participle in ing is frequently used as a substantive and consequently is equivalent to an infinitive; thus, "To rise early is healthful" and "Rising early is healthful" are the same.

The principal parts of a verb are the Present Indicative, Past Indicative and Past Participle; as:

Love Loved Loved Sometimes one or more of these parts are wanting, and

. then the verb is said to be defective.

Present Past Passive Participle

Can Could (Wanting)

May Might 1/

Shall Should "

Will Would "

Ought Ought "

Verbs may also be divided into principal and auxiliary. A principal verb is that without which a sentence or clause can contain no assertion or affirmation. An auxiliary is a verb joined to the root or participles of a principal verb to express time and manner with greater precision than can be done by the tenses and moods in their simple form. Thus, the sentence, "I am writing an exercise; when I shall have finished it I shall read it to the class." has no meaning without the principal verbs writing, finished read; but the meaning is rendered more definite, especially with regard to time, by the auxiliary verbs am, have, shall. There are nine auxiliary or helping verbs, viz., Be, have, do, shall, will,

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may" can, ought, and must. They are called helping verbs, because it is by their aid the compound tenses are formed.

TO BE The verb To Be is the most important of the auxiliary

verbs. It has eleven parts, viz., am, art, is, are, was, wast, were, wert; be, being and been.

VOICE

The active voice is that form of the verb which shows the Subject not being acted upon but acting; as, "The cat catches mice." "Charity covers a multitude of sins. "The passive voice: When the action signified by a transitive verb is thrown back upon the agent, that is to say, when the subject of the verb denotes the recipient of the action, the verb is said to be in the passive voice.

"John was loved by his neighbors." Here John the subject is also the object affected by the loving, the action of the verb is thrown back on him, hence the compound verb was loved is said to be in the passive voice. The passive voice is formed by putting the perfect participle of any transitive verb with any of the eleven parts of the verb To Be.

Active and Passive Voice

Active Voice

In sentences written in active voice, the subject performs the action expressed in the verb; the subject acts.

~ The dog bit the boy.

~ Pooja will present her research at the conference.

~ Scientists have conducted experiments to test the hypothesis.

.. -~ -Watching a framed, mobile world through a car's windshield reminds me of watching a movie or TV.

Essentials of English Language ~

In each example, the subject of the sentence performs the action expressed in the verb.

Would you like to see examples of all the verb tenses in active voice?

Passive Voice

In sentences written in passive voice, the subject receives the action expressed in the verb; the subject is acted upon. The agent performing the action may appear in a "by the ... " phrase or may be omitted.

(agent performing action has been omitted.)

The~hedOg. ~

Research will be presented by Pooja at the conference.

~bY? Experiments have been conducted to test the hypothesis.

I ~d of watching a movie or TV by ;atching a:med, mo:e world through a car's windshield.

Sometimes the use of passive voice can create awkward sentences, as in the last example. Also, overuse of passive voice throughout an essay can cause your prose to seem flat and uninteresting. In scientific writing, however, passive voice is more readily accepted since using it allows one to write without using personal pronouns or the names of particular researchers as the subjects of sentences. This practice helps to create the appearance of an objective, fact­based discourse because writers can present research and conclusions without attributing them to particular agents. Instead, the writing appears to convey information that is not limited or biased by individual perspectives or personal interests.

You can recognize passive-voice expressions because the verb phrase will always include a form of be, such as am, is, was, were, are, or been. The presence of a be-verb, however, does not necessarily mean that the sentence is in

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passive voice. Another way to recognize passive-voice sentences is that they may include a "by the ... " phrase after the verb; the agent performing the action, if named, is the object of the preposition in this phrase.

Choosing Active Voice

In most nonscientific writing situations, active voice is preferable to passive for the majority of your sentences. Even in scientific writing, overuse of passive voice or use of passive voice in long and complicated sentences can cause readers to lose interest or to become confused. Sentences in active voice are generally-though not always- clearer and more direct than those in passive voice.

Passive (mdlrect) Active (direct)

~ Over one-t3 applicants to the school The entrance exam was failed by over one-third of the applicants to the school. failed the entrance exam.

~ The brakes were slammed on by her as ~

She slammed on the brakes as the car sped the car sped downhill. downhill

~by? -----... Your bicycle has been damaged. I have damaged your bicycle. (agent ornltted)

Sentences in active voice are also more concise than those in passive voice because fewer words are required to express action in active voice than in passive.

Passive (more wordy) ActIVe (more concise)

Act~ bill is being considered The committ~tion on by the committee. the bill.

B~~ick will have By then, the sound ea:" have be completely remixed by the completely remixed the soun track. sound engineers.

Changing Passive to Active

If you want to change a passive-voice sentence to active voice, find the agent in a "by the ... " phrase, or consider carefully who or what is performing the action expressed

Essentials of English Language rss in the verb. Make that agent the subject of the sentence, and change the verb accordingly. Sometimes you will need to infer the agent from the surrounding sentences which provide context.

Passive Voice Agent Charged to ActIVe Voice

The b~ing read by most of the

Most ofth~bOOk':' class most of the class.

y--by ? Agent not specified; most ~. Results will be published In hk~ agents The researchers WI! pu fish their

the next issue of the journal. su as

results in the next issue of journal. "the researchers

TheClA A policy 0 whitewashing and director The CIA dire;;tor and his se cover-up h been pursued b and hiS clos advisors have pursued a p Hcy of the CIA director and his close advisors whitewashing and cover-up. advisors.

~bY? agent not ~ specified; MistaKes were made. most likely We made mistakes.

agents such as "we"

Choosing Passive Voice

While active voice helps to create clear and direct sentences, sometimes writers find that using an indirect expression is rhetorically effective in a given situation, so they choose passive voice. Also, writers in the sciences conventionally use passive voice more often than writers in other discourses. Passive voice makes sense when the agent performing the action is obvious, unimportant, or unknown or when a writer wishes to postpone mentioning the agent until the last part of the sentence or to avoid mentioning the agent at all.

The passive voice is effective in such circumstances because it highlights the action and what is acted upon rather than the agent performing the action.

Active Passive The dispatcher is notifying police that three Police are bemg notified that three prisoners prisoners have escaoed. ha"e escaoed.

Surgeons successfully J'erformed a new A new experimentalliver·transplant operation exoerimentalliver-transplant ooerallon yesterday was l'<'rformed successfully yesterday.

"Authorttles makt rules to be broken," he said "Rules are made to be broken," he said defiantly. defiantly.

-s61~ ______________________ E_._~s_el_1t_ia_l_s~of_E_l~lg~1_is_h_L_a_ng~u_a~g~e The dispatcher is notifiJing police that three prisoners

have escaped. Police are being notified that three prisoners have escaped.

Surgeons successfully performed a new experimental liver-transplant operation yesterday. A new experimental liver-transplant operation was performed successfully yesterday.

1/ Authorities make rules to be broken," he said defiantly. "Rules are made to be broken," he said defiantly.

In each of these examples, the passive voice makes sense because the agent is relatively unimportant compared to the action itself and what is acted upon.

Changing Active to Passive If you want to change an active-voice sentence to

passive voice, consider carefully who or what is performing the action expressed in the verb, and then make that agent the object of a "by the ... " phrase. Make what is acted upon the subject of the sentence, and change the verb to a form of be + past participle. Including an explicit "by the ... " phrase is optional.

Active Voice Aaent Changed to Passive Voice

The

The committee's~dation The pres9,0fficer vetoed presiding the committ 's officer was vetoed by the presiding officer. recommendation.

The lea~ fair The

A fair reso~e crisis is being leaders resolution to the crisiS. sought. (by the leaders)

The Tra~red SCi~ave discovered scientists traces of i e on the surface on the surface of Mars. (by scientists)

of Mars.

In each of these examples, the passive voice is useful for highlighting the action and what is acted upon instead of the agent.

Some Suggestions

• A void starting a sentence in active voice and then Shifting to passive.

Essentials of English Language rs7 Unnecessaru shm in voice Revised Many customers in the restaurant found the Many customers in the restaurantfound coffee too bitter to drink, but it was still the coffee too bitter to drink, but they still ordered frequentlv. ordered it frequently. He tried to act cool when he slipped in the He tried to act cool when he slipped in the puddle, but he was still laughed at by the puddle, but the other students still laughed other students. athim.

• A void dangling modifiers caused by the use of passive voice. A dangling modifier is a word or phrase that modifies a word not clearly stated in the sentence.

Dan!f(iin!i( modiffer with passive voice Revised To save time, the paper was written on a To save time, Kristin wrote computer. (Who was saving time? The the paper on a computer. paper?)

Seeking to layoff workers without taking the Seeking to layoff workers blame, consultants were hired to break the bad without taking the blame, news. Who was seeking to layoff workers? the CEO hired consultants The consultants?) to break the bad news.

• Don't trust the grammar-checking programs in word-processing software. Many grammar checkers flag all passive constructions, but you may want to keep some that are flagged. Trust your judgement, or ask another human being for their opinion about which sentence sounds best.

VERBALS: GERUNDS, PARTICIPLES, AND INFINITIVES

Gerunds

A gerund is a verbal that ends in -ing and functions as a noun. The term verbal indicates that a gerund, like the other two kinds of verbals, is based on a verb and therefore expresses action or a state of being. However, since a gerund functions as a noun, it occupies some positions in a sentence that a noun ordinarily would, for example: subject, direct object, subject complement, and object of preposition.

Gerund as subject: • Traveling might satisfy your desire for new

experiences. (Traveling is the gerund.)

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• The study abroad programme might satisfy your desire for new experiences. (The gerund has been removed.)

Gerund as direct object: • They do not appreciate my singing. (The gerund

is singing.) • They do not appreciate my assistance. (The gerund

has been removed) Gerund as subject complement: • My cat's favourite activity is sleeping. (The gerund

is sleeping.) • My cat's favourite food is salmon. (The gerund has

been removed.) Gerund as object of preposition: • The police arrested him for speeding. (The gerund

is speeding.) •. The police arrested him for criminal activity. (The

gerund has been removed.) A Gerund Phrase is a group of words consisting of a

gerund and the modifier(s) and/or (pro)noun(s) or noun phrase(s) that function as the direct object(s), indirect object(s), or complement(s) of the action or state expressed in the gerund, such as:

The gerund phrase functions as the subject of the sentence.

Finding a needle in a haystack would be easier than what we're trying to do.

Finding (gerund)

• A needle (direct object of action expressed in gerund) in a haystack (prepositional phrase as

. adverb)

The Gerund Phrase Functions as the Direct Object of the Verb Appreciate

• I hope that you appreciate my offering you this opportunity.

Essentials of English Language ~

My (possessive pronoun adjective form, modifying the gerund) offering (gerund)

You (indirect object of action expressed in gerund) this opportunity (direct object of action expressed in gerund)

The Gerund Phrase Functions as the Subject Complement

• Newt's favourite tactic has been lying to his constituents.

Lying to (gerund) His constituents (direct object of action expressed in

gerund)

The Gerund Phrase Functions as the Object of the Preposition for

• You might get in trouble for faking an illness to avoid work.

Faking (gerund) An illness (direct object of action expressed in gerund) To avoid work (infinitive phrase as adverb)

The Gerund Phrase Functions as the Subject of the Sentence

• Being the boss made Jeff feel uneasy. Being (gerund) The boss (subject complement for Jeff, via state of being

expressed in gerund)

Punctuation

A gerund virtually never requires any punctuation with it. Points to remember: • A gerund is a verbal ending in -ing that is used as

a noun. • A gerund phrase consists of a gerund plus

modifier(s), object(s), and/or complement(s). • Gerunds and gerund phrases virtually never

require punctuation.

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Participles

A participle is a verbal that is used as an adjective and most often ends in -ing or -ed. The term verbal indicates that a participle, like the other two kinds of verbals, is based on a verb and therefore expresses action or a state of being. However, since they function as adjectives, pa!ticiples modify nouns or pronouns. There are two types of participles: present participles and past participles. Present participles end in -ing. Past participles end in -ed, -en, -d, -t, or -n, as in the words asked, eaten, saved, dealt, and seen.

• The crying baby had a wet diaper. • Shaken, he walked away from the wrecked car. • The burning log fell off the fire. • Smiling, she hugged the panting dog. A participial phrase is a group of words consisting of a

participle and the modifier(s) and/or (pro)noun(s) or noun phrase(s) that function as the direct object(s), indirect object(s), or complement(s) of the action or state expressed in the participle, such as:

Removing his coat, Jack rushed to the river. The participial phrase functions as an adjective

modifying Jack. Removing (participle) his coat (direct object of action expressed in participle) Delores noticed her cousin walking along the shoreline. The participial phrase functions as an adjective

modifying cousin. walking (participle) along the shoreline (prepositional phrase as adverb) Children introduced to music early develop strong

intellectual skills. The participial phrase functions as an' adjective

modifying children. introduced (to) (participle) music (direct object of action expressed in participle) early (adverb)

Essentials of English Language ~

Having been a gymnast, Lynn knew the importance of exercise.

The participial phrase functions as an adjective modifying Lynn.

Having been (participle) a gymnast (subject complement for Lynn, via state of

being expressed in participle) Placement: In order to prevent confusion, a participial

phrase must be placed as close to the noun it modifies as possible, and the noun must be clearly stated.

• Carrying a heavy pile of books, his foot caught on a step. *

• Carrying a heavy pile of books, he caught his foot on a step.

In the first sentence there is no clear indication of who or what is performing the action expressed in the participle carrying. Certainly foot can't be logically understood to function in this way. This situation is an example of a dangling modifier error since the modifier (the participial phrase) is not modifying any specific noun in the sentence and is thus left /I dangling." Since a person must be doing the carrying for the sentence to make sense, a noun or pronoun that refers to a person must be in the place immediately after the participial phrase, as in the second sentence.

Punctuation: When a participial phrase begins a sentence, a comma should be placed after the phrase.

• Arriving at the store, I found that it was closed. • Washing and polishing the car, Frank developed sore

muscles. If the participle or participial phrase comes in the

middle of a sentence, it should be set off with commas only if the information is not essential to the meaning of the sentence.

• Sid, watching an old movie, drifted in and out of sleep.

• The church, destroyed by a fire, was never rebuilt.

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Note that if the participial phrase is essential to the meaning of the sentence, no commas should be used:

• The student earning the highest grade point average will receive a special award.

• The guy wearing the chicken costume is my cousin. If a participial phrase comes at the end of a sentence, a

comma usually precedes the phrase if it modifies an earlier word in the sentence but not if the phrase directly follows the w0rd it modifies.

• The local residents often saw Ken wandering through the streets. (The phrase modifies Ken, not residents.)

• Tom nervously watched the woman, alarmed by her silence. (The phrase modifies Tom, not woman.)

POINTS TO REMEMBER

• A participle is a verbal ending in -ing (present) or -ed, -en, -d, -t, or -n (past) that functions as an adjective, modifying a noun or pronoun.

• A participial phrase consists of a participle plus modifier(s), object(s), and/or complement(s).

• Participles and participial phrases must be placed as close to the nouns or pronouns they modify as possible, and those nouns or pronouns must be clearly stated.

• A participial phrase is set off with commas when it: - Comes at the beginning of a sentence - Interrupts a sentence as a nonessential element - Comes at the end of a sentence and is separated

from the word it modifies.

Infinitives

An infinitive is a verbal consisting of the word to plus a verb (in its simplest "stem" form) and functioning as a noun, adjective, or adverb. The term verbal indicates that an infinitive, like the other two kinds of verbals, is based

Essentials of English Language f63

on a verb and therefore expresses action or a state of being. However, the infinitive may function as a subject, direct object, subject complement, adjective, or adverb in a sentence. Although an infinitive is easy to locate because of the to + verb form, deciding what function it has in a sentence can sometimes be confusing.

• To wait seemed foolish when decisive action was required. (subject)

• Everyone wanted to go. (direct object) • His ambition is to fly. (subject complement) • He lacked the strength to resist. (adjective) • We must study to learn. (adverb) Be sure not to confuse an infinitive-a verbal consisting

-< of to plus a verb-with a prepositional phrase beginning with to, which consists of to plus a noun or pronoun and any modifiers.

• Infinitives: to fly, to draw, to become, to enter, to stand, to catch, to belong

• Prepositional Phrases: to him, to the committee, to my house, to the mountains, to us, to this address

An Infinitive Phrase is a group of words consisting of an infinitive and the modifier(s) and/or (pro)noun(s) or noun phrase(s) that function as the actor(s), direct object(s), indirect object(s), or complement(s) of the action or state expressed in the infinitive, such as:

• We intended to leave early.

The Infinitive Phrase Functions as the Direct Object of the Verb Intended

To leave (infinitive) Early (adverb) • I have a paper to write before class.

The Infinitive Phrase Functions as an Adjective Modifying Paper

To write (infinitive) Before class (prepositional phrase as adverb)

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• Phil agreed to give me a ride.

The Infinitive Phrase Functions as the Direct Object of the Verb Agreed

• To give (infinitive) • Me (indirect object of action expressed in infinitive) • A ride (direct object of action expressed in

infinitive) They asked me to bring some food.

The Infinitive Phrase Functions as the Direct Object of the Verb Asked

• Me (actor or "subject" of infinitive phrase) • To bring (infinitive) • Some food (direct object of action expressed in

infinitive) Everyone wanted Carol to be the captain of the team.

The Infinitive Phrase Functions as the Direct Object of the Verb Wanted

• Carol (actor or "subject" of infinitive phrase) • To be (infinitive) • The captain (subject complement for Carol, via state

of being expressed in infinitive) • Of the team (prepositional phrase as adjective) Actors: In these last two examples the actor of the

infinitive phrase could be roughly characterized as the "subject" of the action or state expressed in the infinitive. It is somewhat misleading to use the word subject, however, since an infinitive phrase is not a full clause with a subject and a finite verb. Also notice that when it is a pronoun, the actor appears in the objective case (me, not I, in the fourth example). Certain verbs, when they take an infinitive direct object, require an actor for the infinitive phrase; others can't have an actor. Still other verbs can go either way, as the charts below illustrate.

Essentials of English Language f65

Verbs that take infinitive objects without actors: agree begin continue decide

fail hesitate hope intend

learn neglect offer plan.

prefer pretend promise refuse

remember start try

Examples: • Most students plan to study. • We began to learn. • They offered to pay. • They neglected to pay. • She promised to return. In all of these examples no actor can come between the

italicized main (finite) verb and the infinitive direct-object phrase.

Verbs that take infinitive objects with actors:

advise allow convince remind

encourage force hire teach

instruct invite permit tell

implore incite appoint order

Examples: • He reminded me to buy milk. • Their fathers advise them to study. • She forced the defendant to admit the truth. • You've convinced the director of the programme to

change her position. • I invite you to consider the evidence. In all of these examples an actor is required after the

italicized main (finite) verb and before the infinitive direct­object phrase.

Verbs that use either pattern: ask expect (would) likewant Examples: • I asked to see the records.

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• I asked him to show me the records. • Trent expected his group to win. • Trent expected to win. • Brenda likes to drive fast. • Brenda likes her friend to drive fast. In all of these examples the italicized main verb can take

an infinitive object with or without an actor. Punctuation: If the infinitive is used as an adverb and

is the beginning phrase in a sentence, it should be set off with a comma; otherwise, no punctuation is needed for an infinitive phrase.

• To buy a basket of flowers, John had to spend his last dollar.

• To improve your writing, you must consider your purpose and audience.

Points to Remember

• An infinitive is a verbal consisting of the word to plus a verb; it may be used as a noun, adjective, or adverb.

• An infinitive phrase consists of an infinitive plus modifier(s), object(s), complement(s), and/or actor(s).

• An infinitive phrase requires a comma only if it is used as an adverb at the beginning of a sentence.

Split Infinitives

Split infinitives occur when additional words are included between to and the verb in an infinitive. Many readers find a single adverb splitting the infinitive to be acceptable, but this practice should be avoided in formal writing.

Examples: • I like to on a nice day walk in the woods. *

(unacceptable) On a nice day, I like to walk in the woods. (revised)

• I needed to quickly gather my personal possessions. (acceptable in informal contexts)

Essentials of English Language ~

I needed to gather my personal possessions quickly. (revised for formal contexts)

COMPARING GERUNDS, PARTICIPLES AND INFINITIVES

Comparing Gerunds and Participles

Look at the following pair of sentences. In the first, the use of a gerund (functioning as a noun) allows the meaning to be expressed more precisely than in the second. In the first sentence the interrupting itself, a specific behaviour, is precisely indicated as the cause of the speaker's irritation. In the second the cause of the irritation is identified less precisely as Bill, who just happens to have been interrupting. (In the second sentence, interrupting is actually a participle, not a gerund, since it functions as an adjective modifying Bill.)

I was irritated by Bill's constant interrupting. I was irritated by Bill, constantly interrupting. The same pattern is shown in these other example pairs

below: in the first of each pair, a gerund (noun-function) is used; in the second, a participle (adjective-function). Notice the subtle change in meaning between the two sentences in each pair.

Examples: The guitarist's finger-picking was extraordinary. (The

technique was extraordinary.) The guitarist, finger-picking, was extraordinary. (The

person was extraordinary, demonstrating the technique.) He was not impressed with their competing. (The

competing did not impress him.) i '

He was not impressed with them competing. (ThetJ did not impress him as they competed.)

Grandpa enjoyed his grandchildren's running and laughing.

Grandpa enjoyed his grandchildren, running and laughing."" (Ambiguous: who is running and laughing?)

~~ ____________________ E_s_s_en_t_ia_ls_o~if_E_ll~g_lffi_h_L_a_ll~g_u~ag~e

Comparing Gerunds and Infinitives

The difference in the form of gerunds and infinitives is quite clear just from comparing the following lists:

• Gerunds: swimming, hoping, telling, eating, dreaming

• Infinitives: to swim, to hope, to tell, to eat, to dream Their functions, however, overlap. Gerunds always

function as nouns, but infinitives often also serve as nouns. Deciding which to use can be confusing in many situations, especially for people whose first language is not English.

Confusion between gerunds and infinitives occurs primarily in cases in which one or the other functions as the direct object in a sentence.

In English some verbs take gerunds as verbal direct objects exclusively while other verbs take only infinitives and still others can take either. Many such verbs are listed below, organized according to which kind of verbal direct object they take.

Verbs that take only infinitives as verbal direct objects: agree decide expect hesitate

learn need promise negled

hope want plan attempt

propose intend pretend

Examples: I hope to go on a vacation soon. (NOT: I hope going on a vacation soon.*) He promised to go on a diet. (NOT: He promised going on a diet.*) They agreed to sign the treaty. (NOT: They agreed signing the treaty.*) Because she was nervous, she hesitated to speak. (NOT: Because she was nervous, she hesitated

speaking. *) They will attempt to resuscitate the victim

Essentials of English Language I 69

(NOT: They will attempt resuscitating the victim.*) Verbs that take only gerunds as verbal direct objects

deny risk delay consider

can't helP ke~ give up be fond of

finish quit put off jlrartIce postpone tolerate suggest stop (quit)

regret enjoy keep (on) dishke

admit avoid recall mind miss detest appreciate recommend

get!be through get!be tired of get!be accustomed to get/be used to

Examples: They always avoid drinking before driving. (NOT: They always avoid to drink before driving.*) I recall asking her that question. (NOT: I recall to ask her that question.*) She put off buying a new jacket. (NOT: She put off to buy a new jacket. *) Mr. Allen enjoys cooking. (NOT: Mr. Allen enjoys to cook.*) Charles keeps calling her. (NOT: Charles keeps to call her.*) Verbs that take gerunds or infinitives as verbal direct

objects

start begin continue prefer like love remember

Examples: She has continued to work at the store. She has continued working at the store. They like to go to the movies. They like going to the movies. Brent started to walk home. Brent started walking home. Forget and remember

hate try_

These two verbs change meaning depending on whether a gerund or infinitive is used as the object.

~~ ______________________ E_ss_e_nt_ia_l_s~of_E_'~lg~ll_sh __ La_n~g~u~ag~e

Examples: Jack forgets to take out the cat. (He regularly forgets.) Jack forgets taking out the cat. (He did it, but he doesn't

remember now.) Jack forgot to take out the cat. (He never did it.) Jack forgot taking out the cat. (He did it, but he didn't

remember sometime later.) Jack remembers to take out the cat. (He regularly

remembers.) Jack remembers taking out the cat. (He did it, and he

remembers now.) Jackremembered to take out the cat. (He did it.) Jack remembered taking out the cat. (He did it, and he

remembered sometime later.) In the second of each pair of example sentences, the

past progressive gerund form having taken can be used in place of taking to avoid any possible confusion.

Sense verbs that take an object plus a gerund or a simple verb

Certain sense verbs take an object followed by either a gerund or a simple verb (infinitive form minus the word to). With many of the verbs that follow the object, the use of the gerund indicates continuous action while the use of the simple verb indicates a one-time action. Still, sometimes the simple verb can indicate continuous action if one-time action wouldn't make sense in the context.

hear notice watch smell observe

Examples: We watched him playing basketball. (continuous action) We watched him play basketball. (continuous action) I felt my heart pumping vigorously. (continuous action) I felt my heart pump vigorously. (continuous action) She saw them jumping on the bed. (continuous action) She saw them jump on the bed. (one-time action) Tom heard the victim shouting for help. (continuous action)

Essentials of English Language [71

Tom heard the victim shout for help. (one-time action) The detective noticed the suspect biting his nails.

(continuous action) The detective noticed the suspect bite his nails. (one­

time action) We could smell the pie baking in the kitchen.

(continuous action) We could smell the pie bake in the kitchen. (continuous

action) Sometimes the simple-verb version might seem

unconventional, so it's safer in most cases to use the gerund version.

CONJUGATION

The conjugation of a verb is its orderly arrangement in voices, moods, tenses, persons and numbers.

Here is the complete conjugation of the verb "Love" -Active Voice.

PRINCIPAL PARTS

Present Past Past Participle

Love Loved Loved Infinitive Mood

To Love Indicative Mood

PRESENT TENSE

Sing. Plural

1st person I love We love 2nd person You love You love 3rd £erson He loves Thel:: love

PAST TENSE

Sing. Plural

1st person I loved We loved

~~ ____________________ E_ss_e_n_tw_l_so~f_E_n~~_ffi_h_L_an~g~u_ag~e_

2nd person 3rd person

FUTURE TENSE

1st person 2nd person 3rd person

You loved He loved

Sing.

I shall love You will love He will love

You loved They loved

Plural

They will love You will love We shall love

[Transcriber's note: 1st person plural and 3rd person plural reversed in original]

PRESENT PERFECT TENSE

1st person 2nd person 3rd person

Sing. Plural

I have loved We have loved You have loved You have loved He has loved They have loved

PAST PERFECT TENSE

1st person 2nd person 3rd person

Sing. Plural

I had loved We had loved You had loved You had loved He had loved They had loved

FUTURE PERFECT TENSE

Sing. Plural

1st person I shall have We shall have loved loved

2nd person You will have You will have loved loved

3rd person He will have They will have loved loved

Imperative Mood

(PRESENT TENSE ONLY)

Essentials of English Language f73

Sing. Plural

2nd person Love (you) Love (you)

Subjunctive Mood

1st person 2nd person 3rd person

1st person 2nd person 3rd person

1st person 2nd person

loved 3rd person

1st person 2nd person 3rd person

Present

To love

PRESENT TENSE

Sing. Plural

If I love If we love If you love If you love If he love If they love

PAST TENSE

Sing. Plural

If I loved If we loved If you loved If you loved If he loved If they loved

PRESENT PERFECT TENSE

Sing. Plural

If I have loved If we have loved If you have If you have loved

If he has loved If they have loved

PAST PERFECT TENSE

Sing. Plural

If I had loved If we had loved If you had loved If you had loved If he had loved If they had loved

INFINITIVES

Perfect

To have loved PARTICIPLES

~~ _____________________ E_ss_e_n_na_l_so~if_E_n~g_lis_h_L_a_n~gu_a~g~e

Present Past Perfect

Loving Loved Having loved

CONJUGATION OF "TO LOVE"

Passive Voice

Indicative Mood

1st person 2nd person 3rd person

1st person 2nd person 3rd person

1st person 2nd person

3rd person

1st person

2nd person

3rd person

PRESENT TENSE

Sing. Plural

I am loved We are loved You are loved You are loved He is loved They are loved

PAST TENSE

Sing. Plural

I was loved We were loved You were loved You were loved He was loved They were loved FUTURE TENSE

Sing.

I shall be loved You will be

Plural

We shall be loved You will be loved loved

He will be loved They will be loved

PRESENT PERFECT TENSE

Sing.

I have been loved You have been loved He has been loved

Plural

We have been loved You have been loved They have been loved

1st person

1st person 2nd person

3rd person

1st person

2nd person

3rd person

Essentials of English Language ~

PAST PERFECT TENSE

Sing.

I had been loved I had loved

Plural

We had been loved We had loved

You had been You had been loved loved He had been They had been loved loved

FUTURE PERFECT TENSE

Sing. Plural

I shall have been We shall have loved been loved You will have been You will have loved been loved He will have been They will have loved been loved

Imperative Mood

(PRESENT TENSE ONLY)

Sing. Plural

2nd person Be (you) loved Be (you) loved

Subjunctive Mood

1st person 2nd person 3rd person

1st person

PRESENT TENSE

Sing.

If I be loved If you be loved If he be loved PAST TENSE

Sing.

If I were loved

Plural

If we be loved If you be loved If they be loved

Plural

If they were

~~ ____________________ E_ss_e_llt_ia_ls_o~if_E_ll=g_lis_h_L_a_n~gu_a~g~e

2nd person

3rd person

1st person

2nd person

3rd person

1st person

2nd person

3rd person

Present

Being loved

loved If you were loved If he were loved

loved If you were loved If we were loved

PRESENT PERFECT TENSE

Sing.

If I have been loved If you have been loved If he has been loved

Plural

If we have been loved If you have been loved If they have

been loved

AST PERFECT TENSE

Sing. Plural

If I had been If we had been loved loved If you had been If you had been loved loved If he had been If they had been loved loved

INFINITIVES

Present Perfect

To be loved To have been loved

PARTICIPLES

Past Perfect

Been loved Having been loved

(N. B. - Note that the plural form of the personal pronoun, YOLl, is llsed in the second person singular throughout. The old form thou, except in the conjugation of the verb "To Be," may be said to be obsolete. Tn the third person singular he L'

Esse1ltials of E1lglish Language ~

representative of the three personal pronouns of the third person, He, She and It.)

ADJECTIVE

An adjective is a word which qualifies a noun, that is, shows or points out some distinguishing mark or feature of the noun; as, A black dog.

Adjectives have three forms called degrees of comparison, the positive, the comparative and the superlative.

The positive is the simple form of the adjective without expressing increase or diminution of the original quality: nice.

The comparative is that form of the adjective which expresses increase or diminution of the quality: nicer.

The superlative is that form which expresses the greatest increase or diminution of the quality: nicest.

or An adjective is in the positive form when it does not

express comparison; as, "A rich man." An adjective is in the comparative form when it

expresses comparison between two or between one and a number taken collectively, as, "John is richer than James"; "he is richer than all the men in Boston."

An adjective is in the superlative form when it expresses a comparison between one and a number of individuals taken separately; as, "John is the richest man in Boston."

Adjectives expressive of properties or circumstances which cannot be increased have only the positive form; as, A circular road; the chief end; an extreme measure.

Adjectives are compared in two ways, either by adding er to the positive to form th~ comparative and est to the positive to form the superlative, or by prefixing more to the positive for the comparative and most to the positive for the superlative; as, handsome, handsomer, handsomest or handsome, more handsome, most handsome.

~~ _____________________ E_ss_e_nt_m_ls_o~if_E_n~g_lis_h_L_a~ng~u_a~g_e

Adjectives of two or more syllables are generally compared by prefixing more and most.

Many adjectives are irregular in comparison; as, Bad, worse, worst; Good, better, best.

Adjectives with Countable and Uncountable Nouns

Some/Any

Both modifij countable and uncountable nouns. There is some water on the floor. There are some Mexicans here. Do you have any food? Do you have any apples?

Much/Many

MUCH modifies only uncountable nouns. They have much money in the bank. MANY modifies only countable nouns. Many Americans travel to Europe.

A Lot of/Lots of

These are informal substitutes for MUCH and MANY. They are used with uncountable nouns when they mean MUCH and with countable nouns when they mean MANY.

They have lots of money in the bank. A lot of Americans travel to Europe.

Little/Few

LITTLE modifies only uncountable nouns. He had little food in the house. FEW modifies only countable nouns. There are a few doctors in town.

A Little Bit of

'ntis phrase is informal and always precedes an uncountable noun.

There is a little bit of pepper in the soup.

Essentials of English Language f79 Enough

ENOUGH modifies both countable and uncountable nouns. There is enough money to buy a car. I have enough books to read.

Plenty of

This phrase modifies both countable and uncountable nouns. They have plenty of money in the bank. There are plenty of millionaires in Switzerland. No: NO modifies both countable and uncountable nouns. There is no time to finish now. There are no squirrels in the park.

Usage of Adjectives

Adjectives tell us more about a noun. They can: Describe feelings or qualities: He is a lonely man They are honest people Give nationality or origin: Pierre is French This clock is German Our house is Victorian Tell more about a thing's characteristics: A wooden table. The knife is sharp. Tell us about age: He's a young man My coat is very old Tell us about size and measurement: John is a tall man.

fml~ ____________________ E_s_s_en_t_w_ffi_o~if_E_n~g_li_sh_L_a_n~g~u~agL-e

_This is a very long film. Tell us about colour: Paul wore a red shirt.

The sunset was crimson and gold. Tell us about material/what something is made of: It was a wooden table She wore a cotton dress Tell us about shape: A rectangular box

A square envelope Express a judgement or a value: A fantastic film Grammar is boring

ORDER

Where a number of adjectives are used together, the order depends on the function of the adjective. The usual order is:

Value/opinion, Size, Ageffemperature, Shape, Colour, Origin, Material

Value/opinion delicious, lovely, charming

Size small, huge, tiny

Ageffemperature old, hot, young

Shape round, square, rectangular

Colour red, blonde, black

Origin Swedish, Victorian, Chinese

Material plastic, wooden, silver

Examples:

• a lovely old red post-box • some small round plastic tables • some charming small silver ornaments

EssClltials of English Language ~

. COMPARISON OF ADJECTIVES

Forming the Comparative and Superlative

Number of sill/abies Comparative SlIperlath'e onesvllable + -er + -est tall taller tallest

one syllable with the spelling consonant + single vowel + consonant: double the final consonant:

fat fatter fattest big bigger bigges t sad sadder saddest

~~M ,~~

~~

Number of syllables Comparative Superlative two syllables + -er OR more + adj + -est OR most + adj ending in: -y, -I!!, -ow ending in: -Ie, -er or -li re these common adjectives - handsome, polite, pleasant, common, quiet

happy happier/ more happy happiest! most happy

yellow yellower/ more yellow yellowest! most yellow

simple simpler/ more simple simplest! most simple

tender tenderer/ more tender tenderest! most tender

If you are not sure, use MORE + OR MOST + Note: Adjectives ending in '-y' like happy, pretty, busy, sunny, lucky etc. replace the-y with -ier or -iest in ·the comparative and superlative form busl/ busier bllsiest

Number of syllables Comparative Superlative

three syllables or more more + adj most+adj

important more important most important

expensive more expensive most expensive

~1L-____________________ =E~ss~m~t~ia~ls~o~if~E~n~g~li~sh~L=a~n~g~u~ag~e Examples: • A cat is fast, a tiger is faster but a cheetah is the

fastest • A car is heavy, a truck is heavier, but a train is the

heaviest • A park bench is comfortable, a restaurant chair is

more comfortable, but a sofa is the most comfortable

Irregular Comparatives and Superlatives

These adjectives have completely irregular comparative and superlative forms:

Adiective Comparative SlIperlative good better best bad worse worst little less least much more most far further / farther furthest / farthest

The + Superlative

'the' is placed before the superlative: For example: • He is the richest man in the world. • That is the biggest crocodile I have ever seen. • She is the tallest girl in her class.

Comparative + Than

To compare the difference J?etween two people, things or events.

Examples: • Mt. Everest is higher than Mt. Blanc. • Thailand is sunnier than Norway. • A car is more expensive than a bicycle. • Albert is more intelligent than Arthur.

As + Adjective + As

To compare people, places, events or things, when there is no difference, use as + adjective + as:

Essentials of English Language rB3 • Peter is 24 years old. John is 24 years old. Peter is

as old as John. More examples: • Moscow is as cold as 5t. Petersburg in the winter. • Ramona is as happy as Raphael. • Einstein is as famous as Darwin. • A tiger is as dangerous as a lion.

Not as + Adjective + as

Difference can also be shown by using not so/as ... as: • Mont Blanc i~ not as high as Mount Everest • Norway is not as sunny as Thailand • A bicycle is not as expensive as a car • Arthur is not as intelligent as Albert

Comparisons of Quantity

To show difference: more, less, fewer + than To show no difference: as much as , as many as, as few as,

as little as

Comparisons of Quantity

To show difference: more, less, fewer + lhan Examples: With countable nouns: more / fewer • Eloise has more children than Chantal. • Chantal has fewer children than Eloise. • There are fewer dogs in Cardiff than in Bristol • I have visited fewer countries than my friend has. • He has read fewer books than she has. With uncountable nouns: more / less • Eloise has more money than Chantal. • Chantal has less money than Eloise. • I spend less time on homework than you do. • Cats drink less water than dogs. • This new dictionary gives more information than

the old one. So, the rule is:

lWl~ ______________________ E_ss_e_nt_ia_l_s~of_E_n~g~li_sh_L_a_n~g~u~ag~e

MORE + nouns that are countable or uncountable FEWER + countable nouns LESS + uncountable nouns To show no difference: as much as , as many as, as few as,

as little as • as many as / as few as + countable nouns • as much as / as little as + uncountable nouns Examples: With countable nouns: • They have as many children as us. • We have as many customers as them. • Tom has as few books as Jane. • There are as few houses in his village as in mine. • You know as many people as I do. • I have visited the States as many times as he has. With uncountable nouns: • John eats as much food as Peter. • Jim has as little food as Sam. • You've heard as much news as I have. • He's had as much success as his brother has. • They've got as little water as we have.

ADVERB

An adverb is a word which modifies a verb, an adjective or another adverb. Thus, in the example-"He writes well," the ad verb shows the manner in which the writing is performed; in the examples-"He is remarkably diligent" and "He works very faithfully," the adverbs modify the adjective diligent and the other adverb faithfully by expressing the degree of diligence and faithfulness. Adverbs are chiefly used to express in one word what would otherwise require two or more words; thus, There signifies in that place; whence, from what place; usefully, in a useful manner. Adverbs, like adjectives, are sometimes varied in their terminations to express comparison and different degrees of quality. Some adverbs form the comparative and superlative by adding er and est; as, soon, sooner, soonest.

Essentials of English Language rss Adverbs which end in ly are compared by prefixing more and most; as, nobly, more nobly, most nobly.

A few adverbs are irregular in the formation of the comparative and superlative; as, well, better, best.

Usage of Adverbs

Adverbs modify, or tell us more about other words, usually verbs:

• The bus moved slowly. • The bears ate greedily. Sometimes they tell us more about adjectives: • You look absolutely fabulous! They can also modify other ad verbs: • She played the violin extremely well. • You're speaking too quietly.

Form

1. In most cases, an adverb is formed by adding '-ly' to an adjective:

Adjective

cheap

quick

Adverb

cheaply

quickly

slow slowly Examples: • Time goes quickly. • He walked slowly to the door. • She certainly had an interesting life. • He carefully picked up the sleeping child. If the adjective ends in '-y', replace the 'y' with 'i' and

add '-ly':

Adjective easy angry happy lucky

Adverb

easily angrily happily luckily

~~ _____________________ E_ss_e_nt_ia_ls_o~if_E_Jl~g_lis_h_L_a_n~gu_a~g~e

If the adjective ends in -'able', '-ible', or '-Ie', replace the '-e' with '-y': .

Adjective

probable

terrible

gentle

Adverb

probably terribly

gently

If the adjective ends in '-ic', add '-ally':

Adjective Adverb

basic basically

economic economically

tragic tragically

Note: Exception: public - publicly 2. Some adverbs have the same form as the adjective:

Adjective Adverb early late

fast near

hard straight

high wrong

Compare: • It is a fast car. • He drives very fast. • This is a hard exercise. • He works hard. • We saw many high quildings. • The bird flew high in the sky. 3. 'Well' and 'good' 'Well' is the adverb that corresponds to the adjective

'good'.

Examples: • He is a good student. • He studies well. • She is a good pianist. • She plays the piano well.

Essentials of English Language rB7

• They are good swimmers. • They swim well.

Comparative forms of Adverbs

In general, comparative and superlative forms of adverbs are the same as for adjectives:

• add -er or -est to short adverbs:

Adverb

hard

late

Comparative

harder

later

Superlative

the hardest the latest

fast faster the fastest

Example: • Jim works harder than his brother. • Everyone in the race ran fast, but John ran the fastest

of all. with adverbs ending in -ly, use more for the comparative

,and most for the superlative:

Adverb Comparative Superlative

quietly slowly

more quietly more slowly

most quietly

most slowly seriously more seriously most seriously

Example: • The teacher spoke more slowly to help us to

understand. • Could you sing more quietly please? Some adverbs have irregular comparative forms:

Adverb C01nparative Superlative

badly worse worst far farthest/furthest farther/further little less least well better best Example: • The little boy ran further than his friends.

fffll~ ______________________ E_ss_e_nt_ia_l_s~of_E_n~g~li_sh_L_a_n~g~u~ag~e

• You're driving worse today than yesterday! BE CAREFUL! Sometimes 'most' can mean 'very': • We were most grateful for your help • I am most impressed by this application.

THE DIFFERENCE BETWEEN ADJECTIVES AND ADVERBS

The Basic Rules: Adjectives

Adjectives modify nouns. To modify means to change in some way. For example:

• "I ate a meal." Meal is a noun. We don't know what kind of meal; all we know is that someone ate a meal.

• "I ate an enormous lunch." Lunch is a noun, and enormous is an adjective that modifies it. It tells us what kind of meal the person ate.

Adjectives usually answer one of a few different questions: "What kind?" or "Which?" or "How many?" For example:

• liThe tall girl is riding a new bike." Tall tells us which girl we're talking about. New tells us what kind of bike we're talking about.

• liThe tough professor gave us the final exam." Tough tells us what kind of professor we're talking about. Final tells us which exam we're talking about.

• "Fifteen students passed the midterm exam; twelve students passed the final exam." Fifteen and twelve both tell us how many students; midterm and final both tell us which exam.

So, generally speaking, adjectives answer the following questions:

• Which? • What kind of? • How many?

The Basic Rules: Adverbs

Adverbs modify verbs, adjectives, and other adverbs.

Essentials of English Language f89

(You can recognize adverbs easily because many of them are formed by adding -ly to an adjective, though that is not always the case.) The most common question that adverbs answer is how.

Let's look at verbs first. • "She sang beautifully." Beautifully is an adverb that

modifies sang. It tells us how she sang. • "The cellist played carelessly." Carelessly is an

adverb that modifies played. It tells us how the cellist played.

Adverbs also modify adjectives and other adverbs. • "That woman is extremely nice." Nice is an adjective

that modifies the noun woman. Extremely is an adverb that modifies nice; it tells us how nice she is. How nice is she? She's extremely nice.

• "It was a terribly hot afternoon." Hot is an adjective that modifies the noun afternoon. Terribly is an adverb that modifies the adjective hot. How hot is it? Terribly hot.

So, generally speaking, adverbs answer the question how. (They can also answer the questions when, where, and why.)

Some Other Rules

Most of the time, adjectives come before nouns. However, they come after the nouns they modify, most often when the verb is a form of the following:

• be • feel • taste • smell • sound • look • appear • seem Some examples: • "The dog is black." Black is an adjective that

901 Essentials of English Language

modifies the noun dog, but it comes after the verb. (Remember that "is" is a form of the verb "be.")

• "Brian seems sad." Sad is an adjective that modifies the noun Brian.

• "The milk smells rotten." Rotten is an adjective that modifies the noun milk.

• "The speaker sounds hoarse." Hoarse is an adjective that modifies the noun speaker.

Be sure to understand the differences between the following two examples:

"The dog smells carefully." Here, carefully describes how the dog is smelling. We imagine him sniffing very cautiously.

But: "The dog smells clean." Here, clean describes the dog

itself. It's not that he's smelling clean things or something; it's that he's had a bath and does not stink.

PREPOSITION

A preposition connects words, clauses, and sentences together and shows the relation between them. "My hand is on the table" shows relation between hand and table.

Prepositions are so called because they are generally placed before the words whose connection or relation with other words they point out.

Prepositions for Time, Place, and Introducing Objects

One Point in Time

On is used with days: • I will see you on Monday. • The week begins on Sunday. At is used with noon, night, midnight, and with the

time of day: • My plane leaves at noon. • The movie starts at 6 p.m.

Essentials of English Language 191 In is used with other parts of the day, with months, with

years, with seasons: • He likes to read in the afternoon. • The days are long in August. • The book was published in 1999. -e The flowers will bloom in spring.

Extended Time

To express extended time, English uses the following prepositions: since, for, by, from-to, from-until, during,(with)in

• She has been gone since yesterday. (She left yesterday and has not returned.)

• I'm going to Paris for two weeks. (I will spend two weeks there.)

• The movie showed from August to October. (Beginning in August and ending in October.)

• The decorations were up from spring until fall. (Beginning in spring and ending in fall.)

• I watch TV during the evening. (For some period of time in the evening.)

• We must finish the project within a year. (No longer than a year.)

Place

To express notions of place, English uses the following prepositions: to talk about the point itself: in, to express something contained: inside, to talk about the surface: on, to talk about a general vicinity, at.

• There is a wasp in the room. • Put the present inside the box. • I left your keys on the table. • She was waiting at the comer.

Higher Than a Point

To express notions of an object being higher than a point, English uses the following prepositions: over, above.

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• He threw the ball over the roof. • Hang that picture above the couch.

Lower Than a Point To express notions of an object being lower than a point,

English uses the following prepositions: under, underneath, beneath, below.

• The rabbit burrowed under the ground. • The child hid underneath the blanket. • We relaxed in the shade beneath the branches. • The valley is below sea-level.

Close to a Point To express notions of an object being close to a point,

English uses the following prepositions: near, by, next to, between, among, opposite.

• She lives near the schooL • There is an ice cream shop by the store. • An oak tree grows next to my house • The house is between Elm Street and Maple Street. • I found my pen lying among the books. • The bathroom is opposite that room.

To introduce Objects of Verbs English uses the following prepositions to introduce

objects of the following verbs.

At: glance, laugh, look, rejoice, smile, stare • She took a quick glance at her reflection. (exception with mirror: She took a quick glance in the

mirror.) • You didn't laugh at his joke. • I'm looking at the computer monitor. • We rejoiced at his safe rescue. • That pretty girl smiled at you. • Stop staring at me __

Of:' . .approve, consist, sm~1I

• I don't approve of his speech.

Essentials of English Language f93"

• My contribution to the article consists of many pages.

• He came home smelling of alcohol.

Of (or about): dream, think

• I dream of finishing college in four years. • Can you think of a number between one and ten? • I am thinking about this problem.

For: call, hope, look, wait, watch, wish

• Did someone call for a taxi? • He hopes for a raise in salary next year. • I'm looking for my keys. • We'll wait for her here. • You go buy the tickets and I'll watc}1 for the train. • If you wish for an "A" in this class, you must work

hard.

Prepositions of Direction

Prepositions of direction are few in number but they are also important to note. They include the following and are best learned and understood in context.

Study the examples below carefully and then do the exercise that follows. You can check your answers to see how well you know these prepositions of direction.

AROUND = in a circular direction I've driven around this neighborhood three times and I

still can't find their house. AT = in the (general) direction of The little boy threw a stone at the little girl. AWAY FROM = leaving a place, a person or an object She ran away from home when she was sixteen. DOWN = descending motion Raindrops ran down the windscreen making it difficult

to see the road. DOWN TO = descending motion expressing a final

destination.

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The child fell down to the ground. FOR = having the view or destination of The Israelites

set out for The Promised Land when they left Egypt. INTO = a destination within something The frightened deer disappeared into the forest. ONTO = a destination on something He put the plate onto the table and began to eat his

dinner. OUT OF = a destination outside of something He ran out of the room as if he were on fire. TO = in the specific direction of To the hospital, please. And hurry! This is an

emergency. Could you give this DVD to Jill, please? TOWARDS = in the general direction of We were driving towards the city centre when we had

an accident. UP = ascending, in a general motion The smoke from the fire went up into the sky. UP TO = ascending, expressing specific destination You'll be able to reach the cat if you climb up to the top

of the tree.

Set Phrases using Prepositions of Direction

He couldn't wait for his vacation to get away from it all. The cost of a new car brought him down to earth. When situations worsen we say we go from out of the

frying pan, into the fire.

Special Note

When you shout at someone. (You are angry) When you shout to someone. (You want to attract their

attention.) You throw the ball at someone. (You want to hit them

with the ball.) You throw the ball to someone. (You want them to have

it, you give it to them.)

Essentials of English Language r% CONJUNCTION

A conjunction joins words, clauses and sentences; as "John and James." "My father and mother have come, but I have not seen them."

The conjunctions in most general use are and, also; either, or; neither, nor; though, yet; but, however; for, that; because, since; therefore, wherefore, then; if, unless, lest.

A conjunction is a word that "joins". A conjunction joins two parts of a sentence.

Here are some example conjunctions:

Coordinating Subordinating Conjunctions Conjunctions and, but, or, nor, although, because, since,

for, yet, so unless

We can consider conjunctions from three aspects.

Form

Conjunctions have three basic forms: • Single Word for example: and, but, because, although • Compound (often ending with as or that) For example: provided that, as long as, in order that • Correlative (surrounding an adverb or adjective) For example: so ... that

Function

Conjunctions have two basic functions or "jobs": • Coordinating conjunctions are used to join two

parts of a sentence that are grammatically equal. The two parts may be single words or clauses, for example:

- Jack and Jill went up the hill. - The water was warm, but I didn't go swimming. • Subordinating conjunctions are used to join a

subordinate dependent clause to a main clause, for example:

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I went swimming although it was cold.

Position

• Coordinating conjunctions always come between the words or clauses that they join. .

• Subordinating conjunctions usually come at the beginning of the subordinate clause.

Coordinating Conjunctions

The short, simple conjunctions are called "coordinating conjunctions" :

• and, but, or, nor, for, yet, so A coordinating conjunction joins parts of a sentence (for

example word'5 or independent clauses) that are grammatically equal or similar. A coordinating conjunction shows that the elements it joins are similar in importance

. and structure: '

Look at these examples - the two elements that the coordinating conjunction joins are shown in square brackets [ ]:

• I like [tea] and [coffee]. • [Ram likes tea], but [Anthony likes coffee]. Coordinating conjunctions always come between the

words or clauses that they join. When a coordinating conjunction joins independent

clauses, it is always correct to place a comma before the conjunction:

• I want to work as an interpreter in the future, so I am studying Russian at university.

However, if the independent clauses are short and well­balanced, a comma is not really essential:

• She is kind so she helps people. When "and" is used with the last word of a list, a

comma is optional: • He drinks beer, whisky, wine, and rum.

Essentials of English Language r97"" • He drinks beer, whisky, wine and rum. The 7 coordinating conjunctions are short, simple

words. They have only two or three letters. There's an easy way to remember them - their initials spell:

FA N BOY 5 For And Nor But Or Yet 50

Subordinating Conjunctions

The majority of conjunctions are "subordinating conjunctions". Common subordinating conjunctions are:

• after, although, as, because, before, how, if, once, since, than, that, though, till, u:t;ltil, when, where, whether, while

A subordinating conjunction joins a subordinate (dependent) clause to a main (independent) clause:

0+0 Look at this example: main or subordinate or

independent dependent clause it was raining.

clause Ram went although

swimming subordinating conjunction

A subordinate or dependent clause "depends" on a main or independent clause. It cannot exist alone. Imagine that somebody says to you: "Hello! Although it was raining." What do you understand? Nothing! But a main or independent clause can exist alone. You will understand very well if somebody says to you: "Hello! Ram went swimming."

A subordinating conjunction always comes at the beginning of a subordinate clause. It "introduces" a subordinate clause. However, a subordinate clause can sometimes come after and sometimes before a main clause.

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Thus, two structures are possible:

Ram went swimming although it was raining.

+DD Although it was raining, Ram went swimming.

INTERJECTION

An interjection is a word used to express some sudden emotion of the mind. Thus in the examples,-" Ah! there he comes; alas! what shall I do?" ah, expresses surprise, and alas, distress.

Nouns, adjectives, verbs and adverbs become interjections when they are uttered as exclamations, as, nonsense! strange! hail! away! etc.

Interjection is a big name for a little word. Interjections are short exclamations like Oh!, Urn or Ah! They have no real grammatical value but we use them quite often, usually more in speaking than in writing. When interjections are inserted into a sentence, they have no grammatical connection to the sentence. An interjection is sometimes followed by an exclamation mark (!) when written.

Interjections like er and urn are also known as "hesitation devices". They are extremely common in English. People use them when they don't know what to say, or to indicate that they are thinking about what to say. You should learn to recognize them when you hear them and realise that they have no real meaning.

The table below shows some interjections with examples.

interjection Meaning Example

ah Expressing pleasure "Ah, that feels good."

Expressing realization" Ah, now I understand."

Expressing "Ah well, it can't be

Resignation heped."

Essentials of English Language f99 Expressing surprise "Ah! I've won!"

alas Expressing grief or "Alas, she's dead now."

Pity

dear Expressing pity "Oh dear! Does it hurt?"

Expressing surprise "Dear me! That's a

surprise!"

eh Asking for repetition "It's hot today." "Eh?" "I

said it's hot today."

Expressing enquiry "What do you think of

that, eh?"

Expressing surprise "Eh! Really?"

Inviting agreement "Let's go, eh?"

er Expressing hesitation "Lima is the capital

of ... er ... Peru."

hello, hullo Expressing greeting "Hello John. How are

you today?"

Expressins surprise "Hello! Ml car's sone!"

hey Calling attention "Hey! look at that!"

Expressing surprise, "Hey! What a good

Joy etc idea!"

hi Expressin~ greetin~ "Hi! What's new?"

hmm Expressing hesitation, "Hmm. I'm not so sure."

Doubt or disasreement oh,o Expressing surprise "Oh! You're here!"

Expressing pain "Oh! I've got a

toothache."

Expressing pleading "Oh, please say 'yes'!"

ouch Expressing pain "Ouch! That hurts!"

uh Expressing hesitation "Uh .. .! don't know the

answer to that."

uh-huh Expressing agreement "Shall we go?"

"Uh-huh."

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urn, umm Expressing hesitation "85 divided by 5

is ... um ... 17."

well Expressing surprise "Well I never!"

Introducing a remark "Well, what did he say?"

We have now gone through the parts of speech and have stated the functions of each. As they all belong to the same family they are related to one another but some are in closer affinity than 0thers. To point out the exact relationship and the dependency of one word on another is called parsing and in order that every etymological connection may be distinctly understood a brief resume of the foregoing essentials is here given:

The signification of the noun is limited to one, but to anyone of the kind, by the indefinite article, and to some particular one, or some particular number, by the definite article.

Nouns, in one form, represent one of a kind, and in another, any number more than one; they are the names of males, or females, or of objects which are neither male nor female; and they represent the subject of an affirmation, a command or a question, -the owner or possessor of a thing,-or the object of an action, or of a relation expressed by a preposition.

Adjectives express the qualities which distinguish one person or thing from another; in one form they express quality without comparison; in another, they express comparison between two, or between one and a number taken collectively,-and in a third they express comparison between one and a number of others taken separately.

Pronouns are used in place of nouns; one class of them is used merely as the substitutes of names; the pronouns of another class have a peculiar reference to some preceding words in the sentence, of which they are the substitutes,­and those of a third class refer adjectively to the persons or things they represent. Some pronouns are used for both the

Essentials of English Language 1101 name and the substitute; and several are frequently employed in asking questions.

Affirmations and commands are expressed by the verb; and different inflections of the verb express number, person, time and manner. With regard to time, an affirmation may be present or past or future; with regard to manner, an affirmation may be positive or conditional, it being doubtful whether the condition is fulfilled or not, or it being implied that it is not fulfilled;-the verb may express command or entreaty; or the sense of the verb may be expressed without affirming or commanding. The verb also expresses that an action or state is or was going on, by a form which is also used sometimes as a noun, and sometimes to qualify nouns.

Affirmations are modified by adverbs, some of which can be inflected to express different degrees of modification.

Words are joined together by conjunctions; and the various relations which one thing bears to another are expressed by 'prepositions. Sudden emotions of the mind, and exclamations are expressed by interjections.

Some words according to meaning belong sometimes to one part of speech, sometimes to another. Thus, in "After a storm comes a calm," calm is a noun; in ''It is a calm evening," calm is an adjective; and in "Calm your fears," calm is a verb.

The following sentence containing all the parts of speech is parsed etymologically:

"I now see the old man coming, but, alas, he has walked with much difficulty."

I, a personal pronoun, first person singular, masculine or feminine gender, nominative case, subject of the verb see ..

Now, an adverb of time modifying the verb see. See, an irregular, transitive verb, indicative mood,

present tense, first person singular to agree with its nominative or subject I.

The, the definite article particularizing the noun man. Old, an adjective, positive degree, qualifying the noun

man.

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Man, a common noun, 3rd person singular, masculine gender, objective case governed by the transitive verb see.

Coming, the present or imperfect participle of the verb lito corne" referring to the noun man.

But, a conjunction. Alas, an interjection, expressing pity or sorrow. He, a personal pronoun, 3rd person singular, masculine

gender, nominative case, subject of verb has walked. Has walked, a regular, intransitive verb, indicative

mood, perfect tense, 3rd person singular to agree with its nominative or subject he.

With, a preposition, governing the noun difficulty. Much, an adjective, positive degree, qualifying the

noun difficulty. Difficulty, a common noun, 3rd person singular, neuter

ger:tder, objective case governed by the preposition with. N.B.-Much is generally an adverb. As an adjective it is

thus compared: Positive much

Comparative more

Superlative most

Chapter 3

The Sentence

DIFFERENT KINDS ARRANGEMENT OF WORDS PARAGRAPH

A sentence is an assemblage of words so arranged as to convey a determinate sense or meaning, in other words, to express a complete thought or idea. No matter how short, it must contain one finite verb and a subject or agent to direct the action of the verb.

"Birds fly;" "Fish swim;" "Men walk;" -are sentences. A sentence always contains two parts, something

spoken about and something said about it. The word or words indicating what is spoken about form what is called the subject and the word or words indicating what is said about it form what is called the predicate.

In the sentences given, birds, fish and men are the subjects, while fly, swim and walk are the predicates.

There are three kinds of sentences, simple, compound and complex.

The simple sentence expresses a single thought and consists of one subject and one predicate, as, "Man is mortal."

A compound sentence consists of two or more simple sentences of equal importance the parts of which are either expressed or understood, as, "The men work in the fields and the women work in the household," or "The men work in the fields and the women in the household" or "The men and women work in the fields and in the household."

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A complex sentence consists of two or more simple sentences so combined that one depends on the other to complete its meaning; as; "When he returns, I shall go on my vacation." Here the words, "when he returns" are dependent on the rest of the sentence for their meaning.

A clause is a separate part of a complex sentence, as "when he returns" in the last example.

A phrase consists of two or more words without a finite verb.

Without a finite verb we cannot affirm anything or convey an idea, therefore we can have no sentence.

Infinitives and participles which are the infinite parts of the verb cannot be predicates. "I looking up the street" is not a sentence, for it is not a complete action expressed. When we hear such an expression as "A dog running along

. the street," we wait for something more to be added, something more affirmed about the dog, whether he bit or barked or fell dead or was run over.

Thus in every sentence there must be a finite verb to limit the subject.

When the verb is transitive, that'is, when the action cannot happen without affecting something, the thing affected is called the object.

Thus in "Cain killed Abel" the action of the killing affected Abel. In "The cat has caught a mouse," mouse is the object of the catching.

ARRANGEMENT OF WORDS IN A SENTENCE

Of course in simple sentences the natural order of arrangement is subject-verb-object. In many cases no other form is possible. Thus in the sentence "The cat has caught a mouse," we cannot reverse it and say "The mouse has caught a cat" without destroying the meaning, and in any other form of arrangement, such as·"A mouse, the cat has caught," we feel that while it is intelligible, it is a poor way of expressing the fact and one which jars upon us more or less.

The Sentence rto5 In longer sentences, however, when there are more

words than what are barely necessary for subject, verb and object, we have greater freedom of arrangement and can . so place the words as to give the best effect. The proper placing of words depends upon perspicuity and precision. These two combined give style to the structure.

Most people are familiar with Gray's line in the immortal Elegy-"The ploughman homeward plods his weary way." This line can be paraphrased to read 18 different ways. Here are a few variations:

Homeward the ploughman plods his weary way. The ploughman plods his weary way homeward. Plods homeward the ploughman his weary way. His weary way the ploughman homeward plods. Homeward his weary way plods the ploughman. Plods the ploughman his weary way homeward. His weary way ,the ploughman plods homeward. His weary way homeward the ploughman plods. The ploughman plods homeward his weary way .

. The ploughman his weary way plods homeward. and so on. It is doubtful if any of the other forms are

superior to the one used by the poet. Of course his arrangement was made to comply with the rhythm and rhyme of the verse. Most of the variations depend upon the emphasis we wish to place upon the different words.

In arranging the words in an ordinary sentence we should not lose sight of the fact that the beginning and end are the important places for catching the attention of the reader. Words in these places have greater emphasis than elsewhere.

In Gray's line the general meaning conveyed is that a weary ploughman is plodding his way homeward, but according to the arrangement a very slight difference is effected in the idea. Some of the variations make us think more of the ploughman, others more of the plodding, and still others more of the weariness.

As the beginning and end of a sentence are the most

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important places, it naturally follows that small or insignificant words should be kept from these positions. Of the two places the end one is the more important, therefore, it really calls for the most important word in the sentence. Never commence a sentence with And, But, Since, Because, and other similar weak words and never end it with prepositions, small, weak adverbs or pronouns.

The parts of a sentence which are most closely connected with one another in meaning should be closely connected in order also. By ignoring this principle many sentences are made, if not nonsensical, really ridiculous and ludicrous. For instance: "Ten dollars reward is offered for information of any person injuring this property by order of the owner." "This monument was erected to the memory of John Jones, who was shot by his affectionate brother."

In the construction of all sentences the grammatical rules must be inviolably observed. The laws of concord, that is, the agreement of certain words, must be obeyed.

1. The verb agrees with its subject in person and number. "I have," "Thou hast," (the pronoun thou is here used to illustrate the verb form, though it is almost obsolete), "He has," show the variation of the verb to agree with the subject. A singular subject calls for a singular verb, a plural subject demands a verb in the plural; as, "The boy writes," "The boys write." The agreement of a verb and its subject is often destroyed by confusing (1) collective and common nouns; (2) foreign and English nouns; (3) compound and simple subjects; (4) real and apparent subjects. -(1) A collective noun is a number of individuals

or things regarded as a whole; as, class regiment. When the individuals or things are prominently brought forward, use a plural verb; as The class were distinguished for ability. When the idea of the whole as a unit is

The Sentence f107 under consideration employ a singular verb; as The regiment was in camp. (2) It is sometimes hard for the ordinary individual to distinguish the plural from the singular in foreign nouns, therefore, he should be careful in the selection of the verb. He should look up the word and be guided accordingly. "He was an alumnus of Harvard." "They were alumni of Harvard." (3) When a sentence with one verb has two or more subjects denoting different things, connected by and, the verb should be plural; as, "Snow and rain are disagreeable." When the subjects denote the same thing and are connected by or the verb should be singular; as, "The man or the woman is to blame." (4) When the same verb has more than one subject of different persons or numbers, it agrees with the most prominent in thought; as, "He, and not you, is wrong." "Whether he or I am to be blamed."

2. Never use the past participle for the past tense nor vice versa. This mistake is a very common one. At every turn we hear "He done it" for "He did it." "The jar was broke" instead of broken. "He would have went" for "He would have gone," etc.

3. The use of the verbs shall and will is a rock upon which even the best speakers come to wreck. They are interchanged recklessly. Their significance changes according as they are used with the first, second or third person. With the first person shall is used in direct statement to express a simple future action; as, "I shall go to the city to-morrow." With the second and third persons shall is used to express a determination; as, "You shall go to the city to-morrow," "He shall go to the city to­morrow."

With the first person will is used in direct

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statement to express determination, as, "I will go to the city to-morrow." With the second and third persons will is used to express simple future action; as, "You will go to the city to­morrow," "He will go to the city to-morrow." A very old rule regarding the uses of shall and will is thus expressed in rhyme:

In the first person simply shall foretells, In will a threat or else a promise dwells. Shall in the second and third does threat, Will simply then foretells the future feat.

4. Take special care to distinguish between the nominative and objective case. The pronouns are the only words which retain the ancient distinctive case ending for the objective. Remember that the objective case follows transitive verbs and prepositions. Don't say "The boy who I sent to see you," but "The boy whom I sent to see you." Whom is here the object of the transitive verb sent. Don't say "She bowed to him and I" but "She bowed to him and me" since me is the objective case following the preposition to understood. "Between you and I" is a very common expression. It should be "Between you and me" since between is a preposition calling for the objective case.

S. Be careful in the use of the relative pronouns who, which and that. Who refers only to persons; which only to things; as, "The boy who was drowned," "The umbrella which I lost." The relative that may refer to both persons and things; as, "The man that I saw." "The hat that I bought."

6. Don't use the superlative degree of the adjective for the comparative; as "He is the richest of the two" for "He is the richer of the two." Other mistakes often made in this connection are (1) Using the double comparative and superlative; as, "These apples are much more preferable." "The

The Sentence f109

most universal motive to business is gain." (2) Comparing objects which belong to dissimilar classes; as "There is no nicer life than a teacher." (3) Including objects in class to which they do not belong; as, "The fairest of her daughters, Eve." (4) Excluding an object from a class to which it does belong; as, "Caesar was braver than any ancient warrior."

7. Don't use an adjective for an adverb or an adverb for an adjective. Don't say, "He acted nice towards me" but "He acted nicely toward me," and instead of saying "She looked beautifully" say "She looked beautiful. "

8. Place the adverb as near as possible to the word it modifies. Instead of saying, "He walked to the door quickly," say "He walked quickly to the door."

9. Not alone be careful to distinguish between the nominative and objective cases of the pronouns, but try to avoid ambiguity in their use.

The amusing effect of disregarding the reference of pronouns is well illustrated by Burton in the following story of Billy Williams, a comic actor who thus narrates his experience in riding a horse owned by Hamblin, the manager:

"So down I goes to the stable with Tom Flynn, and told the man to put the saddle on him."

"On Tom Flynn?" "No, on the horse. So after talking with Tom Flynn

awhile I mounted him." "What! mounted Tom Flynn?" "No, the horse; and then I shook hands with him and

rode off." "Shook hands with the horse, Billy?" "No, with Tom Flynn; and then I rode off up the

Bowery, and who should I meet but Tom Hamblin; so I got off and told the boy to hold him by the head."

"What! hold Hamblin by the head?"

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"No, the horse; and then we went and had a drink together ."

"What! you and the horse?" "No, me and Hamblin; and after that I mounted him

again and went out of town." "What! mounted Hamblin again?" . "No, the horse; and when I got to Burnham, who should

be there but Tom Flynn,-he'd taken another horse and rode out ahead of me; so I told the hostler to tie him up."

"Tie Tom Flynn up?" "No, the horse; and we had a drink there." "What! you and the horse?" "No, me and Tom Flynn." Finding his auditors by this time in a horse laugh, Billy

wound up with: "Now, look here, -every time I say horse, you say Hamblin, and every time I say Hamblin you say horse: I'll be hanged if I tell you any more about it."

SENTENCE CLASSIFICATION

There are two great classes of sentences according to the general principles upon which they are founded. These are termed the loose and the periodic.

In the loose sentence the main idea is put first, and then follow several facts in connection with it. Defoe is an author particularly noted for this kind of sentence. He starts out with a leading declaration to which he adds several attendant connections.

For instance in the opening of the story of Robinson Crusoe we read: "I was born in the year 1632 in the city of York, of a good family, though not of that country, my father being a foreigner of Bremen, who settled first at Hull; he got a good estate by merchandise, and leaving off his trade lived afterward at York, from whence he had married my mother, whose relations were named Robinson, a very good family in the country and from I was called Robinson Kreutznaer; but by the usual corruption of words in England, we are now called, nay, we call ourselves, and

The Sentence WI write our name Crusoe, and so my companions always called me."

In the periodic sentence the main idea comes last and is preceded by a series of relative introductions. This kind of sentence is often introduced by such words as that, if, since, because. The following is an example:

"That through his own folly and lack of circumspection he should have been reduced to such circumstances as to be forced to become a beggar on the streets, soliciting alms from those who had formerly been the recipients of his bounty, was a sore humiliation."

On account of its name many are liable to think the loose sentence an undesirable form in good composition, but this should not be taken for granted. In many cases it is preferable to the periodic form.

As a general rule in speaking, as opposed to writing, the .loose form is to be preferred, inasmuch as when the periodic is employed in discourse the listeners are apt to forget the introductory clauses before the final issue is reached.

Both kinds are freely used in composition, but in speaking, the loose, which makes the direct statement at the beginning, should predominate.

As to the length of sentences much depends on the nature of the composition. However the general rule may be laid down that short sentences are preferable to long ones. The tendency of the best writers of the present day is towards short, snappy, pithy sentences which rivet the attention of the reader. They adopt as their motto multum in parvo (much in little) and endeavor to pack a great deal in small space. Of course the extreme of brevity is to be avoided. Sentences can be too short, too jerky, too brittle to withstand the test of criticism. The long sentence has its place and a very important one. It is indispensable in argument and often is very necessary to description and also in introducing general principles which require elaboration. In employing the long sentence the

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inexperienced writer should not strain after the heavy, ponderous type. Johnson and Carlyle used such a type, but remember, an ordinary mortal cannot wield the sledge hammer of a giant. Johnson and Carlyle were intellectual giants and few can hope to stand on the same literary pedestal. The tyro in composition should never seek after the heavy style. The best of all authors in the English language for style is Addison. Macaulay says: "If you wish a style learned, but not pedantic, elegant but not ostentatious, simple yet refined, you must give your days and nights to the volumes of Joseph Addison." The simplicity, apart from the beauty of Addison's writings causes us to reiterate the literary command - "Never use a big word when a little one will convey the same or a similar meaning."

Macaulay himself is an elegant stylist to imitate. He is like a clear brook kissed by the noon-day sun in the shining bed of which you can see and count the beautiful white pebbles. Goldsmith is another writer whose simplicity of style charms.

The beginner should study these writers, make their works his vade mecum, they have stood the test of time and there has been no improvement upon them yet, nor is there likely to be, for their writing is as perfect as it is possible to be in the English language.

Apart from their grammatical construction there can be no fixed rules for the formation of sentences. The best plan is to follow the best authors and these masters of language will guide you safely along the way.

THE PARAGRAPH

The paragraph may be defined as a group of sentences that are closely related in thought and which serve one common purpose. Not only do they preserve the sequence of the different parts into which a composition is divided, but they give a certain spice to the matter like raisins in a plum pudding. A solid page of printed matter is distasteful

The Sentence rti3 to the reader; it taxes the eye and tends towards the weariness of monotony, but when it is broken up into sections it loses much of its heaviness and the consequent lightness gives it charm, as it were, to capture the reader.

Paragraphs are like stepping-stones on the bed of a shallow river, which enable the foot passenger to skip with ease from one to the other until he gets across; but if the stones are placed too far apart in attempting to span the distance one is liable to miss the mark and fall in the water and flounder about until he is again able to get a foothold. 'Tis the same with written language, the reader by means of paragraphs can easily pass from one portion of connected thought to another and keep up his interest in the subject until he gets to the end.

Throughout the paragraph there must be some connection in regard to the matter under consideration,-a sentence dependency. For instance, in the same paragraph we must not speak of a house on fire and a runaway horse unless there is some connection between the two. We must not write consecutively:

liThe fire raged with fierce intensity, consuming the greater part of the large building in a short time." liThe horse took fright and wildly dashed down the street scattering pedestrians in all directions." These two sentences have no connection and therefore should occupy separate and distinct places. But when we say-"The fire raged with fierce intensity consuming the greater part of the large building in a short time and the horse taking fright at the flames dashed wildly down the street scattering pedestrians in all directions," -there is a natural sequence, viz., the horse taking fright' as a consequence of the flames and hence the two expressions are combined in one paragraph.

As in the case of words in sentences, the most important places in a paragraph are the beginning and the end, Accordingly the first sentence and the last should by virtu¢ of their structure and nervous force, compel the reader's attention. It is usually advisable to make the first sentenqe

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short; the last sentence may be long or short, but in either case should be forcible. The object of the first sentence is to state a point clearly; the last sentence should enforce it.

It is a custom of good writers to make the conclusion of the paragraph a restatement or counterpart or application of the opening.

In most cases a paragraph may be regarded as the elaboration of the principal sentence. The leading thought or idea can be taken as a nucleus and around it constructed the different parts of the paragraph.

Anyone can make a context for every simple sentence by asking himself questions in reference to the sentence. Thus-"The foreman gave the order" - suggests at once several questions; "What was the order?" "to whom did he give it?" "why did he give it?" "what was the result?" etc. These questions when answered will depend upon the leading one and be an elaboration of it into a complete paragraph.

If we examine any good paragraph we shall find it made up of a number of items, each of which helps to illustrate, confirm or enforce the general thought or purpose of the paragraph.

Also the transition from each item to the next is easy, natural and obvious; the items seem to come of themselves. If, on the other hand, we detect in a paragraph one or more items which have no direct bearing, or if we are unable to proceed readily from item to item, especially if we are obliged to rearrange the items before we can perceive their full significance, then we are justified in pronouncing the paragraph construction faulty.

No specific rules can be given as to the construction of paragraphs. The best advice is, -Study closely the paragraph structure of the best writers, for it is only through imitation, conscious or unconscious of the best models, that one can master the art.

The best paragraphist in the English language for the essay is Macaulay, the best model to follow for the oratorical

The Sentence Ws style is Edmund Burke and for description and narration probably the greatest master of paragraph is the American Goldsmith, Washington Irving.

A paragraph is indicated in print by what is known as the indentation of the line, that is, by commencing it a space from the left margin.

Chapter 4

Figurative Language

FIGURES OF SP-EECH DEFINITIONS AND EXAMPLES USE OF FIGURES

In Figurative Language we employ words in such a way that they differ somewhat from their ordinary signification in commonplace speech and convey our meaning in a more vivid and impressive manner than when we use them in their every-day sense. Figures make speech more effective, they beautify and emphasize it and give to it a relish and piquancy as salt does to food; besides they add energy and force to expression so that it irresistibly compels attention and interest. There are four kinds of figures, viz.: (1) Figures of Orthography which change the spelling of a word; (2) Figures of Etymology which change the form of words; (3) Figures of Syntax which change the construction of sentences; (4) Figures of Rhetoric or the art of speaking and writing effectively which change the mode of thought.

We shall only consider the last mentioned here as they are the most important, really giving to language the construction and style which make it a fitting medium for the intercommunication of ideas.

Figures of Rhetoric have been variously classified, some authorities extending the list to a useless length. The fact is that any form of expression which conveys thought may be classified. -

The principal figures as well as the most important and

Figurative Language rIi7 those oftenest used are, Simile, Metaphor, Personification, Allegory, Synechdoche, Metonymy, Exclamation, Hyperbole, Apostrophe, Vision, Antithesis, Climax, Epigram, Interrogation and Irony.

The first four are founded on resemblance, the second six on contiguity and the third five, on contrast.

A Simile (from the Latin similis, like), is the likening of one thing to another, a statement of the resemblance of objects, acts, or relations; as "In his awful anger he was like the storm-driven waves dashing against the rock." A simile makes the principal object plainer and impresses it more forcibly on the mind. "His memory is like wax to receive impressions and like marble to retain them." This brings out the leading idea as to the man's memory in a very forceful manner. Contrast it with the simple statement­"His memory is good." Sometimes Simile is prostituted to a low and degrading use; as "His face was like a danger signal in a fog storm." "Her hair was like a furze-bush in bloom." "He was to his lady love as a poodle to its mistress." Such burlesque is never permissible. Mere likeness, it should be remembered, does not constitute a simile. For instance there is no simile when one city is compared to another. In order that there may be a rhetorical simile, the objects compared must be of different classes. Avoid the old trite similes such as comparing a hero to a lion. Such were played out long ago. And don't hunt for farfetched similes. Don't say-"Her head was glowing as the glorious god of day when he sets in a flambeau of splendor behind the purple-tinted hills of the West." It is much better to do without such a simile and simply say-"She had fiery red hair."

A Metaphor (from the Greek metapherein, to carryover or transfer), is a word used to imply a resemblance but instead of likening one object to another as in the simile we directly substitute the action or operation of one for another. If, of a religious man we say, - "He is as a great pillar upholding the church," the expression is a simile, but if we

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say-"He is a great pillar upholding the church" it is a metaphor. The metaphor is a bolder and more lively figure than the simile. It is more like a picture and hence, the graphic use of metaphor is called "word-painting." It enables us to give to the most abstract ideas form, colour and life. Our language is full of metaphors, and we very often use them quite unconsciously. For instance, when we speak of the bed of a river, the shoulder of a hill, the foot of a mountain, the hands of a clock, the key of a situation, we are using metaphors.

Don't use mixed metaphors, that is, different metaphors in relation to the same subject: "Since it was launched our project has met with much opposition, but while its flight has not reached the heights ambitioned, we are yet sanguine we shall drive it to success." Here our project begins as a ship, then becomes a bird and finally winds up as a horse.

Personification (from the Latin persona, person, and tacere, to make) is the treating of an inanimate object as if it were animate and is probably the most beautiful and effective of all the figures.

"The mountains sing together, the hills rejoice and clap their hands."

"Earth felt the wound; and Nature from her seat, Sighing, through all her works, gave signs of woe." Personification depends much on a vivid imagination

and is adapted especially to poetical composition. It has two distinguishable forms: (1) when personality is ascribed to the inanimate as in the foregoing examples, and (2) when some quality of life is attributed to the inanimate; as, a raging storm; an angry sea; a whistling wind, etc.

An Allegory (from the Greek allos, other, and agoreuein, to speak), is a form of expression in which the words are symbolical of something. It is very closely allied to the metaphor, in fact is a continued metaphor.

Allegory, metaphor and simile have three points in common,-they are all founded on resemblance. "Ireland is like a thorn in the side of England;" this is simile. "Ireland

Figurative Language !1i9 is a thorn in the side of England;" this is metaphor. "Once a great giant sprang up out of the sea and lived on an island all by himself. On looking around he discovered a little girl on another small island near by. He thought the little girl could be useful to him in many ways so he determined to make her subservient to his will. He commanded her, .}:JUt she refused to obey, then he resorted to very harsh measures with the little girl, but she still remained obstinate and obdurate. He continued to oppress her until finally she rebelled and became as a thorn in his side to prick him for his evil attitude towards her;" this is an allegory in which the giant plainly represents England and the little girl, Ireland; the implication is manifest though no mention is made of either country. Strange to say the most perfect allegory in the English language was written by an almost illiterate and ignorant man, and written too, in a dungeon cell. In the "Pilgrim's Progress," Bunyan, the itinerant tinker, has given us by far the best allegory ever penned. Another good one is liThe Faerie Queen" by Edmund Spenser.

Synecdoche (from the Greek, sun with, and ekdexesthai, to receive), is a figure of speech which expresses either more or less than it literally denotes. By it we give to an object a name which literally expresses something more or something less than we intend. Thus: we speak of the world when we mean only a very limited number of the people who compose the world: as, "The world treated him badly." Here we use the whole for a part. But the most common form of this figure is that in which a part is used for the whole; as, "I have twenty head of cattle," "One of his hands was assassinated," meaning one of his men. "Twenty sail came into the harbor," meaning twenty ships. "This is a fine marble," meaning a marble statue.

Metonymy (from the Greek meta, change, and onyma, a name) is the designation of an object by one of its accompaniments, in other words, it is a figure by which the name of one object is put for another when the two are so

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related that the mention of one readily suggests the other. Thus when we say of a drunkard - "He loves the bottle" we do not mean that he loves the glass receptacle, but the liquor that it is supposed to contain. Metonymy, generally speaking, has, three subdivisions:

• When an effect is put for cause or vice versa: as "Gray hairs should be respected," meaning old age. "He writes a fine hand," that is, handwriting.

• When the sign is put for the thing signified; as, "The pen is mightier than the sword," meaning literary power is superior to military force.

• When the container is put for the thing contained; as "The House was called to order," meaning the members in the House.

Exclamation (from the Latin ex, out, and clamare, to cry), is a figure by which the speaker instead of stating a fact, simply utters an expression of surprise or emotion. For instance when he hears some harrowing tale of woe or misfortune instead of saying,-"It is a sad story" he exclaims "What a sad story!"

Exclamation may be defined as the vocal expression of feeling, though it is also applied to written forms which are intended to express emotion. Thus in describing a towering mountain we can write "Heavens, what a piece of Nature's handiwork! how majestic! how sublime! how awe-inspiring in its colossal impressiveness!" This figure rather belongs to poetry and animated oratory than to the cold prose of every-day conversation and writing.

Hyperbole (from the Greek hyper, beyond, and ballein, to throw), is an exaggerated form of statement and simply consists in representing things to be either greater or less, better or worse than they really are. Its object is to make the thought more effective by overstating it. Here are some examples:-"He was so tall his head touched the clouds." "He was as thin as a poker." "He was so light that a breath might have blown him away." Most people are liable to overwork this figure. We are all more or less given to

Figurative Language rrn exaggeration and some of us do not stop there, but proceed onward to falsehood and downright lying. There should be a limit to hyperbole, and in ordinary speech and writing it should be well qualified and kept within reasonable bounds.

An Apostrophe (from the Greek apo, from, and strephein, to turn), is a direct address to the absent as present, to the inanimate as living, or to the abstract as personal. Thus: "0, illustrious Washington! Father of our Country! Could you visit us now!"

"My Country tis of thee­Sweet land of liberty, Of thee I sing. " "O! Grave, where is thy Victory, O! Death where is thy

sting!" This figure is very closely allied to Personification. Vision (from the Latin videre, to see) consists in treating

the past, the future, or the remote as if present in time or place. It is appropriate to animated description, as it produces the effect of an ideal presence. "The old warrior looks down from the canvas and tells us to be men worthy of our sires."

This figure is much exemplified in the Bible. The book of Revelation is a vision of the future. The author who uses the figure most is Carlyle.

An Antithesis (from the Greek anti, against, and tithenai, to set) is founded on contrast; it consists in putting two unlike things in such a position that each will appear more striking by the contrast.

"Ring out the old, ring in the new, Ring out the false, ring in the true." "Let us be friends in peace, but enemies in war." Here is a fine antithesis in the description of a steam

enginti-"It can engrave a seal and crush masses of obdurate metal before it; draw out, without breaking, a thread as fine as a gossamer,: and lift up a ship of war like a bauble in the air; it can embroider muslin and forge anchors; cut steel into ribands, and impel loaded vessels against the fury of winds and waves."

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Climax (from the Greek, klimax, a ladder), is an arrangement of thoughts and ideas in a series, each part of which gets stronger and more impressive until the last one, which emphasizes the force of all the preceding ones. "He risked truth, he risked honour, he risked fame, he risked all that men hold dear, - yea, he risked life itself, and for what?-for a creature who was not worthy to tie his shoe-latchets when he was his better self."

Epigram (from the Greek epi, upon, and graphein, to write), originally meant an inscription on a monument, hence it came to signify any pointed expression. It now means a statement or any brief saying in prose or poetry in which there is an apparent contradiction; as, "Conspicuous for his absence." "Beauty when unadorned is most adorned." "He was too foolish to commit folly." "He was so wealthy that he could not spare the money."

Interrogation (from the Latin interrogatio, a question), is a figure of speech in which an assertion is made by asking a question; as, "Does God not show justice to all?" "Is he not doing right in his course?" "What can a man do under the circumstances?" Irony (from the Greek eironcia, dissimulation) is a form of expression in which the opposite is substituted for what is intended, with the end in view, that the falsity or absurdity may be apparent; as, "Benedict Arnold was an honorable man." "A Judas Iscariot never betrays a friend." "You can always depend upon the word of a liar."

Irony is cousin germain to ridicule, derision, mockery, satire and sarcasm. Ridicule implies laughter mingled with contempt; derision is ridicule from a personal feeling of hostility; mockery is insulting derision; satire is witty mockery; sarcasm is bitter satire and irony is disguised satire.

There are many other figures of speech which give piquancy to language and play upon words in such a way as to convey a meaning different from their ordinary signification in common every-day speech and writing. The golden rule for all is to keep them in harmony with the character and purpose of speech and composition.

Chapter 5

Punctuation

PRINCIPAL POINTS ILLUSTRATIONS CAPITAL LETTERS.

Lindley Murray and Goold Brown laid down cast-iron rules for punctuation, but most of them have been broken long since and thrown into the junk-heap of disuse. They were too rigid, too strict, went so much into minutiae, that they were more or less impractical to apply to ordinary composition.

The manner of language, of style and of expression has considerably changed since then, the old abstruse complex sentence with its hidden meanings has been relegated to the shade, there is little of prolixity or long-drawn':out phrases, ambiguity of expression is avoided and the aim is toward terseness, brevity and clearness. Therefore, punctuation has been greatly simplified, to such an extent indeed, that it is now as much a matter of good taste and judgment as adherence to any fixed set of rules. Nevertheless there are laws governing it which cannot be abrogated, their principles must be rigidly and inviolably observed.

The chief end of punctuation is to mark the grammatical connection and the dependence of the parts of a composition, but not the actual pauses made in speaking. Very often the points used to denote the delivery of a passage differ from those used when the passage is written. Nevertheless, several of the

Punctuativn

punctuation marks serve to bring out the rhetorical force of expression.

The principal marks of punctuation are: • The Comma [,] • The Semicolon [;] • The Colon [:] • The Period [.] • The Interrogation [?] • The Exclamation [!] • The Dash [-] • The Parenthesis [OJ • The Quotation [" "] There are several other points or marks to indicate vaflOll ,.

relations, but properly speaking such come under the head:'::;; of Printer's Marks, some of which are treated elsewhere.

Of the above, the first four may be styled the grammatk;:;l points, and the remaining five, the rhetorical points.

THE COMMA

The office of the Comma is to show the slightest separation which calls for punctuation at all. It should be omitted whenever possible. It is used to mark the least divisions of a sentence.

• A series of words or phrases has its parts separated by commas: - "Lying, trickery, chicanery, perjury, were natural to him." "The brave, daring, faithful soldier died facing the foe." If the series is in pairs, commas separate the pairs: "Rich and poor, learned and unlearned, black and white, Christian and Jew, Mohammedan and Buddhist must pass through the same gate."

• A comma is used before a short quotation: "It was Patrick Henry who said, 'Give me liberty or give me death.'"

• When the subject of the sentence is a clause or a long phrase, a comma is used after such subject: "That he has no reverence for the God I love,

Punctuation f125" proves his insincerity." "Simulated piety, with a black coat and a sanctimonious look, does not proclaim a Christian."

• An expression used parenthetically should be inclosed by commas: "The old man, as a general rule, takes a morning walk."

• Words in apposition are set off by commas: "McKinley, the President, was assassinated."

• Relative clauses, if not restrictive, require commas: "The book, which is the simplest, is often the most profound."

• In continued sentences each should be followed by a comma: "Electricity lights our dwellings and streets, pulls cars, trains, drives the engines of our mills and factories."

• When a verb is omitted a comma takes its place: "Lincoln was a great statesman; Grant, a great soldier."

• The subject of address is followed by a comma: "John, you are a good man."

• In numeration, commas are used to express periods of three figures: "Mountains 25,000 feet high; 1,000,000 dollars."

Commas: Quick Rules

The comma is a valuable, useful punctuation device because it separates the structural elements of sentences into manageable segments. The rules provided here are those found in traditional handbooks; however, in certain rhetorical contexts and for specific purposes, these rules may be broken.

The following is a short guide to get you started using commas. This resource also includes sections with more detailed rules and examples.

Quick Guide to Commas

• Use commas to separate independent clauses when

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they are joined by any of these seven coordinating conjunctions: and, but, for, or, nor, so, yet.

• Use commas after introductory a) clauses, b) phrases, or c) words that come before the main clause.

• Use a pair of commas in the middle of a sentence t9 set off clauses, phrases, and words that are not essential to the meaning of the sentence. Use one comma before to indicate the beginning of the pause and one at the end to indicate the end of the pause.

• Do not use commas to set off essential elements of the sentence, such as clauses beginning with that (relative clauses). That clauses after nouns are always essential. That clauses following a verb expressing mental action are always essential.

• Use commas to separate three or more words, phrases, or clauses written in a series.

• Use commas to separate two or more coordinate adjectives that describe the same noun. Be sure never to add an extra comma between the final adjective and the noun itself or to use commas with non-coordinate adjectives.

• Use a comma near the end of a sentence to separate contrasted coordinate elements or to indicate a distinct pause or shift.

• Use commas to set off phrases at the end of the sentence that refer back to the beginning or middle of the sentence. Such phrases are free modifiers that can be placed anywhere in the sentence without causing confusion.

• Use commas to set off all geographical names, items in dates (except the month and day), addresses (except the street number and name), and titles in names.

• Use a comma to shift between the main discourse and a quotation.

Punctuation I""i27"

• Use commas wherever necessary to prevent possible confusion or misreading.

Extended Rules for Using Commas

Comma Use

1. Use commas to separate independent clauses when they are joined by any of these seven coordinating conjunctions: and, but, for, or, nor, so, yet.

The game was over, but the crowd refused to leave. The student explained her question, yet the instructor

still didn't seem to understand. Yesterday was her brother's birthday, so she took him

out to dinner. 2. Use commas after introductory a) clauses, b)

phrases, or c) words that come before the main clause. - Common starter words for introductory clauses

that should be followed by a comma include after, although, as, because, if, since, when, while.

While I was eating, the cat scratched at the door. Because her alarm clock was broken, she was late for

class. If you are ill, you ought to see a doctor. When the snow stops falling, we'll shovel the driveway. However, don't put a comma after the main clause

when a dependent (subordinate) clause follows it (except for cases of extreme contrast).

Incorrect: She was late for class, because her alarm clock was broken.

Incorrect: The cat scratched at the door, while I was eating.

Correct: She was still quite upset, although she had won the Oscar. (this comma use is correct because it is an example of extreme contrast)

• Common introductory phrases that should be followed by a comma include participial and

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infinitive phrases, absolute phrases, nonessential appositive phrases, and long prepositivnal phrases (over four words).

Having finished the test, he left the room. To get a seat, you'd better come early. After the test but before lunch, I went jogging. The sun radiating intense heat, we sought shelter in the

cafe. - Common introductory words that should be

followed by a comma include yes, however, well. Well, perhaps he meant no harm. Yes, the package should arrive tomorrow morning. However, you may not be satisfied with the results. 3. Use a pair of commas in the middle of a sentence

to set off clauses, phrases, and words that are not essential to the meaning of the sentence. Use one comma before to indicate the beginning of the pause and one at the end to indicate the end of the pause.

Here are some clues to help you decide whether the sentence element is essential:

• If you leave out the clause, phrase, or word, does the sentence still make sense?

• Does the clause, phrase, or word interrupt the flow of words in the original sentence?

• If you move the element to a different position in the sentence, does the sentence still make sense?

If you answer "yes" to one or more of these questions, then the element in question is nonessential and should be set off with commas. Here are some example sentences with nonessential elements:

Clause: That Tuesday, which happens to be my birthday, is the only day when I am available to meet.

Phrase: This restaurant has an exciting atmosphere. The food, on the other hand, is rather bland.

Word: I appreciate your hard work. In this case, however, you seem to have over-exerted yourself.

PU1lctuation ri29 4. Do not use commas to set off essential elements of

the sentence, such as clauses beginning with that (relative clauses). That clauses after nouns are always essential. That clauses following a verb expressing mental action are always essential.

That clauses after nouns: The book that I borrowed from you is excellent. The apples that fell out of the basket are bruised.

That clauses following a verb expressing mental action: She believes that she will be able to earn an A. He is dreaming that he can fly. I contend that it was wrong to mislead her. They wished that warm weather would finally arrive. Examples of other essential elements (no commas): Students who cheat only harm themselves.

The baby wearing a yellow jumpsuit is my niece. The candidate who had the least money lost the election. Examples of nonessential elements (set off by commas): Fred, who often cheats, is just harming himself.

My niece, wearing a yellow jumpsuit, is playing in the living room.

The Green party candidate, who had the least money, lost the election.

Apples, which are my favourite fruit, are the main ingredient in this recipe.

Professor Benson, grinning from ear to ear, announced that the exam would be tomorrow.

Tom, the captain of the team, was injured in the game. It is up to you, Jane, to finish. She was, however, too tired to make the trip. Two hundred dollars, I think, is sufficient. 5. Use commas to separate three or more words,

phrases, or clauses written in a series.

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The Constitution establishes the legislative, executive, and judicial branches of government. The candidate promised to lower taxes, protect the environment, reduce crime, and end unemployment.

The prosecutor argued that the defendant, who was at the scene of the crime, who had a strong revenge motive, and who had access to the murder weapon, was guilty of homicide.

6. Use commas to separate two or more coordinate adjectives that describe the same noun. Be sure never to add an extra comma between the final adjective and the noun itself or to use commas with non-coordinate adjectives.

Coordinate adjectives are adjectives with equal (" co" -ordinate) status in describing the noun; neither adjective is subordinate to the other. You can decide if two adjectives in a row are coordinate by asking the following questions:

• Does the sentence make sense if the adjectives are written in reverse order?

• Does the sentence make sense if the adjectives are written with and between them?

If you answer yes to these questions, then the adjectives are coordinate and should be separated by a comma. Here are some examples of coordinate and non-coordinate adjectives:

He was a difficult, stubborn child. (coordinate) They lived in a white frame house. (non-coordinate) She often wore a gray wool shawl. (non-coordinate) Your cousin has an easy, happy smile. (coordinate) The 1) relentless, 2) powerful 3) summer sun beat down

on them. (1-2 are coordinate; 2-3 are non-coordinate.) The 1) relentless, 2) powerful, 3) oppressive sun beat

down on them. (Both 1-2 and 2-3 are coordinate.) 7. Use a comma near the end of a sentence to separate

contrasted coordinate elements or to indicate a distinct pause or shift.

He was merely ignorant, not stupid. The chimpanzee seemed reflective, almost human. You're one of the senator's close friends, aren't you?

Punctuatioll f131

The speaker seemed innocent, even gullible. 8. Use commas to set off phrases at the end of the

sentence that refer back to the beginning or middle of the sentence. Such phrases are free modifiers that can be placed anywhere in the sentence without causing confusion. (If the placement of the modifier causes confusion, then it is not "free" and must remain "bound" to the word it modifies.)

Nancy waved enthusiastically at the docking ship, laughing joyously. (correct)

Incorrect:Lisa waved at Nancy, laughing joyously. (Who is laughing, Lisa or Nancy?)

Laughing joyously, Lisa waved at Nancy. (correct) Lisa waved at Nancy, who was laughing joyously.

(correct) 9. Use commas to set off all geographical names,

items in dates (except the month and day), addresses (except the street number and name), and titles in names.

Birmingham, Alabama, gets its name from Birmingham, England.

July 22, 1959, was a momentous day in his life. Who lives at 1600 Pennsylvania Avenue, Washington,

DC? Rachel B. Lake, MD, will be the principal speaker. (When you use just the month and the year, no C0mma is

necessary after the month or year: "The average temperatures for July 1998 are the highest on record for that month.")

10. Use a comma to shift between the main discourse and a quotation.

John said without emotion, "1'11 see you tomorrow." "I was able," she answered, lito complete the

assignment." In 1848, Marx wrote, "Workers of the world, unite!" 11. Use commas wherever necessary to prevent

possible confusion or misreading. To George,Harrison had been a sort of idol.

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Comma Abuse

Commas in the wrong places can break a sentence into illogical segments or confuse readers with unnecessary and unexpected pauses.

12. Don't use a comma to separate the subject from the verb.

Incorrect:An eighteen-year old in California, is now considered an adult.

Incorrect:The most important attribute of a ball player, is quick reflex actions.

13. Don't put a comma between the two verbs or verb phrases in a compound predicate.

Incorrect:We laid out our music and snacks, and began to study.

Incorrect:I turned the corner, and ran smack into a patrol car.

14. Don't put a comma between the two nouns, noun phrases, or noun clauses in a compound subject or compound object.

Incorrect (compound subject):The music teacher from your high school, and the football coach from mine are married.

Incorrect (compound object):Je££ told me that the job was still available, and that the manager wanted to interview me.

15. Don't put a comma after the main clause when a dependent (subordinate) clause follows it (except for cases of extreme contrast).

Incorrect (extreme contrast):She was late for class, because her alarm clock was broken. (incorrect)

Incorrect:The cat scratched at the door, while I was eating. Incorrect:She was still quite upset, although she had

won the Oscar.

Commas After Introductions

Introductory Clauses

Introductory clauses are dependent clauses that provide

PUllctuatiml f133" background information or "set the stage" for the main part of the sentence, the independent clause. For example:

If they want to win, athletes must exercise every day. (introductory dependent clause, main clause)

Because he kept barking insistently, we threw the ball for Smokey. (introductory dependent clause, main clause)

Introductory clauses start with adverbs like after, although, as, because, before, if, since, though, until, when, etc.

Introductory Phrases

Introductory phrases also set the stage for the main action of the sentence, but they are not complete clauses. Phrases don't have both a subject and a verb that are separate from the subject and verb in the main clause of the sentence. Common introductory phrases include prepositional phrases, appositive phrases, participial phrases, infinitive phrases, and absolute phrases.

To stay in shape for competition, athletes must exercise every day. (introductory infinitive phrase, main clause)

Barking insistently, Smokey got us to throw his ball for him. (introductory participial phrase, main clause)

A popular and well respected mayor, Bailey was the clear favourite in the campaign for governor. (introductory appositive phrase, main clause)

The wind blowing violently, the townspeople began to seek shelter. (introductory absolute phrase, main clause)

After the adjustment for inflation, real wages have decreased while corporate profits have grown. (introductory prepositional phrases, main clause)

Introductory Words

Introductory words like however, still, furthermore, and meanwhile create continuity from one sentence to the next.

The coaches reviewed the game strategy. Meanwhile, the athletes trained on the Nautilus equipment.

Most of the evidence seemed convincing. Still, the credibility of some witnesses was in question.

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When to Use a Comma Introductory elements often require a comma, but not

always. Use a comma in the following cases: • After an introductory clause. (Does the

introductory element have a subject and verb of its own?)

• After a long introductory prepositional phrase or more than one introductory prepositional phrase. (Are there more than five words before the main clause?)

• After introductory verbal phrases, some appositive phrases, or absolute phrases.

• If there is a distinct pause. (When you read the sentence aloud, do you find your voice pausing a moment after the introductory element?) to avoid confusion. (Might a reader have to read the sentence more than once to make sense of it?)

When Not to Use a Comma Some introductory elements don't require a comma,

and sometimes the subject of a sentence looks like an introductory element but isn't. Do not use a comma in the following cases:

• After a brief prepositional phrase. (Is it a single phrase of less than five words?)

• After a restrictive (essential) appositive phrase. (See our document on appositives.)

• To separate the subject from the predicate. (See below.)

Each of the following sentences may look like it requires a comma after the opening segment (marked with an x), but the opening segment is really the subject. It's sometimes easy to confuse gerund- or infinitive-phrase subjects like the following with nonessential introductory phrases, so be careful.

Preparing and submitting his report to the committee for evaluation and possible publication[x] was one of the most difficult tasks Bill had ever attempted.

Punctuation ms To start a new business without doing market research

and long-term planning in advance[x] would be foolish. Extracting the most profit for the least expenditure on

labour and materials[x] is the primary goal of a capitalist.

Commas with Nonessential Elements Some modifying elements of a sentence are essential,

restricting the meaning of a modified term, while others are nonessential and don't restrict the modified term's meaning. These nonessential elements, which can be words, phrases, or clauses, are set off with commas.

Rule: Use commas before and after nonessentiill words, phrases, and clauses, that is, elements embedded in the sentence that interrupt it without changing the essential meaning.

If you leave out the element or put it somewhere else in the sentence, does the essential meaning of the sentence change? If so, the element is essential; if not, it is nonessential.

Nonessential: The average world temperature, however, has continued to rise significantly. (word)

Essential: The sixth-century philosopher Boethius was arrested, tortured, and bludgeoned to death. (word)

Nonessential: Company managers, seeking higher profits, hired temporary workers to replace full-time staff. (phrase)

Essential: The person checking tickets at the counter asked for a form of identification. (phrase)

Nonessential: My uncle, who is eighty years old, walks three miles every day. (clause)

Essential: The woman who interviewed you is my sister. (clause)

Proofreading for Commas

Compound Sentence Commas

• Skim your paper, looking only for the seven coordinating conjunctions: and, nor, but, so, for, or, and yet.

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• Stop at each of these words to see whether there is an independent clause (a complete sentence), on both sides of it. (For more help, see our handout on independent clauses.)

• If so, place a comma before the coordinating conjunction. Examples:

She wanted to buy a new car, but she didn't have enough money to do so.

The wind blew fiercely, and the rain poured down. Alaska was not the last state admitted into the US, nor

does it have the lowest total population.

Comma Splices • Skim your paper, stopping at every comma. • See whether you have an independent clause (a

sentence) on both sides of the comma. • If so, change the sentence in one of the following

ways: - reword the sentence to change one clause into

a subordinate (or dependent) clause (see our handout on dependent clauses)

- add a coordinating conjunction after the comma - replace the comma with a semicolon - replace the comma with a period, question

mark, or exclamation point, and capitalize the first word of the second clause

Comma Splice: Americans speak too rapidly, this is a common complaint by foreign visitors.

correct: Americans speak too rapidly; this is a common complaint by foreign visitors.

correct: Foreign visitors commonly complain that Americans speak too rapidly.

Introductory Commas

Introductory Commas after Dependent Clauses

• Skim your paper, looking only at the first two or three words of each sentence.

Punctuation Ii3'7"

• Stop if one of these words is a dependent marker such as while, because, when, if, after, when, etc. (see our Commas After Introductions).

• If necessary, place a comma at the end of the introductory dependent clause. Examples:

While I was writing, the phone rang. Because the weather was bad, we decided to cancel our

planned picnic. After the last guests left the party, we had to begin

cleaning the house. Other Introductory Commas

• Skim your paper, looking only at the first word or two of each sentence.

• Stop if the word or phrase ... - ends in -ing - is an infinitive (to + verb) - is an introductory word (well, yes, moreover, etc.)

• Place a comma at the end of the introductory phrase. Examples:

To get a good grade, you must turn in all your homework problems.

Walking to work, Jim stopped for coffee at the diner. Yes, I agree that the exam was difficult. • If the sentence begins with a prepositional phrase

(a phrase beginning with in, at, on, between, with, etc.), place a comma after the prepositional phrase if it is longer than three words or suggests a distinct pause before the main clause. Examples:

On his way to work, Jim stopped for coffee at the diner. In those days we wrote with a pen and paper. Across the street from the library, an old man waited

for a bus.

Disruptive Commas

General Guidelines

• Go through the paper, stopping at each comma.

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• If the comma isn't necessary for clarity or called for by a rule, get rid of it.

For Disruptive Commas Between Compound Verbs or Objects

• Skim your paper, stopping only at the coordinating conjunctions: and, or, nor, but, su, for, or, and yet.

• Check to see whether there is an independent clause (sentence) on both sides of the conjunction. If so, place a comma before the conjunction. If not, do not place a comma before the conjunction.

Disruptive comma: They bought two pizzas, but ate only one.

Correct: They bought two pizzas but ate only one.

For Disruptive Commas Between Subjects and Verbs

• Find the subject and verb in each of your sentences. • Make sure that you have not separated the subject

from the verb with one comma. It's often all right to have a pair of commas between a subject and verb for nonessential clauses and phrases that might be added there, but rarely is a single comma acceptable.

Disruptive comma: That man sitting in the train station, is the person I'm supposed to meet.

Correct: That man sitting in the train station is the person I'm supposed to meet.

Series Commas

• Skim your paper, stopping at the conjunctions. • Check to see if these conjunctions link words,

phrases, or clauses written in a series. • If so, place commas after each word, phrase, or

clause in the series (except the last one, as demonstrated in this sentence: no comma after the word clause). Examples:

Punctuation ~

People who are trying to reduce saturated fat in their diets should avoid eggs, meat, and tropical oils.

The candidate promised to lower taxes, protect the environment, reduce crime, and end unemployment.

Commas with Nonessential Elements

• Skim your paper, looking for a phrase or clause in each sentence that explains or gives more information about a word or phrase that comes before it.

• If you can delete the phrase or clause and still keep the meaning, the phrase or clause is probably nonessential and needs two commas, one before and one after (unless the phrase or clause is at the end of the sentence).

• As an alternate test for a nonessential phrase or clause, try saying "by the way" before it. If that seems appropriate to the meaning, the phrase or clause is probably nonessential. To understand the essential vs. nonessential distinction, compare the following sentences. In the first, the clause who cheat is essential; in the second, the clause who often cheats is nonessen tial.

Students who cheat only harm themselves. Fred, who often cheats, is just harming himself.

THE SEMICOLON

The Semicolon marks a slighter connection than the comma. It is generally confined to separating the parts of compound sentences. It is much used in contrasts:

• "Gladstone was great as a statesman; he was sublime as a man."

• The Semicolon is used between the parts of all compound sentences in which the grammatical subject of the second part is different from that of the first: "The power of England relies upon the

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wisdom of her statesmen; the power of America upon the strength of her army and navy."

• The Semicolon is used before words and abbreviations which introduce particulars or specifications following after, such as, namely, as, e.g., vid., i.e., etc.: "He had three defects; namely, carelessness, lack of concentration and obstinacy in his ideas." "An island is a portion of land entirely surrounded by water; as Cuba." "The names of cities should always commence with a capital letter; e.g., New York, Paris." "The boy was proficient in ·one branch; viz., Mathematics." "No man is perfect; i.e., free from all blelllish."

COMMAS VS. SEMICOLONS IN COMPOUND SENTENCES

A group of words containing a subject and a verb and expressing a complete thought is called a sentence or an independent clause.

Sometimes, an independent clause stands alone as a sentence, and sometimes two independent clauses are linked together into what is called a compound sentence. Depending on the circumstances, one of two different punctuation marks can be used between the independent clauses in a compound sentence: a comma or a semicolon. The choice is yours.

Comma (,)

Use a comma after the first independent clause when you link two independent clauses with one of the following coordinating conjunctions: and, but, for, or, nor, so, yet. For example:

I am going home, and I intend to stay there. It rained heavily during the afternoon, but we managed

to have our picnic anyway. They couldn't make it to the summit and back before

dark, so they decided to camp for the night.

Punctuation ~

Semicolon (;)

Use a semicolon when you link two independent clauses with no connecting words. For example:

I am going home; I intend to stay there. It rained heavily during the afternoon; we managed to

have our picnic anyway. They couldn't make it to the summit and back before

dark; they decided to camp for the night. You can also use a semicolon when you join two

independent clauses together with one of the following conjunctive adverbs (adverbs that join independent clauses): however, moreover, therefore, consequently, otherwise, nevertheless, thus, etc. For example:

- I am going home; moreover, I intend to stay there. It rained heavily during the afternoon; however, we

managed to have our picnic anyway. They couldn't make it to the summit and back before

dark; therefore, they decided to camp .for the :night.

THE COl,ON

The Colon except in conventional uses is practically obsolete. ~

• It is generally put at the end of a' sentence introducing a long quotation: "The cheers having subsided, Mr. Bryan spoke as follows:71

:

• It is placed before an explanation or illustration of the subject under consideration: "This is the meaning of the term:"

• A direct quotation formally introduced is generally preceded by a colon: "The great orator made this funny remark:"

• The colon is often used in the title of books when the secondary or subtitle is in apposition to the leading one and when the conjunction or is omitted: "Acoustics: the Science of Sound."

• It is used after the salutation in the beginning of letters: "Sir: My dear Sir: Gentlemen: Dear Mr.

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Jones:" etc. In this connection a dash very often follows the colon.

• It is sometimes used to introduce details of a group of things already referred to in the mass: "The boy's excuses for being late were: firstly, he did not know the time, secondly, he was sent on an errand, thirdly, he tripped on a rock and fell by the wayside."

Use a COLON

1. Before formally introducing a list (* An independent clause must precede the colon.)

Examples: I ordered the following supplies: potatoes, sugar, flour,

eggs, and coffee. I ordered these supplies: potatoes, sugar, flour, eggs,

and coffee. Theories which try to explain the secrets of fire walking

fall into three categories: physical, psychological, and religious.

Inco"ect I ordered: potatoes, sugar, flour, eggs, and coffee. On a long ocean voyage be sure to take along: plenty

of books, a deck of cards, a chess set, and a warm blanket. 2. Between two independent clauses when the second

explains or expands the first Examples: The leaders made the final decision: the (The)

earthquake victims would receive food and medical supplies.

The sign was all too clear: "Do not swim in this area." Here is our honest opinion: we (We) think you are a

genius. 3. Before a formal appositive (*An independent clause

, must precede the colon) Example: The reaction of the audience signified one over­

whelming feeling: anger.

Punctuation rl43 Incorrect The reaction of the audience signified: anger. 4. Between hour and minute / chapter and verse

(Bible) Examples: At 4:01 p.m. the doors will be opened to the public. You will find those words in Genesis 1: 14-17.

THE 'PERIOD', 'FULL STOP' OR 'POINT'

The Period is the simplest punctuation mark. It is simply used to mark the end of a complete sentence that is neither interrogative nor exclamatory.

• After every sentence conveying a complete meaning: "Birds fly." "Plants grow." "Man is mortal."

• In abbreviations: after every abbreviated word: Rt. Rev. T. C. Alexander, D.D., L.L.D.

• A period is used on the title pages of books after the name of the book, after the author's name, after the publisher's imprint: American Trails. By Theodore Roosevelt. New York. Scribner Company.

The period (known as a full stop in British English) is probably the simplest of the punctuation marks to use.

You use it like a knife to cut the sentences to the required length. Generally, you can break up the sentences using the full stop at the end of a logical and complete thought that looks and sounds right to you. Use the full stop

1. To mark the end of a sentence which is not a question or an exclamation. (a) Rome is the capital of Italy. (b)1 was born in Australia and now live in

Indonesia. (c) The Dalai Lama is the spiritual leader of the

Tibetan people. 2. To indicate an abbreviation

(a) I will be in between 6 a.m. and 7 p.m.

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Note: Dr and Mr and Mrs and Ms do not take a full stop nor do most abbreviations taken from the first capital letters such as MA Phd CNN.

3. Special case - three dots Often you will see a sentence concluding with three

dots. This indicates that only part of the sentence or text has been quoted or that it is being left up to the reader to complete the rest of the sentence.

(a) The Lord's Prayer begins, 'Our Father which are in Heaven ... '

3. Fullstop after a single word Sometimes a single word can form the sentence. In this

case you place a fullstop after the word as you would in any other sentence.

(a "Goodbye." (b) "Hello."

Note: This is often the case when the subject is understood as in a greeting or a command such as "Stop."

THE MARK OF INTERROGATION

The Mark of Interrogation is used to ask or suggest a question.

• Every question admitting of an answer, even when it is not expected, should be followed by the mark of interrogation: "Who has not heard of Napoleon?"

• When several questions have a common dependence they should be followed by one mark of interrogation at the end of the series: "Where now are the playthings and friends of my boyhood; the laughing boys; the winsome girls; the fond neighbors whom I loved?"

• The mark is often used parenthetically to suggest doubt: "In 1893 (?) Gladstone became converted to Home Rule for Ireland."

Use the Question Mark

1. At the end of all direct questions

(a) What is your name? (b) Do you speak Italian? (c) You're Spanish, aren't you?

Punctuation 1145

2. Do not use the question mark for reported questions (a) He asked me what my name was. (b) She asked if I was Spanish. (c) Ask them where they are going.

General Notes

1. Don't forget to place a question mark at the end of long sentences that contain a question (a) Isn't it true that global warming is responsible

for more and more problems which are having a disastrous effect on the world's climate and leading to many millions of people in countries that can least afford it having to contend with more and more hardship?

2. Sometimes a question mark can be placed within a sentence (a) There is cause for concern - isn't there? - that the

current world economic balance is so fragile that it may lead to a global economic downturn.

THE EXCLAMATION MARK

The Exclamation point should be sparingly used, particularly in prose. Its chief use is to denote emotion of some kind.

• It is generally employed with interjections 'or clauses used as interjections: II Alas! I am forsaken." "What a lovely landscape!"

• Expressions of strong emotion call for the exclamation: "Charge, Chester, charge! On, Stanley, on!"

• When the emotion is very strong double exclamation points may be used: II Assist him!! I would rather assist Satan!!"

The exclamation mark is used to express exasperation,

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astonishment or surprise or to emphasise a comment or short, sharp phrase.

For example: • Help! Help! • That's unbelievable! • Get out! • Look out! You can also use it to mark a phrase as humourous,

ironic or sarcastic. • What a lovely day! (when it obviously is not a

lovely day) • That was clever! (when someone has done

something stupid) Some general remarks: - Don't overuse the exclamation mark - Don't incltlde a series of exclamation marks. e.g. I'll never get it right!!!!

HYPHENS AND DASHES

A hyphen joins two or more words together (e.g. x-ray, door-to-door) while a dash separates words into parenthetical statements (e.g. She was trapped - no escape was possible.

Hyphens

Generally, hyphens are used to avoid confusion or ambiguity but today most words that have been hyphenated quite quickly drop the hyphen and become a single word (e.g. e-mail and email, now-a-days and nowadays). In many cases though a hyphen does make the sense clear:

• I am thinking of re-covering my sofa (to put a new cover on it)

• I would like to recover my sofa. (perhaps from someone who has borrowed it as this means I to get it back')

Hyphens and Numbers

1. Use a hyphen with compound numbers from twenty-one to ninety-nine.

Punctuation rw-• fifty-one • eighty-nine • thirty-two • sixty-five • eighty-one 2. In written fractions place a hyphen between the

numerator and denominator. • two-fifths • one-third • three-tenth • nine-hundredth [Exception] if there is already a hyphen in either~the

numerator or the denominator, you omit the hyphen between the numerator and denominator.

• sixty-nine eighty-ninths (not 'sixty-nine-eighty­ninths')

• twenty-two thirty-thirds 3. Use a hyphen when the number forms part of an

adjectival compund: • France has a 35-hour working week. • He won the IOO-metre sprint. • Charles Dickens was a great nineteenth-century

novelist.

Usage

Consult your dictionary if you are not sure but remember that current usage may be more up-to-date (not uptodate ... yet!) than your dictionary.

There are some cases where hyphens prese.rve written clarity such as where there are letter collisions (co-operate, bell-like) or where a prefix is added (anti-nuclear, post­colonial), or in family relations (great-grandmother, son-in­law.)

Hyphen Use

Two words brought together as a compound may be written separately, written as one word, or connected by

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hyphens. For example, three modem dictionaries all have the same listings for the following compounds:

hair stylist hairsp litter hair-raiser

Another "modem dictionary, however, lists hairstylist, not hair stylist.

Compounding is obviously in a state of flux, and authorities do not always agree in all cases, but the uses of the hyphen offered here are generally agreed upon.

1. Use a hyphen to join two or more words serving as a single adjective before a noun: a one-way street chocolate-covered peanuts well-known author

However, when compound modifiers come after a noun, they are not hyphenated:

The peanuts were chocolate covered. The author was well known.

2. Use a hyphen with compound numbers: forty-six sixty-three Our much-loved teacher was sixty-three years old.

3. Use a hyphen to avoid confusion or an awkward combination of letters: re-sign a petition (vs. resign from a job) semi-independent (but semiconscious) shell-like (but childlike)

4. Use a hyphen with the prefixes ex- (meaning former), self-, a11-; with the suffix -elect; between a prefix and a capitalized word; and with figures or letters: ex-husband self-assured mid-September all-inclusive mayor-elect

anti-American T-shirt pre-Civil War mid-1980s

Punctuation ~

5. Use a hyphen to divide words at the end of a line if necessary, and make the break only between syllables: pref-er-ence sell-ing in-di-vid-u-al-ist

6. For line breaks, divide already hyphenated words only at the hyphen: mass-produced self-conscious

7. For line breaks in words ending in -ing, if a single final consonant in the root word is doubled before the suffix, hyphenate between the consonants; otherwise, hyphenate at the suffix itself: plan-ning run-ning driv-ing call-ing

8. Never put the first or last letter of a word at the end or beginning of a line, and don't put two-letter suffixes at the beginning of a new line: lovely (Do not separate to leave ly beginning a new line.)evaluate (Separate only on either side of the u; do not leave the initial e- at the end of a line.)

DASHES

Dashes can be used to add parenthetical statements in much the same way as you would use brackets. In formal writing you should use the bracket rather than the dash as a dash is considered less formal !n most cases.

However, they should not be overused nor used to

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. replace commas although they can be used to create emphasis in a sentence.

For Example

You may think she is a liar - she isn't. The Dash is generally confined to cases where there is

a sudden break from the general run of the passage. Of all the punctuation marks it is the most misused.

• It is employed to denote sudden change in the construction or sentiment: "The Heroes of the Civil War,-how we cherish them." "He was a fine fellow - in his own opinion."

• When a word or expression is repeated for oratorical effect, a dash is used to introduce the repetition: "Shakespeare was the greatest of all poets-Shakespeare, the intellectual ocean whose waves washed the continents of all thought."

• The Dash is used to indicate a conclusion without expressing it: "He is an excellent man but-"

• It is used to indicate what is not expected or what is not the natural outcome of what has gone before: "He delved deep into the bowels of the earth and found instead of the hidden treasure-a button."

• It is used to denote the omission of letters or figures: "J-n J-s for John Jones; 1908-9 for 1908 and 1909; Matthew VII:5-8 for Matthew VII:5, 6, 7, and 8.

• When an ellipsis of the words, namely, that is, to wit, etc., takes place, the dash is used to supply them: "He excelled in three branches-arithmetic, algebra, and geometry."

• A dash is used to denote the omission of part of a word when it is undesirable to write the full word: He is somewhat of a r- -1 (rass:al). This is especially the case in profane words.

• Between a citation and the authority for it there is generally a dash: "All the world's a stage."­Shakespeare.

Punctuation Ii51"

• When questions and answers are put in the same paragraph they should be separated by dashes: II Are you a good boy? Yes, Sir. - Do you love study? I do."

MARKS OF PARENTHESES

Marks of Parenthesis are used to separate expressions inserted in the body of a sentence, which are illustrative of the meaning, but have no essential connection with the sentence, and could be done without. They should be used as little as possible for they show that something is being brought into a sentence that does not belong to it.

• When the unity of a sentence is broken the words causing the break should be enclosed in parenthesis: "We cannot believe a liar (and Jones is one), even when he speaks the truth."

• In reports of speeches marks of parenthesis are used to denote interpolations of approval or disapproval by the audience: "The masses must not submit to the tyranny of the classes (hear, hear), we must show the trust magnates (groans), that they cannot ride rough-shod over our dearest rights (cheers);" "If the gentleman from Ohio (Mr. Brown), will not be our spokesman, we must select another. (A voice,-Get Robinson)."

When a parenthesis is inserted in the sentence whe (e no comma is required, no point should be used before either parenthesis. When inserted at a place requiring a comma, if the parenthetical matter relates to the whole sentence, a comma should be used before each parenthesis; if it relates to a single word, or short clause, no stop should come before it, but a comma should be put after the closing parenthesis.

BRACKETS AND PARENTHESES

The difference between a 'bracket' and a 'parentheses' can be a bit confusing.

Generally, parentheses refers to round brackets 0 and

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brackets to square brackets []. However, we are more and more used to hearing these refered to simply as 'round brackets' or 'square brackets'.

Usually we use square brackets - [ ] - for special purposes such as in technical manuals. Round brackets - ( ) -, or 'parentheses' are used in a similar way to commas when we want to add further explanation, an afterthought, or comment that is to do with our main line of thought but distinct from it. Many grammarians feehhat the parentheses can, in fact, be replaced by commas in nearly all cases.

For example: • further explanation - The government's education

report (April 2005) shows that the level of literacy is rising in nearly an areas.

• comment - I visited Kathmandu (which was full of tourists) on my way to the Himalayas for a trekking expedition.

• afterthought - You can eat almost anything while travelling in Asia if you are careful to observe simple rules (avoiding unboiled or unbottled water is one of the main rules to be aware of.)

THE QUOTATION MARKS

The Quotation marks are used to show that the words enclosed by them are borrowed.

• A direct quotation should be enclosed within the quotation marks: Abraham Lincoln said,-"I shall make this land too hot for the feet of slaves."

• When a quotation is embraced within another, the contained quotation has only single marks: Franklin said, "Most men come to believe 'honesty is the best policy.'"

• When a quotation consists of several paragraphs the quotation marks should precede each paragraph.

• Titles of books, pictures and newspapers when formally given are quoted.

Punctuation rts3

• Often the names of ships are quoted though there is no occasion for it.

Using Quotation Marks

The primary function of quotation marks is to set off and represent exact language (either spoken or written) that has come from somebody else. The quotation mark is also used to designate speech acts in fiction and sometimes poetry. Since you will most often use them when working with outside sources, successful use of quotation marks is a practical defence against accidental plagiarism and an excellent practice in academic honesty. The following rules of quotation mark use are the standard in the United States, although it may be of interest that usage rules for this punctuation do vary in other countries.

The following covers the basic use of quotation marks. For details and exceptions consult the separate sections of this guide.

Direct Quotations

Direct quotations involve incorporating another person's exact words into your own writing.

• Quotation marks always come in pairs. Do not open a quotation and fail to close it at the end of the quoted material

• Capitalize the first letter of a direct quote when the quoted material is a complete sentence. Mr. Johnson, who was working in his field that morning, said, "The alien spaceship appeared right before my own two eyes."

• Do not use a capital letter when the quoted material is a fragment or only a piece of the. original material's complete sentence. Although Mr. Johnson has seen odd happenings on the farm, he stated that the spaceship "certainly takes the cake" when it comes to unexplainable activity.

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• If a direct quotation is interrupted mid-sentence, do not capitalize the second part of the quotation. "I didn't see an actual alien being," Mr. Johnson said, "but I sure wish I had."

• In all the examples, note how the period or comma punctuation always comes before the' final quotation mark. It is important to also realise that when you are using MLA or some other form of documentation, this punctuation rule may change.

When quoting text with a spelling or grammar error, you should transcribe the error exactly in your own text. However, also insert the term sic in italics directly after the mistake, and enclose it in brackets. Sic is from the Latin, and translates to "thus," "so," or "just as that." The word tells the reader that your quote is an exact reproduction of what you found, and the error is not your own.

Mr. Johnson says of the experience, "it's made me reconsider the existence of extraterestials [sic]."

• Quotations are most effective if you use them sparingly and keep them relatively short. Too many quotations in a research paper will get you .accused of not producing original thought or material (they may also bore a reader who wants to know primarily what YOU have to say on the subject).

Indirect Quotations

Indirect quotations are not exact wordings but rather rephrasings or summaries of another person's words. In this case, it is not necessary to use quotation marks. However, indirect quotations still require proper citations, and you will be commiting plagiarism if you fail to do so.

Mr. Johnson, a local farmer, reported last night that he saw an alien spaceship on his own property.

Many writers struggle with when to use direct quotations versus indirect quotations. Use the following tips to guide you in your choice.

Punctuation Ii55

Use direct quotations when the source material uses language that is particularly striking or notable. Do not rob such language of its power by altering it.

Martin Luther King Jr. believed that the end of slavery was important and of great hope to millions of slaves done horribly wrong.

The above should never stand in for: 'Martin Luther King Jr. said of the Emancipation

Proclamation, "This momentous decree came as a great beacon light of hope to millions of Negro slaves who had been seared in the flames of withering injustice."

Use an indirect quotation (or paraphrase) when you merely need to summarize key incidents or details of the text.

Use direct quotations when the author you are quoting has coined a term unique to their research and relevant within your own paper.

When to use direct quotes versus indirect quotes is ultimately a choice you'll learn a feeling for with experience. However, always try to have a sense for why you've chosen your quote. In other words, never put quotes in your paper simply because your teacher says, "You must use quotes."

Extended Rules for Using Quotation Marks

Altering the Source Material in a Quotation

The responsibility of representing other people's words accurately lies firmly on the shoulders of the author. Inaccurate quotes not only defeat the purpose of using a quote, they may also constitute plagiarism. However, there are approved methods for altering quotes for either clarity or succinctness.

Quote Length

If the original quote is too long and you feel not all the words are necessary in your own paper, you may omit part of the quote. Replace the missing words with an ellipsis.

Original Quote: The quarterback told the reporter, II It' s

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quite simple. They played a better game, scored more points, and that's why we lost."

Omitted Material: The quarterback told the reporter, "It's quite simple. They ... scored more points, and that's why we lost."

Make sure that the words you remove do not alter the basic meaning of the original quote in any way. Also ensure that the quote's integration and missing material still leave a grammatically correct sentence.

Quote Context

If the context of your quote might be unclear, you may add a few words to provide clarity. Enclose the added material in brackets.

Added Material: The quarterback told the reporter, "It's quite simple. They [the other team] played a better game, scored more points, and that's why we lost."

Quotations within a Quotation v

Use single quotation marks to enclose quotes witHin another quotation.

The reporter told me, "When I interviewed the quarterback, he said they simply 'played a better game.'"

Quotation Marks Beyond Quoting

Quotation marks may additionally be used to indicate words used ironically or with some reservation.

The great march of "progress" has left millions impoverished and hungry.

Do not use quotation marks for words used as words themselves. In this case, you should use italics.

The English word nuance comes from a Middle French word meaning "shades of colour."

Additional Punctuation Rules when Using Quotation Marks

Use a comma to introduce a quotation after a standard

Punctuation 1157 dialogue tag, a brief introductory phrase, or a dependant clause.

The detective said, "I am sure who performed the murder."

As D.H. Nachas explains, "The gestures used for greeting others differ greatly from one culture to another."

Put commas and periods within quotation marks, except when a parenthetical reference follows.

He said, "I may forget your name, but I never forget a face."

History is stained with blood spilled in the name of " civilization."

Mullen, criticizing the apparent inaction, writes, "Donahue's policy was to do nothing" (24).

Place colons and semicolons outside closed quotation marks.

Williams described the experiment as "a definitive step forward"; other scientists disagreed.

Benedetto emphasizes three elements of what she calls her "Olympic journey": family support, personal commitment, and great coaching.

Place a question mark or exclamation point within closing quotation marks if the punctuation applies to the quotation itself. Place the punctuation outside the closing quotation marks if the punctuation applies to the whole sentence.

Phillip asked, "Do you need this book?" Does Dr. Lim always say to her students, "You must

work harder"?

Quotation Marks with Fiction, Poetry, and Titles

Block Quotations

You should use a block quotation when the quotation extends more than four typed lines on the page. Although they are allowed in any type of writing, you will likely most often use them when quoting from fiction or literature. A

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block quotation is removed from the main body of your text. Indent one inch from the main margin (the equivalent of two half-inch paragraph indentations) and begin your quote. Maintain double spacing throughout, but you do not need to use quotation marks.

Gatsby experiences a moment of clarity while standing with Daisy on his dock. Fitzgerald writes:

Possibly it had occurred to him that the colossal significance .of that light had now to him vanished forever. Compared to the great distance that had separated him from Daisy it had seemed very near to her, almost touching her. It had seemed as close as a star to the moon. Now it was again a green light on a dock. His count of enchanted objects had diminished by one (98).

Quoting Poetry

When you quote a single line of poetry, write it like any other short quotation. If the piece of poetry you are quoting crosses multiple lines of the poem itself, you may still type them in your text run together. Show the reader where the poem's line breaks fall by using slash marks.

In his poem, "Mending Wall," Robert Frost writes: "Something there is that doesn't love a wall,! that send the frozen-ground-swell under it."

If the quotation is three lines or longer, set it off like a block quotation. Some writers prefer to set off two-line verse quotations for emphasis. Quote the poem line by line as it appears on the original page. Do not use quotation marks, and indent one inch from the left margin.

In his poem "Mending Wall," Robert Frost questions the building of barriers and walls:

Before I built a wall 1'd ask to know What I was walling in or walling out, And to whom I was like to give offense.

Writing Dialogue

Write each person's spoken words, however brief, as a

Punctuation 1159 separate paragraph. Use commas to set off dialogue tags such as "she said" or "he explained." If one person's speech goes on for more than one paragraph, use quotation marks to open the dialogue at the beginning of each paragraph. However, do not use closing quotation marks until the end of the final paragraph where that character is speaking.

Quotation Marks with Titles

Use quotations marks for: • Titles of short or minor works • Songs • Short Stories • Essays • Short Poems • One Act Plays • Other literary works shorter than a three act play

or complete book • T~les of sections from longer works • Chapters in books • Articles in newspapers, magazines, or journals • Episodes of television and radio series Underlining or italics are used for the titles of long

pieces or works that contain smaller sections.

THE APOSTROPHE

The Apostrophe should come under the comma rather than under the quotation marks or double comma. The word is Greek and signifies a turning away from. The letter elided or turned away is generally an e. In poetry and familiar dialogue the apostrophe marks the elision of a syllable, as "I've for I have"; "Thou'rt for thou art"; "you'll for you will," etc. Sometimes it is necessary to abbreviate a word by leaving out several letters. In such case the apostrophe takes the place of the omitted letters as "cont' d for continued."

The apostrophe is used to denote the elision of the century in dates, where the century is understood or to save

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the repetition of a series of figures, as "The Spirit of '763 ; "I served in the army during the years 1895, '96, '97, '98 and '99." The principal use of the apostrophe is to denote the possessive case. All nouns in the singular number whether proper names or not, and all nouns in the plural ending with any other letter than s, form the possessive by the addition of the apostrophe and the letter s. The only exceptions to this rule are, that, by poetical license the additional s may be elided in poetry for sake of the metre, and in the scriptural phrases "For goodness' sake." "For conscience' sake," "For Jesus' sake," etc. Custom has done away with the s and these phrases are now idioms of the language. All plural nouns ending in s form the possessive by the addition of the apostrophe only as boys', horses'. The possessive case of the personal pronouns never take the apostrophe, as ours, yours, hers, theirs.

The apostrophe has three uses: • To form possessives of nouns • To show the omission of letters • To indicate certain plurals of lowercase letters

Forming Possessives of Nouns

To see if you need to make a possessive, turn the phrase around and make it an "of the ... " phrase. For example:

the boy's hat = the hat of the boy three days' journey = journey of three days If the noun after "of" is a building, an object, or a piece

of furniture, then no apostrophe is needed! room of the hotel = hotel room door of the car = car door leg of the table = table leg Once you've determined whether you need to make a

possessive, follow these rules to create one. • add's to the singular form of the word (even if it

ends in -s): the owner's car James's hat (James' hat is also acceptable)

Punctuation [161

• add's to the plural forms that do not end in -s: the children's game the geese's honking

• add' to the end of plural nouns that end in -s: houses' roofs three friends' letters

• add's to the end of compound words: my brother-in-Iaw's money

• add's to the last noun to show joint possession of an object: Todd and Anne's apartment

Showing Omission of letters

Apostrophes are used in contractions. A contraction is a word (or set of numbers) in which one or more letters (or numbers) have been omitted. The apostrophe shows this omission. Contractions are common in speaking and in informal writing. To use an apostrophe to create a contraction, place an apostrophe where the omitted letter(s) would go. Here are some examples:

don't = do not I'm=! am he'll = he will who's = who is shouldn't = should not didn't = did not could've= could have (NOT "could of"!) '60 = 1960

Forming Plurals of lowercase letters

Apostrophes are used to form plurals of letters that appear in lowercase; here the rule appears to be more typographical than grammatical, e.g. "three ps" versus "three p's."

To form the plural of a lowercase letter, place's after the letter. There is no need for apostrophes indicating a plural on capitalized letters, numbers, and symbols (though

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keep in mind that some editors, teachers, and professors still prefer them). Here are some examples:

P's and q's = a phrase taken from the early days of the printing press when letters were set in presses backwards so they would appear on the printed page correctly.

The expression was used commonly to mean, "Be careful, don't make a mistake." Today, the term also indicates maintaining politeness, possibly from "mind your pleases and thankyous."

Nita's mother constantly stressed minding one's p's and q's.

three Macintosh G4s = three of the Macintosh model G4

There are two G4s currently used in the writing classroom.

many & s = many ampersands That printed page has too many & s on it. the 1960s = the years in decade from 1960 to 1969 The 1960s were a time of great social unrest. Don't use apostrophes for possessive pronouns or for

noun plurals. Apostrophes should not be used with possessive

pronouns because possessive pronouns already show possession - they don't need an apostrophe. His, her, its, my, yours, ours are all possessive pronouns. Here are some examples:

• Wrong: his' book

• Correct: his book

• Wrong: The group made it's decision.

• Correct: The group made its decision.

(Note: Its and it's are not the same thing. It's is a contraction for "it is" and its is a possessive pronoun meaning "belonging to it."

It's raining out = it is raining out. A simple way to remember this rule is the fact that

Punctuation f163

you don't use an apostrophe for the possessive his or hers, so don't do it with its!)

• Wrong: a friend of yours' • Correct: a friend of yours • Wrong: She waited for three hours' to get her ticket. • Correct: She waited for three hours to get her ticket.

Proofreading for Apostrophes

A good time to proofread is when you have finished writing the paper. Try the following strategies to proofread for apostrophes:

• If you tend to leave out apostrophes, check every word that ends in -s or-es to see if it needs an apostrophe.

• If you put in too many apostrophes, check every apostrophe to see if you can justify it with a rule for using apostrophes.

BRIEF OVERVIEW OF PUNCTUATION: SEMICOLON, COLON, PARENTHESIS, DASH, QUOTATION MARKS, AND ITALICS

Punctuation marks are signals to your readers. In speaking, we can pause, stop, or change our tone of voice. In writing, we use the following marks of punctuation to emphasize and clarify what we mean.

Semicolon

In addition to using a semicolon to join related independent clauses in compound sentences, you can use a semicolon to separate items in a series if the elements of the series already include commas.

Members of the band include Harold Rostein, clarinetist; Tony Aluppo, tuba player; and Lee Jefferson, trumpeter.

Colon

Use a colon ...

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in the following situations: for example: after a complete statement The daily newspaper contains in order to introduce one or four sections: news, sports, more directly related ideas, entertainment, and classified ads.

such as a series of directions, a list, or a The strategies of corporatist quotation or other industrial unionism have proven comment illustrating or ineffective: compromises and explaining the statement. concessions have left labor in a

weakened position in the new "flexible" economy.

in a business letter greeting. Dear Ms. Winstead:

between the hour and 5:30p.m. minutes in time notation.

between chapter and verse Genesis 1:18 in biblical references.

Parentheses 0 Parentheses are occasionally and sparingly used for

extra, nonessential material included in a sentence. For example, dates, sources, or ideas that are subordinate or tangential to the re!'t of the sentence are set apart in parentheses. Parentheses always appear in pairs.

Before arriving at the station, the old train (someone said it was a relic of frontier days) caught fire.

Dash --

In the Followin~ Situations: FOT Example:

To emphasize a point or to set To some of you, my proposals may off an explanatory comment; seem radical--even revolutionary. but don't overuse dashes, or they will lose their impact. In terms of public legitimation--that is,

in terms of garnering support from state legislators, parents, donors, and universityadministrators--English departments are primarily places where advanced literacy is taught.

For an appositive phrase that The boys--Jim, John, and Jeff--Ieft the already includes commas. party early.

Punctuation ~

As you can see, dashes function in some ways like parentheses (used in pairs to set off a comment within a larger sentence) and in some ways like colons (used to introduce material illustrating or emphasizing the immediately preceding statement). But comments set off with a pair of dashes appear less subordinate to the main sentence than do comments in parentheses. And material introduced after a single dash may be more emphatic and may serve a greater variety of rhetorical purposes than material introduced with a colon.

Quotation Marks" "

Use Quotation Marks . ..

In the following situations: For Example: To enclose direct quotations. Note that He asked, "Will you be there?" commas and periods go inside the closing "Yes," I answered, "I'll look for quotation mark in conventional American you in the foyer." usage; colons and semicolons go outside; and placement of question and exclamation marks depends on the situation (see our quotation marks document).

To indicate words used ironically, with History is stained with blood reservations, or in some unusual way; but spilled in the name of don't overuse quotation marks in this sense, "civilization." or they will lose their impact.

Underlining and Italics

Underlining and italics are not really punctuation, but they are significant textual effects used conventionally in a variety of situations. Before computerized word-processing was widely available, writers would underline certain terms in handwritten or manually typed pages, and the underlining would be replaced by italics in the published version.

Since word processing today allows many options for font faces and textual effects, it is generally recommended that you choose either underlining or italics and use it

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consistently throughout a given document as needed. Because academic papers are manuscripts and not final publications and because italics are not always easily recognized with some fonts, many instructors prefer underlining over italics for course papers. Whichever you choose, italics or underlining should be used ...

III the following situatiolls' For Example: To indIcate tItles of complete or major Faulkner's last novel was The Reivers. works such as magazines, books, newspapers, academIc Journals, hlms, The Simpsons offers hilarious parodies of television programs, long poems, plays of American culture and family life. three or more acts

Foreign words that are not commonly used Wearing blue jeans is de rigueur for most In EnglIsh college students.

words used as words themselves The English word nuance comes from a Middle French word meaning "shades of color."

Words or phrases that you wish to The very founding principles of our nation are eml'hasize at stake!

CAPITAL LETTERS

Capital letters are used to give emphasis to or call attention to certain words to distinguish them from the context. In manuscripts they may be written small or large and are indicated by lines drawn underneath, two lines for SMALL CAPITALS and three lines for CAPITALS.

Some authors, notably Carlyle, make such use of Capitals that it degenerates into an abuse. They should only be used in their proper places as given in the table below.

• The first word of every sentence, in fact the first word in writing of any kind should begin with a capital; as, "Time flies." "My dear friend."

• Every direct quotation should begin with a capital; "Dewey said,-'Fire, when you're ready, Gridley!'"

• Every direct question commences with a capital; "Let me ask you; 'How old are you?'"

• Every line of poetry begins with a capital; "Breathes there a man with soul so dead?"

• Every numbered clause calls for a capital: "The witness asserts: (1) That he saw the man attacked;

Punctuation rw (2) That he saw him fall; (3) That he saw his assailant flee."

• The headings of essays and chapters should be wholly in capitals; as, CHAPTER VIII - RULES FOR USE OF CAPITALS.

• In the titles of books, nouns, pronouns, adjectives and adverbs should begin with a capital; as, "Johnson'S Lives of the Poets."

• In the Roman notation number" are denoted by capitals; as, I II III V X LCD M -I, 2, 3, 5, 10, 50, 100, 500, 1000.

• Proper names begin with a capital; as, "Jones, Johnson, Caesar, Mark Antony, England, Pacific, Christmas."

Such words as river, sea, mountain, etc., when used generally are common, not proper nouns, and require no capital. But when such are used with an adjective or adjunct to specify a particular object they become proper names, and therefore require a capital; as, "Mississippi River, North Sea, Alleghany Mountains," etc. In like manner the cardinal points north, south, east and west, when they are used to distinguish regions of a country are capitals; as, "The North fought against the South."

When a proper name is compounded with another word, the part which is not a proper name begins with a capital if it precedes, but with a small letter if it follows, the hyphen; as "Post-homeric," "Sunday-school."

• Words derived from proper names require a Capital; as, "American, Irish, Christian, Americanize, Christianize."

• This connection the names of political parties, religious sects and schools of thought begin with capitals; as, "Republican, Democrat, Whig, Catholic, Presbyterian, Rationalists, Free Thinkers."

• The titles of honorable, state and political offices begin with a capital; as, "President, Chairman, Governor, Alderman."

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• The abbreviations of learned titles and college degrees call for capitals; as, "LL.D., M.A., B.s.," etc. Also the seats of learning conferring such degrees as, "Harvard University, Manhattan College," etc.

• When such relative words as father, mother, brother, sister, uncle, aunt, etc., precede a proper name, they are written and printed with capitals; as, Father Abraham, Mother Eddy, Brother John, Sister Jane, Uncle Jacob, Aunt Eliza. Father, when used to denote the early Christian writer, is begun with a capital; "Augustine was one of the learned Fathers of the Church."

• The names applied to the Supreme Being begin with capitals: "God, Lord, Creator, Providence, Almighty, The Deity, Heavenly Father, Holy One." In this respect the names applied to the Saviour also require capitals: "Jesus Christ, Son of God, Man of Gplilee, Tpe Crucified, The Anointed One." Also the designations of Biblical characters as "Lily of Israel, Rose of Sharon, Comfortress of the Afflicted, Help of Christians, Prince of the Apostles, Star of the Sea," etc. Pronouns referring to God and Christ take capitals; as, "His work, The work of Him, etc."

• Expressions ;used to designate the Bible or any particular division of it begin with a capital; as, "Holy Writ, The Sacred Book, Holy Book, God's Word, Old Testament, New Testament, Gospel of St. Matthew, Seven Penitential Psalms."

• Expressions based upon the Bible or in reference to Biblical characters begin with a capital: "Water of Life, Hope of Men, Help of Christians, Scourge of Nations."

• The names applied to the Evil One require capitals: "Beelzebub, Prince of Darkness, Satan, King of Hell, Devil, Incarnate Fiend, Tempter of Men, Father of Lies, Hater of Good."

Punctuation f169"

• Words of very special importance, especially those which stand out as the names of leading events in history, have capitals; as, "The Revolution, The Civil War, The Middle Ages, The Age of Iron," etc.

• Terms which refer to great events in the history of the race require capitals; "The Flood, Magna Charta, Declaration of Independence."

• The names of the days of the week and the months of the year and the seasons are commenced with capitals: "Monday, March, Autumn."

• The Pronoun I and the interjection 0 always require the use of capitals. In fact all the interjections when uttered as exclamations commence with capitals: "Alas! he is gone." "Ah! I pitied him."

• All noms-de-guerre, assumed names, as well as names given for distinction, call for capitals, as, "The Wizard of the North," "Paul Pry," "The Northern Gael," "Sandy Sanderson," "Poor Robin," etc.

• In personification, that is, when inanimate things are represented as endowed with life and action, the noun or object personified begins with a capital; as, "The starry Night shook the dews from her wings." "Mild-eyed Day appeared," "The Oak said to the Beech - 'I am stronger than you."'

A LITTLE HELP WITH CAPITALS

Use capital letters in the following ways:

The First Words of a Sentence

When he tells a joke, he sometimes forgets the punch line.

The pronoun "1"

The last time I visited Atlanta was several years ago.

Proper Nouns (the Names of Specific People, Places, Organizations, and Sometimes Thinas)

Worrill Fabrication Company

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Golden Gate Bridge Supreme Court Livingston, Missouri Atlantic Ocean Mothers Against Drunk Driving

Family Relationships (when used as proper names)

I sent a thank-you note to Aunt Abigail, but not to my other aunts.

Here is a present I bought for Mother. Did you buy a present for your mother?

The Names of God, Specific Deities, Religious Figures, and Holy Books

God the Father the Virgin Mary

the Bible the Greek gods

Moses Shiva

Buddha Zeus

Exception: Do not capitalize the non-specific use of the word "god"

The word "polytheistic" means the worship of more than one god.

Titles preceding names, but not titles that follow names

She worked as the assistant to Mayor Hanolovi. I was able to interview Miriam Moss, mayor of

Littonville.

Directions that are names (North, South, East, and West when used as sections of the country, but not as compass directions)

The Patels have moved to the Southwest. Jim's house is two miles north of Otterbein.

Punctuation rm­The days of the week, the months of the year, and holidays (but not the seasons used generally)

Halloween Frida, spring

October winter fall

Exception: Seasons are capitalized when used in a title

The Fall 1999 semester

The names of countries, nationalities, and specific languages

Costa Rica French

Spanish English

The first word in a sentence that is a direct quote

Emerson once said, /I A foolish consistency is the hobgoblln of little minds."

The major words in the titles of books, articles, and songs (but not short prepositions or the articles "the," "a," or "an," if they are not the first word of the title)

One of Jerry's favourite books is The Catcher in the Rye.

Members of national, political, racial, social, civic, and athletic groups

Green Bay Packers African-Americans Anti-Semitic Democrats Friends of the Wilderness Chinese

Periods and Events (but not century numbers)

Victorian Era

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Great Depression Constitutional Convention sixteenth century

Trademarks

Pepsi IBM

Honda Microsoft Word

Words and abbreviations of specific names (but not names of things that came from specific things but are now general types)

Freudian

pasteurize

french fries

NBC

UN italics

SPELLING: COMMON WORDS THAT SOUND ALIKE

Many words sound alike but mean different things when put into writing. This list will help you distinguish between some of the more common words that sound alike. Click on any of the blue underlined links to open a longer and more complete definition of the word in a new window.

Accept, Except

• accept = verb meaning to receive or to agree: He accepted their praise graciously.

• except = preposition meaning all but, other than: Everyone went to the game except Alyson.

Affect, Effect

• affect = verb meaning to influence: Will lack of sleep affect ydur game?

• effect = noun meaning result or consequence: Will lack of sleep have an effect on your game?

• effect = verb meaning to bnng about, to accomplish: Our efforts have effected a major change in university policy.

Punctuation ri73 A memory-help for affect and effect is is RAVEN:

Remember, Affect is a Verb and Effect is a Noun.

Advise, Advice

• advise = verb that means to recommend, suggest, or counsel: I advise you to be cautious.

• advice = noun that means an opinion or recommendation about what could or should be done: I'd like to ask for your advice on this matter.

Conscious, Conscience

• conscious = adjective meaning awake, perceiving: Despite a head injury, the patient remained conscious.

• conscience = noun meaning the sense of obligation to be good: Chris wouldn't cheat because his conscience wouldn't let him.

Idea, Ideal

• idea = noun meaning a thought, belief, or conception held in the mind, or a general notion or conception formed by generalization: Jennifer had a brilliant idea - she'd go to the Writing Lab for help with her papers!

• ideal = noun meaning something or someone that embodies perfection, or an ultimate object or endeavor: Mickey was the ideal for tutors everywhere.

• ideal = adjective meaning embodying an ultimate standard of excellence or perfection, or the best; Jennifer was an ideal student.

Its, It's

• its = possessive adjective (possesive form of ~ pronoun it): The crab had an unusual growth ')r I. its shell. "

• it's = contraction for it is or it has (in a verb phrase):

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It's still rammg; it's been raining for three days. (Pronouns have apostrophes only when two words are being shortened into one.)

lead, led

• lead = noun referring to a dense metallic element: The X-ray technician wore a vest lined with lead.

• led = past-tense and past-participle form of the verb to lead, meaning to guide or direct: The evidence led the jury to reach a unanimous decision.

Than, Then

Than Used in comparison statements: He is richer than l. Used in statements of preference: I would rather dance than eat. Used to suggest quantities beyond a specified amount: Read more than the first paragrapJl.

Then A time other than now: He was younger then. She will start her new job then. Next in time, space, or order: First we must study; then we can play. Suggesting a logical conclusion: If you've studied hard, then the exam should be no problem.

Their, There, They're

• Their: possessive pronoun: They got their books. • There: that place: My house is over there. (This is a

place word, and so it contains the word here.) • They're: contraction for they are: They're making

dinner. (Pronouns have apostrophes only when two words are being shortened into one.)

To, Too, Two

• To: preposition, or first part of the infinitive form of a verb: They went to the lake to swim.

• Too: very, also: I was too tired to continue. I was I hungry, too. • Two: the number 2: Two students scored below

passing on the exam.

Punctuation ~

Two, twelve, and between are all words related to the rmmber 2, and all contain the letters two

Too can mean also or can be an intensifier, and you might say that it contains an extra 0 ("one too many")

We're, Where, Were

• We're: contraction for we are: We're glad to help. (Pronouns have apostrophes only when two words are being shortened into one.)

• Where: location: Where are you going? (This is a place word, and so it contains the word here.)

• Were: a past tense form of the verb be: They were walking side by side.

Your, You're

• Your: possessive pronoun: Your shoes are untied. • You're: contraction for you are: You're walking

around with your shoes untied. (Pronouns have apostrophes only when two words are being shortened into one.)

ONE WORD OR TWO?

All Ready/Already

• all ready: used as an adjective to express complete preparedness

• already: an adverb expressing time At last I was all ready to go, but everyone had already

left.

All Right/Alright

• all right: used as an adjective or adverb; older and more formal spelling, more common in scientific & academic writing: Will you be all right on your own?

• alright: Alternate spelling of all right; less frequent but used often in journalistic and business

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publications, and especially common in fictional dialogue: He does alright in school.

All Together/Alto~ether • all together: an adverb meaning considered as a

whole, summed up: All together, there were thirty­two students at the museum.

• altogether: an intensifying adverb meaning wholly, completely, entirely: His comment raises an altogether different problem.

Anyone/anyone • anyone: a pronoun meaning any person at all: Anyone

who can solve this problem deserves an award. • anyone: a paired adjective and noun meaning a

specific item in a group; usually used with of: Any one of those papers could serve as an example.

Note: There are similar distinctions in meaning for everyone and everyone

Anyway/any way

• anyway: an adverb meaning in any case or nonetheless: He objected, but she went anyway.

• any way: a paired adjective and noun meaning any particular course, direction, or manner: Any way we chose would lead to danger.

Awhile/a While

• awhile: an adverb meaning for a short time; some readers consider it nonstandard; usually needs no preposition: Won't you stay awhile?

• a while: a paired article and noun meaning a period of time; usually used with for: We talked for a while, and then we said good night.

Maybe/may be

• maybe: an adverb meaning perhaps: Maybe we should wait until the rain stops.

Pllnctuation 1177 • may be: a form of the verb be: This may be our

only chance to win the championship.

SPELLING: ACCEPT/EXCEPT AND AFFECT/EFFECT

Errors in writing that involve sound-alike words (homophones) are known as "wrong word" errors. Such errors are more significant than simple spelling mistakes, since they involve word-level confusion, not merely incorrect spelling of the correct word: Two common sources of wrong word errors are the homophone pairs accept/except and affect/effect. For more information on sound-alike words, see our handout on this topic.

Accept and Except

Meanings For The Most Common Uses

accept (transitive verb) [Middle English, from Middle French accepter, from Latin acceptare, frequentative of accipere to receive, from ad- toward + capere to take]

la. to receive willingly <accept a gift> b. to be able or designed to take or hold (something applied or added) <a surface that will not accept ink>

2. to give admittance or approval <to accept her as one of the group>

3a. to endure without protest or reaction <accept poor living conditions> b: to regard as proper, normal, or inevitable <the idea is widely accepted> c: to recognize as true; believe <refused to accept the explanation>

4a. to make a favorable response to <accept an offer> b: to agree to undertake (a responsibility) <accept a job>

5. to assume an obligation to pay; also: to take in payment <we don't accept personal checks>

1. except (preposition) [Originally past participle; see meaning 3, below] with the exclusion or exception of <open daily except Sundays>

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2. ~xcept (conjunction) 1. on any other condition than that; unless <you'

face punishment except if you repent> 2. with the following exception <was inaccessible

except by boat> 3. only (often followed by that) <I would go except

that it's too far>

Meanings For Less Common Uses

3. except (transitive verb) [Latin exceptus, past participle of excipere to take or draw out, to except; ex- out + capere to take]

To take or leave out (anything) from a number or a whole; to exclude; to omit <if we only except the unfitness of the judge, the trial was a perfect enactment of justice> <Adam and Ev~ were forbidden to touch the excepted tree (past partic~le»

Affect and Effect

Meanings For The Most Common Uses

Affect

1. affect (transitive verb) [Middle English, from affectus, past participle of afficere] to produce an effect upon, as a: to produce a material influence upon or alteration in <paralysis affected his limbs> b: to act upon (as a person or a person's mind or feelings) so as to bring about a response; influence.

Effect

1. effect (noun) [Middle English, from Middle French & Latin; Middle French, from Latin effectus, from efficere to bring about, from ex- out (of) + facere to make, do]

la. purport; intent <the effect of their statement was to incite anger> b: basic meaning; essence <her argument had the effect of a plea for justice>

Punctuation fl'7'9" 2. something that inevitably follows an antecedent (as

a cause or agent) <environmental devastation is one effect of unchecked industrial expansion>

3. an outward sign; appearance <the makeup created the effect of old age on their faces>

4. accomplishment; fulfillment <the effect of years of hard work>

5. power to bring about a result; influence <the content itself of television is therefore less important than its effect>

6. plural: movable property; goods <personal effects> 7a. a distinctive impression <the colour gives the effect

of being warm> b: the creation of a desired impression <her tears were purely for effect> c (1): something designed to produce a distinctive or desired impression, usually used in plural (2) plural: special effects

8. the quality or state of being operative; operation <the law goes into effect next week>

in effect: in substance; virtually <the committee agreed to what was in effect a reduction in the hourly wage>

to the effect: with the meaning <issued a statement to the effect that he would resign>

Meanings for less Common Uses

Affect

2. affect (transitive verb) 1. to make a display of liking or using; cultivate

<affect a worldly manner> . 2. to put on a pretense of; feign <affect

indifference, though deeply hurt> 3. affect (noun) [pronunciation: stress on first

syllable, unlike verb forms of this word] the conscious subjective aspect of an emotion considered apart from bodily changes <he displayed a distressing lack of affect>

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Effect

2. Effect (transitive verb) 1. to cause to come into being <the citizens were

able to effect a change in government policy> 2a. to bring about often by surmounting obstacies;

accomplish <effect a settlement of a dispute> b: to put into operation <the duty of the legislature to effect the will of the citizens>

Usage: The confusion of the verbs affect and effect not only is quite common but has a long history. The verb effect was used in place of affect (I, above) as early as 1494 and in place of affect (2, above) as early as 1652.

If you think you want to use the verb effect but are not certain, check the definitions here. The noun affect is sometimes mistakenly used for the noun effect. Except when your topic is psychology, you will seldom need the noun affect.

SPELLING: IEtEI

Rule

Write I before E Except after C Or when it sounds like an A As in "neighbour" and "weigh" i before e: relief, believe, niece, chief, sieve, frieze, field,

yield e before i: receive, deceive, ceiling, conceit, vein, sleigh, freight, eight

Exceptions

seize, either, weird, height, foreign, leisure, conscience, counterfeit, forfeit, leisure, neither, science, species, sufficient

Spelling: Noun Plurals

Plurals of nouns can be created in the following ways:

Punctuation rt81" 1. Add an -s to form the plural of most words.

• elephant-elephants • stereo - stereos

2. For words that end in a "hissing" sound (-s, -z, -x, -ch, -sh), add an -es to form the plural. • box-boxes • church-churches

3. If the word ends in a vowel plus -y (-ay, -ey, -iy, -oy, -uy), add an -s to the word. • tray-trays • key-keys

4. If the word ends in a consonant plus -y, change the -y into -ie and add an -s to form the plural. • enemy -enemies • baby - babies

5. For words that end in -is, change the -is to -es to make the plural form. • synopsis-synopses • thesis - theses

6. Some words that end in -f or -fe have plurals that end in -ves. • knife-knives • self-selves

7. The plurals of words ending in -0 are formed by either adding -s or by adding -es. The plurals of many words can be formed either way. To determine whether a particular word ends in -s or -es (or if the word can be spelled either way), check your dictionary or the list below. There are two helpful rules:

a. All words that end in a vowel plus -0 (-ao, -eo, -io, -00, -uo) have plurals that end in just -s: • stereo-stereos • studio-studios • duo-duos

b. All musical terms ending in -0 have plurals ending in just -so

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• piano - pianos • cello-cellos • solo-solos

c. Plural forms of words ending in -0: -os -oes -os or -oes

albinos echoes avocados/oes

armadillos embargoes buffaloes/os

autos heroes cargoes/os

bravos potatoes desperadoes/os

broncos tomatoes dodoes/os cantos torpedoes dominoes/os

casinos vetoes ghettos/oes

combos grottoes/os

gazebos hoboes/os

infernos innuendoes/os kimonos lassos/oes

logos mangoes/os maraschinos mosquitoes/os

ponchos mottoes/os sombreros mulattos/oes

tacos noes/os

torsos palmettos/oes

tobaccos peccadilloes/os

typos tornadoes/os

valcanoes/os

zeros/oes

8. The plurals of single capital letters, acronyms, and Arabic numerals (1, 2, 3, ... ) take an -s WITHOUT an apostrophe:

• Z (the capital letter Z)-Zs • UPC (Universal Product Code)-UPCs • ATM (Automatic Teller Machine)-ATMs

Punctuation rt83 • GUI (Graphical User Interface)-GUIs • 3 (the Arabic numeraI3)-3s If you are unsure of how to make a noun plural, you

can look up the singular form of the noun in a dictionary to get the plural form.

SPELLING: -IBlE VS. -ABLE

Rule

-ible -able

If the root is not a complete If the root is a complete word, add -able. word, add -ible. accept + able = acceptable aud + ible = audible Examples: Examples: • fashionable

• visible • laughable

• horrible • suitable

• terrible • dependable

• possible • comfortable

• edible If the root is a complete word ending in -

• eligible e, drop the final -e and add -able.

• incredible excuse - e+ able = excusable

• permissible Examples:

• advisable

• desirable

• valuable

• debatable

Some exceptions: • Contemptible • Digestible • Flexible • Responsible • Irritable • Inevitable

NUMBERS

Writing Numbers

Although usage varies, most people spell out numbers

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that can be expressed in one or two words and use figures for other numbers:

Words

over two pounds six million dollars after thirty-one years eighty-three people

Figures

after 126 days only $31.50 6,381 bushels 4.78 liters Here are some examples of specific situations.

Days and Years

December 12, 1965 or 12 December 1965 A.D. 1066 in 1900 in 1971-72 or in 1971-1972 the eighties, the twentieth century the 1980's or the 1980s

Time of Day

8:00 A.M. (or) a.m. (or) eight o'clock in the morning 4:30 P.M. (or) p.m. (or) half-past four in the afternoon

Apdresses

16 Tenth Street 350 West 114 Street

Identification Numbers

Room 8 Channel18 Interstate 65 Henry VIII

Page and Division of Books and Plays

page 30 chapter 6 in act 3, scene 2 (or) in Act III, Scene ii

Decimals and Percentages

a 2.7 average 13 1/4 per cent .037 metric ton

Large Round Numbers

four billion dollars (or) $4 billion

16,500,000 (or) 16.5 million

NOTES ON USAGE

Punctuation ~

Repeat Numbers in Legal or Commercial Writing

The bill will not exceed one hundred (100) dollars.

Numbers in Series and Statistics should be Consistent

two apples, six oranges, and three bananas NOT: two apples, 6 oranges, and 3 bananas 115 feet by 90 feet (or) 115' x 90' scores of 25-6 (or) scores of 25 to 6 The vote was 9 in favour and 5 opposed

Write Out Numbers Beginning Sentences

Six per cent of the group failed. NOT: 6% of the group failed.

Use a combination of figures and words for numbers when such a combination will keep your writing clear

Unclear: The club celebrated the birthdays of 6 90-year­olds who were born in the city. (may cause the reader to read ' 690' as one number.)

Clearer: The club celebrated the birthdays of six 90-year­olds who were born in the city.

SENTENCE PUNCTUATION PATTERNS

To punctuate a sentence, you can use and combine some of these patterns. For more information on independent and

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dependent clauses plus independent and dependent markers, see our handouts on those subjects.

Pattern One: Simple Sentence

This pattern is an example of a simple sentence:

Independent Clause [ . J Example: Doctors are concerned about the rising death

rate from asthma.

Pattern Two: Compound Sentence

This pattern is an example of a compound sentence with a coordinating conjunction:

Independent Clause [ , J Coordinating Conjunction Independent Clause [ . J

There are seven coordinating conjunctions: and, but, for, or, nor, so, yet.

Example: Doctors are concerned about the rising death rate from asthma, but they don't know the reasons for it.

Pattern Three: Compound Sentence

This pattern is an example of a compound sentence with a semicolon.

Independent Clause [ ; J Independent Clause [ . J Example: Doctors are concerned about the rising death

rate from asthma; they are unsure of its cause.

Pattern Four: Compound Sentence

This pattern is an example of a compound sentence with an independent marker.

Independent Clause [ ; J Independent Marker [ , J Independent Clause [ . J

Examples of independent markers are the following: therefore, moreover, thus, consequently, however, also.

PUllctuatioll rt87 Example: Doctors are concerned about the rising death

rate from asthma; therefore, they have called for more research into its causes.

Pattern Five: Complex Sentence

This pattern is an example of a complex sentence with a dependent marker.

Dependent Marker Dependent Clause[ , J Independent Clause[ . J

Examples of dependent markers are as follows: because, before, since, while, although, if, until, when, after, as, as if.

Example: Because doctors are concerned about the rising death rate from asthma, they have called for more research into its causes.

Pattern Six: Complex Sentence

This pattern is an example of a complex sentence with a dependent marker.

Independent Clause Dependent Marker Dependent Clause [ . J

Examples of dependent markers are as follows: because, before, since, while, although, if, until, when, after, as, as if.

Example: Doctors are concerned about the rising death rate from asthma because it is a common, treatable illness.

Pattern Seven

This pattern includes an independent clause with an embedded non-essential clause or phrase

First Part of an Independent Clause [ , J Non­Essential Clause or Phrase, Rest of the Independent Clause [. J

A non-essential clause or phrase is one that can be

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removed without changing the meaning of the sentence or making it ungrammatical. In other words, the non-essential clause or phrase gives additional information, but the sentence can stand alone without it.

Example: Many doctors, including both pediatricians and family practice physicians, are concerned about the rising death rate from asthma.

Pattern Eight

This pattern includes an independent clause with an embedded essential clause or phrase

First Part of an Independent Clause Essential Clause or Phrase Rest of the Independent Clause [ . J

An essential clause or phrase is one that cannot be removed without changing the overall meaning of the sentence.

Example: Many doctors who are concerned about the rising death rate from asthma have called for more research into its causes.

Chapter 6

letter Writing

PRINCIPLES OF LETTER WRITING FORMS NOTES

Many people seem to regard letter-writing as a very simple and easily acquired branch, but on the contrary it is one of the most difficult forms of composition and requires much patience and labour to master its details. In fact there are very few perfect letter-writers in the language. It

.. constitutes the direct form of speech and may be called conversation at a distance. Its forms are so varied by every conceivable topiC written at all times by all kinds of persons in all kinds of moods and tempers and addressed to all kinds of persons of varying degrees in society and of different pursuits in life, that no fixed rules can be laid down to regulate its length, style or subject matter. Only general suggestions can be made in regard "to scope and purpose, and the forms of indicting set forth which custom and precedent have sanctioned.

\ The principles of letter-writing should be understood by everybody who has any knowledge of written language, for almost everybody at some time or other has necessity to address some friend or acquaintance at a dista1;l.ce, whereas comparatively few are called upon to direcftheir efforts towards any other kind of composition.,i

Formerly the illiterate countryman, wh~rt.*e bad occasion to communicate with friends or telaflails; called in the peripatetic schoolmaster as his amp.mie~~, but this

19m~ ____ ~ _________________________ L_e_t_te_r_~_r_it_in~g had one dnlw-back,-secrets had to be poured into an ear other than that for which they were intended, and often the confidence was betrayed.

Now, that education is abroad in the land, there is seldom any occasion for any person to call upon the service of another to compose and write a personal letter . Very few now-a-days are so grossly illiterate as not to be able to read and write. No matter how crude his effort may be it is better

<·for anyone to write his own letters than trust to another. Even if he should commence,-" deer fren, i lift up my pen to let ye no that i hove been sik for the past 3 weeks, hopping this will findye the same," his spelling and construction can be excused in view of the fact that his intention is good, and that he is doing his best to serve his own turn without depending upon others.

The nature, substance and tone of any letter depend upon the occasion that calls it forth, upon the person writing it and upon the person for whom it is intended. Whether it should be easy or formal in style, plain or ornate, light or serious, gay or grave, sentimental or matter-of-fact depend upon these three circumstances.

In letter writing the first and most important requisites are to be natural and simple; there should be no straining after effect, but simply a spontaneous out-pouring of thoughts and ideas as they naturally occur to the writer. We are repelled by a person who is stiff and labored in his conversation and in the same way the stiff and labored letter bores the reader. Whereas if it is light and in a conversational vein it immediately engages his attention.

The letter which is written with the greatest facility is the best kind of letter because it naturally expresses what is in the writer, he has not to search for his words, they flow in a perfect unison with the ideas he desires to communicate. When you write to your friend John Browne to tell him how you spent Sunday you have not to look around for the words, or study set phrases with a view to please or impress Browne, you just tell him the same as if

Letter Writing f"'i91 he were present before you, how you spent the day, where you were, with whom you associated and the chief incidents that occurred during the time. Thus, you write natural and it is such writing that is adapted to epistolary correspondence.

There are different kinds of letters, each calling for a different style of address and composition, nevertheless the natural key should be maintained in all, that is to say, the writer should never attempt to convey an impression that he is other than what he is. It would be silly as well as vain for the common street laborer of a limited education to try to put on literary airs and emulate a college professor; he may have as good a brain, but it is not as well developed by education, and he lacks the polish which society confers. When writing a letter the street laborer should bear in mind that only the letter of a street-laborer is expected from him, no matter to whom his communication may be addressed and that neither the grammar nor the diction of a Chesterfield or Gladstone is looked for in his language. Still the writer should keep in mind the person to whom he is writing. If it is to an Archbishop or some other great dignitary of Church or state it certainly should be couched in terms different from those he uses to John Browne, his intimate friend. Just as he cannot say "Dear John" to an Archbishop, no more can he address him in the familiar words he uses to his friend of everyday acquaintance and companionship. Yet there is no great learning required to write to an Archbishop, no more than to an ordinary individual. All the laborer needs to know is the form of address and how to properly utilize his limited vocabulary to the best advantage. Here is the form for such a letter:

17 Second Avenue, New York City. January 1st, 1910. Most Rev. P. A. Jordan, Archbishop of New York. Most Rev. and dear Sir:-

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While sweeping the crossing at Fifth Avenue and 50th street on last Wednesday morning, I found the enclosed Fifty Dollar Bill, which I am sending to you in the hope that it may be i cstored to the rightful owner. I beg you will acknowledge receipt and should the c,wner be found I trust you will notify me, so that I may claim some reward for my honesty. I am, Most Rev. and dear Sir, Very respectfully yours, Thomas Jones. Observ: the brevity of the letter. Jones makes no

suggestions to the Archbishop how to find the owner, for he knows the course the Archbishop will adopt, of having the finding of the bill announced from the Church pulpits. Could Jones himself find the owner there would be no occasion to apply to the Archbishop.

This letter, it is true, is different from that which he would send to Browne. Nevertheless it is simple without being familiar, is just a plain statement, and is as much to the point for its purpose as if it were garnished with rhetoric and "words of learned length and thundering sound."

Letters may be divided into those of friendship, acquaintanceship, those of business relations, those written in an official capacity by public servants, those designed to teach, and those which give accounts of the daily happenings on the stage of life, in other words, news letters.

Letters of friendship are the most common and their style and form depend upon the degree of relationship and intimacy existing between the writers and those addressed. Between relatives and intimate friends the beginning and end may be in the most familiar form of conversation, either affectionate or playful. They should, however, never overstep the boundaries of decency and propriety, for iUs well to remember that, unlike conversation, which only is

Letter Writing rt93 heard by the ears for which it is intended, written words may come under eyes other than those for whom they were designed. Therefore, it is well never to write anything which the world may not read without detriment to your character or your instincts. You can be joyful, playful, jocose, give vent to your feelings, but never stoop to low language and,' above all, to language savoring in the slightest degree of moral impropriety .

Business letters are of the utmost importance on account of the interests involved. The business characJer of a man or of a firm is often judged by the correspondence. On many occasions letters instead of developing trade and business interests and gaining clientele, predispose people

.unfavorably towards those whom they are designed to benefit. Ambiguous, slip-shod language is a detriment to success. Business letters should be clear, concise, to the point and, above all, honest, giving no wrong impressions or holding out any inducements that cannot be fulfilled. In business letters, just as in business conduct, honesty is always the best policy.

Official letters are mostly always formal. They should possess clearness, brevity and dignity of tone to impress the receivers with the proper respect for the national laws and institutions.

Letters designed to teach or didactic letters are in a class all by themselves. They are simply literature in the form of letters and are employed by some of the best writers to give their thoughts and ideas a greater emphasis. The most conspicuous example of this kind of composition is the book on Etiquette by Lord Chesterfield, which took the form of a series of letters to his son.

News letters are accounts of world happenings and descriptions of ceremonies and events sent into the newspapers. Some of the best authors of our time are newspaper men who write in an easy flowing style which is most readable, full of humour and fancy and which carries one along with breathless interest from beginning to end.

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The principal parts of a letter are (1) the heading or introduction; (2) the body or substance of the letter; (3) the subscription or closing expression and signature; (4) the address or direction on the envelope. For the body of a letter no forms or rules can be laid down as it altogether depends on the nature of the letter and the relationship between the writer and the person addressed.

There are certain rules which govern the other three features and which custom has sanctioned. Everyone should be acquainted with these rules. '

THE HEADING

The Heading has three parts, viz., the name of the place, the date of writing and the designation of the person or persons addressed; thus:

73 New Street, Newark, N. J., February 1st, 1910. Messr. Ginn and Co., New York Gentlemen: The name of the place should never be omitted; in cities,

street and number should always be given, and except when the city is large and very conspicuous, so that there can be no question as to its identity with another of the same or similar name, the abbreviation of the State should be appended, as in the above, Newark, N. J. There is another Newark in the State of Ohio. Owing to failure to comply with this rule many letters go astray. The date should be on every letter, especially business letters. The date should never be put at t~e bottom in a business letter, but in. friendly letters this may be done. The designation of the person or persons addressed differs according to the relations of the correspondents. Letters of friendship may begin in many ways according to the degrees of friendship or intimacy. Thus:

My dear Wife:

Letter Writing f195 My dear Husband: My dear Friend: My darling Mother: My dearest Love: Dear Aunt: Dear Uncle: Dear George: etc. To mark a lesser degree of intimacy such formal

designations as the following may be employed: Dear Sir: My dear Sir: Dear Mr. Smith: Dear Madam: etc. For clergymen who have the degree of Doctor of

Divinity, the designation is as follows: Rev. Alban Johnson, D. D. My dear Sir: or Rev. and dear Sir: or more familiarly Dear Dr. Johnson: Bishops of the Roman and Anglican Communions are

addressed as Right Reverend. . The Rt. Rev., the Bishop of Long Island."or The Rt. Rev. Frederick Burgess, Bishop of Long Island. Rt. Rev. and dear Sir: Archbishops of the Roman Church are addressed as

Most Reverend and Cardinals as Eminence. Thus: The Most Rev. Archbishop Katzer. Most Rev. and dear Sir: His Eminence, James Cardinal Gibbons, Archbishop of

Baltimore. May it please your Eminence: The title of the Governor of a State or territory and of

the President of the United States is Excellency. However, Honorable is more commonly applied to Governors:­

His Excellency, William Howard Taft, President of the United States. Sir:-His Excellency, Charles Evans Hughes,

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Governor of the State of New York. Sir:-Honorable Franklin Fort, Governor of New Jersey. Sir:-The general salutation for Officers of the Army and

Navy is Sir. The rank and station should be indicated in full at the head of the letter, thus:

General Joseph Thompson, Commanding the Seventh Infantry. Sir: Rear Admiral Robert Atkinson, Commanding the Atlantic Squadron. Sir: The title of officers of the Civil Government is

Honorable and they are addressed as Sir. Hon. Nelson Duncan, Senator from Ohio. Sir: Hon. Norman Wingfield, Secretary of the Treasury. Sir: Hon. Rupert Gresham, Mayor of New York. Sir: Presidents and Professors of Colleges and Universities

are generally addressed as Sir or Dear Sir. Professor Ferguson Jenks, President of .......... University. Sir: or Dear Sir: Presidents of Societies and Associations are treated as

business men and addressed as Sir or Dear Sir. Mr. Joseph Banks, President of the Night Owls. Dear Sir: or Sir: Doctors of Medicine are addressed as Sir: My dear Sir:

Dear Sir: and more familiarly My dear Dr: or Dear Dr: as

Ryerson Pitkin, M. D. Sir: Dear Sir: My dear Dr:

Letter Writing rm

Ordinary people with no degrees or titles are addressed as Mr. and Mrs. and are designed Dear Sir: Dear Madam: and an unmarried woman of any age is addressed on the envelope as Miss So-and-so, but always designed in the letter as

Dear Madam: The plural of Mr. as in addressing a firm is Messrs, and

the corresponding salutation is Dear Sirs: or Gentlemen: In England Esq. is used for Mr. as a mark of slight

superiority and in this country it is sometimes used, but it is practically obsolete. Custom is against it and American sentiment as well. If it is used it should be only applied to lawyers and justices of the peace.

SUBSCRIPTION

The Subscription or ending of a letter consists of the , term of respect or affection and the signature. The term

depends upon the relation of the person addressed. Letters of friendship can close with such expressions as:

Yours lovingly, Yours affectionately, Devotedly yours, Ever yours, etc. as between husbands and wives or between lovers.

Such gushing terminations as Your Own Darling, Your own Dovey and other pet and silly endings should be avoided, as they denote shallowness. Love can be strongly expressed without dipping into the nonsensical and the farcical.

Formal expressions of Subscription are: Yours Sincerely, Yours truly, Respectfully yours, and the like, and these may be varied to denote the

~~ _______________________________ L_e_tt_e_r_vv._r_it_in~g

exact bearing or attitude the writer wishes to assume to the person addressed: as,

Very sincerely yours, Very respectfully yours, With deep respect yours, Yours very truly, etc. Such elaborate elldings as "In the meantime with the highest respect, I am yours

to command," "I have the honour to be, Sir, Your humble Servant," "With great expression of esteem, I am Sincerely

yours," "Believe me, my dear Sir, Ever faithfully yours," are condemned as savoring too much of affectation. It is better to finish formal letters without any such

qualifying remarks. If you are writing to Mr. Ryan to tell him that you have a house for sale, after describing the house and stating the terms simply sign yourself

Your obedient Servant Yours very truly, Yours with respect, James Wilson. Don't say you have the honour to be anything or ask

him to believe anything, all you want to tell him is that you have a house for sale and that you are sincere, or hold him in respect as a prospective customer.

Don't abbreviate the signature as: Y'rs Resp'fly and always make your sex obvious. Write plainly

Yours truly, John Field and not J. Field, so that the person to whom you send

it may not take you for Jane Field. It is always best to write the first name in full. Married

women should prefix Mrs. to their names, as Very sincerely yours, Mrs. Theodore Watson. If you are sending a letter acknowledging a compliment

Letter Writing f199 or some kindness done you may say, Yours gratefully, or Yours very gratefully, in proportion to the act of kindness received.

It is not customary to sign letters of degrees or titles after your name, except you are a lord, earl or duke and only known by the title, but as we have no such titles in America it is unnecessary to bring this matter into consideration. Don't sign yourself,

Sincelely yours, Obadiah Jackson, M.A. or L.L. D. If you're an M. A. or an L.L. D. people generally know

it without your sounding your own trumpet. Many people, and especially clergymen, are fond of flaunting after their names degrees they have received honoris causa, that is, degrees as a mark of honour, without examination. Such degrees should be kept in the background. Many a deadhead has these degrees which he could never have earned by brain work.

Married women whose husbands are alive may sign the husband's name with the prefix Mrs: thus,

Yours sincerely, Mrs. William Southey. , but when the husband is dead the signature should be­Yours sincerely, Mrs. Sarah Southey. So when we receive a letter from a woman we are

enabled to tell whether she has a husband living or is a widow. A woman separated from her husband but not a divorcee should not sign his name.

ADDRESS

The address of a letter consists of the name, the title and the residence.

Mr. Hugh Black, 112 Southgate Street, Altoona, Pa.

~L-_______________________________ L_e_tt_e_r_VV;_r_it_in~g

Intimate friends have often familiar names for each other, such as pet names, nicknames, etc., which they use in the freedom of conversation, but such names should never, under any circumstances, appear on the envelope. The subscription on the envelope should be always written with propriety and correctness and as if penned by an entire stranger. The only difficulty in the envelope inscription is the title. Every man is entitled to Mr. and every lady to Mrs. and every unmarried lady to Miss. Even a boy is entitled to Master. When more than one is addressed the title is Messrs. Mesdames is sometimes written of women. If the person addressed has a title it is courteous to use it, but titles never must be duplicated. Thus, we can write

Robert Stitt, M. D., but never Dr. Robert Stitt, M. D, or Mr. Robert Stitt, M. D. In writing to a medical doctor it is well to indicate his

profession by the letters M. D. so as to differentiate him from aD. D. It is better to write Robert Stitt, M. D., than Dr. Robert Stitt.

In the case of clergymen the prefix Rev. is retained even when they have other titles; as

Rev. Tracy Tooke, LL. D. When a person has more titles than one it is customary

to only give him the leading one. Thus instead of writing Rev. Samuel MacComb, B. A., M. A., B. Sc., Ph. D., LL. D., D. D. the form employed is Rev. Samuel MacComb, LL. D. LL. D. is appended in preference to D. D. because in most cases the "Rev," implies a "D. D." while comparatively few with the prefix tlRev." are entitled to "LL. D."

In the case of Honorables such as Governors, Judges, Members of Congress, and others of the Civil Government the prefix "Hon." does away with Mr. and Esq. Thus we' write Hon. Josiah Snifkins, not Hon. Mr. Josiah Snifkins or Hon. Josiah Snifkins, Esq. Though this prefix Hon. is also often applied to Governors they should be addressed as Excellency. For instance:

His Excellency, Charles E. Hughes, Albany, N.Y.

Letter Writing 1201

In writing to the President the superscription on the envelope should be

To the President, Executive Mansion, Washington, D. C. Professional men such as doctors and lawyers as well

as those having legitimately earned College Degrees may be addressed on the envelopes by their titles, as

Jonathan Janeway, M. D. Hubert Houston, B. L. Matthew Marks, M. A., etc. The residence of the person addressed should be

plainly written out in full. The street and numbers should be given and the city or town written very legibly. If the abbreviation of the State is liable to be confounded or confused with that of another then the full name of the State should be written. In writing the residence on the envelope, instead of putting it all in one line as is done at the head of a letter, each item of the residence forms a separate line. Thus,

Liberty, Sullivan County, New York. 215 Minna St., San Francisco, California. There should be left a space for the postage stamp in

the upper right hand comer. The name and title should occupy a line that is about central between the top of the envelope and the bottom. The name should neither be too much to right or left but located in the centre, the beginning and end at equal distances from either end.

In writing to large business concerns which are well

~~ _______________________________ L_e_tt_~_VV; __ ri_ti~ng~

known or to public or city officials it is sometimes customary to leave out number and street. Thus,

Messrs. Seigel, Cooper Co., New York City, Hon. William J. Gaynor, New York City.

NOTES

Notes may be regarded as letters in miniature confined chiefly to invitations, acceptances, regrets and introductions, and modern etiquette tends towards informality in their composition. Card etiquette, in fact, has taken the place of ceremonious correspondence and informal notes are now the rule. Invitations to dinner and receptions are now mostly written on cards. "Regrets" are sent back on visiting cards with just the one word "Regrets" plainly written thereon. Often on cards and notes of invitation we find the letters R. S. v. P. at the bottom. These letters stand for the French repondez s'il vous plait, which means "Reply, if you please," but there is no necessity to put this on an invitation card as every well-bred person knows that a reply is expected. In writing notes to young ladies of the same-family it should be noted that the eldest daughter of the house is entitled to the designation Miss without any Christian name, only the surname appended. Thus if there are three daughters in the Thompson family Martha, the eldest,- Susan and Jemina, Martha is addressed as Miss Thompson and the other two as Miss Susan Thompson and Miss Jemina Thompson respectively.

Don't write the word addressed on the envelope of a note.

Don't seal a note delivered by a friend. Don't write a note on a postal card. Here are a few common forms:-

FORMAL INVITATIONS

Mr. and Mrs. Henry Wagstaff request the

Letter Writing 1203 honour of Mr. McAdoo's presence on Friday evening, June 15th, at 8 o'clock to meet the Governor of the Fort. 19 Woodbine Terrace June 8th, 1910. This is an invitation to a formal reception calling for

evening dress. Here is Mr. McAdoo's reply in the third person:-

Mr. McAdoo presents his compliments to Mr. and Mrs. Henry Wagstaff and accepts with great pleasure their invitation to meet the Governor of the Fort on the evening of June fifteenth. 215 Beacon Street, June 10th, 1910. Here is how Mr. McAdoo might decline the

invitation: -Mr. McAdoo regrets that owing to a prior engagement he must forego the honour of paying his respects to Mr. and Mrs. Wagstaff and the Governor of the Fort on the evening of June fifteenth. 215 Beacon St., June 10th, 1910. Here is a note addressed, say to Mr. Jeremiah Reynolds. Mr. and Mrs. Oldham at home on Wednesday evening October ninth from seven to eleven. 21 Ashland A venue, October 5th. Mr. Reynolds makes reply:-Mr. Reynolds accepts with high appreciation the honour of Mr. and Mrs. Oldham's invitation for Wednesday evening October ninth. Windsor Hotel October 7th or Mr. Reynolds regrets that his duties render

~ _ ___________________________ L_et_te_r_~_'_·it~ln~

it impossible for him to accept Mr. and Mrs. Oldham's kind invitation for the evening of October ninth. Windsor Hotel, October 7th, Sometimes less informal invitations are sent on small

specially designed note paper in which the first person takes the place of the third. Thus

360 Pine St., Dec. 11th, 1910. Dear Mr. Saintsbury: Mr. Johnson and I should be much pleased to have you dine with us and a few friends next Thursday, the fifteenth, at half past seven. Yours sincerely, Emma Burnside. Mr. Saintsbury's reply: 57 Carlyle Strand Dec. 13th, 1910. Dear Mrs. Burnside: Let me accept very appreciatively your invitation to dine with Mr. Burnside and you on next Thursday, the fifteenth, at half past seven. Yours sincerely, Henry Saintsbury. Mrs. Alexander Burnside.

NOTES OF INTRODUCTION

Notes of introduction should be very circumspect as the writers are in reality vouching for those whom they introduce. Here is a specimen of such a note.

603 Lexington Ave., New York City, June 15th, 1910. Rev. Cyrus C. Wiley, D. D., Newark, N. J.

Letter Writing f205 My dear Dr. Wiley: I take the liberty of presenting to you my friend, Stacy Redfern, M. D., a young practitioner, who is anxious to locate in Newark. I have known him many years and can vouch for his integrity and professional standing. Any courtesy and kindness which you may show him will be very much appreciated by me. Very sincerely yours, Franklin Jewett.

Chapter 7

Errors

MISTAKES SLIPS OF AUTHORS EXAMPLES AND CORRECTIONS ERRORS OF REDUNDANCY

In the following examples the word or words in parentheses are uncalled for and should be omitted:

• Fill the glass (full). • They appeared to be talking (together) on private

affairs. • I saw the boy and his sister (both) in the garden. • He went into the country last week and returned

(back) yesterday. • The subject (matter) of his discourse was excellent. • You need not wonder that the (subject) matter of

his discourse was excellent; it was taken from the Bible.

• They followed (after) him, but could not overtake him.

• The same sentiments may be found throughout (the whole of) the book.

• I was very ill every day (of my life) last week. • That was the (sum and) substance of his discourse. • He took wine and water and mixed them (both)

together. • He descended (down) the steps to the cellar. • He fell (down) from the top of the house. • I hope you will return (again) soon.

Errors fTo7

• The things he took away he restored (again). • The thief who stole my watch was compelled to

restore it (back again). • It is equally (the same) to me whether I have it

today or tomorrow. • She said, (says she) the report is false; and he

replied, (says he) if it be not correct I have been misinformed.

• I took my place in the cars (for) to go to New York. • They need not (to) call upon him. • Nothing (else) but that would satisfy him. • Whenever I ride in the cars I (always) find it

prejudicial to my health. • He was the first (of all) at the meeting. • He was the tallest of (all) the brothers. • You are the tallest of (all) your family. • Whenever I pass the house he is (always) at the

door. • The rain has penetrated (through) the roof. • Besides my uncle and aunt there was (also) my

grandfather at the church. • It should (ever) be your constant endeavor to

please your family. • If it is true as you have heard (then) his situation

is indeed pitiful. • Either this (here) man or that (there) woman has

(got) it. • Where is the fire (at)? • Did you sleep in church? Not that I know (of). • I never before (in my life) met (with) such a stupid

man. • (For) why did he postpone it? • Because (why) he could not attend. • What age is he? (Why) I don't know. • He called on me (for) to ask my opinion. • I don't know where I am (at). • I looked in (at) the window.

2Osl,-___ _ Errors

• I passed (by) the house. • He (always) came every Sunday. • Moreover, (also) we wish to say he was in error. • It is not long (ago) since he was here. • Two men w~nt into the wood (in order) to cut

(down) trees. Further examples of redundancy might be multiplied.

It is very common in newspaper writing where not alone single words but entire phrases are sometimes brought in, which are unnecessary to the sense or explanation of what is written.

GRAMMATICAL ERRORS OF STANDARD AUTHORS

Even the best speakers and writers are sometimes caught napping. Many of our standard authors to whom we have been accustomed to look up as infallible have sinned more or less against the fundamental prinCiples of grammar by breaking the rules regarding one or more of the nine parts of speech. In fact some of them have recklessly trespassed against all nine, and still they sit on their pedestals of fame for the admiration of the crowd. Macaulay mistreated the article. He wrote, - "That a historian should not record trifles is perfectly true." He should have used an.

Dickens also used the article incorrectly. He refers to "Robinson Crusoe" as "an universally popular book," instead of a universally popular book.

The relation between nouns and pronouns has always been a stumbling block to speakers and writers. Hallam in his Literature of Europe writes, "No one as yet had exhibited the structure of the human kidneys, Vesalius having only examined them in dogs." This means that Vesalius examined human kidneys in dogs. The sentence should have been, "No one had as yet 1xhibited the kidneys in human beings, Vesalius having examined such organs in dogs only."

Sir Arthur Helps in writing of Dickens, states-"I knew

a hrother author of his who received such critIcisms from hIm (Dickens) very lately and profited by It." Instead of it the word should be them to agree with criticisms.

Here are a few other pronominal errors from leading authors:

"Sir Thomas Moore in general so writes it, although not many others so late as him." Should be he.-Trench's English Past and Present.

"What should we gain by it but that we should speedily become as poor as them." Should be they.-Alison's Essay on Macaulay.

"If the king gives us leave you or I may as lawfully preach, as them that do." Should be they or those, the latter having persons understood.-Hobbes's History of Civil Wars.

"The drift of all his sermons was, to prepare the Jews for the reception of a prophet, mightier than him, and whose shoes he was not worthy to bear." Should be than he.­Atterbury's Sermons.

"Phalaris, who was so much older than her." Should be she.-Bentley's Dissertation on Phalaris.

"King Charles, and more than him, the duke and the Popish faction were at liberty to form new schemes." Should be than he. - Bolingbroke's Dissertations on Parties.

"We contributed a third more than the Dutch, who were obliged to the same proportion more than us." Should be than we.-Swift's Conduct of the Allies.

In all the above examples the objective cases of the pronouns have been used while the construction calls for nominative cases.

"Let thou and I the battle try" - Anon. Here let is the governing verb and requires an objective

case after it; therefore instead of thou and I, the words should be you (sing.) and me.

"Forever in this humble cell, Let thee and I, my fair one, dwell" -Prior.

Here thee and I should be the objectives you and me.

~L ____________________________________ E_rr_o_r_s

The use of the relative pronoun trips the greatest number of authors.

Even in the Bible we find the relative wrongly translated:

Whom do men say that I am?-St. Matthew. Whom think ye that I am?-Acts of the Apostles. Who should be written in both cases because the word

is not in the objective governed by say or think, but in the nominative dependent on the verb am.

"Who should I meet at the coffee house t' other night, but myoId friend?" -Steele.

"It is another pattern of this answerer's fair dealing, to give us hints that the author is dead, and yet lay the suspicion upon somebody, I know not who, in the country." -Swift's Tale of a Tub.

"My son is going to be married to I don't know who." -Goldsmith's Good-natured Man.

The nominative who in the above examples should be the objective whom.

The plural nominative ye of the pronoun thou is very often used for the objective you, as in the following:

"His wrath which will one day destroy ye both." -Milton.

"The more shame for ye; holy men I thought ye." -Shakespeare.

"1 feel the gales that from ye blow." -Gray. "Tyrants dread ye, lest your just decree Transfer the

power and set the people free." -Prior. Many of the great writers have played havoc with the

adjective in the indiscriminate use of the degrees of comparison.

"Of two forms of the same word, use the fittest."­Morell.

The author here in trying to give good advice sets a bad example. He should have used the comparative degree, "Fitter ."

Adjectives which have a comparative or superlative

Errors rnt signification do not admit the addition of the words more, most, or the terminations, er, est, hence the following examples break this rule:

"Money is the most universal incitement of human misery." -Gibbon's Decline and Fall.

"The chiefest of which was known by the name of Archon among the Grecians." -Dryden's Life of Plutarch.

"The chiefest and largest are removed to certain magazines they call libraries." -Swift's Battle of the

• Books. The two chiefest properties of air, its gravity and elastic

force, have been discovered by mechanical experiments.­Arbuthno

"From these various causes, which in greater or lesser degree, affected every individual in the colony, the indignation of the people became general." - Robertson's History of America.

"The extremest parts of the earth were meditating a submission." -Atterbury's Sermons.

"The last are indeed more preferable because they are founded on some new knowledge or improvement in the mind of man." -Addison, Spectator.

"This was in reality the easiest manner of the two." -Shaftesbury's Advice to an Author.

"In every well formed mind this second desire seems to be the strongest of the two." -Smith's Theory of Moral Sentiments.

In these examples the superlative is wrongly used for the comparative. When only two objects are compared the comparative form must be used.

Of impossibility there are no degrees of comparison, yet we find the following:

"As it was impossible they should know the words, thoughts and secret actions of all men, so it was more impossible they should pass judgment on them according to these things." -Whitby's Necessity of the Christi~m Religion.

~~------------------------- Errors

A great number of authors employ adjectives for adverbs. Thus we find:

"I shall endeavor to live hereafter suitable to a man in my station." - Addison.

"I can never think so very mean of him." -Bentley's Dissertation on Phalaris.

"His expectations run high and the fund to supply them is extreme scanty,-Lancaster's Essay on Delicacy.

The commonest error in the use of the verb is the disregard of the concord between the verb and its subject.

This occurs most frequently when the subject and the verb are widely separated, especially if some other noun of a different number immediately precedes the verb. False concords occur very often after either, or, neither, nor, and much, more, many, everyone, each.

Here are a few authors' slips:-"The terms in which the sale of a patent were

communicated to the public." - Junius's Letters. "The richness of her arms and apparel were

conspicuous." -Gibbon's Decline and Fall. "Everyone of this grotesque family were the creatures

of national genius." - D'Israeli. "He knows not what spleen, languor or listlessness

are." - Blair's Sermons. "Each of these words imply, some pursuit or object

relinquished." - Ibid. "Magnus, with four thousand of his supposed

accomplices were put to death." -Gibbon. "No nation gives greater encouragements to learning

than we do; yet at the same time none are so injudicious in the application." -Goldsmith.

"There's two or three of us have seen strange sights." -Shakespeare.

The past participle should not be used for the past tense, yet the learned Byron overlooked this fact. He thus writes in the Lament of Tasso:-

____________ e ••• ___ " ___ J2i3 "And with my years my soul begun to pant With

feelings of strange tumult and soft pain." Here is another example from Savage's Wanderer in

which there is double sinning: "From liberty each nobler science sprung, A Bacon

brighten'd and a Spenser sung." Other breaches in regard to the participles occur in the

following: -"Every book ought to be read with the same spirit and

in the same manner as it is writ" -Fielding's Tom Jones. "The Court of Augustus had not wore off the manners

of the republic "-Hume's Essays. "Moses tells us that the fountains of the earth were

broke open or clove asunder." - Burnet. "A free constitution when it has been shook by the

iniquity of former administrations." - Bolingbroke. "In this respect the seeds of future divisions were

sowed abundantly." -Ibid. In the following example the present participle is used

for the infinitive mood: "It is easy distinguishing the rude fragment of a rock

from the splinter of a statue." -Gilfillan's Literary Portraits. Distinguishing here should be replaced by to

distinguish. The rules regarding shall and will are violated in the

following: "If we look within the rough and awkward outside, we

will be richly rewarded by its perusal." -Gilfillan's Literary Portraits.

"If I should declare them and speak of them, they should be more than I am able to express." - Prayer Book Revision of Psalms XI.

"If I would declare them and speak of them, they are more than can be numbered." - Ibid.

"Without having attended to this, we will be at a loss, in understanding several passages in the classics." -Blair's Lectures.

~L ______________________________________ E_"_o __ ~

"We know to what cause our past reverses have been owing and we will have ourselves to b1ame, if they are again incurred." - Alison's History of Europe.

Adverbial mistakes often occur in the best writers. The adverb rather is a word very frequently misplaced. Archbishop Trench in his "English Past and Present" writes, "It rather modified the structure of our sentences than the elements of our vocabulary."

This should have been wri.tten, -"It modified the structure of our sentences rather than the elements of our vocabulary ."

"So far as his mode of teaching goes he is rather a disciple of Socrates than of St. Paul or Wesley." Thus writes Leslie Stephens of Dr. Johnson. He should have written,­" So far as his mode of teaching goes he is a disciple of Socrates rather than of St. Paul or Wesley."

The preposition is a part of speech which is often wrongly used by some of the best writers. Certain nouns, adjectives and verbs require particular prepositions after them, for instance, the word different always takes the preposition from after it; prevail takes upon; averse takes to; accord takes with, and so on.

In the following examples the prepositions in parentheses are the ones that should have been used:

"He found the greatest difficulty of (in) writing."­Hume's History of England.

"If policy can prevail upon (over) force." -Addison. "He made the discovery and communicated to (with)

his friends." -Swift's Tale of a Tub. "Every office of command should be intrusted to

persons on (in) whom the parliament shall confide."­Macaulay.

Several of the most celebrated writers infringe the canons of style by placing prepositions at the end of sentences. For instance Carlyle, in referring to the Study of Burns, writes:-"Our own contributions to it, we are aware, can be but scanty and feeble; but we offer them with good

Errors rns will, and trust they may meet with acceptance from those they are intended for."

-" for whom they are intended," he should have written.

"Most writers have some one vein which they peculiarly and obviously excel in." - William Minto.

This sentence should read, - Most writers have some one vein in which they peculiarly and obviously excel.

Many authors use redundant words which repeat the same thought and idea. This is called tautology.

"Notwithstanding which (however) poor Polly embraced them all around." -Dickens.

"I judged that they would (mutually) find each other." -Crockett.

" .... as having created a (joint) partnership between the two Powers in the Morocco question." - The Times.

"The only sensible position (there seems to be) is to frankly acknowledge our ignorance of what lies beyond." -Daily Telegraph.

"Lord Rosebery has not budged from his position­splendid, no doubt, -of (lonely) isolation." - The Times.

"Miss Fox was (often) in the habit of assuring Mrs. Chick." -Dickens.

"The deck (it) was their field of fame." -Campbell. "He had come up one morning, as was now

(frequently) his wont," - Trollope. The counsellors of the Sultan (continue to) remain

sceptical-The Times. Seriously, (and apart from jesting), this is no light

matter. - Bagehot. To go back to your own country with (the consciousness

that you go back with) the sense of duty well done.-Lord Halsbury.

The Peresviet lost both her fighting-tops and (in appearance) looked the most damaged of all the ships-The Times.

Counsel admitted that, that was a fair suggestion to

~~ ___________________________________ E_"_o_~_S

make, but he submitted that it was borne out by the (surrounding) circumstances. - Ibid.

Another unnecessary use of words and phrases is that which is termed circumlocution, a going around the bush when there is no occasion for it,-save to fill space.

It may be likened to a person walking the distance of two sides of a triangle to reach the objective point. For instance in the quotation: "Pope professed to have learned his poetry from Dryden, whom, whenever an opportunity was presented, he praised through the whole petiod of his existence with unvaried liberality; and perhaps his character may receive some illustration, of a comparison he instituted between him and the man whose pupil he was" much of the verbiage may be eliminated and the sentence thus condensed:

"Pope professed himself the pupil of Dryden, whom he lost no opportunity of praising; and his character may be illustrated by a comparison with his master."

"His life was brought to a close in 1910 at an age not far from the one fixed by the sacred writer as the term of human existence."

This in brevity can be put, "His life was brought to a close at the age of seventy;" or, better yet, "He died at the age of seventy."

"The day was intensely cold, so cold in fact that the thermometer crept down to the zero mark," can be expressed: "The day was so cold the thermometer registered zero."

Many authors resort to circumlocution for the purpose of "padding," that is, filling space, or when they strike a snag in writing upon subjects of which they know little or nothing. The young writer should steer clear of it and learn to express his thoughts and ideas as briefly as possible commensurate with lucidity of expression.

Volumes of errors in fact, in grammar, diction and general style, could be selected from the works of the great writers, a fact which eloquently testifies that no one is

Errors rw infallible and that the very best is liable to err at times. However, most of the erring in the case of these writers arises from carelessness or hurry, not from a lack of knowledge.

As a general rule it is in writing that the scholar is liable to slip; in oral speech he seldom makes a blunder. In fact, there are many people who are perfect masters of speech,­who never make a blunder in conversation, yet who are ignorant of the very principles of grammar and would not know how to write a sentence correctly on paper. Such persons have been accustomed from infancy to hear the language spoken correctly and so the use of the proper words and forms becomes a second nature to them. A child can learn what is right as easy as what is wrong and whatever impressions are made on the mind when it is plastic will remain there. Even a parrot can be taught the proper use of language. Repeat to a parrot. - " Two and two make four" and it never will say "two and two makes four."

In writing, however, it is different. Without a knowledge of the fundamentals of grammar we may be able to speak correctly from association with good speakers, but without such a knowledge we cannot hope to write the language correctly. To write even a common letter we must know the principles of construction, the relationship of one word to another. Therefore, it is necessary for everybody to understand at least the essentials of the grammar of his own language.

Chapter 8

Pitfalls to Avoid

COMMON STUMBLING BLOCKS PECULIAR CONSTRUCTIONS MISUSED FORMS

ATTRACTION

Very often the verb is separated from its real nominative or subject by several intervening words and in such cases one is liable to make the verb agree with the subject nearest to it. Here are a few examples showing that the leading writers now and then take a tumble into this pitfall:

• "The partition which the two ministers made of the powers of government were singularly happy." -Macaulay. (Should be was to agree with its subject, partition.)

• "One at least of the qualiti'es which fit it for training ordinary men unfit it for training an extraordinary man./I - Bagehot. (Should be unfits to agree with subject one.)

• "The Tibetans have engaged to exclude from their country those dangerous influences whose appearance were the chief cause of our action." -The Times. (Should be was to agree with appearance.)

• "An immense amount of confusion and indifference prevail in these days." - Telegraph. (Should be prevails to agree with amount.)

Pitfalls to Avoid r2i9

ELLIPSIS Errors in ellipsis occur chiefly with prepositions. His objection and condoning of the boy's course,

seemed to say the least, paradoxical. (The preposition to should come after objection.) Many men of brilliant parts are crushed by force of

circumstances and their genius forever lost to the world. (Some maintain that the missing verb after genius is

are, but such is ungrammatical. In such cases the right verb should be always expressed: as-their genius is forever lost to the world. .

THE SPLIT INFINITIVE Even the best speakers and writers are in the habit of

placing a modifying word or words between the to and the remaining part of the infinitive. It is possible that such will come to be looked upon in time as the proper form but at present the splitting of the infinitive is decidedly wrong. "He was scarcely able to even talk" "She commenced to rapidly walk around the room." "To have really loved is­better than not to have at all loved." In these constructions it is much better not to split the infinitive. In every-day speech the best speakers sin against this observance.

In New York City there is a certain magistrate, a member of "the 400," who prides himself on his diction in language. He tells this story: A prisoner, a faded, battered specimen of mankind, on whose haggard face, deeply lined with the marks of dissipation, there still lingered faint reminders of better days long past, stood dejected before the judge. "Where are you from?" asked the magistrate. "From Boston," answered the accused. "Indeed," said the judge, "indeed, yours is a sad case, and yet you don't seem to thoroughly realise how low you have sunk." The man stared as if struck. "Your honour does me an injustice," he said bitterly. "The disgrace of arrest for drunkenness, the mortification of being thrust into a noisome dungeon, the publicity and humiliation of trial in a crowded, and dingy

~~ _____________________________ P~i~~a_ll_s_ro_A_v_o __ m courtroom I can bear, but to be sentenced by a Police Magistrate who splits his infinitives-that-is indeed the last blow. II

ONE

The indefinite adjective pronoun one when put in place of a personal substantive is liable to raise confusion. When a sentence or expression is begun with the impersonal one the word must be used throughout in all references to the subject.

Thus, "One must mind one's own business if one wishes to succeed" may seem prolix and awkward, nevertheless it is the proper form. You must not say - II One must mind his business if he wishes to succeed," for the subject is impersonal and therefore cannot exclusively take the masculine pronoun. With anyone it is different. You may say - II If anyone sins he should acknowledge it; let him not try to hide it by another sin."

ONLY

This is a word that is a pitfall to the most of us whether learned or unlearned. Probably it is the most indiscriminately used word in the language. From the different positions it is made to occupy in a sentence it can relatively change the meaning.

For instance in the sentence-"I only struck him that time, II the meaning to be inferred is, that the only thing I did to him was to strike him, not kick or otherwise abuse him.

~ut if the only is shifted, so as to make the sentence read-"I struck him only that time" the meaning conveyed is, that only on that occasion and at no other time did I strike him. If another shift is made to-"1 struck only him that time, II the meaning is again altered so that it signifies he was the only person I struck.

In speaking we can by emphasis impress our meaning on our hearers, but in writing we have nothing to depend

Pitfalls to Avoid f221

upon but the position of the word in the sentence. The best rule in regard to only is to,place it immediately before the word or phrase it modifies or limits.

ALONE

Is another word which creates ambiguity and alters meaning. If we substitute it for only in the preceding example the meaning of the sentence will depend upon the arrangement.

Thus "I alone struck him at that time" signifies that I and no other struck him. When the sentence reads "I struck him alone at that time" it must be interpreted that he was the only person that received a blow. Again if it is made to read "I struck him at that time alone" the sense conveyed is that that was the only occasion on which I struck him. The rule which governs the correct use of only is also applicable to alone.

OTHER AND ANOTHER

These are words which often give to expressions a meaning far from that intended. Thus, "I have nothing to do with that other rascal across the street, II certainly means that I am a rascal myself.

"I sent the despatch to my friend, but another villain intercepted it," clearly signifies that my friend is a villain.

A good plan is to omit these words when they can be readily done without, as in the above examples, but when it is necessary to use them make your meaning clear. You can do this by making each sentence or phrase in which they occur independent of contextual aid.

AND WITH THE RELATIVE

Never use and with the relative in this manner: "That is the dog I meant and which I know is of pure breed." This is an error quite common. The use of and is permissible when there is a parallel relative in the preceding sentence

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or clause. Thus: "There is the dog which I meant and. which I know is of pure breed" is quite correct.

LOOSE PARTICIPLES

A participle or participial phrase is naturally referred to the nearest nominative. If only one nominative is expressed it claims all the participles that are not by tl;te construction of the sentence otherwise fixed.

"John, working in the field all day and getting thirsty, drank from the running stream." Here the participles working and getting clearly refer to John. But in the sentence, -"Swept along by the mob I could not save him," the participle as it were is lying around loose and may be taken to refer to either the person speaking or to the-person spoken about. It may mean that I was swept along by the mob or the individual whom I tried to save was swept along.

"Going into the store the roof fell" can be taken that it was the roof which was going into the store when it fell. Of course the meaning intended is that some person or persons were going into the store just as the roof fell.

In all sentence construction with participles there should be such clearness as to preclude all possibility of ambiguity. The participle should be so placed that there can be no doubt as to the noun to which it refers. Often it is advisable to supply such words as will make the meaning obvious.

BROKEN CONSTRUCTION

Sometimes the beginning of a sentence presents quite a different grammatical construction from its end. This arises from the fact probably, that the beginning is lost sight of before the end is reached. This occurs frequently in long sentences. Thus: "Honesty, integrity and square-dealing will bring anybody much better through life than the absence of either." Here the construction is broken at than. The use of either, only used in referring to one of two, shows that

Pitfalls to Avoid f223

the fact is forgotten that three qualities and not two are under consideration. Anyone of the three meanings might be intended in the sentence, viz., absence of anyone quality, absence of any two of the qualities or absence of the whole three qualities. Either denotes one or the other of two and should never be applied to anyone of more than two. When we fall into the error of constructing such sentences as above, we should take them apart and reconstruct them in a different grammatical form. Thus,-" Honesty, integrity and square-dealing will lxing a man much better through life than a lack of these qualities which are almost essential to success."

DOUBLE NEGATIVE

It must be remembered that two negatives in the English language destroy each other and are equivalent to an affirmative. Thus "I don't know nothing about it" is intended to convey, that I am ignorant of the matter under consideration, but it defeats its own purpose, inasmuch as the use of nothing implies that I know something about it. The sentence should read-"I don't know anything about it."

Often we hear such expressions as "He was not asked to give no opinion," expressing the very opposite of what is intended. This sentence implies that he was asked to give his opinion. The double negative, therefore, should be carefully avoided, for it is insidious and is liable to slip in and the writer remain unconscious of its presence until the eye of the critic detects it.

FIRST PERSONAL PRONOUN

The use of the first personal pronoun should be avoided as much as possible in composition. Don't introduce it by way of apology and never use such expressions as "In my opinion," "As far as I can see," "It appears to me," "I believe," etc. In what you write, the whole composition is expressive of your views, since you are the author,

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therefore, there is no necessity for you to accentuate or emphasize yourself at certain portions of it.

Moreover, the big 1's savor of egotism! Steer clear of them as far as you c~n. The only place where the first person is permissible is in passages where you are stating a view that is not generally held and which is likely to meet with opposition.

SEQUENCE OF TENSES

When two verbs depend on each other their tenses must have a definite relation to each other. "I shall have much pleasure in accepting your kind invitation" is wrong, unless you really mean that just now you decline though by-and-by you intend to accept; or unless you mean that you do accept now, though you have no pleasure in doing so, but look forward to be more pleased by-and-by. In fact the sequence of the compound tenses puzzle experienced writers.

The best plan is to go back in thought to the time in question and use the tense you would then naturally use. Now in the sentence "I should have liked to have gone to see the circus" the way to find out the proper sequence is to ask yourself the question-what is it I "should have liked" to do? and the plain answer is "to go to see the circus." I cannot answer-"To have gone to see the circus" for that would imply that at a certain moment I would have liked to be in the position of having gone to the circus. But I do not mean this; I mean that at the moment at which I am speaking I wish I had gone to see the circus. The verbal phrase I should have liked carries me back to the time when there was a chance of seeing the circus and once back at the time, the going to the circus is a thing of the present. This whole explanation resolves itself into the simple question,-what should I have liked at that time, and the answer is "to go to see the circus," therefore this is the proper sequence, and the expression should be "I should have liked to go to see the circus."

If we wish to speak of something relating to a time prior

Pitfalls to Avoid 1225 to that indicated in the past tense we must use the perfect tense of the infinitive; as, "He appeared to have seen better days." We should say "I expected to meet him," not "I expected to have met him." "We intended to visit you," hot "to have visited you." "I hoped they would arrive," not "I hoped they would have arrived." "I thought I should catch the bird," not "I thought I sh?uld have caught the bird." "I had intended to go to the meeting," not "I had intended to have gone to the meeting."

BETWEEN-AMONG

These prepositions are often carelessly interchanged. Between has reference to two objects only, among to more than two. "The money was equally divided between them" is right when there are only two, but if there are more than two it should be "the money was equally divided among them."

LESS-FEWER

Less refers is quantity, fewer to number. "No man has less virtues" should be "No man has fewer virtues." "The farmer had some oats and a fewer quantity of wheat" should be "the farmer had some oats and a less quantity of wheat."

FURTHER-FARTHER

Further is commonly used to denote quantity, farther to denote distance. "I have walked farther than you," "I need no further supply" are correct.

EACH OTHER-ONE ANOTHER

Each other refers to two, one another to more than two. "Jones and Smith quarreled; they struck each other" is correct. "Jones, Smith and Brown quarreled; they struck one another" is also correct. Don't say, liThe two boys teach one another" nor "The three girls love each other."

EACH, EVERY, EITHER, NEITHER

These words are continually misapplied. Each can be

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applied to two or any higher number of objects to si~ify every one of the number independently. Every requires more than two to be spoken of and denotes all the persons or things taken separately. Either denotes one or the other of two, and should not be used to include both. Neither is the negative of either, denoting not the other, and not the one, and relating to two persons or things considered separately.

The following examples illustrate the correct usage of these words:

Each man of the crew received a reward. Every man in the regiment displayed bravery. We can walk on either side of the street. Neither of the two is to blame.

NEITHER-NOR

When two singular subjects are connected by neither, nor use a singular verb; as, Neither John nor James was there," not were there.

NONE

Custom Has sanctioned the use of this word both with a singular and plural; as-"None is so blind as he who will not see" and "None are so blind as they who will not see." However, as it is a contraction of no one it is better to use the singular verb.

RISE-RAISE

These verbs are very often confounded. Rise is to move or pass upward in any manner; as to "rise from bed;" to increase in value, to improve in position or rank, as "stocks rise;" "politicians rise;" "they have risen to honour."

Raise is to lift up, to exalt, to enhance, as "I raise the table;" "He raised his servant;" liThe baker raised the price of bread."

LAY-LIE

The transitive verb lay, and lay, the past tense of the

Pi~falls to Avoid 1227 neuter verb lie, are often confounded, though quite different in meaning. The neuter verb to lie, meaning to lie down or rest, cannot take the objective after it except with a preposition. We can say "He lies on the ground," but we cannot say "He lies the ground," since the verb is neuter and intransitive and, as such, cannot have a direct object. With lay it is different. Lay is a transitive verb, therefore it takes a direct object after it; as "I lay a wager," "I laid the carpet," etc.

Of a carpet or any inanimate subject we should say, "It lies on the floor," "A knife lies on the table," not lays. But of a person we say-"He lays the knife on the table," not "He lies- -." Lay being the past tense of the neuter to lie (down) we should say, "He lay on the bed," and lain being its past participle we must also say "He has lain on the bed."

We can say "I lay myself down." "He laid himself down" and such expressions.

It is imperative to remember in using these verbs that to lay means to do something, and to lie means to be in a state of rest.

SAYS I-I SAID

"Says I" is a vulgarism; don't use it. "I said" is correct form.

IN-INTO

Be careful to distinguish the meaning of these two little prepositions and don't interchange them. Don't say "He went in the room" nor liMy brother is into the navy." In denotes the place where a person or thing, whether at rest or in motion, is present; and into denotes entrance. "He went into the room;" "My brother is in the navy" are correct.

EAT-ATE

Don't confound the two. Eat is present, ate is past. "I eat the bread" means that I am continuing the eating; "I ate the bread" means that the act of eating is past. Eaten is the

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perfect participle, but often eat is used instead, and as it has the same pronunciation (et) of ate, care should be taken to distinguish the past tense, I ate from the perfect I have eaten (eat).

SEQUENCE OF PERSON

Remember that the first person takes precedence of the second and the second takes precedence of the third. When Cardinal Wolsey said Ego et Rex (I and the King), he showed he was a gootl grammarian, but a bad courtier.

AM COME--HAVE COME

"I am come" points to my being here, while "I have come" intimates that I have just arrived. When the subject is not a person, the verb to be should be used in preference to the verb to have; as, "The box is come" instead of "The box has come."

PAST TENSE--PAST PARTICIPLE

The interchange of these two parts of the irregular or so-called strong verbs is, perhaps, the breach oftenest committed by careless speakers and writers. To avoid mistakes it is requisite to know the principal parts of these verbs, and this knowledge is very easy of acquirement, as there are not more than a couple of hundred of such verbs, and of this number but a small part is in daily use. Here are some of the most common blunders: "I seen" for "I saw;" "I done it" for "I did it;" "I drunk" for "I drank;" "I begun" for "I began;" "I rung" for "I rang;" "I run" for "I ran;" "I sung" for "I sang;" "I have chose" for "I have chosen;" "I have drove" for "I have driven;" "I have wore" for "I have worn;" "I have trod" for "I have trodden;" "I have shook" -for "I have shaken;" "I have fell" for "I have fallen;" "I have drank" for "I have drunk;" "I have began" for "I have begun;" "I have rang" for "I have rung;" "I have rose" for "I have risen;" "I have spoke" for "I have spoken;" "I have broke" for "I have broken." "It has froze" for "It has frozen."

Pitfalls to Avoid f229 "It has blowed" for "It has blown." "It has flowed" (of a bird) for "It has flown."

N. B.-The past tense and past participle of To Hang is hanged or hung. When you are talking about a man meeting death on the gallows, say "He was hanged"; when you are talking about the carcass of an animal say, "It was hung," as "The beef was hung dry." Also say your coat "was hung on a hook."

PREPOSITIONS AND THE OBJECTIVE CASE

Don't forget that prepositions always take the objective case. Don't say "Between you and I" ; say "Between you and me"

Two prepositions should not govern one objective unless there is an immediate connection between them. "He was refused admission to and forcibly ejected from the school" should be "He was refused admission to the school and forcibly ejected from it."

SUMMON-SUMMONS

Don't say "I shall summons him," but "I shall summon him." Summon is a verb, summons, a noun.

It is correct to say "I shall get a summons for him," not a summon.

UNDENIABLE-UNEXCEPTIONABLE

"My brother has an undeniable character" is wrong if I wish to convey the idea that he has a good character. The expression should be in that case "My brother has an unexceptionable character." An undeniable character is a character that cannot be denied, whether bad or good. An unexceptionable character is one to which no one can take exception.

THE PRONOUNS

Very many mistakes occur in the use of the pronouns. "Let you and I go" should be "Let you and me go." "Let

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them and we go" should be "Let them and us go." The verb let is transitive and therefore takes the objective case.

"Give me them flowers" should be "Give me those flowers"; "I mean them three" should be "I mean those three." Them is the objective case of the personal pronoun and cannot be used adjectively like the demonstrative adjective pronoun.

"I am as strong as him" should be "I am as strong as he"; "I am younger than her" should be "I am younger than she;" "He can write better than me" should be "He can write better than I," for in these examples the objective cases him, her and me are used wrongfully for the nominatives. After each of the misapplied pronouns a verb is understood of which each pronoun is the subject. Thus, "I am as strong as he (is)." "I am younger than she (is).~' "He can write better than I (can)."

Don't say ''It is me;" say ''It is I" The verb To Be of which is is a part takes the same case after it that it has before it. This holds good in all situations as well as with pronouns.

The verb To Be also requires the pronouns joined to it to be in the same case as a pronoun asking a question; The nominative I requires the nominative who and the objectives me, him, her, its, you, them, require the objective whom.

"Whom do you think I am?" should be "Who do you think I am?" and "Who do they suppose me to be?" should ~e "Whom do they suppose me to be?" The objective form of the Relative should be always used, in connection with a preposition. "Who do you take me for?" should be "Whom do, etc." "Who did you give the apple to?" should be "Whom did you give the apple to," but as pointed out elsewhere the preposition should never end a sentence, therefore, it is better to say, "To whom did you give the apple?"

After transitive verbs always use the objective cases of the pronouns. For "He and they we have seen," say "Him and them we have seen."

Pitfalls to Avoid f231

THAT FOR SO

"The hurt it was that painful it made him cry," say "so painful."

THESE-THOSE Don't say, These kind; those sort. Kind and sort are each

singular and require the singular pronouns this and that. In connection with these demonstrative adjective pronouns remember that this and these refer to what is near at hand, that and those to what is more distant; as, this book (near me), that book (over there), these boys (near), those boys (at a distance).

THIS MUCH-THUS MUCH

"This much is certain" should be "Thus much or so much is certain."

FLEE-FLY

These are two separate verbs and must not be interchanged. The principal parts of flee are flee, fled, fled; those of fly are fly, flew, flown. To flee is generally used in the meaning of getting out of danger. To fly means to soar as a bird. To say of a man "He has flown from the place" is wrong; it should be "He has fled from the place." We can say with propriety that" A bird has flown from the place."

THROUGH-THROUGHOUT

Don't say "He is well known through the land," but "He is well known throughout the land."

VOCATION AND AVOCATION

Don't mistake these two words so nearly alike. Vocation is the employment, business or profession one follows for a living; avocation is some pursuit or occupation which diverts the person from such employment, business or profession. Thus

"His vocation was the law, his avocation, farming."

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WAS-WERE

In the subjunctive mood the plural form were should be used with a singular subject; as, "If I were," not was. Remember the plural form of the personal pronoun you always takes were, though it may denote but one. Thus, "You were," never "you was." "If I was him" is a very common expression. Note the two mistakes in it,-that of the verb implying a condition, and that of the objective case of the pronoun. It should read If I were he. This is another illustration of the rule regarding the verb To Be, taking the same case after it as before it; were is part of the verb To Be, therefore as the nominative (I) goes before it, the nominative (he) should come after it.

AORAN

A becomes an before a vowel or before h mute for the sake of euphony or agreeable sound to the ear. An apple, an orange, an heir, an honour, etc.

Chapter 9

Style

DICTION, PURITY, PROPRIETY AND PRECISION

It is the object of every writer to put his thoughts into as effective form as possible so as to make a good impression on the reader. A person may have noble thoughts and ideas but be unable to express them in such a way as to appeal to others, consequently he cannot exert the full force of his intellectuality nor leave the imprint of his character upon his time, whereas many a man but indifferently gifted may wield such a facile pen as to attract attention and win for himself an envious place among his contemporaries.

In everyday life one sees illustrations of men of excellent mentality being cast aside and ones of mediocre or in some cases, little, if any, ability chosen to fill important places. The former are unable to impress their personality; they have great thoughts, great ideas, but these thoughts and ideas are locked up in their brains and are like prisoners behind the bars struggling to get free. The key of language which would open the door is wanting, hence they have to remain locked up.

Many a man has to pass through the world unheard of-' and of little benefit to it or himself, simply because he cannot bring out what is in him and make it subservient to his wili. It is the duty of every one to develop his best, not only for the benefit of himself but for the good of his fellow men. It is not at all necessary to have great learning or

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acquirements, the laborer is as useful in his own place as the philosopher in his; nor is it necessary to have many talents. One talent rightly used is much better than ten wrongly used. Often a man can do more with one than his contemporary can do with ten, often a man can make one dollar go farther than twenty in the hands of his neighbour, often the poor man lives more comfortably than the millionaire. All depends upon the individual himself. If he make right use of what the Creator has given him and live according to the laws of God and nature he is fulfilling his allotted place in the universal scheme of creation, in other words, when he does his best, he is living up to the standard of a useful manhood.

Now in order to do his best a man of ordinary intelligence and education should be able to express himself correctly both in speaking and writing, that is, he should be able to convey his thoughts in an intelligent manner which the Simplest can understand. The manner in which a speaker or writer conveys his thoughts is known as his Sty~e. In other words Style may be defined as the peculiar manner in which a man expresses his conceptions through the medium of language. It depends upon the choice of words and their arrangement to convey a meaning. Scarcely any two writers have exactly the same style, that is to say, express their ideas after the same peculiar form, just as no two mortals are fashioned by nature in the same mould, so that one is an exact counterpart of the other.

Just as men differ in the accent and tones of their voices, so do they differ in the construction of their language.

Two reporters sent out on the same mission, say to report a fire, will verbally differ in their accounts though materially both descriptions will be the same as far as the leading facts are concerned. One will express himself in a style different from the other.

If you are asked to describe the dancing of a red-haired lady at the last charity ball you can either say-"The ruby Circe, with the Titian locks glowing like the oriflamme

Style r235 which surrounds the golden god of day as he sinks to rest amid the crimson glory of the burnished West, gave a divine exhibition of the Terpsichorean art which thrilled the souls of the multitude" or, you can simply say-"The red-haired lady danced very well and pleased the audience."

The former is a specimen of the ultra florid or bombastic style which may be said to depend upon the pomposity of verbosity for its effect, the latter is a specimen of simple natural Style. Needless to say it is to be preferred. The other should be avoided. It stamps the writer as a person of shallowness, ignorance and inexperience. It has been eliminated from the newspapers. Even the most flatulent of yellow sheets no longer tolerate it in their columns. Affectation and pedantry in style are now universally condemned.

It is the duty of every speaker and writer to labour after a pleasing style. It gains him an entrance where he would otherwise be debarred. Often the interest of a subject depends as much on the way it is presented as on the subject itself. One writer will make it attractive, another repulsive. For instance take a passage in history. Treated by one historian it is like a desiccated mummy, dry, dull, disgusting, while under the spell of another it is, as it were, galvanized into a virile living thing which not only pleases but captivates the reader.

DICTION

The first requisite of style is choice of words, and this comes under the head of Diction, the property of style which has reference to the words and phrases used in speaking and writing. The secret of literary skill from any standpoint consists in putting the right word in the right_place. In order to do this it is imperative to know the meaning of the words we use, their exact literal meaning. Many synonymous words are seemingly interchangeable and appear as if the same meaning were applicable to three or four of them at the same time, but when all such words are reduced to a

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final analysis it is clearly seen that there is a marked difference in their meaning.

For instance grief and sorrow seem to be identical, but they are not. Grief is active, sorrow is more or less passive; grief is caused by troubles and misfortunes which come to us from the outside, while sorrow is often the consequence of our own acts. Grief is frequently loud and violent, sorrow is always quiet and retiring. Grief shouts, Sorrow remains calm.

If you are not sure of the exact meaning of a word look it up immediately in the dictionary. Sometimes some of our great scholars are puzzled over simple words in regard to meaning, spelling or pronunciation. Whenever you meet a strange word note it down until you discover its meaning and use. Read the best books you can get, books written by men and women who are acknowledged masters of language, and study how they use their words, where they place them in the sentences, and the meanings they convey to the readers. Mix in good society. Listen attentively to good talkers and try to imitate their manner of expression. If a word is used you do not understand, don't be ashamed to ask its meaning.

True, a small vocabulary will carry you through, but it is an advantage to have a large one. When you live alone a little pot serves just as well as a large one to cook your victuals and it is handy and convenient, but when your friends or neighbors come to dine with you, you will need a much larger pot and it is better to have it in store, so that you will not be put to shame for your scantiness of furnishings. Get as many words as you possibly can - if you don't need them now, pack them away in the garrets of your brain so that you can call upon them if you require them.

Keep a note book, jot down the words you don't understand or clearly understand and consult the dictionary when you get time.

PURITY

Purity of style consists in using words which are

Style 1237 reputable, national and present, which means that the words are in current use by the best authorities, that they are used throughout the nation and not confined to one particular part, and that they are words in constant use at the present time.

There are two guiding principles in the choice of words,- good use and good taste. Good use tells us whether a word is right or wrong; good taste, whether it is adapted to our purpose or not.

A word that is obsolete or too new to have gained a place in the language, or that is a provincialism, should not be used.

Here are the Ten Commandments of English style: • Do not use foreign words. • Do not use a long word when a short one will

serve your purpose. Fire is much better than conflagration.

• Do not use technical words, or those understood only by specialists in their respective lines, except when you are writing especially for such people.

• Do not use slang. • Do not use provincialisms, as "I guess" for "I

think"; "I reckon" for "I know," etc. • Do not in writing prose, use poetical or antiquated

words: as "lore, e'er, morn, yea, nay, verily, peradventure."

• Do not use trite and hackneyed words and expressions; as, lion the job," "Up and in"; "down and out."

• Do not use newspaper words which have not established a place in the language as lito bugle"; lito suicide," etc.

• Do not use ungrammatical words and forms; as, "I ain't;" "he don't."

• Do not use ambiguous words or phrases; as - "He showed me all about the house."

Trite words, similes and metaphors which have become

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hackneyed and worn out should be allowed to rest in the oblivion of past usage. Such expressions and phrases as "Sweet sixteen" "the Almighty dollar," "Uncle Sam," "On the fence," "The Glorious Fourth," "Young America," "The lords of creation," "The rising generation," "The weaker sex," "The weaker vessel," "Sweetness long drawn out" and "chief cook and bottle washer," should be put on the shelf as they are utterly worn out from too much usage.

Some of the old similes which have outlived their usefulness and should be pensioned off, are "Sweet as sugar," "Bold as a lion," "Strong as an ox," "Quick as a flash," "Cold as ice," "Stiff as a poker," "White as snow," "Busy as a bee," "Pale as a ghost," "Rich as Croesus," "Cross as a bear" and a great many more far too numerous to mention.

Be as original as possible in the use of expression. Don't follow in the old rut but try and strike out for yourself. This does not mean that you should try to set the style, or do anything outlandish or out of the way, or be an innovator on the prevailing custom. In order to be original there is no necessity for you to introduce something novel or establish a precedent.

The probability is you are not fit to do either, by education or talent. While following the style of those who are acknowledged leaders you can be original in your language. Try and clothe an idea different from what it has been clothed and better. If you are speaking or writing of dancing don't talk or write about "tripping the light fantastic toe." It is over two hundred years since Milton expressed it that w:]y in "L' Allegro." You're not a Milton and besides over a million have stolen it from Milton until it is now no longer worth stealing.

Don't resurrect obsolete words such as whilom, yclept, wis, etc., and be careful in regard to obsolescent words, that is, words that are at the present time gradually passing from use such as quoth, trow, betwixt, amongst, froward, etc.

And beware of new words. Be original in the

Style r239 construction and arrangement of your language, but don't try to originate words. Leave that to the Masters of language, and don't be the first to try such words, wait until the chemists of speech have tested them and passed upon their merits.

Quintilian said - "Prefer the oldest of the new and the newest of the old." Pope put this in rhyme and it still holds good:

In words, as fashions, the same rule will hold, Alike fantastic, if too new or old: Be not the first by whom the new are tried, Nor yet the last to lay the old aside.

PROPRIETY

Propriety of style consists in using words in their proper sense and as in the case of purity, good usage is the principal test. Many words have acquired in actual use a meaning very different from what they once possessed. "Prevent" formerly meant to go before, and that meaning is implied in its Latin derivation. Now it means to put a stop to, to hinder. To attain propriety of style it is necessary to avoid confounding words derived from the same root; as respectfully and respectively; it is necessary to use words in their accepted sense or the sense which everyday use sanctions.

SIMPLICITY

Simplicity of style has reference to the choice of simple words and their unaffected presentation. Simple words should always be used in preference to compound, and complicated ones when they express the same or almost the same meaning. The Anglo-Saxon element in our language comprises the simple words which express the relations of everyday life, strong, terse, vigorous, the language of the fireside, street, market and farm. It is this style which characterizes the Bible and many of the great English classics such as the "Pilgrim's Progress," "Robinson Crusoe," and "Gulliver's Travels."

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CLEARNESS Clearness of style should be one of the leading

considerations with the beginner in composition. He must avoid all obscurity and ambiguous phrases. If he write a sentence or phrase and see that a meaning might be inferred from it otherwise than intended, he should re-write it in such a way that there can be no possible doubt. Words, phrases or clauses that are closely related should be placed as near to each other as possible that their mutual relation may clearly appear, and no word should be omitted that is necessary to the complete expression of thought.

UNITY

Unity is that property of style which keeps all parts of a sentence in connection with the principal thought and logically subordinate to it. A sentence may be constructed as to suggest the idea of oneness to the mind, or it may be so loosely put together as to produce a confused and indefinite impression. Ideas that have but little connection should be expressed in separate sentences, and not crowded into one.

Keep long parentheses out of the middle of your sentences and when you have apparently brought your sentences to a close don't try to continue the thought or idea by adding supplementary clauses.

STRENGTH

Strength is that property of style which gives animation, energy and vivacity to language and sustains the interest of the reader. It is as necessary to language as good food is to the body. Without it the words are weak and feeble and create little or no impression on the mind. In order to have strength the language must be concise, that is, much expressed in little compass, you must hit the nail fairly on the head and drive it in straight. Go critically over what you write and strike out every word, phrase and clause the omission of which impairs neither the clearness nor force

Style 1241 of the sentence and so avoid redundancy, tautology and circumlocution. Give the most important words the most prominent places, which, as has been pointed out elsewhere, are the beginning and end of the sentence.

HARMONY

Harmony is that property of style which gives a smoothness to the sentence, so that when the words are sounded their connection becomes pleasing to the ear. It adapts sound to sense. Most people construct their sentences without giving thought to the way they will sound and as a consequence we have many jarring and discordant combinations such as "Thou strengthenedst thy position and actedst arbitrarily and derogatorily to my interests."

Harsh, disagreeable verbs are liable to occur with the Quaker form Thou of the personal pronoun. This form is now nearly obsolete, the plural you being almost universally used. To obtain harmony in the sentence long words that are hard to pronounce and combinations of letters of one kind sh':mld be avoided.

EXPRESSIVE OF WRITER

Style is expressive of the writer, as to who he is and what he is. As a matter of structure in composition it is the indication of what a man can do; as a matter of quality it is an indication of what he is.

KINDS OF STYLE

Style has been classified in different ways, but it admits of so many designations that it is very hard to enumerate a table. In fact there are as many styles as there are writers, for no two authors write exactly after the same form. However, we may classify the styles of the various authors in broad divisions as (1) dry, (2) plain, (3) neat, (4) elegant, (5) florid, (6) bombastic.

The dry style excludes all ornament and makes no effort

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to appeal to any sense of beauty. Its object is simply to express the thoughts In a correct manner. This style is exemplified by Berkeley.

The plain style does not seek ornamentation either, but aims to make clear and concise statements without any elaboration or embellishment. Locke and Whately illustrate the plain style.

The neat style only aspires after ornament sparingly. Its object is to have correct figures, pure diction and clear and harmonious sentences. Goldsmith and Gray are the acknowledged leaders in this kind of style.

The elegant style uses every ornament that can beautify and avoids every excess which would degrade. Macaulay and Addison have been enthroned as the kings of this style. To them all writers bend the knee in homage.

The florid style goes to excess in superfluous and superficial ornamentation and strains after a highly colored imagery. The poems of Ossian typify this style.

The bombastic is characterized by such an excess of words, figures and ornaments as to be ridiculous and disgusting. It is like a circus clown dressed up in gold tinsel Dickens gives a fine example of it in Sergeant Buzfuz' speech in the "Pickwick Papers." Among other varieties of style may be mentioned the colloquial, the laconic, the concise, the diffuse, the abrupt the flowing, the quaint, the epigrammatic, the flowery, the feeble, the nervous, the vehement, and the affected. The manner of these is sufficiently indicated by the adjective used to describe them.

In fact style is as various as character and expresses the individuality of the writer, or in other words, as the French writer Buffon very aptly remarks, "the style is the man himself."

Chapter 10

Suggestions

HOW TO WRITE, WHAT TO WRITE, CORRECT SPEAKING AND SPEAKERS

Rules of grammar and rhetoric are good in their own place; their laws must be observed in order to express thoughts and ideas in the right way so that they shall convey a determinate sense and meaning in a pleasing and acceptable manner. Hard and fast rules, however, can never make a writer or author. That is the business of old Mother Nature and nothing can take her place. If nature has not endowed a man with faculties to put his ideas into proper composition he cannot do so. He may have no ideas worthy the recording.

If a person has not a thought to express, it cannot be expressed. Something cannot be manufactured out of nothing. The author must have thoughts and ideas before he can express them on paper. These come to him by nature and environment and are developed and strengthened by study. There is an old Latin quotation in regard to the poet which says "Poeta nascitur non fit" the translation of which is-the poet is born, not made. To a great degree the same applies to the author. Some men are great scholars as far as book learning is concerned, yet they cannot express themselves in passable composition. Their knowledge is like gold locked up in a chest where it is of no value to themselves or the rest of the world.

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The best way to learn to write is to sit down and write, just as the best way how to learn to r.ide a bicycle is to mount the wheel and pedal away. Write first about common things, subjects that are familiar to you.

Try for instance an essay on a cat. Say something original about her. Don't say "she is very playful when young but becomes grave as she grows old." That has been said more than fifty thousand times before.

Tell what you have seen the family cat doing, how she caught a mouse in the garret and what she did after catching it. Familiar themes are always the best for the beginner. Don't attempt to describe a scene in Australia if you have never been there and know nothing of the country.

Never hunt for subjects, there are thousands around you. Describe what you saw yesterday - a fire, a runaway horse, a dog-fight on the street and be original in your description. Imitate the best writers in their style, but not in their exact words. Get out of the beaten path, make a pathway of your own.

Know what you write about, write about what you know; this is a golden rule to which you must adhere. To know you must study.

The world is an open book in which all who run may read. Nature is one great volume the pages of which are open to the peasant as well as to the peer. Study Nature's moods and tenses, for they are vastly more important than those of the grammar.

Book learning is most desirable, but, after all, it is only theory and not practice. The grandest allegory in the English, in fact, in any language, was written by an ignorant, so-called ignorant, tinker named John Bunyan. Shakespeare was not a scholar in the sense we regard the term to-day, yet no man ever lived or probably ever will live that equalled or will equal him in the expression of thought. He simply read the book of nature and interpreted it from the standpoint of his own magnificent genius.

Suggestions f245 Don't imagine that a college education is necessary to

success as a writer. Far from it. Some of our college men are dead-heads, drones,

parasites on the body social, not alone useless to the world but to themselves. A person may be so ornamental that he is valueless from any other standpoint. As a ge!leral rule ornamental things serve but little purpose. A man may know so much of everything that he knows little of anything. This may sound paradoxical, but, nevertheless, experience proves its truth.

If you are poor that is not a detriment but an advantage. Poverty is an incentive to endeavor, not a drawback. Better to be born with a good, working brain in your head than with a gold spoon in your mouth. If the world had been depending on the so-called pets of fortune it would have deteriorated long ago.

From the pits of poverty, from the arenas of suffering, from the hovels of neglect, from the backwood cabins of obscurity, from the lanes and by-ways of oppression, from the dingy garrets and basements of unending toil and drudgery have come men and women who have made history, made the world brighter, better, higher, holier for their existence in it, made of it a place good to live in and worthy to die in, - men and women who have hallowed it by their footsteps and sanctified it with their presence and in many cases consecrated it with their blood. Poverty is a blessing, not an evil, a benison from the Father's hand if accepted in the right spirit.

Instead of retarding, it has elevated literature in all ages. Homer was a blind beggarman singing his snatches of song for the dole of charity; grand old Socrates, oracle of wisdom, many a day went without his dinner because he had not the wherewithal to get it, while teaching the youth of Athens. The divine Dante was nothing better than a beggar, houseless, homeless, friendless, wandering through Italy while he composed his immortal cantos. Milton, who in his blindness "looked where angels fear to tread," was steeped

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in poverty while writing his sublime conception, "Paradise Lost." Shakespeare was glad to hold and water the horses of patrons outside the White Horse Theatre for a few pennies in order to buy bread. Burns burst forth in never­dying song while guiding the ploughshare. Poor Heinrich Heine, neglected and in poverty, from his "mattress grave" of suffering in Paris added literary laurels to the wreath of his German Fatherland. In America Elihu Burritt, while attending the anvil, made himself a master of a score of languages and became the literary lion of his age and country.

In other fields of endeavor poverty has been the spur to action. Napoleon was born in obscurity, the son of a hand­to-mouth scrivener in the backward island of Corsica. Abraham Lincoln, the boast and pride of America, the man who made this land too hot for the feet of slaves, came from a log cabin in the Ohio backwoods. So did James A. Garfield. Ulysses Grant came from a tanyard to become the world's greatest general. Thomas A. Edison commenced as a newsboy on a railway train.

The examples of these men are incentives to action. Poverty thrust them forward instead of keeping them back. Therefore, if you are poor make your circumstances a means to an end. Have ambition, keep a "goal in sight and bend every energy to reach that goal. A story is told of Thomas Carlyle the day he attained the highest honour the literary world could confer upon him when he was elected Lord Rector of Edinburgh University.

After his installation speech, in going through the haHs, he met a student seemingly deep in study. In his own peculiar, abrupt, crusty way the Sage of Chelsea interrogated the young man: "For what profession are you studying?" "I don't know," returned the youth. "You don't know," thundered Carlyle, "young man, you are a fool." Then he went on to qualify his vehement remark, "My boy when I was your age, I was stooped in grinding, gripping poverty in the little village of Ecclefechan, in the wilds of

Suggestions r247 [Transcriber's note: First part of word illegible ]-frieshire, where in all the place only the minister and myself could read the Bible, yet poor and obscure as I was, in my mind's eye I saw a chair awaiting for me in the Temple of Fame and day and night and night and day I studied until I sat in that chair to-day as Lord Rector of Edinburgh University."

Another Scotchman, Robert Buchanan, tne famous novelist, set out for London from Glasgow with but half-a­crown in his pocket. "Here goes," said·he, "for a grave in Westminster Abbey." He was not much of a scholar, but his ambition carried him on and he became one of the great literary lions of the world's metropolis.

Henry M. Stanley was a poorhouse waif whose real name was John Rowlands. He was brought up in a Welsh workhouse, but he had ambition, so he rose to be a great explorer, a great writer, became a member of Parliament and was knighted by the British Sovereign.

Have ambition to succeed and you will succeed. Cut the word "failure" out of your lexicon. Don't acknowledge it. Remember

"In life's earnest battle they only prevail Who daily march onward and never say fail." Let every obstacle you encounter be but a stepping

stone in the path of onward progress to the goal of success. If untoward circumstances surround you, resolve to

overcome them. Bunyan wrote the "Pilgrim's Progress" in Bedford jail on scraps of wrapping paper while he was half starved on a diet of bread and water. That unfortunate American genius, Edgar Allan Poe, wrote "The Raven," the most wonderful conception as well as the most highly artistic poem in all English literature, in a little cottage in the Fordham section of New York while he was in the direst straits of want. Throughout all his short and wonderfully brilliant career, poor Poe never had a dollar he could call his own. Such, however, was both his fault and his misfortune and he is a bad exemplar.

Don't think that the knowledge of a library of books is

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essential to success as a writer. Often a multiplicity of books is confusing. Master a few good books and master them well and you will have all that is necessary.

A great authority has said: "Beware of the man of one book," which means that a man of one book is a master of the craft. It is claimed that a thorough knowledge of the Bible alone will make any person a master of literature.

Certain it is that the Bible and Shakespeare constitute an epitome of the essentials of knowledge. Shakespeare gathered the fruitage of all who went before him, he has sown the seeds for all who shall ever come after him. He was the great intellectual ocean whose waves touch the continents of all thought.

Books are cheap now-a-days, the greatest works, thanks to the printing press, are within the reach of all, and the more you read, the better, provided they are worth reading. Sometimes a man takes poison into his system unconscious of the fact that it is poison, as in the case of certain foods, and it is very hard to throw off its effects.

Therefore, be careful in your choice of reading matter. If you cannot afford a full library, and as has been said, such is not necessary, select a few of the great works of the master minds, assimilate and digest them, so that they will be of advantage to your literary system. Elsewhere in this volume is given a list of some of the world's masterpieces from which you can make a selection.

Your brain is a storehouse, don't put useless furniture into it to crowd it to the exclusion of what is useful. Lay up only the valuable and serviceable kind which you can call into requisition at any moment.

As it is necessary to study the best authors in order to be a writer, so it is necessary to study the best speakers in order to talk with correctness and in good style.

To talk rightly you must imitate the masters of oral speech. Listen to the best conversationalists and how they express themselves. Go to hear the leading lectures, speechec:: and sermons. No need to imitate the gestures of

Suggestions 1249 elocution, it is nature, not art, that makes the elocutionist and the orator. It is not how a speaker expresses himself but the language which he uses and the manner of its use which should interest you.

Have you heard the present day masters of speech? There have been past time masters but their tongues are stilled in the dust of the grave, and you can only read their eloquence now. You can, however, listen.to the charm of the living. To many of us voices still speak from the grave, voices to which we have listened when fired with the divine essence of speech. Perhaps you have hung with rapture on the words of Beecher and Talmage.

Both thrilled the souls of men and won countless thousands over to a living gospel. Both were masters of words, they scattered the flowers of rhetoric on the shrine of eloquence and hurled veritable bouquets at their audiences which were eagerly seized by the latter and treasured in the storehouse of memory. Both were scholars and philosophers, yet they were far surpassed by Spurgeon, a plain man of the people with little or no claim to education in the modern sense of the word. Spurgeon by his speech attracted thousands to his Tabernacle.

The Protestant and Catholic, Turk, Jew and Mohammedan rushed to hear him and listened, entranced, to his language. Such another was Dwight L. Moody, the greatest Evangelist the world has ever known. Moody was not a man of learning; he commenced life as a shoe salesman in Chicago, yet no man ever lived who drew such audiences and so fascinated them with the spell of his speech.

"0h, that was personal magnetism," you will say, but it was nothing of the kind. It was the burning words that' fell from the lips of these men, and the way, the manner, the force with which they used those words that counted and attracted the crowds to listen unto them. Personal magnetism or personal appearance entered not as factors into their success. Indeed as far as physique were concerned, some of them were handicapped.

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Spurgeon was a short, podgy, fat little man, Moody was like a country farmer, Talmage in r-is big cloak was one of the most slovenly of men and only Beecher was passable in the way of refinement and gentlemanly bearing. Physical appearance, as so many think, is not the sesame to the interest of an audience.

Daniel O'Connell, the Irish tribune, was a homely, ugly, awkward, ungainly man, yet his words attracted millions to his side and gained for him the hostile ear of the British Parliament, he was a master of verbiage and knew just what to say to captivate his audiences.

It is words and their placing that count on almost all occasions. No matter how refined in other respects the person may be, if he use words wrongly and express himself in language not in accordance with a proper construction, he will repel you, whereas the man who places his words correctly and employs language in harmony with the laws of good speech, let him be ever so humble, will attract and have an influence over you.

The good speaker, the correct speaker, is always able to command attention and doors are thrown open to him which remain closed to others not equipped with a like facility of expression. The man who can talk well and to the point need never fear to go idle.

He is required in nearly every walk of life and field of human endeavor, the world wants him at every turn. Employers are constantly on the lookout for good talkers, those who are able to attract the public and convince others by the force of their language. ~ man may be able, educated, refined, of unblemished character, nevertheless if he lack the power to express himself, put forth his views in good and appropriate speech he has to take a back seat, while some one with much less ability gets the opportunity to come to the front because he can clothe his ideas in ready words and talk effectively.

You may again say that nature, not art, makes a man a fluent speaker; to a great degree this is true, but it is art

Suggestions f2s1 that makes him a correct speaker, and correctness leads to fluency. It is possible for everyone to become a correct speaker if he will but persevere and take a little pains and care.

At the risk of repetition good advice may be here emphasized: Listen to the best speakers and note carefully the words which impress you most. Keep a notebook and jot down words, phrases, sentences that are in any way striking or out of the ordinary run.

If you do not understand the exact meaning of a word you have heard, look it up in the dictionary. There are many words, called synonyms, \"lhich have almost a like signification, nevertheless, when examined they express different shades of meaning and in some cases, instead of being close related, are widely divergent. Beware of such words, find their exact meaning and learn to use them in their right places.

Be open to criticism, don't resent it but rather invite it and look upon those as friends who point out your defects in order that you may remedy them.

Chapter 11

Slang

ORIGIN, AMERICAN SLANG AND FOREIGN SLANG

Slang is more or less common in nearly all ranks of society and in every walk of life at the present day. Slang words and expressions have crept into our everyday language, and so insiduously, that they have not been detected by the great majority of speakers, and so have become part and parcel of their vocabulary on an equal footing with the legitimate words of speech.

They are called upon to do similar service as the ordinary words used in everyday conversation -to express thoughts and desires and convey meaning from one to another. In fact, in some cases, slang has become so useful that it has far outstripped classic speech and made for itself such a position in the vernacular that it would be very hard in some cases to get along without it. Slang words have usurped the place of regular words of language in very many instances and reign supreme in their own strength and influence.

Cant and slang are often confused in the popular mind, yet they are not synonymous, though very closely allied, and proceeding from a common Gypsy origin. Cant is the language of a certain class-the peculiar phraseology or dialect of a certain craft, trade or profession, and is not readily understood save by the initiated of such craft, trade or profession. It may be correct, according to the rules of

Slang I2s3 grammar, but it is not universal; it is confined to certain parts and localities and is only intelligible to those for whom it is intended. In short, it is an esoteric language which only the initiated can understand. The jargon, or patter, of thieves is cant and it is only understood by thieves who have been let into its significance; the initiated language of professional gamblers is cant, and is only intelligible to gamblers.

On the other hand, slang, as it is nowadays, belongs to no particular class but is scattered all over and gets entre into every kind of society and is 'mderstood by all where it passes current in everyday expression. Of course, the nature of the slang, to a great extent, depends upon the locality, as it chiefly is concerned with colloquialisms or words and phrases common to a particular section. For instance, the slang of London is slightly different from that of New York, and some words in the one city may be unintelligible in the other, though well understood in that in which they are current. Nevertheless, slang may be said to be universally understood. liTo kick the bucket," lito cross the Jordan," lito hop the twig" are just as expressive of the departing from life in the backwoods of America or the wilds of Australia as they are in London or Dublin.

Slang simply consists of words and phrases which pass current but are not refined, nor elegant enough, to be admitted into polite speech or literature whenever they are recognized as such. But, as has been said, a great many use slang without their !mowing it as slang and incorporate it into their everyday speech and conversation.

Some authors purposely use slang tp give emphasis and spice in familiar and humorous writirtg, but they should not be imitated by the tyro. A master, such as Dickens, is forgivable, but in the novice it is unpardonable.

There are several kinds of slang attached to different professions and classes of society. For instance, there is college slang, political slang, sporting slang, etc. It is the nature of slang to circulate freely among all classes, yet there are several kinds of this current form of language

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corresponding to the several classes of society. The two great divisions of slang are the vulgar of the uneducated and coarse-minded, and the high-toned slang of the so­called upper classes-the educated and the wealthy.

The hoyden of the gutter does not use the same slang as my lady in her boudoir, but both use it, and so expressive is it that the one might readily understand the other if brought in contact. Therefore, there are what may be styled an ignorant slang and an educated slang-the one common to the purlieus and the alleys, the other to the parlor and the drawing-room.

In all cases the object of slang is to express an idea in a more vigorous, piquant and terse manner than standard usage ordinarily admits. A school girl, when she wants to praise a baby, exclaims: "Oh, isn't he awfully cute!" To say that he is very nice would be too weak a way to express her admiration. When a handsome girl appears on the street an enthusiastic masculine admirer, to express his appreciation of her beauty, tells you: "She is a peach, a bird, a cuckoo," any of which accentuates his estimation of the young lady and is much more emphatic than saying: "She is a beautiful girl," "a handsome maiden," or "lovely young woman."

When a politician defeats his rival he will tell you "it was a cinch," he had a "walk-over," to impress you how easy it was to gain the victory.

Some slang expressions are of the nature of metaphors and are highly figurative. Such are "to pass in your checks," "to hold up," "to pull the wool over your eyes," "to talk through your hat," "to fire out," "to go back on," "to make yourself solid with," "to have a jag on," "to be loaded," "to freeze on to," "to bark up the wrong tree," "don't monkey with the buzz-saw," and "in the soup." Most slang had a bad origin. The greater part originated in the cant of thieves' Latin, but it broke away from this cant of malefactors in time and gradually evolved itself from its unsavory past until it developed into a current form of expressive speech. Some

-------------------------------~ slang, however, can trace its origin back to very respectable sources.

"Stolen fruits are sweet" may be traced to the Bible in sentiment. Proverbs, ix:17 has it: "Stolen waters are sweet." "What are you giving me," supposed to be a thorough Americanism, is based upon Genesis, xxxviii:16. The common slang, "a bad man," in referring to Western desperadoes, in almost the identical sense now used, is found in Spenser's Faerie Queen, Massinger's play "A New Way to Pay Old Debts," and in Shakespeare's "King Henry VIII." The expression "to blow on," meaning to inform, is in Shakespeare's" As You Like it." "It's all Greek to me" is traceable to the play of "Julius Caesar." "All cry and no wool" is in Butler's "Hudibras." "Pious frauds," meaning hypocrites, is from the same source. "Too thin," referring to an excuse, is from Smollett's "Peregrine Pickle." Shakespeare also used it.

America has had a large share in contributing to modern slang. "The heathen Chinee," and "Ways that are dark, and tricks that are vain," are from Bret Harte's Truthful James. "Not for Joe," arose during the Civil War when one soldier refused to give a drink to another. "Not if I know myself" had its origin in Chicago. "What's the matter with - - ?

He's all right," had its beginning in Chicago also and first was "What's the matter with Hannah." referring to a lazy domestic servant. "There's millions in it," and "By a large majority" come from Mark Twain's Gilded Age. "Pull down your vest," "jim-jams," "got 'em bad," "that's what's the matter," "go hire a hall," "take in your sign," "dry up," "hump yourself," "it's the man around the comer," "putting up a job," "put a head on him," "no back talk," "bottom dollar," "went off on his ear," "chalk it down," "staving him off," "making it warm," "dropping him gently," "dead gone," "busted," "counter jumper," "put up or shut up," "bang up," "smart Aleck," "too much jaw," "chin-music," "top heavy," "barefooted on the top of the head," "a little

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too fresh," "champion liar," "chief cook and bottle washer," "bag and baggage," "as fine as silk," "name your poison," "died with his boots on," "old hoss," "hunkey dorey," "hold your horses," "galout" and many others in use at present are all Americanisms in slang.

California especially has been most fecund in this class of figurative language. To this State we owe "go off and die," "don't you forget it," "rough deal," "square deaL" "flush times," "pool your issues," "go bury yourself," "go drown yourself," "give your tongue a vacation," "a bad egg," "go climb a tree," "plug hats," "Dolly Vardens," "well fixed," "down to bed rock," "hard pan," "pay dirt," "petered out," "it won't wash," "slug of whiskey," "it pans out well," and "I should smile."

"Small potatoes, and few in the hill," "soft snap," "all fired," "gol durn it," "an up-hill job," "slick," "short cut," "guess not," "correct thing" are Bostonisms. The terms "innocent," "acknowledge the corn," "bark up the wrong tree," "great snakes," "I reckon," "playing 'possum," "dead shot," had their origin in the Southern States. "Doggone it," "that beats the Dutch," "you bet," "you bet your boots," sprang from New York. "Step down and out" originated in the Beecher trial, just as "brain-storm" originated in the Thaw trial.

Among the slang phrases that have come directly to us from England may be mentioned "throw up the sponge," "draw it mild," "give us a rest," "dead beat," "on the shelf," "up the spout," "stunning," "gift of the gab," etc.

The newspapers are responsible for a large part of the slang. Reporters, staff writers, and even editors, put words and phrases into the mouths of individuals which they never utter. New York is supposed to be the headquarters of slang, particularly that portion of it known as the Bowery. All transgressions and corruptions of language are supposed to originate in that unclassic section, while the truth is that the laws of polite English are as much violated on Fifth Avenue. Of course, the foreign element mincing

--------------------------------~ their "pidgin" English have given the Bowery an unenviable reputation, but there are just as good speakers of the vernacular on the Bowery as elsewhere in the greater city.

Yet every inexperienced newspaper reporter thinks that it is incumbent on him to hold the Bowery,up to ridicule and laughter, so he sits down, and out of his circumscribed brain, mutilates the English tongue (he can rarely coin a word), and blames the mutilation on the Bowery.

'Tis the same with newspapers and authors, too, detracting the Irish race. Men and women who have never seen the green h!11s of Ireland, paint Irish characters as boors and blunderers and make them say ludicrous things and use such language as is never heard within the four walls of Ireland. 'Tis very well known that Ireland is the most learned country on the face of the earth - is, and has been. The schoolmaster has been abroad there for hundreds, almost thousands, of years, and nowhere else in the world to-day is the king's English spoken so purely as in the cities and towns of the little Western Isle.

Current events, happenings of everyday life, often give rise to slang words, and these, after a time, come into such general use that they take their places in everyday speech like ordinary words and, as has been said, their users forget that they once were slang.

For instance, the days of the Land League in Ireland originated the word boycott, which was the name of a very unpopular landlord, Captain Boycott. The people refused to work for him, and his crops rotted on the ground. From this time anyone who came into disfavor and whom his neighbors refused to assist in any way was said to be boycotted. Therefore to boycott means to punish by abandoning or depriving a person of the assistance of others. At first it was a notoriously slang word, but now it is standard in the English dictionaries.

Politics add to our slang words and phrases. From this source we get "dark horse," "the gray mare is the better horse," "barrel of money," "buncombe," "gerrymander,"

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"scalawag," "henchman," "logrolling," "pulling the wires," "taking the stump," "machine," "slate," etc.

The money market furnishes us with "corner," "bull," "bear," "lamb," "slump," and several others.

The custom of the times and the requirements of current expression require the best of us to use slang words and phrases on occasions. Often we do not know they are slang, just as a child often uses profane words without consciousness of their being so.

We should avoid the use of slang as much as possible, even when it serves to convey our ideas in a forceful manner. And when it has not gained a firm foothold in current speech it should be used not at all. Remember that most all slang is of vulgar origin and bears upon its face the bend sinister of vulgarity.

Of the slang that is of good birth, pass it by if you can, for it is like a broken-down gentleman, of little good to any one. Imitate the great masters as much as you will in classical literature, but when it comes to their slang, draw the line. Dean Swift, the great Irish satirist, coined the word "phiz" for face.

Don't imitate him. If you are speaking or writing of the beauty of a lady's face don't call it her "phiz." The Dean, as an intellectual giant, had a license to do so-you haven't. Shakespeare used the word "flush" to indicate plenty of money.

Well, just remember there was only one Shakespeare, and he was the only one that had a right to use that word in that sense. You'll never be a Shakespeare, there will never be such another-Nature exhausted herself in producing him. Bulwer used the word "stretch" for hang, as to stretch his neck.

Don't follow his example in such use of the word. Above all, avoid the low, coarse, vulgar slang, which is made to pass for wit among the riff-raff of the street. If you are speaking or writing of a person having died last night don't say or w'rite: "He hopped the twig," or "he kicked

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the bucket." If you are compelled to listen to a person discoursing on a subject of which he knows little or nothing, don't say "He is talking through his hat." If you are telling of having shaken hands with Mr. Roosevelt don't say "He tipped me his flipper." If you are speaking of a wealthy man don't say "He has plenty of spondulix," or "the long green." All such slang is low, coarse and vulgar and is to be frowned upon on any and every occasion.

If you use slang use the refined kind and use it like a gentleman, that it will not hurt or give offense to anyone. Cardinal Newman defined a gentleman as he who never inflicts pain. Be a gentleman in your slang-never inflict pain.

Chapter 12

Writing for Newspapers

QUALIFICATION, APPROPRIATE SUBJECTS AND DIRECTIONS

The newspaper nowadays goes into every home in the land; what was formerly regarded as a luxury is now looked upon as a necessity. No matter how poor the individual, he is not too poor to afford a penny to learn, not alone what is taking place around him in his own immediate vicinity, but also. what is happening in every quarter of the globe.

The laborer on the street can be as well posted on the news of the day as the banker in his office. Through the newspaper he can feel the pulse of the country and find whether its vitality is increasing or diminishing; he can read the signs of the times and scan the political horizon for what concerns his own interests.

The doings of foreign countries are spread before him and he can see at a glance the occurrences in the remotest corners of earth. If a fire occurred in London last night he can read about it at his breakfast table in New York this morning, and probably get a better account than the Londoners themselves: If a duel takes place in Paris he can read all about it even before the contestants have left the field.

There are upwards of 3,000 daily newspapers in the U!l~ted States, more than 2,000 of which are published in t@wns containing less than 100,000 inhabitants. In fact, many

Writing for Newspapers I26l places of less than 10,000 population can boast the publishing of a daily newspaper. There are more than 15,000 weeklies published. Some of the so-called country papers wield quite an influence in their localities, and even outside, and are money-making agencies for their owners and those connected with them, both by way of circulation and advertisements.

It is surprising the number of people in this country who make a living in the newspaper field. Apart from the regular toilers there are thousands of men and women who make newspaper work a side issue, who add tidy sums of "pin money" to their incomes by occasional contributions to the daily, weekly and monthly press. Most of these people are only persons of ordinary, everyday ability, having just enough education to express themselves intelligently in writing.

It is a mistake to imagine, as so many do, that an extended education is necessary for newspaper work. Not at all! On the contrary, in some cases, a high-class education is a hindrance, not a help in this direction.

The general newspaper does not want learned disquisitions nor philosophical theses; as its name implies, it wants news, current news, interesting news, something to appeal to its readers, to arouse them and rivet their attention. In this respect very often a boy can write a better article than a college professor. The professor would be apt to use words beyond the capacity of most of the readers, while the boy, not knowing such words, would probably simply tell what he saw, how great the damage was, who were killed or injured, etc., and use language which all would understand.

Of course, there are some brilliant scholars, deeply-read men and women in the newspaper realm, but, on the whole, those who have made the greatest names commenced ignorant enough and most of them graduated by way of the country paper. Some of the leading writers of England and America at the present time started their literary careers

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by contributing to the rural press. They perfected and polished themselves as they went along until they were able to make names for themselves in universal literature.

If you want to contribute to newspapers or enter the newspaper field as a means of livelihood, don't let lack of a college or university education stand in your way. As has been said elsewhere in this book, some of the greatest masters of English literature were men who had but little advantage in the way of book learning. Shakespeare, Bunyan, Burns, and scores of others, who have left their names indelibly inscribed on the tablets of fame, had little to boast of in the way of book education, but they had what is popularly known as "horse" sense and a good working knowledge of the world; in other words, they understood human nature, and were natural themselves.

Shakespeare understood mankind because he was himself a man; hence he has portrayed the feelings, the emotions, the passions with a master's touch, delineating the king in his palace as true to nature as he has done the peasant in his hut.

The monitor within his own breast gave him warning as to what was right and what was wrong, just as the daemon ever by the side of old Socrates whispered in his ear the course to pursue under any and all circumstances. Burns guiding the plough conceived thoughts and clothed them in a language which has never, nor probably never will be, surpassed by all the learning which art can confer. These men were naturat and it was the perfection of this naturality that wreathed their brows with the never-fading laurels of undying fame.

If you would essay to write for the newspaper you must be natural and express yourself in your accustomed way without putting on airs or frills; you must not ape ornaments and indulge in bombast or rhodomontade which stamp a writer as not only superficial but silly.

There is no room for such in the everyday newspaper. It wants facts stated in plain, unvarnished, unadorned

Writingfor Newspapers r263 language. True, you should read the best authors and, as far as possible, imitate their style, but don't try to literally copy them. Be yourself on every occasion-no one else.

Not like Homer would I write, Not like Dante if I might, Not like Shakespeare at his best, Not like Goethe or the rest, Like myself, however small, Like myself, or not at all. Put yourself in place of the reader and write what will

interest yourself and in such a way that your language will appeal to your own ideas of the fitness of things. You belong to the great commonplace majority, therefore don't forget that in writing for the newspapers you are writing for that majority and not for the learned and aesthetic minority.

Remember you are writing for the man on the street and in the street car, you want to interest him, to compel him to read what you have to say. He does not want a display of learning; he wants news about something which concerns himself, and you must tell it to him in a plain, simple manner just as you would do if you were face to face with him.

What can you write about? Why about anything that will constitute current news, some leading event of the day, anything 'that will appeal to the readers of the paper to which you wish to submit it. No matter in what locality you may live, however backward it may be, you can always find something of genuine human interest to others.

If there is no news happening, write of something that appeals to yourself. We are all constituted alike, and the chances are that what will interest you will interest others. Descriptions of adventure are generally acceptable. Tell of a fox hunt, or a badger hunt, or a bear chase.

If there is any important manufacturing plant in your neighborhood describe it and, if possible, get photographs, for photography plays a very important part in the news items of to-day. If a "great" man lives near you, one whose

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name is on the tip of every tongue, go and get an interview with him, obtain his views on the public questions of the day, describe his home life and his surroundings and how­he spends his time.

Try and strike something germane to the moment, something that stands out prominently in the ljmelight of the passing show. If a noted personage, some famous man or woman, is visiting the country, it is a good time to write up the place from which he or she comes and the record he or she has made there.

For instance, it was opportune to write of Sulu and the little Pacific archipelago during the Sultan's trip through the country. If an attempt is made to blow up an American battleship, say, in the harbor of Appia, in Samoa, it affords a chance to write about Samoa and Robert Louis Stephenson.

When Manuel was hurled from the throne of Portugal it was a ripe time to write of Portugal and Portuguese affairs. If any great occurrence is taking place in a foreign country such as the crowning of a king or the dethronement of a monarch, it is a good time to write up the history of the country and describe the events leading up to the main issue. When a particularly savage outbreak occurs amongst wild tribes in the dependencies, such as a rising of the MaI\obos in the Philippines, it is opportune to write of such tribes and their surroundings, and the causes leading up to the revolt.

Be constantly on the lookout for something that will suit the passing hour, read the daily papers and probably in some obscure corner you may find something that will serve you as a foundation for a good article-something, at least, that will give you a clue.

Be circumspect in your selection of a paper to which to submit your copy. Know the tone and general import of the paper, its social leanings and political affiliations, also its. religious sentiments, and, in fact, all the particulars you can regardi,:,g it. It would be injudicious for you to send an

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article on a prize fight to a religious paper or, vice versa, an account of a church meeting to the editor of a sporting sheet.

If you get your copy back don't be disappointed nor yet disheartened. Perseverance counts more in the newspaper field than anywhere else, and only perseverance wins in the long run. You must become resilient; if you are pressed down, spring up again. No matter how many rebuffs you may receive, be not discouraged but call fresh energy to your assistance and make another stand. If the right stuff is in you it is sure to be discovered; your light will not remain long hidden under a bushel in the newspaper domain. If you can deliver the goods editors will soon be begging you instead of your begging them. Those men are constantly on the lookout for persons who can make good.

Once you get into print the battle is won, for it will be an incentive to you to persevere and improve yourself at every turn. Go over everything you write, cut and slash and prune until you get it into as perfect form as possible. Eliminate every superfluous word and be careful to strike out all ambiguous expressions and references.

If you are writing for a weekly paper remember it differs from a daily one. Weeklies want what will not alone interest the man on the street, but the woman at the fireside; they want out-of-the-way facts, curious scraps of lore, personal notes of famous or eccentric people, reminiscences of exciting experiences, interesting gleanings in life's numberless by-ways, in short, anything that will entertain, amuse, instruct the home circle.

There is always something occurring in your immediate surroundings, some curious event or thrilling episode that will furnish you with data for an article. You must know the nature of the weekly to which you submit your copy the same as you must know the daily. For instance, the Christian Herald, while avowedly a religious weekly, treats such secular matter as makes the paper appeal to all. On its religious side it is non-sectarian, covering the broad field

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of Christianity throughout the world; on its secular side it deals with human events in such an impartial way that everyone, no matter to what class they may belong or to what creed they may subscribe, can take a living, personal interest.

The monthlies offer another attractive field for the literary aspirant. Here, again, don't think you must be an university professor to write for a monthly magazine. Many, indeed most, of the foremost magazine contributors are men and women who have never passed through a college except by going in at the front door and emerging from the back one. However, for the most part, they are individuals of wide experience who know the practical side of life as distinguished from the theoretical.

The ordinary monthly magazine treats of the leading questions and issues which are engaging the attention of the world for the moment, great inventions, great discoveries, whatever is engrossing the popular mind for the time being, such as flying machines, battleships, sky­scrapers, the opening of mines, the development of new lands, the political issues, views of party leaders, character sketches of distinguished personages, etc. However, before trying your skill for a monthly magazine it would be well for you to have a good apprenticeship in writing for the daily press.

Above all things, remember that perseverance is the key that opens the door of success. Persevere! If you are turned down don't get disheartened; on the contrary, let the rebuff act as a stimulant to further effort. Many of the most successful writers of our time have been turned down again and again. For days and months, and even years, some of them have hawked their wares from one literary door to another until they found a purchaser. You may be a great writer in embryo, but you will never develop into a fetus, not to speak of full maturity, unless you bring out what is in you. Give yourself a chance to grow and seize upon everything that will enlarge the scope of your horizon. Keep

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your eyes wide open and there is not a moment of the day in which you will not see something to interest you and in which you may be able to interest others.

Learn, too, how to read Nature's book. There's a lesson in everything - in the stones, the grass, the trees, the babbling brooks and the singing birds. Interpret the lesson for yourself, then teach it to others. Always be in earnest in your writing; go about it in a determined kind of way, don't be faint-hearted or backward, be brave, be brave, and evermore be brave.

On the wide, tented field in the battle of life, With an army of millions before you; Like a hero of old gird your soul for the strife And let not the foeman tramp o'er you; Act, act like a soldier and proudly rush on The most valiant in Bravery's van, With keen, flashing sword cut your way to the front And show to the world you're a Man. If you are of the masculine gender be a man in all things

in the highest and best acceptation of the word. That is the noblest title you can boast, higher far than that of earl or duke, emperor or king. In the same way womanhood is the grandest crown the feminine head can wear. When the world frowns on you and everything seems to go wrong, possess your soul in patience and hope for the dawn of a brighter day.

It will come. The sun is always shining behind the darkest clouds. When you get your manuscripts back again and again) don't despair, nor think the editor cruel and unkind. He, too, has troubles of his own. Keep up your spirits until you have made the final test and put your talents to a last analysis, then if you find you cannot get into print be sure that newspaper writing or literary work is not your forte, and turn to something else.

If nothing better presents itself, try shoem3.king or digging ditches. Remember honest labour, no matter how humble, is ever dignified. If you are a woman throw aside

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the pen, sit down and darn your brother's, your father's, or your husband's socks, or put on a calico apron, take soap and water and scrub the floor.

No matter who you are do something useful. That old sophistry about the world owing you a living has been exploded long ago.

The world does not owe you a living, but you owe it servitude, and if you do not pay the debt you are not serving the purpose of an all-wise Providence and filling the place for which you were created.

It is for you to serve the world, to make it better, brighter, higher, holier, grander, nobler, richer, for your having lived in it. This you can do in no matter what position fortune has cast you, whether it be that of street laborer or president. Fight the good fight and gain the victory.

"Above all, to thine own self be true, And 'twill follow as the night the day, Thou canst not then be false to any man. "

Chapter 13

Choice of Words

SMALL WORDS, THEIR IMPORTANCE, THE ANGLO AND SAXON ELEMENT

In another place in this book advice has been given to never use a long word when a short one will serve the same purpose. This advice is to be emphasized. Words of "learned length and thundering sound" should be avoided on all possible occasions.

They proclaim shallowness of intellect and vanity of mind. The great purists, the masters of diction, the exemplars of style, used short, simple words that all could understand; words about which there could be no ambiguity as to meaning. It must be remembered that by our words we teach others; therefore, a very great responsibility rests upon us in regard to the use of a right language.

We must take care that we think and speak in a way so clear that there may be no misapprehension or danger of conveying wrong impressions by vague and misty ideas enunciated in terms which are liable to be misunderstood by those whom we address. Words give a body or form to our ideas, without which they are apt to be so foggy that we do not see where they are weak or false.

We must make the endeavor to employ such words as will put the idea we have in our own mind into the mind of another. This is the greatest art in the world-to clothe

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our ideas in words clear and comprehensive to the intelligence of others. It is the art which the teacher, the minister, the lawy~r, the orator, the business man, must master if they would command success in their various fields of endeavor.

It is very hard to convey an idea to, and impress it on, another when he has but a faint conception of the language in which the idea is expressed; but it is impossible to convey it at all when the words in which it is clothed are unintelligible to the listener.

If we address an audience of ordinary men and women in the English language, but use such words as they cannot comprehend, we might as well speak to them in Coptic or Chinese, for they will derive no benefit from our address, inasmuch as the ideas we wish to convey are expressed in words which communicate no intelligent meaning to their minds.

Long words, learned words, words directly derived from other languages are only understood by those who have had the advantages of an extended education. All have not had such advantages.

The great majority in this grand and glorious country of ours have to hustle for a living from an early age. Though education is free, and compulsory also, very many never get further than the "Three R's." These are the men with whom we have to deal most in the arena of life, the men with the horny palms and the iron muscles, the men who build our houses, construct our railroads, drive our street cars and trains, till our fields, harvest our crops - in a word, the men who form the foundation of all society, the men on whom the world depends to make its wheels go round.

The language of the colleges and universities is not fol' them and they can get along very well without it; they have no need for it at all in their respective callings. The plain, simple words of everyday life, to which the common people have been used around their own firesides from childhood, are the words we must use in our dealings with them.

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Such words are understood by them and understood by the learned as well; why then not use them universally and all the time? Why make a one-sided affair of language by using words which only one class of the people, the so­called learned class, can understand? Would it not be better to use, on all occasions, language which the both classes can understand?

If we take the trouble to investigate we shall find that the men who exerted the greatest sway over the masses and the multitude as orators, lawyers, preachers and in other public capacities, were men who used very simple language. Daniel Webster was among the greatest orators this country has produced. He touched the hearts of senates and assemblages, of men and women with the burning eloquence of his words.

He never used a long word when he could convey the same, or nearly the same, meaning with a short one. When he made a speech he always told those who put it in form for the press to strike out every long word. Study his speeches, go over all he ever said or wrote, and you will find that his language was always made up of short, clear, strong terms, although at times, for the sake of sound and oratorical effect, he was compelled to use a rather long word, but it was always against his inclination to do so, and where was the man who could paint, with words, as Webster painted!

He could picture things in a way so clear that those who heard him felt that they had seen that of which he spoke.

Abraham Lincoln was another who stirred the souls of men, yet he was not an orator, not a scholar; he did not write M.A. or Ph.D. after his name, or any other college degree, for he had none. He graduated from the University of Hard Knocks, and he never forgot this severe Alma Mater when he became President of the United States.

He was just as plain, I just as humble, as in the days when he split rails or plied a boat on the Sangamon. He ciid not use big words, but he used the words of the people,

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and in such a way as to make them beautiful. His Gettysburg address is an English classic, one of the great masterpieces of the language.

From the mere fact that a word is short it does not follow that it is always clear, but it is true that nearly all clear words are short, and that most of the long words, especially those which we get from other languages, are misunderstood to a great extent by the ordinary rank and file of the people. Indeed, it is to be doubted if some of the "scholars" using them, fully understand their import on occasions.

A great many such words admit of several interpretations. A word has to be in use a great deal before people get thoroughly familiar with its meaning. Long words, not alone obscure thought and make the ideas hazy, but at times they tend to mix up things in such a way that positively harmful results follow from their use.For instance, crime can be so covered with the folds of long words as to give it a different appearance.

Even the hideousness of sin can be cloaked with such words until its outlines look like a thing of beauty. When a bank cashier makes off with a hundred thousand dollars we politely term his crime defalcation instead of plain theft, and instead of calling himself a thief we grandiosely allude to him as a defaulter. When we see a wealthy man staggering along a fashionable thoroughfare ,under the influence of alcohol, waving his arms in the air and shouting boisterously, we smile and say, poor gentleman, he is somewhat exhilarated; or at worst we say, he is slightly inebriated; but when we see a poor man who has fallen from grace by putting an "enemy into his mouth to steal away his brain" we express our indignation in the simple language of the words: "Look at the wretch; he is dead drunk."

When we find a person in downright lying we cover the falsehood with the finely-spun cloak of the word prevarication. Shakespeare says, "a rose by any other name

Choice of Words rm would smell as sweet," and by a similar sequence, a lie, no matter by what name you may call it, is always a lie and should be condemned; then why not simply call it a lie? Mean what you say and say what you mean; call a spade a spade, it is the best term you can apply to the implement.

When you try to use short words and shun long ones . in a little while you will find that you can do so with ease. A farmer was showing a horse to a city-bred gentleman. The animal was led into a paddock in which an old sow­pig was rooting. "What a fine quadruped!" exclaimed the city man.

"Which of the two do you mean, the pig or the horse?" queried the farmer, "for, in my opinion, both of them are fine quadrupeds."

Of course the visitor meant the horse, so it wpuld have been much better had he called the animal by its simple; ordinary name-, there would have been no room for ambiguity in his remark. He profited, however, by the incident, and never called a horse a quadruped again.

Most of the small words, the simple words, the beautiful words which express so much within small bounds belong to the pure Anglo-Saxon element of our language. This element has given names to the heavenly bodies, the sun, moon and stars; to three out of the four elements, earth~ fire and water; three out of the four seasons, spring, summer and winter.

Its simple words are applied to all the natural divisions of time, except one, as day, night, morning, evening, twilight, noon, mid-day, midnight, sunrise and sunset. The names of light, heat, cold, frost, rain, snow, hail, sleet, thunder, lightning, as well as almost all those objects which form the component parts of the beautiful, as expressed in external scenery, such as sea and land, hill and dale, wood and stream, etc., are Anglo-Saxon. To this same language we are indebted for those words which express the earliest and dearest connections, and the strongest and most powerful feelings of Nature, and which, as a consequence, .

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are interwoven with the fondest and most hallowed associations. Of such words are father, mother, husband, wife, brother, sister, son, daughter, child, home, kindred, friend, hearth( roof and fireside.

The chief emotions of which we are susceptible are expressed in the same language-love, hope, fear, sorrow, shame, and also the outward signs by which these emotions are indicated, as tear, smile, laugh, blush, weep, sigh, groan. Nearly all our national proverbs are Anglo-Saxon. Almost all the terms and phrases by which we most energetically express anger, contempt and indignation are of the same origin.

What are known as the Smart Set and so-called polite society, are relegating a great many of our old Anglo-Saxon words into the shade, faithful friends who served their ancestors well. These self-appointed arbiters of diction regard some of the Anglo-Saxon words as too coarse, too plebeian for their aesthetic tastes and refined ears, so they are eliminating them from their vocabulary and replacing them with mongrels of foreign birth and hybrids of unknown origin.

For the ordinary people, however, the man in the street or in the' field, the woman in the kitchen or in the factory, they are still tried and true and, like old friends, should be cherished and preferred to all strangers, no matter from what source the latter may spring.