HOWLIFEIMITATESCHESS

MAKINGTHERIGHTMOVES,FROMTHEBOARDTOTHEBOARDROOM

GARRYKASPAROVwithMigGreengard

BLOOMSBURY

CONTENTS

Preface

OpeningGambitThesecretofsuccessWhychess?AmapofthemindBetterdecision-makingcannotbetaught,butitcanbeself-taught

PARTI

Chapter1—TheLessonPersonallessonsfromtheworldchampionBecomingawareoftheprocess

Chapter2—StrategySuccessatanyspeed“Why?”turnstacticiansintostrategistsAnever-expandingexamplePlayyourowngameYoucannotalwaysdeterminethebattlefieldAfrequentlychangedstrategyisthesameasnostrategyDon’twatchthecompetitionmorethanyouwatchyourselfOnceyouhaveastrategy,employingitisamatterofdesire

Chapter3—StrategyandTacticsatWorkElementofsurpriseAgeniusfordevelopmentStickingwithaplanConfidenceandthetimefactorNevergivein—never,never,never

Chapter4—CalculationCalculationmustbefocusedanddisciplinedImagination,calculation,andmygreatestgame

Chapter5—Talent

RecognizingthepatternsinourlivesThepoweroffantasyFantasycancutthroughfogDevelopingthehabitofimaginationBeawareofyourroutines,thenbreakthem

Chapter6—PreparationResultsarewhatmatterInspirationvs.perspirationPreparationpaysoffinmanywaysTurningagameintoascienceTargetingourselvesforefficiency

PARTII

Chapter7—MTQ:Material,Time,QualityEvaluationtrumpscalculationMaterial,thefundamentalelementTimeismoneyWhentimemattersmostThethirdfactor:qualityWhatmakesabadbishopbad?PuttingtheelementsintoactionDouble-edgedevaluationPersonalreturnoninvestmentMTQonthehomefront

Chapter8—ExchangesandImbalancesFreezingthegameThesearchforcompensationThelawsofthermodynamics,chess,andqualityoflifeStrategyonthebrowserbattlefieldAllchangecomesatacostOverextendingourreach

Chapter9—PhasesoftheGameKnowwhywemakeeachmovewemake

ArtisbornfromcreativeconflictMakesureagoodpeacefollowsagoodwarEliminatingphasebiasDon’tbringaknifetoagunfight

Chapter10—TheAttacker’sAdvantageFlexingyourintuitionleadstostrongdecision-makingTheaggressiondoublestandardTheinitiativerarelyringstwiceAnattackerbychoiceThetransitionfromimitatortoinnovatorThewilltoattack

PARTIII

Chapter11—QuestionSuccessSuccessistheenemyoffuturesuccessThegravityofpastsuccessCompetitionandanticomplacencytacticsInfavorofcontradictionThedifferencebetweenbetteranddifferent

Chapter12—TheInnerGameThegamecanbewonbeforeyougettotheboardThestormbeforethecalmDon’tgetdistractedwhiletryingtodistractBreakingthespellofpressureStayingobjectivewhenthechipsaredownPretenderstothecrownandfatalflaws

Chapter13—Manvs.MachineEnterthemachinesAndachildshallleadusKasparovvs.DeepBlueIfyoucan’tbeat’em,join’emStayingoutofthecomfortzone

Chapter14—IntuitionWeknowmorethanweunderstandIntuitionvs.analysisHowlongislongenough?Theperilsofignoringatrend

Chapter15—CrisisPointOnesinglemomentDetectingacrisisbeforeit’sacrisisLearningfromacrisisAfinalchessstory:thecrisisinSevilleMust-winstrategyErrorsonbothsidesKeepingagriponthetitle

EndgameThefightinRussiatodayYourlifeisyourpreparationNomoresecrets

EpilogueAstrategyfordemocracy

Glossary

Acknowledgments

PREFACE

OnOctober11,2007,IgaveapresentationattheWorldBusinessForumatRadioCityMusicHallinNewYorkCity.Ihavegivenmanytalksonstrategyandpeakperformanceinrecentyears,butthisonewasspecial.First,therewastheundeniableeffectoftheplaceandcompany.Ihaveplayedworldchampionshipchessmatchesinmanyoftheworld’sgreatvenues,fromtheHallofColumnsinMoscowtotheSavoyTheatreinLondontothetopoftheWorldTradeCenter.AddressinganaudienceofthousandsfromthestageofRadioCitywasstillauniqueexperience,especiallyconsideringmyfellowspeakersattheeventincludedJackWelch,AlanGreenspan,MichaelEisner,andKofiAnnan,amongotherluminaries.ItwasalsospecialbecauseitwasoneofthefewopportunitiesIhavehadtospeaktoanAmerican

audience.Ihavealwaysbeenmuchmorewell-knowninEurope,wherechessandchessplayersaretraditionallyaccordedfarmoreattentionthanintheU.S.,despitetheworldtriumphsofAmericansPaulMorphyinthenineteenthcenturyandBobbyFischerinthetwentieth.TheU.S.haslongbeenaleaderinbusinessthought,andIwasenthusiasticaboutspeakingtoachallenging,criticalaudience.Myforty-minutelectureincludedseveraltopicspresentinthisbook,includingstayingaggressiveto

gain“theattacker’sadvantage”andavoidingcomplacency.Therewerealsoseveralsegmentsonpoliticsthatcoveredthestrategybehindthe“waronterror,”Iraq,globalhumanrights,and,finally,ourbattlefordemocracyinRussia.Iwasn’tsurehowsuchsensitiveandtopicalmaterialwouldbereceived,soIwasrelievedandgratifiedtoreceiveastandingovationwhenIfinished.ItwasenoughtomakemewonderifthefamousRocketteshadcomeoutontothestagebehindme!AfterwardtherewasaQ&Asession.Thisbook,whichhadjustbeenreleasedintheU.S.,wasthetopic

ofthefirstquestionfromthemoderator.“So,Mr.Kasparov,howdoeslifeimitatechess?”Ididnothesitatetoanswer,“Itdoesn’t!”Thisgotaroundoflaughter,butIwasmakingaseriouspoint.Thisbookisnotaboutchessorabouthowlearningchessorplayingchesscanmakeyouabetterdecision-maker.Mostofmylifewasdedicatedtothegame,andsoitbecamethelensthroughwhichIobservedtheworldandtheworkingsofmyownmind.Thebook,asIendeavoredtoexplaintotheRadioCityaudience,isaboutthetoolschessgavemetoanalyzeandimprovemythinkingandmydecisionsinallsituations.Thisisnottosaythatchessdoesnothaveagreatdealtooffer.Itteacheslogic,patience,andplanning,

anditrewardsthosewholearntodisciplinetheirminds.Chessisalsoanexcellenttoolforexaminingtheconsequencesofone’sactionsandthedecisionsthatledtothem.ThisisthemainreasonmyU.S.-basedKasparovChessFoundationpromotestheteachingofchessinclassroomsacrossthecountry.Whilethegameofchesscanserveasausefulmetaphor,thisismorealiterarydevicethanamethodof

usefulinstruction.Therearefewsuchstraightforwardparallelsinthebook;whilethelessonsIlearnedfrommychesscareerareuniversal,thegameitselfisnot.SoIwasquitesincerewhenIansweredbluntlythatlifedoesnotimitatechess.Itdidforme.Iused

chesstodevelopmymethodsbecauseitwastheframeworkIhad.Thoseinbusinesswillhonetheirabilitiesandskillsbyexaminingtheirdecisionsinthefinancialormanagerialworlds.Politiciansmustlearntoanalyzetheprocessthatleadstotheirdecisionswhetherornottheoutcomewasasdesired.Andwecanalltakeacloserlookatthedecisionswemakeinourpersonallivesdaytoday,hourtohour.

Ithasonlybeenayearsincethisbookfirstcameout,butthemanuscriptlongagopassedoutofmyhandsandintothoseoftranslatorsandpublishersaroundtheworld.Ithasbeenatumultuousyearfullofhighsandlows.Iamgladtosaythatnothinghasoccurredtomakemedoubtanyoftheideasandprincipleslaiddowninthebook.Touringmultiplecountriestopromoteit,readingthereviews,andhearingquestionsfromthepublic

haveprovidedmewithadditionalinsightsintothematerial.Ithasalsogivenmeanewperspectiveonthecomplexrelationshipbetweenanauthorandhisaudience,aswellastherelationshipbetweenanauthorandhisownwordsoncetheyhavebeenputdownonpaperandreleasedintothewild.Ascouldhavebeenexpected,thechessreaderswantedmorechessinthebookandthebusiness

audiencewantedmorebusinessmaterial.Anddespitemydisclaimerattheverystartofthebook,manyofthequestionsIreceivedwereessentiallyrequestsfortips,forsimpletechniquestoimproveperformanceordecision-making.ItriedtotellthesepeoplethatIwasnotwritinga“DearGarry”advicecolumn!Promisesofquickresultsandaneasyroadtoimprovementmightsellmorebooks,butsuchabookwouldnotbeveryhonestorveryuseful.Iaskedmyaudiencestothinkofthelasttimetheyhadmadeabaddecision.Asimplequestion,butmost

admittedtheycouldnotthinkofanythingrecent.Manywentbackyears,evendecades!Ifonlythatweretrue,buttherealityisthatwediscardourdecisionsalmostassoonaswemakethem.Toooftenwejustlivewiththeresultsandmoveon,repeatingthesameflawedprocesswiththesameflawedresults.Iavoideda“how-to”methodologyinthebook,butifyoucannotthinkofabaddecisionyoumadeinthelastfewdays,oramonthatthemost,youareeitherincrediblyluckyorcanreallybenefitfrompayingmoreattentiontoyourdecisions.Anotherpopularlineofquestioningwasmypoliticalendeavorsagainsttheauthoritarianregimeinmy

Russianhomeland.Manywonderedhowmytheconceptsinthebookcouldbeappliedtothesebattles,somethingItoucheduponbrieflyhereintheepilogue.Certainlyconceptslikedevelopingastrategy,analyzinganopponent’sweaknesses,andhandlingacrisisareverypracticalinRussia’scurrentpoliticalenvironment.Itwould,however,bedisingenuoustopresentanyreal-worldsituationasasimplecasestudy.Chessis

idealbecauseitisaclosedsystemwithclearrulesandfixedobjectives.Itisalaboratoryinwhichwecanconductcontrolledexperimentsthathavereal-worldimplications.Ifaplayerconsistentlymakesflawedmovesthatcanbetracedbacktoaspecificareaofdecision-makingweakness,itisquitelikelythatthesameweaknessappliestodecisionsawayfromtheboardaswell.Politics,ontheotherhand,isafundamentallyblurryendeavor.Humanbeingsarelargelyruledby

emotion,intuition,andmotivesthatareoftenirrationalandunpredictable.Thisishoweconomistscanexplainwhatthemostlogicalconsumerbehaviorwouldbeandstillbeterribleatpredictingwhatconsumerswillactuallydo.NordoIwishtobecomeapoliticianinthenegativesensethatthewordhasacquired,onewhodoeslittlemorethancalculateandmaneuverforadvantage.Ouragendaofhumanrightsisstraightforwardandunchanging.OfcoursemypersonalstyleunavoidablyinfluenceshowIpromotemyagenda,soImustbeawareofthisandhowmyopponentsmighttrytousemytendenciesagainstme.MyarrestcameatamarchheldtoprotesttheblatantlyfraudulentnatureoftheRussianparliamentary

electionsheldonDecember2,2007.TherulingUnitedRussiapartyofVladimirPutindiscardedanypretextoffairness.Ballotboxeswerestuffed,oppositiongroupswereharassedandattacked,andthemedia,almostentirelyunderKremlincontrol,becameafull-timecheerleaderfortheregime.Justafew

monthslater,however,theMarchpresidentialelectionsillustratedthatthingscouldstillgetmuchworse.WhenIwasnominatedbytheOtherRussiacoalitiontostandastheopposition’scandidatefor

presidentIhadmixedfeelings.AscompetitiveasIam,IwantedtowinonceIhadbeenselectedasaprimarycandidate,despiteknowingthattherewasnochanceatalltheKremlinwouldallowmyname,orthatofanyrealoppositionfigure,toappearontheballot.Myfirstgoalwastoqualifyforthenextstageoftheprocess,whichwouldallowtheOtherRussiato

canvassforvotesandtoraiseawarenessofourmovement.ItwouldalsocreateanawkwardsituationfortheKremlin’smediaoverlords,whohavekeptmeandmanyofmycolleaguesonablacklistsinceourpoliticalactivitiesbegan.TheywouldhavetroublepretendingIdidnotexistifIwasaregisteredpresidentialcandidate.Unsurprisingly,thisnevercametopass.Mycandidacywashaltedwhenthetheaterwehadrentedto

hostmynominatingconventionabruptlycanceledourcontract.AsfrequentlyoccurswithOtherRussiaevents,venuesacrossthecityrefusedtorentusspaceatanyprice,knowingthattodosowouldbringdisfavorfromtheauthorities.EvenlargeinternationalhotelchainshaverepeatedlycavedintoKremlinpressureandarenolongerwillingtohostourevents.AndsoIwasforcedtoendthecampaignbeforeiteverreallygotstarted.IwasoftenaskedwhyIhad

triedatallwhenIknewtheelectionswereafraudfromthebeginning.Indeed,atotalboycottoftheriggedproceedingshadbeendiscussedamongtheoppositiongroups.EventheCommunists,whoareallowedtowinasmallfractionofparliamentseatssoKremlindominationdoesn’tlookabsurdlycomplete,brieflythreatenedtositoutthecharade.Butmyprinciplegoalwasnotjusttoadd“formerRussianpresidentialcandidate”tomylistof

introductionsalongwith“formerworldchesschampion.”IknewthatmycandidacywouldlikelyreceivemoreattentionoutsideofRussiathanwithinit—ourmassmediaistightlycontrolled.Drawingtheworld’sattentiontotheundemocraticnatureofPutin’s“in-house”transfer(or,moreaccurately,retention)ofpowerwascertainlyoneobjective.Themostcriticalmissionwas,andis,tobuildupdemocraticpracticeshere—somethingweachieved,ifinasmallway,withourseriesofinternalelections.TheRussianpeoplehaveverylittleexperiencewiththepoweroftheballot,campaigns,andtheother

fundamentalsofdemocracythoseintheWesttakeforgranted.Oneofthebiggestobstacleswefaceispresentingtheconnectionbetweenthedifficultiesourcitizensfaceandthelackofaccountabilityofourpublicofficials.Theentrenchedbureaucracy,thenomenclatura,isalmostentirelyimmunetothevoiceofthepeople.Thankslargelytoconstantmediabombardment,Russiansaremorepronetolookforotherstoblamefortheirproblems,likeAmericaandBritain,orNATO,orforeignersofanystripe.Or,naturally,theprodemocracyopposition,whichispaintedasaviciousbandoftraitorsandagitators.BypresentingarealdemocraticprocesswehopedtoshowRussianswhattheyhavebeenmissing.

Imagine,votesthatactuallymatter!Acandidateselectedbyandaccountabletothepeopleinsteadofinstalledlikeanewtsarbytheoutgoingpresident.ThecontrastisdramaticwhenyoucompareourinternalelectionswiththepatheticgameofmusicalchairsPutinplayedwiththenewRussianpresident,hisformerdeputyprimeministerDmitriMedvedev.ThefirstthingMedvedevdidafterbeinganointedheirwastoannouncethatPutinwouldinturnbecomehisprimeminister!Perhapsworstofall,theleadersoftheU.S.andtheEuropeanUnioncalledtocongratulateMedvedevonwhatGermanchancellorAngelaMerkelcalledwithoutsarcasm,“asmoothtransitionofpower”inRussia.Yes,thingsproceedmuchsmootherwhenyouknowthevotetotalsbeforethevotingbegins!

TheinstallationofMedvedevandthecontinuationofthePutinregimedonotmeantheendoftheOtherRussiaormypoliticalactivities.DespitetheKremlinpropaganda,oftenrepeatedunquestioninglybytheWesternpress,therearemanyindicationsthatRussiaisheadedtowardacrisispoint.OnlyrecordoilandgaspriceshavekepttheeconomyafloatdespitescandalouslevelsoflootingbytheKremlinelite.Moreandmorenationalland,money,andpowerhavebeenmovedintotheprivatehandsofPutin’sinnercircle.Mediacontrolandincreasinglyviolentwavesofrepressionagainstoppositionmemberscanonlydelaytheinevitableeruptioniftheseconditionscontinue.Thereforeitisessentialfortheoppositiontostaytogether,tokeepupthepressureontheregime,andtosimplystayalivesotheRussianpeopleknowthereisanalternativetothenewKGBdictatorship.Otherwise,openwarfarebetweenKremlinfactionsorthecollapseoftheeconomycouldleadtototalchaos.Meanwhile,Icontinuemylecturesandmytravels,fromAbuDhabitoWales.Eachoffersmean

opportunitytolearnfrommyaudiences—howtheythinkdifferentlyandhowtheythinkalike.IhopetheywillchallengemeandmyideasjustasIexpecttochallengethem.

GarryKasparovMoscow,April23,2008

OPENINGGAMBIT

TheSecretofSuccess

Iwasateenagechessstarinthechess-madSovietUnionandbecameusedtointerviewsandpublicspeakingatayoungage.Apartfromoccasionalquestionsabouthobbiesandgirls,theseearlyinterviewsfocusedsolelyonmychesscareer.Thenin1985Ibecametheyoungestworldchampionattheageoftwenty-two,andfromthenonthetypeofquestionsIreceivedchangeddramatically.Insteadofwantingtoknowaboutgamesandtournaments,peoplewantedtoknowhowIhadachievedmyunprecedentedsuccess.HowdidIcometoworksohard?HowmanymovesaheaddidIsee?Whatwentoninmymindduringagame?DidIhaveaphotographicmemory?WhatdidIeat?WhatdidIdoeverynightbeforegoingtosleep?Inshort,whatwerethesecretsofmysuccess?Itdidn’ttakelongformetorealizethatIwasdisappointingmyaudienceswithmyanswers.Iworked

hardbecausemymothertaughtmeto.HowmanymovesaheadIsawdependedontheposition.DuringagameItriedtorecallmypreparationandtocalculatevariations.Mymemorywasgood,butnotphotographic.Iusuallyateaheavylunchofsmokedsalmon,steak,andtonicwaterbeforeeachgame.(Sadly,whenIhitmylatethirties,myphysicaltrainerputanendtothis“diet.”)EverynightbeforegoingtobedIbrushedmyteeth.Notexactlyinspiringmaterial.Everyoneseemedtobelookingforaprecisemethod,auniversalrecipepeoplecouldfollowto

achievegreatresultseverytime.Famouswritersareaskedaboutwhattypeofpaperandpentheyuse,asiftheirtoolsareresponsiblefortheirwriting.Suchquestionsofcoursemissthepointthatwearealloneofakind,theresultofmillionsofelementsandtransformationsrunningfromourDNAtothisafternoon.Weeachbuildourownuniqueformulaformakingdecisions,andeverydaywestrivetomakethebestofthisformula:toidentifyit,evaluateitsperformance,andfindwaystoimproveit.Thisbookdescribeshowmyownformuladeveloped,andhowmanypeoplecontributedtothat

development,directlyandindirectly.TheinspirationalgamesofAlexanderAlekhine,myfirstchesshero,findaplacealongsidetheinspirationalcharacterofWinstonChurchill,whosewordsandbooksIstillturntoregularly.Myparents—especiallymymother—playanincalculablerole,asdomyteachers.TheideaforthisbookcamewhenIrealizedthatinsteadofcomingupwithcleveranswersforthe

eternal“What’sgoingoninyourhead?”questions,itwouldbemoreinterestingformetoactuallyfindout.Butthelifeofachessprofessional,withitsrigorouscalendaroftravel,play,andpreparation,didnotallowmemuchtimeforphilosophical—asopposedtopractical—introspection.WhenIretiredfromchessinMarch2005,Ifinallygainedthetimeandperspectivetolookbackonmyexperiencesandcannow,finally,sharetheminausefulway.ThiswouldbeaverydifferentbookhadIcompleteditbeforemydramaticcareershiftfromchessto

politics.First,Ineededtimetoabsorbthelessonsthatmylifeinchesshadtaughtme.Second,mynewexperiencesasacoalitionleader,politicalorganizer,andthepublicfaceofanoppositionmovementareforcingmetolookatwhoIamandwhatIamcapableof.Beingpassionateaboutadvocatingfordemocracyisn’tenough.Tobuildalliancesandorganizeconferencesrequiresmetoapplymystrategicvisionandotherchessskillsinentirelynewways.Aftertwenty-fiveyearsinacomfortzoneofexpertise,IsteppedbackandbegantoanalyzemyabilitiessoIcouldbuildandrebuildmyselfforthesenew

challenges.ThelessonsI’velearnedandtheinsightsI’vegainedarewhatIwanttopassalongtoyou,thereaderofthisbook,sothatyoutoomayapplythemosteffectivestrategiesoftheworld’sgreatestgametoyourowndecision-makingandusethemtoadvanceyourpersonalandprofessionalgoals.

WhyChess?

Whatmakeschesssuchanideallaboratoryforthedecision-makingprocess?Toplaychessonatrulyhighlevelrequiresaconstantstreamofexact,informeddecisions,madeinrealtimeandunderpressurefromyouropponent.What’smore,itrequiresasynthesisofsomeverydifferentvirtues,allofwhicharenecessarytogooddecisions:calculation,creativity,andadesireforresults.IfyouaskaGrandmaster,anartist,andacomputerscientistwhatmakesagoodchessplayer,you’llgetaglimpseofthesedifferentstrengthsinaction.EmanuelLaskerofGermany,thesecondworldchampion,onceobserved,“Chessisabovealla

struggle.”AccordingtoLasker,thepointisalwaystowin,nomatterhowyoudefinewinning.TheartistMarcelDuchampwasastronganddevotedchessplayer.Atonepointheevengaveupartfor

chess,sayingthegame“hasallthebeautyofart—andmuchmore.”Duchampfurtheraffirmedthisaspectofthegamebysaying,“Ihavecometothepersonalconclusionthatwhileallartistsarenotchessplayers,allchessplayersareartists.”Anditistruethatwecannotignorethecreativeelement,eventhoughwehavetoharnessittotheprimaryobjectiveofwinningthegame.Thenwecometothescientificaspect,theonemostnon–chessplayerstendtooveremphasize:

memorization,precisecalculation,andtheapplicationoflogic.Thesearethebedrockofchess,andalsoofgooddecisions.Havingspentalifetimeanalyzingthegameofchessandcomparingthecapacityofcomputerstothe

capacityofthehumanbrain,I’veoftenwondered,wheredoesoursuccesscomefrom?Theanswerissynthesis,theabilitytocombinecreativityandcalculation,artandscience,intoawholethatismuchgreaterthanthesumofitsparts.Chessisauniquecognitivenexus,aplacewhereartandsciencecometogetherinthehumanmindandarethenrefinedandimprovedbyexperience.Thisisthewayweimproveatanythinginourlivesthatinvolvesdecision-making,whichistosay,

everything.It’snotatallsurprisingthatthelanguageofchesshasinsinuateditselfintosomanyotherpursuits.Ifyouoverheardadiscussionthatreferredto“theopeningphase,”“sectorvulnerability,”“strategicplanning,”and“tacticalimplementation,”youmightassumeacorporatetakeoverwasintheoffing.Butitcouldequallyrefertoanyweekendchesstournament.ACEOmustcombineanalysisandresearchwithcreativethinkingtoleadhiscompanyeffectively.Amilitaryleaderhastoapplyhisknowledgeofhumannaturetopredictandcounterthestrategiesoftheenemy.Ofcoursethefieldsofthebusinessandmilitaryworldsarelimitlesscomparedtotheconfinedsixty-

foursquaresofthechessboard.Butitslimitedscopemakeschessaversatilemodelfordecision-making.Thestandardsofsuccessandfailureinchessarestrict.Ifyourdecisionsarefaulty,yourpositiondeterioratesandthependulumswingstowardaloss;iftheyaregood,itswingstowardavictory.Everysinglemovereflectsadecision,andwithenoughtime,youcananalyzetoafinecertaintywhethereachdecisionyoumadewasthemosteffective.Eveninthecomplexrealworld,thiskindofobjectiveanalysiscanprovideagreatdealofinsightinto

decision-making—which,ultimately,isthekeytoyoursuccessorfailure.Thestockmarketandthegridironandthebattlefieldaren’tastidyasthechessboard,butinallofthem,asingle,simpleruleholdstrue:makegooddecisionsandyou’llsucceed;makebadonesandyou’llfail.

IhopethatthemanystoriesIshareinthisbookfrommylifeinchessand,later,mycareerinpoliticswillhelpyoutogaininsightintoyourownprocessasadecision-maker.Ihopeyouwillbegintoformulateyourownplanandcontinuetogrowandlearn.Thiswillrequiregreathonestyinyourevaluationofyourselfandhowwellyouhavefulfilledyourpotential.Therearenoquickfixes,andthisisnotabookoftipsandtricks.Itisabookaboutself-awarenessandchallenge:abouthowyoucanconstantlychallengeyourselfandotherssoyoucanlearnhowtomakethebestpossibledecisions.Whatmakessomeoneabettermanager,abetterwriter,abetterchessplayer?Noteveryoneperformsat

thesamelevelorhasthecapacitytodoso.Whatiscriticalistofindyourownpathtoreachyourpeak;todevelopyourtalents,improveyourskills,andseekoutandconquerthechallengesthatwillpushyoutothehighestlevel.Andtodoallthiswefirstneedaplan.Inthepagesthatfollow,youwilllearnhowtothinkstrategically,andhowtocultivateyourown,uniquetalents.We’llcoverthemorepracticalaspectsthatgointodecision-making,suchasunderstandingthecrucialsynergyofmaterial,time,andquality,aswellasthemorehumanartsofmemory,fantasy,andintuition.Alloftheseelementscomeintoplayaswestrivetobecomemorecreativeandeffectiveasdecision-makers.

AMapoftheMind

OnmysixthbirthdayIwokeuptofindanenormousglobenexttomybed.ItwasthebestpresentIhaveeverreceived.Ihadtorubmyeyestomakesureitwasreal!Ihadalwaysbeenfascinatedbymapsandgeography,andmyfavoritechildhoodstoriesweretheonesmyfathertoldmeaboutthevoyagesofMarcoPolo,Columbus,andMagellan.Ourfavoritegamewastotracethejourneysofthesegreatexplorersacrosstheglobe.BeforelongIknewthecapitalsofalltheworld’scountries,theirpopulations,geography,industry,and

everythingelseIcouldfindoutaboutthem.Theserealadventurestoriesfascinatedmemorethananyfairytalecould.IknewitmusthavetakenincrediblecouragetobethefirstpersontomakethekindofjourneysIreadabout.Thesestorieskindledmyownpioneerspirit.Iwantedtoblazenewtrails,evenifatthatpointinmylifeitmeantlittlemorethantakinganewrouteonthewalkhome.ThroughoutmychesscareerIsoughtoutnewchallenges,lookingforthingsnoonehaddonebefore.Thetimeofgreatexplorersandemperorshaspassed,buttherearestillpreciousterritoriestodiscover.

Wecanexploreourownboundariesandtheboundariesofourownlives.Butbeforewegoexploring,we’llneedamap.Havingapersonalizedmapofyourdecision-makingprocessisessential,andthisbookcanonly

roughlychartthestagesofobservationandanalysisthatgointodrawingthatmap.Themaptellsyouwhichareasofyourmindarewell-knowntoyouandwhicharestilluncharted.Itrevealsyourstrengths,weaknesses,andareasasyetuntested.Mostimportant,youmustlooktodevelopyourownmap.Thereisnoadvantageintryingtoidentifythecommondenominatorthatlinksyoutoyourfriendsorcolleaguesoropponents.Wemustalllookhigheranddigdeeper,movebeyondthebasicanduniversal.Intheory,anyonecanlearntoplaychessinhalfanhour,andtherulesareofcoursethesameforeveryman,woman,andchild.Whenwefirststepbeyondtherules,however,leavingthatinitiallevelwhereweareconcernedonlywithmakinglegalmoves,webegintoformthepatternsthatdistinguishusfromeveryoneelsewhohaseverpushedapawn.Acquiredpatternsandthelogictoemploythemcombinewithourinherentqualitiestocreateaunique

decision-maker.Astimegoesby,experienceandknowledgearefocusedthroughtheprismoftalent,whichcanitselfbesharpened,focused,andpolished.Thismixisthesourceofintuition,anabsolutely

uniquetoolthateachofuspossessesandthatwecancontinuouslyhoneintoanever-finerinstrument.Herewebegintoseetheinfluenceofindividualpsychologyandouremotionalmakeupasitisexpressedinourdecisions—whatwecallstyleinachessplayer.Wecannotpickandchoosewhichstylewewouldpreferforourselves.Personalstyleisnotgeneric

softwareyoucandownloadandinstall.Youmustinsteadrecognizewhatworksbestforyouandthen,throughchallengeandtrial,developyourownmethod—yourownmap.Tobegin,askyourself,WhatamIlacking?Whataremystrengths?WhattypeofchallengesdoItendtoavoidandwhy?Themethodyouemploytoachievesuccessisasecretbecauseitcanbediscoveredonlybyyouanalyzingyourowndecisions.Thisiswhatmyquestionersshouldreallyhavebeenaskingmeaboutinsteadofmytrivialhabits:HowdidIpushmyself?WhatquestionsdidIaskmyself?HowdidIinvestigateandunderstandmystrengthsandweaknesses?AndhowdidIusewhatIlearnedtogetbetterandfurtherdefineandhonemymethod?ThoseareafewofthequestionsIhaveaskedmyself,andthisbookcontainsanhonestaccountingofmypursuitoftheanswers.

BetterDecision-MakingCannotBeTaught,butItCanBeSelf-Taught

Letmeexplain.Youmustbecomeconsciousofyourdecision-makingprocesses,andwithpracticetheywillimproveyourintuitive—unconscious—performance.Thisisrequiredbecauseasadultswehavealreadyformedourpatterns,goodandbad.Tocorrectthebadandenhancethegoodyoumusttakeanactiveroleinbecomingmoreself-aware.Thisbookwilluseanecdotesandanalysistoopenthedoorstothatawareness.PartIlooksatthe

fundamentalingredients,theessentialabilitiesandskills—strategy,calculation,preparation—thatgointomakingeffectivedecisions.Inthissection,we’lldiscusshowtobetterunderstandtheseessentialsandcultivatetheminourselves.PartIIistheevaluationandanalysisphase.Whatchangesareneededandwhy?Hereweseethemethodsandbenefitsofourself-investigation.PartIIIexaminesthesubtlewayswecombineallofthesethingstoimproveourperformance.Psychologyandintuitionaffecteveryaspectofourdecisionsandourresults.Wemustdevelopourabilitytoseethebigpictureanddealwith,andlearnfrom,thecrisesthatweinevitablyfaceinourlives.Suchdecisivemomentsareturningpoints—everytimeyouselectaforkintheroadknowingyouwon’t

beabletobacktrack.Weliveforthesemomentsandinturntheydefineourlives.Welearnwhoweareandwhattrulymatterstous.The“secret”thenistoactively,consciouslypursuethesechallengesinsteadofavoidingthem.Thisistheonlywaytodiscoverandtoexploitallyourgifts.Developingyourpersonalblueprintallowsyoutomakebetterdecisions,tohavetheconfidencetotrustyourinstincts,andtoknowthatnomattertheresult,youwillcomeoutstronger.There,insideeachofus,isouruniquesecretofsuccess.

partone

CHAPTER1

THELESSON

PersonalLessonsfromtheWorldChampion

WhenIfirstplayedforthechessworldchampionshipin1984,Iwasayoungchallengerupagainstachampionwhohadheldthetitleforalmosttenyears.Iwastwenty-oneyearsoldandhadrisentothetopofthechessworldwithsuchspeedthatIcouldn’timaginethatthislasthurdlecouldblockmyway.IwasthereforeshockedwhenIquicklyfoundmyselfdownfourlosseswithoutawin,onlytwodefeatsawayfromahumiliatingrout.Ifevertherewasatimeforachangeinstrategy,thiswasit.Insteadofgivingintomyfeelingsof

desperation,Iforcedmyselftoprepareforalongwarofattrition.Iswitchedtoguerrillawarfareingameaftergame,reducingmyrisks,waitingformychance.Icouldnotaffordtoexposemyselfinanopenclash,soIplayedcautiously,awaitingmychance.Myopponent,fellowSovietAnatolyKarpov,fellinwithmyplanforhisownpurposes.Hewantedtoteachtheupstartalessonbyscoringaperfect6–0score,sohealsoplayedcautiouslyinsteadofpressinghisadvantageandgoinginforthekill.Karpovwasalsoinspiredbytheshadowofhispredecessoraschampion,BobbyFischer.Enrouteto

thetitleheclaimedin1972,theAmericanhadscoredtwoperfect6–0winsagainstworld-classopponents,bothtimeswithoutcedingevenadraw.Karpovhaditinmindtoinsomemeasureimitatethislegendaryfeatwhenhealteredhisstrategyagainstme.ButconjuringFischer’sghostturnedouttobeaseriousmistake.Anincredibleseventeengamesfollowedwithoutadecisiveresult.Itappearedmynewstrategywas

working.Thematchdraggedonmonthaftermonth,breakingeveryrecordforthedurationofaworldchampionshipmatch.MyteamandIspentsomuchtimethinkingabouthowKarpovplayed,whichstrategieshewouldemploy,thatIuncannilyfeltasifIwerebecomingKarpov.DuringthehundredsofhoursofplayandpreparationIalsogotagoodlookatmyownplay,andatmy

ownmind.Upuntilthatpointinmycareereverythinghadcomeeasilyforme,winninghadsimplybecomethenaturalstateofthings.NowIhadtofocusonhowImademydecisionssoIcouldfixwhateverwasgoingwrong.Itwasworking,butwhenIlostgametwenty-seventogodown0–5,itlookedasthoughIwasn’tlearningfastenoughtosavethematch.OnemorelossanditwouldbethreelongyearsbeforeIcouldevenhopeforanothershotatthetitle.Asthematchentereditsthirdmonth,Istayedinmydefensivecrouch.Iwasn’twinning,butthechange

instylehadmadethingsmuchtougherforKarpov.IfeltIwasgettingclosertosolvingthepuzzle,whileatthesametimemyopponentwasbecomingmorefrustratedandtired.Atlastthedambroke.Aftersurvivinggamethirty-one,inwhichKarpovfailedtolandadecisiveblow,

Iwongamethirty-twoandwentontheoffensive.Anotherfiveweeksofdrawngamesfollowed,butthedifferencewasthatIwasnowcreatingmorewinningchancesthanmyopponent.Meanwhile,theworldbegantowonderifthematchwouldeverend.Nochampionshipmatchhadevergonebeyondthreemonths,andherewewereenteringthefifth.KarpovlookedexhaustedandIstartedtopressharder.Aftercomingclosetowinninggameforty-six,Iwongameforty-sevenincrushingstyle.Couldtherebea

miracle?Exactlyatthatmomenttheorganizersdecidedtheplayersneededabreak,andthenextgamewaspostponedforseveraldays.DespitethisunprecedenteddecisionIalsowonthenextgame.Suddenlyitwas3–5andthemomentumwasonmyside.Then,inabizarretwist,onFebruary15,1985,inMoscow,thepresidentoftheinternationalchess

federation(knownbytheacronymforitsFrenchname,FédérationInternationaledesÉchecs,orFIDE),FlorencioCampomanes,respondingtopressurefromtheSovietsportauthorities,calledapressconferencetodeclarethatthematchwascanceled.Afterfivemonths,forty-eightgames,andthousandsofhoursofplayandstudy,thematchwasoverwithoutawinner.Wewouldhavetoreturnsixmonthslatertodobattleagain,andnexttimetherewouldbealimitoftwenty-fourgames.Karpovwasremovedfromimmediatedangerandcouldbecontentthathewouldholdontohistitleawhilelonger.TheofficialpressreleasestatedthatKarpov“accepted”thedecisionandKasparov“abided”it.Acuriousbutaccuratesemanticdistinction.Ilearnedahugeamountfromthislongandgruelingtutorial.Infactforfiverelentlessmonths,theworld

championhadbeenmypersonaltrainer.NotonlyhadIlearnedthewayheplayed,Iwasnowdeeplyintouchwithmyownthoughtprocesses.IwasincreasinglyabletoidentifymymistakesandanalyzewhyImadethem.FromthatprocessIlearnedhowbesttoavoidmakingthemagain,toimprovethedecision-makingprocessitself.Thiswasmyfirstrealexperienceatquestioningmyselfinsteadofrelyingonlyonmyinstincts.IrecognizedthatIhadbeentooaggressiveduetooverconfidence.Thisinturnmademepredictable.

Karpov’svastexperienceallowedhimtoexploitmyconstantattemptstoattackhispositiondirectly.HeunderstoodmyplaybetterthanIunderstoodhis—and,moreimportant,betterthanIunderstoodmyown.KarpovknewthatIwouldconsistentlygiveupmaterialforattackingchances,andheusedthishabitagainstmeinthatfirstmatch.OnlywhenIbegantoreininthatinstinctdidIbegintoputupeffectiveresistance.ThatwasthemomentIfirstbegantothinkaboutwhyImadethemovesImade.WhenthesecondmatchgotunderwayinMoscow,Ididn’thavetowaitmonthsformyfirstwin;Iwon

theveryfirstgame.Thematchwasstillatoughfight—Itrailedformostoftheearlystages—butthistimeIwasn’tthesameinnocenttwenty-one-year-old.IhadpatchedtheholesKarpovhadsosuccessfullyexploitedatthestartofthefirstmatch.Nowasavvyveteranattwenty-two,Ibecameworldchampionandwentontoholdthetitleforfifteenyears.WhenIretiredin2005,Iwasstillthehighest-ratedplayerintheworld,butforachessplayerforty-oneisold.Still,Ihadremainedatthesummitfornearlytwodecades,whilemanyofmyopponentswereintheirteens.

BecomingAwareoftheProcess

Itwouldn’thavebeenpossibleformetostayatthetopforsolongwithouttheeducationKarpovgavemeaboutmyowngame.Notjustrevealingtometheweaknesses,buttheimportanceoffindingthemformyself.Ididn’tfullyrealizeitatthetime,butthenotorious“MarathonMatch”showedmethekeytosuccess.It’snotenoughtobetalented.It’snotenoughtoworkhardandtostudylateintothenight.Youmustalsobecomeintimatelyawareofthemethodsyouusetoreachyourdecisions.Self-awarenessisessentialtobeingabletocombineyourknowledge,experience,andtalenttoreach

yourpeakperformance.Fewpeopleeverperformthissortofanalysis.Everydecisionstemsfromaninternalprocess,whetheratthechessboard,intheWhiteHouse,intheboardroom,oratthekitchentable.Thesubjectmatterofthosedecisionswillbedifferent,buttheprocesscanbeverysimilar.Withchesshavingbeenthefocusofmylifefromsuchanearlyage,itisnowonderthatItendtoseethe

restoftheworldinchessterms.Ifindthatthegameisusuallyaccordedeithertoomuchortoolittlerespectbythosewholookatitssixty-four-squareworldfromtheoutside.Itisneitheratrivialpursuitnoranexercisetobeleftonlytogeniusesandsupercomputers.Attheheartofthegameisstrategy,andthatiswherewemustbegin.

CHAPTER2

STRATEGY

Themanwhoknowshowwillalwayshaveajob.Themanwhoalsoknowswhywillalwaysbehisboss.

—RALPHWALDOEMERSON

SuccessatAnySpeed

Imaginelearninghowtoplaychessfromaprimerthat’smissingafewpages.Thepagesyouhaveteachyouhowtosetuptheboard,howtomoveandcapturetheenemypieces,butsaynothingaboutcheckmate,nothingabouttheendofthegame.Learningfromsuchabook,youcouldbecomecompetentatcalculationandproficientatmaneuvering,butyou’dhavenohigherobjectives.Withoutagoalyourplaywouldbeaimless.Youmightbeamastertactician,butyou’llhavenosenseofstrategy.Thedistinctionbetweentacticsandstrategywillbeimportanttousthroughoutthissection.Whereas

strategyisabstractandbasedonlong-termgoals,tacticsareconcreteandbasedonfindingthebestmoverightnow.Tacticsareconditionalandopportunistic,allaboutthreatanddefense.Nomatterwhatpursuityou’reengagedin—chess,business,themilitary,managingasportsteam—ittakesbothgoodtacticsandwisestrategytobesuccessful.AsSunTzuwrotecenturiesago,“Strategywithouttacticsistheslowestroutetovictory.Tacticswithoutstrategyisthenoisebeforedefeat.”Letusbeginwiththebigpicture,withstrategy.Theoldchesssaying“Abadplanisbetterthannoplan

atall”ismorecleverthantrue.Everystep,everyreaction,everydecisionyoumake,mustbedonewithaclearobjective.Otherwiseyoucan’tmakeanythingbutthemostobviousdecisionswiththeconfidencethatthedecisionisreallytoyouradvantage.Inthesecondroundofthe2001CorustournamentintheNetherlands,Ifacedoneofthetournament

underdogs,AlexeiFedorovofBelarus.Thiswasthestrongesttournamenthehadeverplayedin,andthefirsttimewehadevermetattheboard.Hequicklymadeitclearthathedidnotintendtoshowtoomuchrespectfortheaugustsurroundings,orforhisopponent.Fedorovquicklyabandonedstandardopeningplay.Ifwhatheplayedagainstmehadaname,itmight

becalledtheKitchenSinkAttack.Ignoringtherestoftheboard,helaunchedallofhisavailablepawnsandpiecesatmykingrightfromthestart.Iknewthatsuchawild,ill-preparedattackcouldonlysucceedifIblundered.Ikeptaneyeonmykingandcounteredontheotherside,orwing,andinthecenteroftheboard,acriticalareawherehehadcompletelyignoredhisdevelopment,thetermweuseinchesstodescribethedeploymentofyourpiecesforbattle.Itwassoonapparentthathisattackwasentirelysuperficial,andheresignedthegameafteronlytwenty-fivemoves.IadmitIdidn’thavetodoanythingspecialtoscorethiseasyvictory.Myopponenthadplayedwithout

asoundstrategyandeventuallyreachedadeadend.WhatFedorovfailedtodowastoaskhimselfearlyonwhatconditionswouldneedtobefulfilledforhisattacktosucceed.Hedecidedhewantedtocrosstheriverandwalkedrightintothewaterinsteadoflookingforabridge.Thelessonhereisthatifyouplaywithoutlong-termgoalsyourdecisionswillbecomepurelyreactive

andyou’llbeplayingyouropponent’sgame,notyourown.Asyoujumpfromonenewthingtothenext,youwillbepulledoffcourse,caughtupinwhat’srightinfrontofyouinsteadofwhatyouneedtoachieve.Takethe1992Americanpresidentialcampaign,theonethattookBillClintontotheWhiteHouse.

DuringtheDemocraticprimariesitseemedasifeverydaybroughtanewscandalthatwassuretodestroyClinton’scandidacy.Hiscampaignteamreactedinstantlytoeachnewdisaster,buttheyweren’tonlyreacting.Theymadesureeachpressreleasealsohammeredhometheircandidate’smessage.ThegeneralelectionagainstPresidentBushfollowedasimilarpattern.AgainsteachattacktheClinton

teamrespondedwithadefensethatalsorefocusedthedebateontheirownmessage—thenowfamous“It’stheeconomy,stupid”—constantlyreinforcingtheirownstrategy.Fouryearsearlierbycontrast,theDemocraticcandidate,MichaelDukakis,hadbecomecompletelydistractedbyhisopponent’saggressivetactics.Peopleonlyheardhimdefendinghimself,notpresentinghisownmessage.The1992Clintonteamknewthatitwasn’tonlyabouthowquicklytheyresponded,buthowwelltheirresponsesfitinwiththeiroverallstrategy.Beforeyoucanfollowastrategy,however,youhavetodevelopone.

“Why?”TurnsTacticiansintoStrategists

Thestrategiststartswithagoalinthedistantfutureandworksbackwardtothepresent.AGrandmastermakesthebestmovesbecausetheyarebasedonwhathewantstheboardtolookliketenortwentymovesinthefuture.Thisdoesn’trequirethecalculationofcountlesstwenty-movevariations.Heevaluateswherehisfortuneslieinthepositionandestablishesobjectives.Thenheworksoutthestep-by-stepmovestoaccomplishthoseaims.Imaginedoingthatregularlyatwork,oreveninyourprivateactivities.Weallhavehundredsof

personalandprofessionalobjectives,buttheyareusuallyvague,unformedwishlistsinsteadofgoalsthatcanformthebasisofastrategy.“Iwanttomakemoremoney”islikesaying“Iwanttofindtruelove”or“Iwanttowinthisgame.”Awishisn’tagoal.Totakeapracticalexample,almosteveryoneatsomepointdesirestofindabetterjob.Onlywhenyou

haveathoroughunderstandingofwhyyouwanttochangeshouldyoubegin.Maybeit’snotjustthejob,maybeyouneedanentirelynewcareer.Orperhapsyoucanmakechangesatyourcurrentworkplace.Youwon’tknowwhatyouarelookingforuntilyouareawarewhatconditionswillsatisfyyou.Whenyoudobeginyoursearch,yourguideisthatlistofintermediateobjectivesthatadduptoyour

goalof“betterjob.”Forexample,ifmoneyisn’tyourbiggestissueinyourcurrentposition,youshouldn’tbetemptedbyajobthatoffersmorecashbutwon’tchangethethingsthatarereallydrivingyoucrazywhereyouarenow.Soforeverymovealwaysask“Why?”andcontinuetoaskiteverytimeyoucomeupwithanansweroranewidea.It’sanessentialpartofthechessplayer’sdisciplinethatcanbeappliedtojustabouteverypursuitinlife.Theseintermediateobjectivesareessentialifwearetocreateconditionsfavorabletoourstrategy.

Withoutthemwe’retryingtobuildahousestartingwiththeroof.Toooftenwesetagoalandheadstraightforitwithoutconsideringallthestepsrequiredtoachieveit.Whatconditionsarenecessaryforourstrategytosucceed?Whatsacrificeswillberequired?Whatmustchangeandwhatcanwedotoinduceorenablethosechanges?Andmostimportant,whyarewedoingwhatwe’redoing?InhisbookonJapanesebusiness,KenichiOhmaesummeduptheroleofthestrategistthisway:“The

strategist’smethodistochallengetheprevailingassumptionswithasinglequestion:Why?”“Why?”isthequestionthatseparatesvisionariesfromfunctionaries,greatstrategistsfrommere

tacticians.Youmustaskthisquestionconstantlyifyouaretounderstandanddevelopandfollowyourstrategy.WhenIwatchnovicestudentsplaychess,I’llseeaterriblemoveandaskthestudentwhyheplayedit.Oftenhe’llhavenoansweratall.Obviouslysomethinginhisbrainpushedthatmoveforwardasthebestchoice,butitgoeswithoutsayingthatitwasn’tpartofadeeperplanwithstrategicgoals.Everyonewouldgreatlybenefitfromstoppingbeforeeachmove,eachdecision,andasking,“Whythismove?WhatamItryingtoachieveandhowdoesthismovehelpmeachieveit?”Chessclearlyshowsusthepowerof“Why?”Everymovehasaconsequence;everymoveeitherfits

intoyourstrategyoritdoesn’t.Ifyouaren’tquestioningyourmovesconsistently,youwilllosetotheplayerwhoisplayingwithacoherentplan.

Letusnowturnourattentiontotactics,themethodofcarryingoutyourstrategy.Imagineadaytraderwhomustdecide“Buyorsell?”adozentimesaday.Helooksatthenumbers,analyzesasmuchashecan,andmakesthebestdecisionpossibleinthelimitedtimeavailable.Themoretimehespends,thebetterhisdecisionwillbe,butwhileheisthinking,theopportunitytodecideispassing.It’sadifficultposition.Buthisconcernismainlytactical,notstrategic.Effectivetacticsresultfromalertnessandspeed,thisisobvious,buttheyalsorequireanunderstandingofallthepossibilitiesathand.Experienceallowsustoinstantlyapplythepatternswehavesuccessfullyusedinthepast.Tacticsinvolvecalculationsthatcantaxthehumanbrain,butwhenyouboilthemdown,theyare

actuallythesimplestpartofchessandarealmosttrivialcomparedtostrategy.Thinkoftacticsasforced,plannedresponses,basicallyaseriesof“if—then”statementsthatwouldmakeacomputerprogrammerfeelrightathome.“Ifhecapturesmypawn,Iwillplaymyknight,toe5.Thenifheattacksmyknight,I’llsacrificemybishop.Thenif...”Ofcourse,bythetimeyougettothefifthorsixth“if,”yourcalculationshavebecomeincrediblycomplexbecauseofthesheernumberofpossiblemoves.Thechanceofmakingamistakeincreasesthefurtheraheadyoulook.Atacticianfeelsathomereactingtothreatsandseizingopportunitiesonthebattlefield.Whenyour

opponenthasblundered,awinningtacticcansuddenlyappearandserveasbothmeansandend.Imagineasoccergamewherethecoacheshavespentmonthstrainingtheirplayersincomplexstrategiesandsetplays.Butiftheopposinggoalkeeperslipsonthegrass,youtossstrategytothesideandshootforthegoalwithouthesitation,apurelytacticalreaction.Everytimeyoumakeamove,youmustconsideryouropponent’sresponse,youranswertothat

response,andsoon.Atacticignitesanexplosivechainreaction,aforcefulsequenceofmovesthatcarriestheplayersalongonawildride.Youanalyzethepositionasdeeplyasyoucan,computethedozensofvariations,thehundredsofpositions.Ifyoudon’timmediatelyexploitatacticalopportunity,thegamewillalmostcertainlyturnagainstyou;oneslipandyouarewipedout.Butifyouseizetheopportunitiesthatyourstrategycreates,you’llplayyourgamelikeaGrandmaster.

AnEver-ExpandingExample

InMarch2004,notlongafterthehundredthanniversaryoftheWrightbrothers’famousfirstflightatKittyHawk,Igavealecturetitled“AchievingYourPotential”toanaudienceofexecutivesinInterlaken,theSwissmountainresort.Toillustratethedangerofalackofstrategicvision,IchosetheexampleoftheWrightbrothersandtheirfamousinvention.Hundredsofengineershaddiedattemptingtoinventaflyingmachine,andOrvilleandWilbursucceeded,goingdown—orup—inhistoryforalltime.

Andyettheyneverbelievedtheairplanewouldamounttomuchbeyondnoveltyandsport.TheAmericanscientificcommunitysharedthatview,andsoontheUSAfellwaybehindintheaircraftbusiness.TheWrightbrothersfailedtoenvisionthepotentialoftheircreation,anditwaslefttootherstoexploitthepowerofflightforcommercialandmilitarypurposes.TothiscautionarytaleIaddedthatwedon’tflyonWrightairplanestoday.Americaneededsomeonewhocombinedentrepreneurialvisionwithengineeringprowess,andthatmanwasWilliamBoeing.Morethanjustastrategist,Boeingwasalsoacreativetactician.In1910,AmericanScientificMagazinewrotethattheideathattheplanecouldrevolutionizetheworld

is“thewildestexaggeration.”Backthen,WilliamBoeingdidn’tevenknowhowtoflyandwaslivinginSeattle,Washington,farfromtheEastCoastwheremostaeronauticresearchwasgoingon.Boeing,whodroppedoutofengineeringclassesatYale,didn’thavethetechnicalknowledgeoftheWrightbrothers.Whathehadwasavisionandtheabilitytodevelopastrategytoachieveit.Boeingsawthecommercialpotentialofairplanesandunderstoodthattechnologicalexcellencewasthe

requiredfoundationforacompanythatwantedtoexcelin—andevendominate—thisnewfield.Buttofulfillhisvisionseveralmajorobstacles—distancelimitationsandsafetyissuesinparticular—hadtobeovercome.Boeingbethislifesavingsthatthetechnologywouldcatchupwithhisvisionbeforehewentbroke.Buthedidn’tjustwaitaroundforthistohappen.Hisstrategy:bettertechnology.Histactic:Boeingfinancedconstructionofawindtunnelatalocaluniversitytoattracttheengineersheneeded.In1917theAmericanmilitarywasgettingreadytoenterWorldWarI.TheyneededplanesandBoeing

hadanewdesignhethoughttheycoulduse.TheproblemwasthatthenavywastestingnewplanesthreethousandmilesawayinFlorida,toofartoflythelittleplanes.Boeingknewthatthiswashiscrucialopportunity,sohisteamfiguredouthowtotaketheplanesapart,boxthemuplikepizzas,andshipthemacrossthecountry.Itwasabrillianttacticalmaneuver.ThatmodestsuccessallowedBoeingtocontinueforafewmoreyears,duringwhichtimehisstruggling

airplanefactoryalsoproducedboatsand,believeitornot,furniture.Boeingbackeduphisintuitionaboutthefutureofcommercialflightbyemployingcountlessclevertacticsandmaneuversintheserviceofhislong-termplan.Hecontinuedtohirethemosttalentedengineersandinvestinresearch.Whenmaildeliveryandpassengertravel,plusCharlesLindbergh’ssensationalNewYorktoParisflight,createdarealboom,Boeingandhissuperiortechnologywerereadyandwaitingtodominatetheindustry.

PlayYourOwnGame

Akeytodevelopingsuccessfulstrategiesistobeawareofyourstrengthsandweaknesses,toknowwhatyoudowell.Twostrongchessplayerscanhaveverydifferentstrategiesinthesamepositionandtheymightbeequallyeffective—leavingasidethosepositionsinwhichasingleforcedwinninglineisavailable.Eachplayerhashisownstyle,hisownwayofsolvingproblemsandmakingdecisions.TwoSovietleadinglightsofopposingschoolsofchessthoughtbecameworldchampions.Mikhail

Botvinnik,whofirstbecameworldchampionin1948andwhowouldlaterbecomemyteacher,trustedinimmenseself-discipline,hardwork,andscientificrigor.HisrivalMikhailTalcultivatedhiswildcreativityandfantasy,caringlittleformethodicalpreparation.ThomasEdisonfamouslyclaimedthat“geniusisonepercentinspirationandninety-ninepercentperspiration.”ThisformulacertainlyworkedforEdisonandBotvinnik,butwouldneverhaveworkedforTal—orforAleksandrPushkin,thefounderofmodernRussianliterature.Pushkin’sloveofthefastlife,ofgamblingandromance,fedhiscreationofsomeofthegreatestworksintheRussianlanguage.

TigranPetrosian,anotherformerworldchampion,perfectedwhatwechessplayerscallprophylaxis:theartofpreventativeplay,strengtheningyourpositionandeliminatingthreats.Petrosiandefendedsowellthathisopponent’sattackwasoverbeforeitstarted,perhapsevenbeforehe’dthoughtofithimself.Hisperfectdefenseswouldleaveopponentsfrustratedandpronetomakingerrors,andPetrosian,alerttoeverysmallopportunity,exploitedthesemistakeswithruthlessprecision.WhenIplayedPetrosianintheNetherlandsin1981,IwaseighteenandPetrosianfifty-two.Iwaseager

toavengelosingtohimearlierintheyearinMoscow,whereIhaddevelopedanimpressiveattackingpositionthatexplodedinmyface.AtthetimeIthoughtitwasanaccident,butthenithappenedagain.Everytimeitlookedasifmyoffensivewerecrashingthrough,hewouldcalmlymakealittleadjustment.AllmypieceswereswarmingaroundhiskingandIwassureitwasonlyamatteroftimebeforeIwouldlandthedecisiveblow.Butwherewasit?Istartedtofeellikeabullchasingatoreadoraroundthering.Exhaustedandfrustrated,Imadeonemistake,thenanother,andlostthegame.(Incidentally,somethingsimilaroccurredayearlaterattheWorldCupinSpain,whenthedefensivecatenacciostyleoftheItalianstriumphedovertheattackingjogobonitooftheBrazilians.Sometimesthebestdefenseisthebestdefense.)Ihadtochangemyapproach,andIdid,inspiredbyanextraordinarypieceofadvicefromthemanwho

tooktheworldtitlefromPetrosianin1969,BorisSpassky.Spassky’sownexperiencesagainstPetrosianhadfollowedapatternsimilartomine.Hefirstfoughtthe

defensivemasterfortheworldchampionshipin1966andwasturnedbackinatightcontest.Hewentintotheirmatchbelieving—wrongly—thatPetrosiandidn’tplaysharp,attackingchessbecausehelackedtheskillstodoso.Spasskycomplicatedatallcostsonlytofindhisattacksbrilliantlyrepelledbythewilyworldchampion.Threeyearslater,SpasskydemonstratedmuchmorerespectforPetrosian’sskill.Intheir1969matchheplayedamorebalancedgameandtriumphed.SobeforeIplayedPetrosianagain,lessthanayearafterthedefeatsdescribedabove,Ispokewith

Spassky,whowasplayinginthesametournamentinYugoslavia.Hecounseledmethatthekeywastoapplypressure,butjustalittle,steadily.“Squeezehisballs,”hetoldmeinanunforgettableturnofphrase.“Butjustsqueezeone,notboth!”OverthenexttwoyearsIevenedthescorebytwicebeatingPetrosianwithaquietpositionalstyle,almostthestyleofPetrosianhimself.ThosetwolosseshadgivenmeadeeprespectbothforPetrosian’sabilitiesandfortheartofdefensein

chess.ButIalsorealizedthatsuchastylewasn’tforme.Ialwayswantedtobeontheattackingsideandmygamestrategiesreflectedthat.Thelesson?Youmustalwaysbeawareofyourlimitationsandalsoofyourbestqualities.Thisknowledgeallowsyoutobothplayyourowngameandadaptwhenitisrequired.Myaggressive,dynamicstyleofplayfitsmystrengthsandmypersonality.EvenwhenIamforcedon

thedefensive,Iamconstantlylookingforachancetoturnthetablesandcounterattack.AndwhenIamontheoffensive,I’mnotcontenttoseekmodestgains.Iprefersharp,energeticchesswithpiecesflyingallovertheboardandwheretheplayerwhomakesthefirstmistakeloses.Otherplayers,includingthemanIdefeatedfortheworldchampionship,AnatolyKarpov,specializeintheaccumulationofsmalladvantages.Theyrisklittleandarecontenttoslowlyimprovetheirpositionuntiltheiropponentcracks.Butallofthesestrategies—defensive,dynamic,maneuvering—canbehighlyeffectiveinthehandsofsomeonewhounderstandsthemwell.Noristhereasinglebesttypeofstrategyinbusiness.Risk-takerscoexistwithconservativemanagers

atthetopofFortune500companies.PerhapsfiftypercentofaCEO’sdecisionswouldbemadeinidenticalfashionbyanycompetentbusinessperson,justasmanychessmovesareobvioustoanystrongplayerregardlessofhisstyle.It’sthatotherfiftypercent,oreventhemostcomplicatedtenpercent,wherethedifferenceismade.Thebestleadersappreciatetheparticularimbalancesandkeyfactorsofeach

situationandcandeviseastrategyinformedbythatunderstanding.Andtheytrustinwhattheyknowtobetheirbestqualities.NokiaCEOJormaOllilaturnedtheFinnishcompanyintothemobilephoneleaderwithanunorthodox,

evenchaoticstylethatturnedconventiononitsheadateveryopportunity.Topmanagerswereaskedtoswapjobs,researchanddevelopmentstaffmetdirectlywithcustomers,andthecompany’schiefphonedesigneroncecompareditsmanagementtothewayajazzbandimprovisestogether.Thisflexible,dynamicapproachwasidealforthefast-pacedworldofmobiletechnology.Suchalooseandenergeticstylemightnotbesosuccessfulinanotherindustry,oranothercountry,or

withanotherCEO.FordecadesIBMbuiltitsbusinessonaconservative,evenstodgy,reputation.Intheworldofofficemachineryandmainframesthatstoodforreliability,whichwasfarmoreimportanttoIBM’sbusinesscustomersthanimage.Newmobilephonemodelscomeouteverymonth,whileIBMwassellingandservicingmachinesoverfive-yearandeventen-yearperiods.Intheeyesoftheircustomersthisveryconservatismwasavirtue.RapidchangeswouldhavepanickedIBM’sclients.

YouCannotAlwaysDeterminetheBattlefield

Ofcourseyoudon’tbecomeaworldchampionwithoutbeingabletoplayindifferentstyleswhennecessary.Sometimesyouareforcedtofightonunfamiliarterrain;youcan’trunawaywhenconditionsaren’ttoyourliking.Theabilitytoadaptiscriticaltosuccess.Iwasforcedtoadaptduringmyadvanceontheroadtotheworldchampionshipin1983.Iwasa

twenty-year-oldupstarttakingonthefifty-two-year-oldViktorKorchnoi,atwo-timeworldchampionshipfinalistwhoisstillplayingstrongchesstodayattheageofseventy-five.Unsurprisingly,theveterancontrolledthetempointheearlystagesofourtwelve-gamequalificationmatch.HewonthefirstgameandconsistentlypreventedmefromgettingintothesortofopenattackingpositionsIenjoyed.Insteadofcontinuingtobefrustratedinmyattemptstochangethecharacterofthegames,Idecidedmy

bestchancewastogowiththeflow.InsteadofmakingsharpmovesthatIthoughtweremoreinmystyle,Iplayedthebestsolidmovesavailableeveniftheyledtoquietpositions.Freedfromthepsychologicaldifficultyoftryingtoforcetheissueineachgame,Icouldjustplaychess.Korchnoiforcedmetofightonhisterrain,butonceIwasconsciousofit,Iwasabletoadapt,fight,andwin.IwongamessixandseventotaketheleadwhenKorchnoidecidedtotrytoturnthetables.Ingame

nineheswitchedtoatacticalstyle,tryingtosurprisemewithaggressiveplay.Buthavinglostthebattleonhisterritory,hewasn’tabletomakeasuccessfultransitiontofightingonmine,andhesufferedadevastatingloss.ThisexperienceofadaptingunderfirewasmosthelpfulwhenIhadtodothesameunderevenlessfavorableconditionsagainstKarpovinourworldchampionshipmatchayearlater.AsanyreaderofDarwinknows,thefailuretoadaptalmostalwaysbringsdireconsequences.Aclassic

examplecomesfromAmericanhistoryin1755,whenGeorgeWashingtonwasavolunteeraide-de-campfightingintheBritisharmyagainstFrenchandIndianforces.TheBritishmadealmostnoefforttoadapttothefrontierwarfarepracticedbytheirenemies.TheirgeneralEdwardBraddockwasatragicallytypicalcase.HewouldlineuphisBritishredcoatsinorderlyrowsoutintheopentofirewell-organizedvolleysintotheforestastheFrenchandIndiansniperspickedthemofffromcover.OnlywhenBraddockhimselfwasfinallykilledinadisastrousbattlecouldhisfewremainingmenretreat,ledbynoneotherthanWashington.Fast-forwardacouplehundredyearstoalesscalamitousstory:theEncyclopaediaBritannicaasit

encounteredthecomputerage.Perhapsthebest-knownbrandnameinreferencebooks,theirfirstblunder

wastobelateinreleasingtheirproductsonCD-ROM.Afterall,theythought,whowouldwanttoreplaceallthosebeautifulbookswithadigitizedversion?Everybody,aswenowknow.From1990to1996,salesofprintedencyclopediasdroppedtoatinyfractionofthereferencemarket,andMicrosoft’sEncartaandothersgrabbedahugemarketshare.NextcametheInternetanditspromiseofalmostunlimitedcustomersaroundtheworld.Britannica

chargedforaccessatatimewheneveryoneelsewaslearningthemarketandbuildingacustomerbasebygivingcontentawayforfree.Britannica’sbusinesswaspredictablypoor.Afewyearslaterthedot-comboomwasbusting—somethingIrememberonlytoowell,frommyfirsthandexperiencewithmyownchessInternetportal.TheonlineadvertisingmarketcollapsedentirelyjustasBritannicafinallydecidedtogiveawaytheircontentforfree.Nomatterwhattheydid,theywereonthewrongsideofchange.WhatwasresponsibleforBritannica’sseriesofdebacles?Theywereclearlywellbehindthecurve

whenitcametomovingfromprinttodigitalmedia.ThefailureoftheirInternetstrategiesismorecomplex.Beingtoofaraheadofyourenvironmentcanbejustasbadaslaggingbehindyourcompetitors.Insteadofrelyingontheirhugebrandadvantagetheytriedtooutthinkanewandunpredictablemarketandendedupfightingonalosingbattlefieldeachtime.

AFrequentlyChangedStrategyIstheSameasNoStrategy

Changecanbeessential,butitshouldonlybemadewithcarefulconsiderationandjustcause.Losingcanpersuadeyoutochangewhatdoesn’tneedtobechanged,andwinningcanconvinceyoueverythingisfineevenifyouareonthebrinkofdisaster.Ifyouarequicktoblamefaultystrategyandchangeitallthetime,youdon’treallyhaveanystrategyatall.Onlywhentheenvironmentshiftsradicallyshouldyouconsiderachangeinfundamentals.Weallmustwalkafinelinebetweenflexibilityandconsistency.Astrategistmusthavefaithinhis

strategyandthecouragetofollowitthroughandstillbeopen-mindedenoughtorealizewhenachangeofcourseisrequired.Oneofthetensestgamesofmylifesawmyopponentfailtohavefaithinhisownplans.In1985Iwas

lockedinyetanotherbattlewithmylongtimefoe,AnatolyKarpov.Itwasthefinalgameofoursecondworldchampionshipmatch,andIwasintheleadbyasinglepoint.Hehadtheadvantageofthewhitepieces,andifhewon,hewoulddrawthematchandretainthetitleforthreemoreyears.Heplayedaggressivelyrightfromthestartandbuiltupanimpressiveattackingpositionagainstmy

king.Thencamethecriticaldecision,whethertocompletelycommittohisattackbypushinghispawnforwardagainstmykingsideortocontinuewithmorecircumspectpreparations.Ithinkwebothknewthatthiswasthecriticalmomentinthegame.Karpovdecidedagainstthepush,andtheopportunitywasgone.Afterspendingthefirsttwentymoves

ofthegamepreparingadirectassault,hegotcoldfeetandmissedhischance.SuddenlyIwasinmyelement,counterattackinginsteadofdefending.Thegameenteredcomplicationsonmyterms,notmyopponent’s,andIbroughthomethevictorythatmademetheworldchampion.Whenitcametimetoplayforthekill,Karpovplayedamovethatfithisprudentstylebutnotthewin-

at-all-costssituationthathehimselfhadcreated.Hispersonalstylewasinconflictwiththegamestrategythatwasrequiredinordertowin,andheveeredoffcourse.ButKarpovisacunningstrategistandlearnedfromhismistakes.Thelessonhetookawayfromthis

criticalgamewastoalmostentirelystopopeningwithhisking’spawn.Karpovrecognizedthatatkeymomentshisstylewouldn’tfitthesharppositionsitcreated.Helearnedandadaptedandstayednearthe

topformany,manyyearsbecausehewasquicktorecognizethatheneededtochange.Again,wereturntothepowerof“Why?”Youmustknowwhatquestionstoaskandaskthem

frequently.Haveconditionschangedinawaythatnecessitatesachangeinstrategyorisasmalladjustmentallthatisrequired?Havefundamentalgoalschangedforsomereason?Whyhavetheconditionschanged?Whyaremyresultsnotasgoodastheyoncewere?Avoidchangeforthesakeofchange.Militaryhistoryisfullofexamplesofcommanderswhogotcarriedawaybytheactiononthe

battlefieldandforgotaboutstrategy.TheFrenchforceswereroutedbytheEnglishatAgincourtin1415whentheFrenchcavalryallowedalong-distancevolleyofarrowstoprovokethemintoadisorderlycharge.TheFrenchknights,outofformationandchargingacrossmuddyterrain,wererepeatedlycutdown.Itwasadownfallofarrogance.Whenyouropponentcomplicatesthings,thereisastrongtemptationtolookforarefutationofhisidea,topickupthegauntlet,torisetothechallenge.Ofcoursethisisexactlywhathewantsandwhysuchdistractionsmustberesisted.Ifyouhavealreadydecidedonagoodstrategy,whydropitforsomethingthatsuitsyouropponent?Avoidingthistraprequiresextraordinarilystrongself-control.Stickingwithaplanwhenyouarewinningsoundssimple,butit’seasytobecomeoverconfidentand

getcaughtupinevents.Long-termsuccessisimpossibleifyouletyourheat-of-the-momentreactionstrumpcarefulplanning.Aninterestingsideeffectofmyyearsofsuccesswasthatsomeofmyopponentschosetoemploy

unorthodoxvariationstotakeourgamesintooriginalchannels.Here,theyfelt,mylongexperiencewouldbenullifiedandtheywouldbebetterpreparedfortheunusualpositions.Theproblem,asmanyoftheseplayersdiscovered,isthatmostoftheir“original”conceptswererareforgoodreason.Thevirtueofinnovationonlyrarelycompensatesfortheviceofinadequacy.

Don’tWatchtheCompetitionMoreThanYouWatchYourself

Wemustalsoavoidbeingdistractedfromourstrategicpathbythecompetition.Ifyouareemployingapowerfulandsuccessfulstrategy,whethergainingspaceonthechessboardormarketshareinglobalcommerce,thecompetitionwilltrytotripyouupbygettingyoutoabandonit.Ifyourplansaresoundandyourtacticalawarenessisgood,yourcompetitorcanonlysucceedwithyourhelp.Againstsolidstrategy,diversionarytacticswilleitherbeinsufficient,orflawed.Iftheyareinsufficient,

youcanandshouldignorethem,continuingalongyourpath.Iftheyareradicalenoughtoforceyoufromyourpath,theyarelikelyflawedinsomeway—unlessyouhaveblundered.Oftenanopponentissoeagertogetyoutochangeyourcoursethathefatallyweakenshisownpositionintheattempt.Evenifthecompetitionisn’tinterferingdirectly,wecandivertourselves.WhenI’mplayinginahead-

to-headeventsuchasaworldchampionshipmatch,Ionlyhaveoneguytowatchandhe’ssittingrightacrosstheboardfromme.It’sazero-sumsituation:Iwin,heloses,orviceversa.Butinatournamentwithadozenplayers,whatgoesonintheothergamescanhaveanimpactonmyownsuccess.It’slikeanybusinesswithmultiplepartnersandcompetitors;ifUnitedandAmericanairlinesstarttalks,Continentalhastopayattention.In2000IwasplayinginastrongtournamentinSarajevo.Enteringthefinalround,Iwasintheleadby

theslimmestofmargins,ahalfpoint.(Inchess,winsareworthapoint,drawshalfapoint,lossesnopoints.)Twooftheworld’stopplayerswererightbehindme,AlexeiShirovandMichaelAdams.Itwouldhavebeennicetofaceoneofthemforallthemarblesinthefinalround,butwewereallplaying

differentopponents.IfIdrewmygameandAdamsorShirovwon,theywouldtiewithmeforfirstplace.IfIlost,Icoulddropasfarasthird.SobeforemygameIhadtodecidewhethertoplaycautiouslyorgoalloutforawin.Itwouldbe

heroictoentereverybattlewith“Victoryordeath”onourlips,butfewsituationsinchessorlifeareasdireaswhenthosewordswerewrittenfromtheAlamo.Firstoff,Ihadthedisadvantageoftheblackpieces.Nexttherewasmyopponent,anoutsiderinthis

eliteevent.SergeiMovsesian,representingtheCzechRepublic,haddonepoorlyinthetournamentbuthaddefeatedtwoofthehighest-ratedparticipantsintheprevioustworounds.Iconfessthatourcontestalsohadaminorpersonalelement.Theyearbefore,writingaboutatournamentinLasVegas,IhaddismissedMov-sesianandafewotherplayersas“tourists,”andhehadtakenhisdispleasureovermycharacterizationtothepress.Nowthistouristsurelywantedmyscalpasasouvenir.ThenIhadtoconsidertheday’sothermatchups.Shirov’sopponent,theFrenchmanBacrot,hadalready

lostfivegamesandwasatthebottomofthestandings.Icouldn’tcountonhimgainingadrawwhenhisopponenthadeverythingtoplayfor.Incorporatingthatinformationintomygamestrategy,Iwentontheattackfromthestartagainst

Movsesian.ThegamewasturningmywaywhenIgotuptocheckonmypursuers.IknewthatifIwonmygame,howtheydidwouldbeirrelevant,butitwashardnottowatch.Iftheybothdreworlost,itwouldbefollyformetotakeunduerisksinmyowngame.Inthatcase,Icoulddrawandstillwinthetournament.Admittedly,thoughtslikethatmadeithardtofocusonmyowngame.Thereisaprecariousbalancebetweenknowingwhatyourcompetitionisuptoandbecomingdistractedfromthefactorsyoucontroldirectly.ThusitwasalmostarelieftoseethatbothShirovandAdamswereonthewaytovictory.Iknewfor

surethatIhadtoignorethemandfocusonmyowngame,andthatitwasnowamatterofwinningatallcosts.AssoonasIsatbackdowninmychair,anycautiousstrategiesweretossedoutthewindow.Intheend,allthreeofuswonsoIkeptmyslimleadandtookfirstplace.Lesson:don’tspendsomuchtimeworryingabouttheotherguythatyoulosesightofyourowngoalsandyourownperformance.

OnceYouHaveaStrategy,EmployingItIsaMatterofDesire

Finallywecometothehardestpartofdevelopingandemployingstrategicthinking:theconfidencetouseitandtheabilitytosticktoitconsistently.Onceyouhaveyourstrategydownonpaper,therealworkbegins.Howdoyoustayontrack,andhowdoyouknowwhenyouhaveslippedawayfromthinkingstrategically?Westayontrackwithrigorousquestioningofourresults,bothgoodandbad,andourongoing

decisions.DuringagameIquestionmymoves,andafterthegameIquestionhowaccuratemyevaluationswereintheheatofbattle.Weremydecisionsgoodones?Wasmystrategysound?IfIwon,wasitduetoluckorskill?Whenthissystemfails,orfailstooperatequicklyenough,disastercanstrike.In2000Imetaformerpupilofmine,VladimirKramnik,inasixteen-gamematchfortheworldchess

championship,mysixthtitledefense.Ihadwonthetitlebackin1985,andheadedintothismatch,Ihadbeenplayingsomeofthebestchessofmylife.Inotherwords,Iwasripefordefeat.YearsofsuccesshadmadeitdifficultformetoimagineIcouldlose.Goingintothatmatch,Ihadwon

sevenconsecutivegrandslamtournamentsinarowandIwasn’tawareofmyownweaknesses.IfeltIwasingreatformandunbeatable.Afterall,hadn’tIbeateneveryoneelse?Witheachsuccesstheabilitytochangeisreduced.Mylongtimefriendandcoach,GrandmasterYuriDokhoian,aptlycompareditto

beingdippedinbronze.Eachvictoryaddedanothercoat.Whenheplayedblackinourmatch,Kramnikshrewdlychoseadefense—theBerlinvariationofthe

RuyLopez—inwhichthepowerfulqueensquicklycameofftheboard.Thegamebecameoneoflong-rangemaneuveringratherthandynamic,hand-to-handcombat.KramnikhadevaluatedmystyleandhadrightlyassessedthatIwouldfindthiskindoftranquilplayboringandthatIwouldunwittinglyletdownmyguard.Ihadpreparedintenselyandwasreadytofightonperhapsninetypercentofthechessbattleground,butheforcedmetoplayonthetenpercentheknewbetterandthatheknewIwouldleastprefer.Thisbrilliantstrategyworkedtoperfection.InsteadoftryingtowrestthegamesbacktopositionswhereIwouldbemorecomfortable,Itookuphis

challengeandtriedtobeathimathisowngame.ThisplayedrightintoKramnik’shands.Iwasunabletoadapt,unabletomakethenecessarystrategicchangesquicklyenough,andIlostthematchandmytitle.Sometimestheteachermustlearnfromthestudent.InthelongrunIlearnedthatIneededtobemoreflexibleaboutthekindsofchesspositionsIenjoy.But

Icouldhaveavoidedthispainfullessonthroughgreatervigilance,byworkinghardertofindandrepairmyweaknessesbeforeKramnikcouldexploitthem.Everyleaderineveryfield,everysuccessfulcompanyorindividual,gottothetopbyworkingharder

andfocusingbetterthansomeoneelse.Thetopachieversbelieveinthemselvesandtheirplans,andtheyworkconstantlytoensurethoseplansareworthyoftheirbelief.Itbecomesapositivecycle,workreinforcingdesirethatspursmorework.Questioningyourselfmustbecomeahabit,onestrongenoughtosurmounttheobstaclesofoverconfidenceanddejection.Itisamusclethatcanbedevelopedonlywithconstantpractice.Inchessweseemanycasesofgoodstrategyfailingduetobadtacticsandviceversa.Asingle

oversightcanundothemostbrilliantconcepts.Evenmoredangerousinthelongrunarecasesofbadstrategysucceedingduetogoodtactics,orduetosheergoodfortune.Thismayworkonce,butrarelytwice.Thisiswhyitissoimportanttoquestionsuccessasvigorouslyasyouquestionfailure.PabloPicassonaileditwhenhesaidthat“computersareuseless.Theycanonlygiveyouanswers.”

Questionsarewhatmatter.Questions,anddiscoveringtherightones,arethekeytostayingoncourse.Areourtactics,ourday-to-daydecisions,basedonourlong-termgoals?Thewaveofinformationthreatenstoobscurestrategy,todrownitindetailsandnumbers,calculationandanalysis,reactionandtactics.Tohavestrongtacticswemusthavestrongstrategyononesideandaccuratecalculationontheother.Bothrequireseeingintothefuture.

CHAPTER3

STRATEGYANDTACTICSATWORK

Tacticsisknowingwhattodowhenthereissomethingtodo;strategyisknowingwhattodowhenthereisnothingtodo.—SAVIELLYTARTAKOWER

Inthepreviouschapter,wediscussedstrategyasaclashofpiecesontheboard.Inthisone,we’lltakeafurtherstepbyincludingsomepsychologicalaspectsofcompetition:notjusthowyourpiecescanbestyouropponent’spieces,buthowyourmindcanbestyouropponent’smind.Inchesswehavetheobligationtomove;thereisnooptiontoskipaturnifyoucan’tidentifya

directionthatsuitsyou.Oneofthegreatchallengesofthegameishowtomakeprogresswhentherearenoobviousmoves,whenactionisrequired,notreaction.ThegreatPolishchessmasterandwitTartakowerhalf-jokingcalledthisthe“nothingtodo”phaseofthegame.Inreality,itisherethatwefindwhatseparatespretendersfromcontenders.Thisobligationtomovecanbeaburdentoaplayerwithoutstrategicvision.Unabletoformaplan

whenthereisn’tanimmediatecrisis,heislikelytotrytoprecipitateacrisishimselfandusuallyendsupdamaginghisownposition.WelearnedfromPetrosianthatvigilantinactionisaviablestrategyinchess,buttheartofusefulwaitingtakesconsummateskill.Whatexactlydoyoudowhenthereisnothingtodo?Wecallthesephases“positionalplay”becauseourgoalistoimproveourposition.Youmustavoid

creatingweaknesses,findsmallwaystoimproveyourpieces,andthinksmall—butneverstopthinking.Onetendstogetlazyinquietpositions,whichiswhypositionalmasterssuchasKarpovandPetrosianweresodeadly.Theywerealwaysalertandwerehappytogolongstretcheswithoutanyrealactionontheboardifitmeantgainingatinyadvantage,andthenanother.Eventuallytheiropponentswouldfindthemselveswithoutanygoodmovesatall,asiftheywerestandingonquicksand.Inlifethereisnosuchobligationtomove.Ifyoucan’tfindausefulplan,youcanwatchtelevision,

stickwithbusinessasusual,andbelievethatnonewsisgoodnews.Humanbeingsarebrilliantlycreativeatfindingwaystopasstimeinunconstructiveways.Atthesetimes,atruestrategistshinesbyfindingthemeanstomakeprogress,tostrengthenhispositionandpreparefortheinevitableconflict.Andconflict,wecannotforget,isinevitable.Europewaslargelyatpeaceenteringthetwentiethcentury,andpacifistmovementsweremaking

politicalinroadsinEuropeanparliaments.Germanymeanwhilewaspreparingforwar,anditsnavalbuildupwasmatched,evenprovokedinsomecases,byBritain’s.Theresponsibilityforthislaywithoneman,AdmiralJohn“Jackie”Fisher.Britainhadquiteliterallyruledthewavesforoveracentury,andin1900theBritishpoliticiansand

militaryleaderstookthissuperiorityentirelyforgranted.ButAdmiralFisherinsistedonmodernizingtheRoyalNavy,buildingthefirstgiantdreadnoughtsandencouragingthedevelopmentofsubmarines,whichothersintheAdmiraltysawassneakyand,worstofall,“un-English.”Fisher,whosebellicosepersonalitywasill-suitedtoaffairsofstate,hadtopushrelentlesslytoachieve

hisprogramofpeacetimemodernization.In1910heretired,exhaustednotbyseabattlesbutbypoliticalbattles.HewasrecalledbyWinstonChurchillattheoutbreakofWorldWarIin1914,andalthoughtheirdisagreementovertheDardanellescampaigncausedFishertoresignlessthanayearlater,hisinsistence

onreformingtheRoyalNavyandmakingitamodernfightingforcesoonproveditsworth.JackieFisherisnowrecognizedbyhistoriansasoneofBritain’sgreatestadmirals,andhemademany

ofhismostimportantcontributionswithoutfiringashot.Herewasastrategistwhoknewthatnothavinganythingtododidn’tmeandoingnothing.

ElementofSurprise

AsFisher’sexampleshows,there’salwaysanadvantageinbeingbetterpreparedthanyouropponent.Butattimes,youropponentwillcometothegamethoroughlyschooledinyourstyleandreadytocounteryourfavoritetactics.Inthiscase,there’sanotheradvantageyoucanseize:youcanundoallhiscarefulworkbychangingthegame.Inmy1995worldchampionshipmatchagainstIndianstarViswanathan“Vishy”AnandinNewYorkCity,halfwaythroughthematch,withthescoretiedatonewinapiece,IabandonedmyfavoritelinesforthefearsomelynamedSicilianDragon;adefenseIhadneverplayedbeforeinaseriousgame.Itwasn’tchangeforthesakeofit;otherfactorscontributedtomyselectionoftheDragon.Itleadstoan

uncompromisinggame,oneinwhichwhitemustchoosethemostaggressivecontinuationtohaveanychanceofgainingtheadvantage.AnandwasfacedwiththesurpriseofseeingitandtheknowledgethatIwouldhaveprepareditextensively.Inaddition,ourresearchshowedthatAnandhadlittlepreviousexperiencewiththeDragonandfeltlesscomfortableagainstitthanagainstothersharpopeninglines.Ifhewentfortheriskymainvariations,hecouldbesureI’dhavesomethingnastywaitingforhim.Instead,unabletoadjust,heplayedtamelyandlosttwice.NapoleonBonapartewasfamousformaintainingtheelementofsurpriseonthebattlefield,particularly

bypressingonwithanattackthathadapparentlystalled.Buthewasnotaboveusinghisownreputationforaggressiontoentraphisenemies.Napoleonpreparedforthe1805battleofAusterlitzbyretreatinghisforcesfromanexcellentoutpost,

intentionallyallowingtheRussianczar’sforcestomoveinandseethethinFrenchlinesinretreat.YoungCzarAlexanderdecidedthatthiswashischanceforgloryandpreparedanall-outattack,exactlywhatNapoleonwanted.HehadquietlybroughtupreinforcementstotheareahehadmadetheRussiansbelievetobeweak.Thiswasn’tonlyacaseofaclevertrickworkingtoperfection.First,Napoleonrealizedthathewas

outnumberedandthatdirectmethodswouldn’tsuffice.Heknewhisopponentwasyoungandimpulsiveandeagerforglory.HealsoknewthatnoonewouldbelievethegreatNapoleonwouldretreatfromacommandingpositionvoluntarily.Napoleon’sstrategyingeniouslycombinedallofthesefactors.Theone-eyedRussiangeneralMikhailKutuzovwasthelonevoiceofcaution,buthiswarningstotheczarwentunheeded.Napoleon’sgambitsucceededbrilliantly:theczar’sforceswereroutedinasingleday.

AGeniusforDevelopment

Ioftenrefertotheneedforeffectivedevelopment,somethingthatisnowtakenforgrantedbyanychessplayerbeyondtherankofnovice.ButittookthefirstgreatAmericansportsherotodemonstratetheimportanceofthisfundamentalconcepttotheworld.Hislesson,thatyoushouldhaveasolidandwell-developedpositionbeforegoingontheattack,isapplicabletoeveryfieldofbattle.Itseemspreposteroustosuggestthatasingleplayercouldhaveaseriousimpactonsuchanancient

gameinasshortatimeasayear.Andyetin1858America’sPaulMorphycreatedalegacythatalteredthechesslandscapeforever.ThewealthyyoungmanfromNewOrleansenteredthechessworldonlybecausehewasnotyetofagetopracticeasalawyerwhenhefinishedhisstudies.HequicklyprovedhimselfinaclassabovethebestplayersintheUnitedStates,buttherealcompetitionwasacrosstheAtlantic.Reversingthepathoftheconquistadors,thetwenty-one-year-olddemolishedthegreatestplayersofthedayoneaftertheother.MorphyreturnedtotheStatesasahero.Littlewonder,ashewasthefirstAmericantoachievesuch

globalpreeminence.Whiletheofficialtitleofworldchampionwouldn’tberecognizedforanotherthirtyyears,thereisnoquestionthatPaulMorphywasthekingofchess.Howdidhedoit?Howcouldsuchayoungmanwithnoadequatecompetitioninhisnativelandsoeasilyhumiliatethebestplayersintheworld?Morphy’ssecret,andit’sunlikelyhewasawareofithimself,washisunderstandingofpositionalplay.Insteadofflyingdirectlyintoanattack,aswastheruleinthosedays,Morphyfirstmadesureeverythingwasready.Heunderstoodthatawinningattackshouldonlybelaunchedfromastrongposition,andthatapositionwithnoweaknessescouldnotbeoverwhelmed.Unfortunately,heleftnomapbehind,fewwritingsthatcouldexplainhismethod.Morphywassofaraheadofhistimethatittookanotherquartercenturyfortheseprinciplesofdevelopmentandattacktoberediscoveredandformulated.ThisrediscoverywastheachievementofWilhelmSteinitz.By1870Steinitzhadbeguntodevelophis

theoriesofdefense,weaknesses,andstrategicplay.Thisiswhatdividesthechesstimelineinto“pre-Steinitz”and“post-Steinitz”periods.AlthoughSteinitz’simmortalitywouldhavebeenassuredbyhistheoreticalcontributions,hewasalsosuccessfulinimplementingthemontheboard.In1886,hebattledJohannesZukertort,aromanticattackeroftheoldschool,inwhatisnowrememberedasthefirstofficialworldchampionshipmatch.Despitelosingfourofthefirstfivegames,Steinitzandhisprinciplestriumphedintheend.Hetookthemeasureofhisopponent,adjusted,andscoredninewinstojustonefurtherloss.ZukertortsimplycouldnotcomprehendhowSteinitzcouldwinwithoutbrilliantattacks.Theevolutionofthegamehascontinued,butitwasSteinitz,inspiredbyMorphy,whofirstbroughtthegameoutoftheseaontodryland.

StickingwithaPlan

DuringmythirtyyearsasaprofessionalchessplayerwewentfromspendingdaysresearchinganopponentbydiggingthroughmustybooksandjournalstobeingabletopullupeverysinglegameinhiscareerinsecondsonaPC.Itusedtotakemonthsfortournamentgamestobepublishedinspecialistmagazines.NowanyonecanwatchthegamesontheInternetinrealtime.Buttheimplicationsoftheinformationrevolutiongomuchdeeperthanmattersofconvenience.With

databecomingavailableinstantaneously,ourabilitytodealwithitmustalsomoveatwarpspeed.WhenagameisplayedinMoscow,itisinstantlyavailablefortheentireworldtoanalyze.Anideathattookweekstodevelopcanbeimitatedbyothersthenextday,soeveryplayermustbeawareofbothdistanthistoryandtheimmediatepresentandprepareaccordingly.Soitisharderthanevertoemploysurpriseasastrategyonthechessboard.In1987Iplayedasix-gamematchof“rapidchess”onthestageoftheLondonHippodromeagainst

England’sNigelShort,whowouldchallengemefortheworldchampionshipsixyearslater.Itwasthefirstseriousmatchofitskind,withagreatlyacceleratedrateofplay.Intheserapidgameswehadjusttwenty-fiveminuteseachtomakeallourmoves,afarcryfromtraditionalchess,wheregamescanlastuptosevenhours.

Itrainedextensivelywiththisnewtimelimitanddiscoveredthatitwasstillpossibletoplaydeepconceptsdespitetheimpossibilityofcalculatingdeeplyoneachmove.Insteadofaprofoundstudyofapositionwehadtorelymoreoninstinct.Itwouldbefairtoassumethatinrapidchesscarefulplanningandstrategicgoalsaresecondary,orevenignored,infavorofquickcalculationandintuition.AndIwouldevensaythatformanyplayersthisisexactlythecase.Ifyoudon’tlikeplanningduringaseven-hourgame,you’lllikelyabandonitentirelyinarapidgame.Butthemostsuccessfulplayers—atanyspeed—basetheircalculationsfirmlyinstrategicplanning.Farfrombeingmutuallyexclusive,themosteffectiveanalysis,andthefastest,ispossiblewhenthereisaguidingstrategy.MybattlewithShortfortheworldchampionshipin1993isagoodexampleofstickingwitha

successfulstrategy.InmypreparationwedecidedtotakeontheimpetuousEnglishmaninmaneuveringpositions.Hewasadangerousattackerwhowaswellpreparedinmanysharplinesofplay,andwhilethiswasalsomystrongsuit,mycoachandIfeltIwouldhaveaconsiderableadvantageinslowergames.MyanalysishadrevealedhowuncomfortableShortwasplayingwithoutactivity.InmypreparationfortheShortmatchmyteamandIdesignedmyopeningrepertoiretosteerclearof

thedouble-edgedvariationshepreferred.TothisendIselectedtheslower-developinglinesofthevenerableRuyLopezopening,well-knownforpositionalmaneuvering.Namedforasixteenth-century,chess-playingSpanishpriest,ithasearnedthenicknametheSpanishTortureforitsgrindingeffectiveness.Istartedoutwiththreewinsinthefirstfourgamestotakeacommandingleadinthematch,scheduled

fortwenty-fourgames.Ihadwonbothofmygameswithwhiteusingthisslowmaneuveringstyle,andmanywonderedifIwouldswitchtomoreaggressivevariationstotrytoknockoutmyopponentwhilehewasagainsttheropes.Shortwasreeling;maybethiswouldbeagoodtimetoswitchgearstokeephimoffguard.Ididmakeachange,butnotofstrategy.Iusedmyleadtoprobehisdefenses,lookingforweaknesses.I

soonscoredtwomorewinsbystickingtomystrategyofopeningquietlywiththewhitepieces.Trustingyourselfmeanshavingfaithinyourstrategyandinyourinstincts.WhenIwasplayingmybest

chess,Ishowedupforeachcontestbelievingthegamewasminetowin.Iarrivedattheairportwiththefeelingthetournamentwasgoingtohavetobetakenfromme.InmynewlifeinpoliticsIcontinuetosetambitiousgoals.MychessopponentsknewIwascomingtotheboardtofighthardfromstarttofinish,andIwantmypoliticalopponentstoknowthesamething.Themomentthatconfidenceweakens,indecisivenessandconcretefailuresusuallyfollow.Ifwearen’tconfident,webegintopostponedecisionsandthisleadstoadestructivecycleofanxietyandtimepressure.

ConfidenceandtheTimeFactor

Theworstenemyofthestrategististheclock.Timetrouble,aswecallitinchess,reducesusalltopurereflexandreaction,tacticalplay.Emotionandinstinctcloudourstrategicvisionwhenthereisnotimeforproperevaluation.Agameofchesscansuddenlyseemalotlikeagameofchance.Eventhefinestsenseofintuitioncan’tflourishinthelongtermwithoutaccuratecalculations.ItwasMarch4,2004,andmyclockwastickingdowninacriticalgameatthemostimportant

tournamentoftheyear,theLinarestournamentinSpain.Iwasinsecondplace.IfIwonthisgame,Iwouldmoveintoatieforfirst.Thereweretenminutesleftonmyclock,andastormwasbrewingontheboard.Ihadadouble-edgedpositionagainstBulgarianstarVeselinTopalov,the2005FIDEworldchampion.Iamassedagiantarmyagainsthiskingand,confidentofmyoverwhelmingpoweronthatsideoftheboard,launchedanattack.

IsawapromisingcontinuationbutIcouldn’tfindanythingconcreteinmycalculations;thereweretoomanypossibilitiesforbothsides.Eightminutes.Itlookedgood,myintuitionsaiditmustbegood.Iwentforit.NowitwasTopalov’sturntosweat,butheproveduptothetask.Hedefendedwell,settingmenewproblemsthatIhadtosolveinmylimitedtime.Webothplayedquickly,oninstinct,withourhandsasmuchasourbrains.Fourminutes.Wait,washislastmoveamistake?Truetohiscombativenature,Topalovhadlashedoutinsteadof

defending.TokeepmyattackgoingIsacrificedapiece,creatingaseriousmaterialdisadvantage.Ifmyattackfailed,Iwouldlosethegame,sotherewasnowayback.Myheartleaptandadrenalinefloodedmysystem.Isensedthedecisiveblowwascloseathand.WithaleapofmyknightIcoulduncoveranattackbymyrookagainsthisking.Itlookeddevastating.Wheretomovetheknight?Thee4squareorthee6square?Forwardorbackward?Twominutes.Mybrainwascrunchingthroughthealternativesattopspeed,tryingtofindthebestmovesforboth

sidesthroughthemind-bendingvariations.IvisualizedhowIwouldcounterhispossibledefenses,ifhere,thenthere,ifthis,thenthat.Fourmovesahead,fivemoves,sixmoves...Therewasnotimetoanalyzedeeplyenoughtobesureofeverything.Oneminute.Wait,itlookedasifthebackwardmovewasalosingoption!Unnerved,Ipushedmyknighttothe

forwardsquare,alreadysensingtheopportunitywasgone.Topalovreactedquickly,hiskingrunningforcover.WithsecondsleftIcouldonlyforcehiskingbackandforth;therewasnowaytoadministeracoupdegrâce.Thegameendedinadrawbyrepetition,nowin,noloss.Ifeltdeflatedinmychair.HadImissedawin?Aftersuchathrillinghuntmyquarryhadeludedme.Ifinishedthetournamentinabittertieforsecondplace,andIwasrackedwithconcernabouthowmyintuitionhadbetrayedmeatacriticalmoment.Asitturnedout,Ihadmovedmyknighttothewrongsquare.Analysislatershowedthatmovingit

backwardtoe4,the“wrong”direction,awayfromtheenemyking,wouldhavegivenmeanoverpoweringattack.Ihadlookedatthatmoveduringmycalculationsbuthadseenthathisqueencouldcheckmyking,comingbacktodefend.Whenthegameended,Topalovsuggestedthealternativeknightleaptoe4aswinning,andIreplied,“Yes,butwhataboutthequeencheckonc1?”Helookedpuzzled,andjustfromthelookonhisfaceIsuddenlyrealizedthatthismovewouldhavebeenillegal,thequeencouldnotreachc1atall.Atotalhallucination.Ironically,orperhapsjustcruelly,thewinningmovewouldhaveremovedakeydefensivepiece,justthesortofstrategicobjectiveIwouldnaturallyhavepursuedhadIhadenoughtimetobackitupwithcalculation.Themostdisturbingthingaboutthismisswasthatoneofthestrongestpartsofmygamehadalways

beenfastanddeepcalculation—tactics.Iwasalwaysconfidentofmyabilitytoanalyzecomplicationsbetterthanmyopponents.Whenitcametimeformetodeliverthekillerblow,myadversaryrarelyescaped.IleftLinareswithmyself-confidenceshaken.Ofcoursenobodyscoresonehundredpercentonevery

exam,butthiswasstilltroubling.AtfortyIwasconsiderablyolderthanmostofmycompetitors,whowereusuallyintheirtwentiesandoccasionallyintheirteens.Ifagewascreepinguponmeandmytacticsweregettingshaky,howmuchlongercouldIstayontop?Iwouldhavetotakeacloselookatmygame,especiallymytacticalabilities,beforeIgotbackonthestage.Inhindsight,IrealizedthattherealmistakeI’dmadewaslettingmyselfgetintosuchatimecrunchin

thefirstplace.Aslatergameswouldshow,myfacultieswerestillinfineworkingorder.Ihadn’tbeenplayingoftenandmyrustinesshadledtoalackofdecisiveness,alackoffaithinmyowncalculations.Ihadspentpreciousminutesdouble-checkingthingsthatIshouldhaveplayedquickly.Myintuitionandmytacticsfelloutofsync.Thelesson?Thebestplansandthemostdevioustacticscanstillfailwithout

confidence.

NeverGiveIn—Never,Never,Never

WinstonChurchill’sbooksareamongmyfavorites.Histenacity—somecalleditstubbornness—pervadedeveryaspectofhischaracter.HisproposalofamilitarycampaignintheDardanellesduringWorldWarI—theveryonethatledtotheresignationofAdmiralFisher—culminatedinoneoftheworstmilitarydisastersinBritishhistory.Andyettwenty-fiveyearslaterhehadtheinsighttorealizethathisessentialideahadbeencorrect,andhehadthecourageagaintoimplementtheplan.In1915,Churchill,thenFirstLordoftheAdmiralty,convincedthecabinetandBritain’salliestoattack

Gallipoli,attheheartoftheOttomanEmpire,tocreateasupplylinetoRussiaandtoforcetheGermanstoopenanewfront.ShipsandtroopsweredivertedfromtheMediterranean—thisiswhatangeredFisher—andsenttotheDardanelles,astrategicstraitthatdividestheAsianandEuropeanpartsofTurkey.Initialnavalattackswentwell,butthatwastheendofthegoodnewsfortheBritish.Whentroopswere

broughtin,theywereputunderthecommandofSirIanHamilton,whoknewlittleofthesituationontheground.Hewaspairedwithtwoothercommanderswithnooneinoverallchargeoftheoperation.OnetacticalblunderfollowedanotherastheBritishtroopssufferedheavycasualtiesagainsttheinspireddefenseoftheTurks,whoseeventualvictoryledtotheriseofColonelMustafaKemal—laterknownasAtatürk—whoafterWorldWarIwouldgoontofoundtheTurkishRepublic.TheBritishfinallyretreatedafterlosingtwohundredthousandmenandthreebattleships.This

humiliatingdisastercostChurchillhisjobattheAdmiralty,althoughhewascalledbackrightafterthestartofthenextWorldWar.In1941,whenNaziGermanyattackedtheSovietUnion,ChurchillrealizedthattheAllieswerefacingaproblemsimilartothatof1915.TheSovietswerelowonsupplies,muchasRussiahadbeenatthestartofWorldWarI.OneofthefirstBritish-Sovietactions,inJuly1941,wastooccupyIrantoensureoverlandsupplylinesandcommunicationwiththeSovietsbecausetheyknewthatthenorthernsea-laneswouldbeunsafeandinsufficientinalongwar.InOctober,theAlliesbegantosupplytheSovietsmuchinthewayChurchillhadimaginedin1915.In

1943,thisprovedtobevitaltotheUSSR’swareffort,withoverthreehundredthousandtonsoffood,ammunition,andotheressentialsuppliescominginpermonth.ChurchillhadrecognizedthatthefailureoftheGallipolicampaigndidn’tmeanthereasoningbehinditwasfaulty.Inhis1937book,GreatContemporaries,Churchill,likelyreferringtoasimilarphraseofSamuel

Johnson’s,wrotethatcourageisthefirstofhumanqualitiesbecauseitguaranteesallothers.Toachievesuccess,ourstrategymustbeimplementedwithaccuratetactics.Ourtacticsshouldbeguidedbyouroverallstrategicvisionandgoals.Butbothareonly“guaranteed”bytheconfidencetotrustthecorrectnessofourstrategyandtheaccuracyofourtactics.Thatpsychologicalstrengthisthefoundation.Ifthatweakens,theentirestructurefallsapart.

CHAPTER4

CALCULATION

Iseeonlyonemoveahead,butitisalwaysthecorrectone.—JOSÉRAÚLCAPABLANCA,

THIRDWORLDCHESSCHAMPION

Withoutadoubt,thequestionIammostoftenaskedis“Howmanymovesaheaddoyousee?”Aswithmostsuchquestions,thehonestansweris“Itdepends,”butthathasn’tstoppedpeoplefromaskingorgenerationsofchessplayersfromconcoctingpithyreplies.“Asfarasneeded”isone,or“Onemovefurtherthanmyopponent.”Thereisnoconcretefigure,nomaximumorminimum;inaway,it’slikeaskingapainterhowmanybrushstrokesheusesinapainting.Calculationinchessisnotoneplusone;it’smorelikefiguringoutarouteonamapthatkeepschangingbeforeyoureyes.Thefirstreasonitisimpossibletoreducechesstoarithmeticisbecausethepossibilitiesareso

numerous.Foreverymovetheremightbefourorfiveviableresponses,thenfourresponsestoeachofthosemoves,andsoon.Thebranchingofthedecisiontreegrowsgeometrically.Justfivemovesintothegame,therearemillionsofpossiblepositions.Thetotalnumberofpositionsinagameofchessisgreaterthanthenumberofatomsintheuniverse.True,amajorityofthesearenotrealisticgamepositions,butthevastscopeofwhatispossibleinchessshouldmanagetokeephumansoccupiedforanotherfewhundredyears.Likeaweatherman’sforecasts,thefurtheraheadyoulook,themorelikelyitisyouwillmiscalculate.

WecandefinecalculationasasequenceinwhichtheoutcomeofstepCdependsentirelyontheaccuracyofourconclusionsaboutstepsAandB.Eachaddedstepintothehypotheticalfutureincreasesthechanceofmakingamistake.Weoftenhearjustaboutanytypeofmistakereferredtoasamiscalculation.It’smoreusefultothinkof

thisasaspecifictypeoferror,oneinwhichthefactorswereknownbuttheconclusionreachedwasincorrect.Inchessbothplayersknowallthefactors,butthisisofcourseimpossibleinpolitics.Itisstillimpressivehowmanypoliticalblundersderivefrom“obvious”assumptions.Throughmilitarymightandcleverdiplomacy,OttovonBismarckcreatedaGermanempireinthe

secondhalfofthenineteenthcentury.AfterunifyingGermanyhemanagedtoisolateFranceandcutoffRussiawhilehealliedwithAustriaandItaly.HewassurethatFranceandRussiawouldneverjoinforcesbecauseanabsolutemonarchsuchastheRussianczarwouldnever“takeoffhishatandlistento‘TheMarseillaise,’”theanthemthathadaccompaniedthemarchofsomanyroyalstotheguillotine.In1894,fouryearsafterKaiserWilhelmIIhadreplacedBismarckaschancellor,theFrenchsigneda

militaryalliancewithRussia.AndwhenafleetofFrenchshipsvisitedRussia,theczarnotonlylistenedto“TheMarseillaise”butindeedtookoffhishat.Bismarckhadhadalltheinformationheneeded,buthecametothewrongconclusionandunderestimatedthegrowingRussianeconomy’sneedforFrenchcredit.Mostofallheassumedroyalpridewouldoutweighfiscalnecessity;hismiscalculationhadrepercussionsthatlastedintotheFirstWorldWar.Bismarckwasagreattacticianandstrategist,butinthiscasehefailedtocreditotherswiththesamequalities.Hecommittedtheblunderofcountingonhisopponentstomakeamistakehewouldneverhavemadehimself.

CalculationMustBeFocusedandDisciplined

Youmightimaginethatagamelimitedtoaboardwithsixty-foursquareswouldeasilybedominatedbythecalculatingpoweroftoday’scomputertechnology.Butasitturnsout,deepcalculationisn’twhatdistinguishesthechampions.StudiesperformedbyDutchpsychologistAdriaandeGroothaveshownthateliteplayersdon’tinfactlookaheadthatmuchfurtherthanconsiderablyweakerplayerswhilesolvingchessproblems.Theycan,onoccasion,butitdoesn’tdefinetheirsuperiorplay.Acomputermaylookatmillionsofmovespersecond,butlacksadeepsenseofwhyonemoveisbetterthananother;thiscapacityforevaluationiswherecomputersfalterandhumansexcel.Itdoesn’tmatterhowfaraheadyouseeifyoudon’tunderstandwhatyouarelookingat.Wehaveseenthatprecisecalculationisthefirstkeytoeffectivedecision-making.Thesecondisthe

abilitytoevaluatebothstatic(permanent)andfluidfactors.WhenIcontemplatemymove,Idon’tstartoutbyimmediatelyrunningdownthedecisiontreeforeverypossiblemove.FirstIconsideralloftheelementsintheposition—suchasmaterialandkingsafety—soIcanestablishastrategyanddevelopintermediateobjectives.OnlywhenIhavethesegoalsinminddoIselectthemovestoanalyze.Thatanalysismustbeorderedtobeeffective.Anyonewhohaseverwrittendownalistoferrands

understandsthattaskscanmoreeffectivelybedonewhenprioritizedandperformedinoptimalorder.Myexperienceguidesmetoselecttwoorthreecandidatemovestofocuson.Usuallyonecanbediscardedrelativelyquicklyasinferior,andoftenanothercomesintoconsiderationtotakeitsplace.ThenIbegintoexpandthetreeonemoveatatime,lookingatthelikelyresponsesandmyansweringmoves.Inacomplicatedgamethistreeofanalysisusuallystayswithinadepthoffourorfivemoves—thatis,

fourorfivemovesforeachplayer,oreighttotentotalmoves.(Wecallthesehalfmoves:onemoveforwhiteandoneforblackequalsonefullmove.)Unlesstherearespecialcircumstances—aparticularlydangerouspositionorakeymomentinagame—Iknowfromyearsofexperiencethat’sasafe,practicalamountofcalculation.Thedecisiontreemustconstantlybepruned.Movefromonevariationtothenext,discardingtheless

promisingmovesandfollowingupthebetterones.Don’tjumptoanotherbeforeyou’vereachedaconclusiononthemoveyou’reanalyzing;you’llwasteprecioustimeandriskconfusingyourself.Youmustalsohaveasenseofwhentostop.Disciplineyourselftokeepcalculatinguntilyouhavedeterminedapaththatisclearlythebest,oruntilfurtheranalysiswon’treturnenoughvalueforthetimespent.

Imagination,Calculation,andMyGreatestGame

Insomecases,thebestmovewillbesoobviousthatit’snotnecessarytoworkoutallthedetails,especiallyiftimeisoftheessence.Thisisrare,however,anditisoftenwhenweassumesomethingisobviousandreacthastilythatwemakeamistake.Moreoftenyoushouldbreakroutinebydoingmoreanalysis,notless.Thesearethemomentswhenyourinstinctstellyouthatsomethingislurkingbelowthesurface,orthatyou’vereachedacriticaljunctureandadeeperlookisrequired.Todetectthesekeymomentsyoumustbesensitivetotrendsandpatternsinyouranalysis.Ifoneofthe

branchesinyouranalysisstartstoshowsurprisingresults,goodorbad,it’sworthinvestingthetimetofindoutwhat’sgoingon.Sometimesit’shardtoexplainexactlywhatmakesthosebellsgooffinyourheadtellingyouthereismoretobefound.Theimportantthingistolistentothemwhentheyring.Oneofmybestgamescameaboutthankstothissixthsense.Thescenewasthestrongtraditional“supertournament”(roughlytheequivalentofagrandslamtournamentintennisoramajoringolf)in

WijkaanZee,theNetherlands.Mycoactorwasagainthe“BattlingBulgarian,”VeselinTopalov.Topalovalsodeservesmarqueebilling,becauseittakestwotocreateatrulybeautifulchessgame.His

sternresistancepushedmetothelimitsofmycalculationabilitiesinthisgame,inwhichIplayedthedeepestcombinationofmycareer.AnentirebookletdedicatedtothisonegamewaslaterpublishedinGreece,andIadmitthatninetypercentofitsanalysisdidn’tentermymindduringthegame.OnceIregisteredafewoftheexcitingpossibilitiestochaseblack’skingacrosstheboard,Ifocusedandconcentratedonhismostlikelyattemptsatdefense.InmycalculationsIrealizedthatitwouldbelikewalkingatightrope:oneslipwouldbefatal.Iwouldsacrificehalfmypiecestoflushhiskingoutintotheopen.Ifitdidn’twork,Iwouldbecompletelylost,soIhadnochoicebuttoinvesttheextratimetobeassureaspossible.Ikeptpushingdeeperintomymentalimageoftheposition,suretheremustbesomething,untilfinallyIsawthefinalwinningposition,anincrediblefifteenmovesaway.Itwasafeatofcalculation,butthereisnowayyourmindcangothatfarwithouthelpfromyour

imagination.ThecombinationwouldneverhaveoccurredtomehadItakenapurelydeductiveapproachtotheposition.Itwasnottheproductoflogicalanalysisshowingamathematicallyperfectconclusion.AsproofIcanonlypointoutthatatleastatonepointImissedthestrongestmove,foundinlateranalysisbyotherGrandmasters.Asanaside,althoughitturnedoutwellforme,mymissingthebestmoveillustratesoneoftheperilsof

becomingfixatedonadistantgoal.IwassoentrancedbymyvisionofthegoldattheendofthisrainbowthatIstoppedlookingaroundasIapproachedit.I’dconvincedmyselfthatsuchaprettyfinishmustbescientificallycorrecttoo—apotentiallydangerousdelusion.Thekeytocalculationisunderstandingitslimits.Youhavetorecognizewhenyouareleavingtherealm

ofwhatcanbeconfirmedbeyondareasonabledoubt.Atthatpointyouhavetofallbackonmoregeneralconsiderationsandyourintuition.Inanyendeavoritcanbefataltobelieveyouareabsolutelysurewheninfactthesituationistoocomplex—ortheoutcometoofaraway—tobesolvedbycalculationalone.

CHAPTER5

TALENT

WhenIwaseleven,Ijustgotgood.—BOBBYFISCHER,

ELEVENTHWORLDCHESSCHAMPION

Whatseparatesanelitechessplayer,oneinthetoptenintheworld,fromthemanystrongplayerswhonevercrackthetoptwenty,orthetoponehundred?Eachplayerhashisorherownreasonsforsuccessorfailure,butthemostdebatedamongtheseisthatmostelusivequarry,talent.Therearesomanydefinitionsandaspectsoftalentit’slittlewonderwehavetroubledecidingwhohas

itandwhodoesn’t.Prodigiesmakethiseasy,butwecandolittlemorethanmarvelatthelikesofMozart,whocomposedsymphoniesatagefive,andPascal,whowascreatingoriginalgeometrictheoremsonthewallsofhischildhoodhomeattwelve.

Chess,alongwithmusicandmathematics,isoneofthefewpursuitsinwhichsuperiorabilityandoriginalitycanmanifestatayoungage.JoséCapablancareputedlylearnedthegameattheageoffourjustbywatchinghisfatherplayandsoonprovedamatchforaccomplishedplayers.Polish-bornSamuel“Sammy”Reshevskywastrottedoutinasailorsuittogiveexhibitionsattheageofseven,defeatingentireroomfulsofadultplayersallacrossEurope.Reshevskywaspokedandproddedbyeverytypeofpsychologistinasearchofthesourceofhismiraculousabilities.Howcouldmerechildrenmasteragamethatwassynonymouswithcomplexityanddifficulty?Weareallfamiliarwithtalesofsuchprecocityandareingeneralwillingtoacceptthatthese

individualsarebornwithspecialgifts.Still,eventheirextraordinarytalentsrequiretheopportunitytodevelop.Hadhisfatherbeenapainterinsteadofamusicteacher,wouldweknowofMozarttoday?Myowndevelopmentcertainlyowedagreatdealtoexternalfactors.IgrewupinBaku,Azerbaijan,

thenpartofthelooseSovietempire.Itwasatypicalimperialoutpost,arichmeltingpotofethnicitiesthatwassomewhatflattenedbyacommonlanguageandadominantRussian/Sovietculture.Myownrootswerecharacteristic—anArmenianmother,KlaraKasparova,andaJewishfather,KimWeinstein—whattheycallanexplosivecombination.Theatmosphereinourhouseholdwasacombinationofmymother’srigidpragmatismmixedwithmyfather’scontrariancreativity.Therestoftheclanincludedmyfather’sbrother,Leonid,andtheircousinMarat,afamouslawyerinBaku.Theircirclelargelyconsistedofprofessorsandintellectualswhoconstantlyquestionedtheofficialview,notonlytheblatantpropagandaoftheSovietgovernment.Forthem,theconventionalwisdomwastobedoubtedoutofhand—everythingshouldbesubjectedtoquestioning.WewouldlistentoRadioLibertyandVoiceofAmerica,andIremembergettingintogreatdebateswith

GrandpaShagen,mymother’sfather,whodidnottakekindlytoviewscriticalofthestate.HehadspenthiswholelifebuildingCommunism,andsothefoodshortagesofthelate1970sweretobeasourceofgreatdisillusionmentforhim.BetweenthesepolesIgrewupreadingalotofbooksandaskingalotofquestions.Whenmyfatherdied,Iwenttolivewithmymother’sfamily.WhenIbegantohavepublicsuccessinchess,itseemednaturaltotakeherfamilyname.MyteacherBotvinnik,himselfofJewishancestry,addedthatitwouldn’thurtmychancesofsuccessintheUSSRnottobenamedWeinstein.

Myfatherwasthefirsttorecognizemynaturalaptitudeforchess.Hewasstrugglingwithleukemiawhenhemadehislastdecision,whichwastosendmeforchessschoolingattheageofseven.Mymotherenthusiasticallysupportedmydevelopment.Nowadaysshelikestoremindmehowhereffortsweremoreoftendirectedatcontrollingmywillfulnessthanpromotingit.Shetellsthestoryofaphonecallshereceivedfrommysecond-gradeteacher,whohadchastisedmeforchallengingherinclass.TheteachertoldmeIshouldnotdothisbecauseitwouldmakeeveryonethinkIbelievedIwasthecleverestintheclass.TowhichIreplied,“Butisn’tthattrue?”Idonotenvymyformerteachers.Justabouteveryyoungstarinanyfieldcangivecredittoadeterminedparentgivingtalentapush.As

forinternalfactors,itiscleartomethatIwouldnothaveachievedsuchsuccessatanythingotherthanchess.Thegamecametomenaturally,itsrequirementsfittingmytalentslikeaglove.Mytalentsformemorizationandcalculationwereblendedwithanaggressivestreakforanidealchesscombination.

RecognizingthePatternsinOurLives

Whatwerefertoas“talent”isactuallyasetofattributes,notjustasingleon-offswitch.Aconcertpianistneedsphysicaldexterityaswellasagoodearandasenseofrhythm.Mostthingscanbebrokendownintosuchskillsets.Thinkaboutwhatittakestobeagoodmanager,agoodgeneral,agoodparent.Chessisnoexception,andtoexcelatitrequiresasynthesisofdevelopedtalentandacquiredknowledge.Itmayseemanunusualpairing,butasthemostimportantinnatequalitiesIwouldcitememoryandfantasy.Thesearethequalitiesthegreatestplayersexhibitedinabundance.Peopleoftentalkaboutagoodmemoryasifitweresomethingyoueitherpossessoryoudon’t,suchas

heightorblueeyes.Manytrytocategorizeit,sayingtheyhaveagoodmemoryforfacesorabadmemoryfornames.WeperpetuatestereotypesliketheabsentmindedprofessorwhohasmemorizedthecompleteworksofChaucerbutcan’trememberwhereheparkedhiscar.Weknowthatthebrainstoreslong-termandshort-termmemoriesindifferentplaces.Therearestories

ofpeoplewithtotalrecallwhoarecapableofeffortlesslyrecitingentirephonebooks.Peopleoftenbelievethatelitechessplayersmustpossesssuchfaculties,butthisisfarfromthetruth.It’struethattobeagreatchessplayeryoumusthaveagoodmemory,butitismuchhardertoexplain

what,exactly,weareremembering.Patterns?Numbers?Mentalpicturesoftheboardandpieces?Theanswerseemstobe“alloftheabove.”Thepracticeof“blindfoldchess”hasfascinatedtheworldforcenturies.In1783,thegreatFrench

playerFrançois-AndréDanicanPhilidorplayedtwogamessimultaneouslywithoutsightoftheboardsandwasacclaimedageniuswithoutparallel.Onenewspaperaccountdescribeditas“aphenomenoninthehistoryofmanandsoshouldbehoardedamongthebestsamplesofhumanmemory,tillmemoryshallbenomore.”Certainlyitisimpressivetoseeamanwithhisbacktotheboards—ormoretheatrically,literallyblindfolded—callingoutstrongmovesandoverwhelminghisopponentswhoareseatedattheboard.Butitisnomiracle.Nearlytwohundredyearslater,thePolishGrandmasterMiguelNajdorfwasstrandedinArgentinaat

theoutbreakofWorldWarII.Whenthewarended,NajdorfhadtheideaoftryingtocommunicatewordofhissurvivaltohisfamilyinPolandbystagingthelargestexhibitionofblindfoldchesseverattempted,onforty-fiveboardssimultaneously.That’s1,440piecestokeeptrackof.Afternearlytwenty-fourhoursofplay,Najdorfscoredthirty-ninewins,fourdraws,andjusttwolossesagainsthisopponents,allofwhomhadfullsightoftheboard.ThisisnottosaythatNajdorfhadaperfect,photographicmemory;hedidnot.Whathehadwasa

remarkable“chessmemory,”theabilitytoretainthepatternsandmovementsofpiecesonasixty-four-squareboard,whichisasessentialtoaplayerwhenhecanseetheboardaswhenhecannot.Thiscapacityforrecallandvisualizationmakesourcalculationsquickandaccurateandmeanswedon’thavetorelyoncalculatingeverypositionfromscratch.Ifyouarefamiliarwithasimilarpositionandcanrememberwhatworkedordidn’tworkbefore,youhaveabigadvantageoversomeonewhoisseeingitforthefirsttime.Thepositiondoesn’thavetobeanexactreplicatoproducethisbenefit.IfyouplaytheNajdorfDefenseyourentirecareer,youdevelopafeelforwhatmovestomakeandwheninresponsetocertainideasandplans.Weautomaticallyfindparallelsandapplyourknowledgeofanalogouspositions.AGrandmasterwillretaintensofthousandsoffragmentsandpatternsofchessdataandaddstothem

constantlythroughfrequentpractice.Myabilitytorecallsomanygamesandpositionsdoesn’tmeanIhaveaneasiertimerememberingnames,dates,oranythingelse.DeGrootillustratedthisinanelegantfashioninhis1944studyofchessplayers.Hetestedplayersofeverylevel,fromformerworldchampionstobeginners,seekingtounlockthesecretsofmasterchess.Hegavetheplayersasetofpositionsfromgamestomemorize,thenrecordedhowwelltheycould

reproducethem.Predictably,thestrongertheplayer,thebetterhescored.Theeliteplayersscoredninety-threepercent,theexpertsseventy-twopercent,theaverageplayersjust51percent.Thirtyyearslater,in1973,researchersBillChaseandHerbSimonreplicateddeGroot’sexperiment

butaddedakeysecondsetoftestpositions.Forthesecondsettheyplacedthepiecesontheboardsrandomly,notfollowingtherulesofthegameoranypatternatall.AsindeGroot’sstudy,thestrongerplayersscoredbetteronthepositionstakenfromactualgames.Butwiththerandompositions,alllevelsofplayersscoredapproximatelythesame.Withoutbeingabletoutilizepatterns,orwhatpsychologistscallchunks,themastersdidn’tdisplaysuperiormemoryprowess.Thesameprocessesareatworkineveryhumanendeavor.Rotememorizationisfarlessimportantthan

theabilitytorecognizemeaningfulpatterns.Whenwetackleaproblem,weneverstartfromscratch;weinstinctively,evenunconsciously,lookforapastparallel.Weworkouttheauthenticityoftheparallelsandseeifwecanworkoutasimilarrecipefromtheseslightlydifferentingredients.Tradersseetrendsinthegraphsofastock,parentsobservepatternsofbehaviorintheirchildren,an

experiencedcourtroomlawyercanintuitthemosteffectivewaytohandleawitness.Allderivefromacombinationofexperienceandconsciouslyobservedmemory.Andwhilepracticealonecanmakeyoucompetent,toexcelrequiresactivelyexaminingwhatyouareretaining.Howoftendoyoureviewyourperformanceattheendoftheday?Whatdidyousee,whatdidyou

learn?Didyouobserveorexperiencesomethingnewthat’sworthtakingnoteof?Wouldyourecognizethatsituation,thatopportunity,thatpattern,shoulditoccuragain?EliteperformerssuchasOlympicathletesmustbethiscritical,thisself-aware,tosucceed.Thebenefitsofsuchrigorousbehavioraren’tsoobviousifyouworkinanoffice,buttheyaretherejust

thesame.Evenpeopleinleadershiprolesaretoooftencontenttojustgetthroughtheday.Mostpeopletalkaboutunwindingafterworkorschool,puttingthedaybehindthemsotheycanrelax.Howmuchmoreeffectivewouldtheybecomeif,attheendofeachday,theyaskedthemselveswhatlessonstheyhadtakenawayfortomorrow?Wecandoagreatdealtomakeourownluckwhenitcomestomatchingourabilitieswithourcareers.

Theproblemisthataswegetolderandmoresettledinourwaysandourprofessions,werarelytestourresources.Andwithoutconstanttestingitisimpossibletodiscoverwhatourgiftsare.Ibelieveit’sessentialtopushtheboundariesandconstantlywidentheangleofthelensweusetoviewtheworld.OnecrucialwaytodothatisthroughwhatIcallcreativeexperimentation.

ThePowerofFantasy

Taldoesn’tmovethepiecesbyhand;heusesamagicwand.—GRANDMASTERVIACHESLAVRAGOZIN,

TRAINEROFWORLDCHAMPIONMIKHAILBOTVINNIK

TheFrenchnovelistAnatoleFrancewrotethat“toaccomplishgreatthings,wemustdreamaswellasact.”Inchesswehaveanameforthesortofimaginationrequiredtobreakoutoftheusualpatternsandstartleouropponents;wecallitfantasy.Thisiswhereweletourminddriftawayfromthecalculationofvariationstoimaginehiddenpossibilitiesintheposition.Occasionallywecanfindanovelideathatallbutbreakstherules—onethatfindsawaytousetheuniqueconfluenceoffactorsontheboardatthatexactinstanttobrilliantadvantage.Ironically,chesscomputersaregoodatproducingmovesthatstrikehumansasfulloftacticalfantasy.

Computersdon’trelyonpatternsandholdnoprejudicesagainstmovesthatareuglyorappearillogicalorabsurd.Theysimplycountthebeansandplaythebestmovetheyfind.It’smuchharderforahumanbeing,acreatureofhabit,tobesobrutallyobjective.

FantasyCanCutThroughFog

Keepinganopenmindisdifficultinagamewheresomuchdependsonpatternsandlogic.ForinspirationIlooktothosegreatplayerswhoconsistentlyfoundoriginalwaystoshocktheiropponents.Nonedidthisbetterthantheeighthworldchampion,MikhailTal.The“MagicianofRiga”rosetobecomechampionin1960atagetwenty-threeandbecamefamousforhisaggressive,volatileplay.Hewouldsacrificepawnsandpiecesinwaysthatwentcompletelyagainstthegrainofthemodern,scientificeraofthegameestablishedbyBotvinnik.Talreinventedtheromanticformofchess,thewayitwasplayedbackinthemid-nineteenthcentury,whendefensewasconsideredcowardly.Howdidhedoit?HowcoulditbethatTal’sknightsseemedmoreagile,andhisbishopsfaster,than

thoseofotherGrandmasters?Hewasatremendouscalculator,butthatwasonlyasmallpartofhisgift.Hehadtheabilitytorealizewhencalculationalonewasn’tgoingtosolvetheproblem.Here’showhedescribedaclassicgameagainsttheSovietGrandmasterVasiukov,inwhichhewascontemplatingaknightsacrifice.

Ideaspileduponeafteranother.Iwouldtransportasubtlereplytomyopponent,whichworkedinonecase,toanothersituationwhereitwouldnaturallyprovequiteuseless.Asaresult,myheadbecamefilledwithacompletelychaoticpileofallsortsofmoves,andthefamous“treeofvariations,”fromwhichthetrainersrecommendthatyoucutoffthesmallbranches,inthiscasespreadwithunbelievablerapidity.Andthensuddenly,forsomereason,Irememberedtheclassiccoupletby[well-knownSoviet

children’spoet]KorneyChukovsky:

Oh,whatadifficultjobitwasTodragoutofthemarshthehippopotamus.

Idon’tknowfromwhatassociationsthehippopotamusgotontothechessboard,butalthoughthespectatorswereconvincedthatIwascontinuingtostudytheposition,Iwastryingatthistimeto

workout:Justhowwouldyoudragahippopotamusoutofthemarsh?Irememberhowjacksfiguredinmythoughts,aswellaslevers,helicopters,evenaropeladder.Afteralengthyconsideration,Iadmitteddefeatasanengineer,andthoughtspitefully,“Well,letitdrown!”Andsuddenlythehippopotamusdisappeared.Wentofffromthechessboardjustashehadcomeon.Ofhisownaccord.Andstraightawaythepositiondidnotappeartobesocomplicated.NowIsomehowrealizedthatitwasnotpossibletocalculateallthevariations,andthattheknightsacrificewas,byitsverynature,purelyintuitive.Andsinceitpromisedaninterestinggame,Icouldnotrefrainfrommakingit.Andthefollowingday,itwaswithpleasurethatIreadinthepaperhowMikhailTal,after

carefullythinkingoverthepositionforfortyminutes,madeanaccuratelycalculatedpiecesacrifice.

It’sacharmingexampleofTal’swit,andmoreimportant,aninsightintohisproblem-solvingmethod.Herealizedthathewaswrongtoattempttofixwithawrenchsomethingthatrequiredahammer.Evenhisimaginativemindoccasionallyrequiredapushtoshiftintoadifferentgear.Andmostimportant,heallowedhimselftofollowthislineoffantasticalthinkingintheheatofbattle.

DevelopingtheHabitofImagination

Fantasyisn’tsomethingyoucanturnonwiththeflipofaswitch.Thekeyistoindulgeitasoftenasyoucantoencouragethehabit,toallowyourunconventionalsidetoflourish.Everyonedevelopshisowndeviceforpromptinghismuse.Thegoalisforittobecomecontinuousandunconscious,soyourfantasyisalwaysactive.It’snotaboutbeinganinventor,withanoccasionalflashofcreativity,butaboutbeinginnovativeinyourdecision-makingallthetime.WhilethenameJosephWilsonmightnotringabell,thecompanyheled,Xerox,certainlywill.Wilson

washimselfaninventor,butthecreativeattitudehebroughttothecompany,originallynamedHaloidCo.,wasmoreimportantthananythingWilsoncreatedinalaboratory.Heusedtotellnewemployees,“Wedonotwanttodothingsinthesameoldway.Therefore,asyoucomehere,Ihopethatyoucomewithanattitudethatchangewillbeawayoflifeforyou.Youwillnotdothingstomorrowthewayyouaredoingthemtoday.”HelaterestablishedthefamedPaloAltoResearchCenter(PARC),whichpioneeredtheearliestversionsofthepersonalcomputer,themouse,andthegraphicaluserinterface.Frommyoldchesstrainingroutinestomysleepingpatterns,Iconfesstobeingacreatureofhabit,soit

requiresconsiderableeffortformetotakeWilson’sadvice.AttheboardIalwaystriedtoletmymindwander,tooccasionallyignorethefogofvariationsandtakeamentalstabinthedark.Inacompetitivesituationsuchmoves—todaywemightcallthemthinkingoutsidethebox—havetheaddedbenefitofoftencomingasacompletesurprisetoyouropponent.Thetimehehasspentthinkingonyourmovehasmostlybeenwasted,andthelandscapeofthegamehaschanged.It’smorethanplayingagoodmove,anobjectivelystrongmove.Moveswithanextrachargeoffantasycanstartleyourcompetitionintomakingmistakes.Here’sanexample.In1997IwasplayinginatournamentinTilburg,theNetherlands,andinthefifthroundIhadtheblack

piecesagainstoneoftheworld’sleading“fantasyplayers,”theLatvian-bornAlexeiShirov,whonowplaysforSpain.ThecreativeShirovwastrainedinhisearlyyearsbyMikhailTalhimself,apedigreewithoutpeerwhenitcomestoexoticattackingplay.Thistime,however,Igavehimatasteofhisownmedicine.Inacomplicatedpositionwithchancesfor

bothsides,Shirovmovedhisrookuptheboard,preparingtoattackmyqueenonthenextmove.Iobviouslyhadtogetmyqueenoutoftheway,andIsatlookingatthefewpossibleretreats.Allthe

optionswouldleavethepositiondynamicallybalanced,butIwasdisappointedtherewasn’ttheopportunityformore.BeforeIresignedmyselftotheseeminglyinevitablequeenmove,Itookadeepbreathandsurveyedthe

restoftheboard.Aswithsomanyfantasymoves,thisonestartedwithamental“Wouldn’titbeniceif...”Ifyoudaydreamalittleaboutwhatyou’dliketoseehappen,sometimesyoufindthatitisreallypossible.WhatifIignoredhisthreattomyqueen?Hewouldhaveextramaterial,butmypieces,whiletechnicallyoutgunnedbyhisqueen,wouldbeactiveandhe’dbeunderpressure.Soinsteadofpickingupmyqueen,myhandliftedmykingandmoveditasinglesquaretowardthe

centeroftheboard.Theparadoxwassatisfying,ignoringalltheactionandthreatstoplayaninnocuous-lookingmovewiththeweakestpieceontheboard.OfcourseIwasalsosurethatitwasastrongmoveonitsownmerits.Fantasymustbebackedupbysoberevaluationandcalculationoryouspendyourlifemakingbeautifulblunders.Shirovdidn’tadaptwelltothenewsituation.Abornattacker,hewassuddenlyonthedefensive.The

positionwasobjectivelyabouteven,buthequicklymadeaseriousmistake,anditdidn’ttakelongtowrapupthegameafterthat.Ihadthepleasureofsacrificingevenmorematerialattheveryendtofinishthingsoffwithaflourish.Toooftenwequicklydiscardapparentlyoutlandishideasandsolutions,especiallyinareaswherethe

knownmethodshavebeeninplaceforalongtime.Thefailuretothinkcreativelyisasmuchself-imposedasitisimposedbytheparametersofourjobsandofourlives.“Whatif?”oftenleadsto“Whynot?”andatthatpointwemustsummonourcourageandfindout.

BeAwareofYourRoutines,ThenBreakThem

Thereareasmanywaystoengageyourfantasyastherearedecisionstobemadeduringaday.Youwon’tfindnewwaysofsolvingproblemsunlessyoulookfornewwaysandhavethenervetotrythemwhenyoudofindthem.Theywon’tallworkasexpected,ofcourse.Themoreyouexperiment,themoresuccessfulyourexperimentswillbe.Breakyourroutines,eventothepointofchangingonesyouarehappywithtoseeifyoucanfindnewandbettermethods.InthecompetitivechessworldIhadclearstandardsforsuccessandfailure.Thatmeantitwas

relativelyeasytodeterminewhatworkedandwhatdidnot.Trialanderrorledmetoestablishandrefinemysuccessfulroutines.WhenIhadapoorresult,Iknewitwastimetoreexaminethesethings,bothinmychessandinmyday-to-daylife.Withoutobviousbenchmarksforsuccessandfailureitisevenmoreimportanttohaveaconstantprocessofreevaluation.

CHAPTER6

PREPARATION

Ifamanhasatalentandcannotuseit,hehasfailed.—THOMASWOLFE

Liketheproverbialtreefallingintheforestwithnoonearoundtohear,talentundiscoveredmayaswellnotexist.Thatbeingthecase,wecanhardlylamentitsloss.Wecan,however,mournthetalentthatgoesundeveloped,talentthatexistsbutissquandered.Incontrast,weoftenreservethehighestpraiseforthosewhooverachievedwithlimitednaturalabilities,thosewhooutworkedandoutperformedrivalswhopossessedgreaterinnategifts.Thatlasttendencyhasalwaysstruckmeasunfair.Whyisn’tthecapacityforhardworkconsidereda

naturalgift?Idon’tthinkit’sacomplimenttosaythatsomeone“didmorewithless,”eventhoughit’susuallyintendedthatway.Ifasoccerplayerwhoisshortandcan’trunfastpracticesmorethaneveryoneelseandbecomesthesuperiorplayer,hasheovercomeatalentdeficitorsimplyexploitedhistalenttoworkharderandfoundawaytobesuccessfulthroughdeterminationandfocus?MichaelJordanwasfamousforhisathleticismandhigh-flyingdunks,yethewasalsothefirsttoarrive

atpracticeandthelasttoleave.Ininterviews,Jordan’steammatesandcoachesalltalkabouthisextremediscipline,nothisleapingability.OneveteranNBAmanagersaidofJordan’stalent,“Withouttheceaselessworkethic,Jordanismerelyanothertalentedathleteglidingthroughanadmirablecareer,butnothinghistoric.”Iagree,butagainthismakesitsoundasifJordan’sdisciplineandcapacityforworkarenotintrinsic

partsofhistalent.Theabilitytopushyourselftothelimitdayafterday,andtodosoeffectively,maynotbeasevidentasphysicalskills,butitwassomethingMichaelJordancultivatedhisentirecareerandisatalentthatweshouldalltrytocultivate.

ResultsAreWhatMatter

Throughoutmychess-playinglife,peoplecomplimentedme—sometimesinabackhandedway—onthedepthandbreadthofmypreparation.Inthisway,Iwaspartofaproudlineage.Inthe1920s,Alekhineworkedharderthananyonebeforehim,changingthecultureofagentleman’sgame.Forhiseffortshewasoftenbranded“obsessed”bythosehedefeated.Inthe1940s,Botvinnik’srigorousmindandhabitstransformedthegameintoafull-timeprofession.Inthe1970s,Fischer’sfantasticdedicationforcedeveryotherplayertospendmoretimestudyingorbeleftbehind.Myworkethicdevelopedfromthedisciplinedenvironmentcreatedbymymotherandmyteacher

Botvinnik.Ihadaceaselessappetiteforopeningpreparation,whichcombinesresearch,creativity,andmemorization.Istudiedallthelatestgamesfromtheleadingplayersandcarefullynotedtheirinnovations.Then,Iwouldanalyzethemandtrytoimproveonthem.Tometheopeningsystemswereanavenueforcreativity,notsimplyamatterofimitation.Mytrainingsessionswithcoachesasayoungsterhelpedformmysenseofdiscipline.Goalswereset

andcertainhoursonmyschedulewereallocatedforworkontheopenings,forexample.Itwasclearto

meatayoungagethatsuchworkpaidconcretedividendsandthatwithoutitIwouldbesquanderingmyabilities.Botvinnikhadnopatienceforbrilliantideasthatweren’tbackedupwithexhaustiveanalysis.Ilearnedtoenjoythestudyandanalysisprocessitselfandnotjusttoseeitasanecessaryevilormeanstoanend.OvertimeIcametorelishmypreparationtimebecauseitgavemethefeelingthatwhilemycompetitorsweresleeping,Iwasimproving.Notlongaftermyexplosiveentryintotheinternationalchessworld,Istartedtohearwhispersthat

creditedmuchofmysuccesstodeepstudywithaSovietteam.Intheyearsthatfollowed,thisdevelopedintoafull-scalemyth.“KasparovhasateamofGrandmasterschurningoutopeningnoveltiesdayandnight!”“Hehasasupercomputer!”Afterawhileitstartedtogratetohearthesethingsrepeatedtomeininterviews,althoughItriedtotakethemascompliments.Aswithmosturbanlegends,however,thesestorieshaveagrainoftruth.Ithaslongbeencommonfortopplayerstoworkwithanalyticalassistants—calledseconds,asinthe

daysofduels—especiallyduringworldchampionshipmatches.WhenIhadtheresourcestodoso,Ibegantoworkwithatrainerfull-timeandnotonlyrightbeforeandduringbigevents.Asformycomputer,Iwasthefirstplayertoincorporatemachineanalysisintomypreparationandtosystematizetheuseofplayingprogramsanddatabases.AndwhileitwasthebestmytechiecousinEugenicouldputtogether,thePCIusedwasneverbeyondthereachofanyonewithagoodcomputerstorenearby.InsteadoflisteningtowhatpeoplesaidabouthowIachievedthem,Ifocusedontheresults.The

concretemethodsIused—afixednumberofhoursperweekforspecifictrainingtasks,forexample—wouldn’tworkforeveryone,buttheyworkedwellforme.Ifcriticsandcompetitorscan’tmatchyourresults,theywilloftendenigratethewayyouachievethem.Fast,intuitivetypesarecalledlazy.Dedicatedburnersofmidnightoilarecalledobsessed.Andwhileit’sobviouslynotabadideatohearandconsidertheopinionsofothers,youshouldbesuspiciouswhenthesecriticismsemergerightontheheelsofasuccess.

Inspirationvs.Perspiration

Everyone,atanyage,hastalentsthataren’tfullydeveloped—eventhosewhoreachthetopoftheirprofession.TheCubanCapablancawas,forexample,consideredaninvinciblechessmachine.There’ssometruthtothis:heoncewenteightyearswithoutadefeat.ButCapablanca,ifnotperhapsaslazyasthelegend(andhisownclaims)wouldhaveit,detestedstudy.AbonvivantwhoseexpenseswerecoveredbyasinecurewiththeCubandiplomaticoffice,herarelypreparedforhisopponentsandlikedtobragthathehadneverseriouslystudied.Hewasconfidenthecouldescapefromanytraphefellinto,andhewasusuallyright.WhenCapablancatookthecrownfromLaskerin1921,itwasconsideredanoverduecoronationfora

reignthatcouldlastdecades.“Capa”madechesslookeasy,andforhimitwas.Buthereliedtoomuchonhisnativeability,andhisgriponthetitlelastedonlysixyears.Fittingly,hisconqueror,theRussianAlexanderAlekhine,wasoneofthemostfanaticallydedicatedplayersthegamehaseverseen.Inanagewhenthegentlemanchessplayerwasstillcommonandchessasaprofessionwasconsidered

questionable,Alekhinemadechesshislifeasnoonehadbefore.There’sanoldstoryaboutapatronwhoinvitesCapablancaandAlekhinetothetheaterandcommentsafterward,“Capablancanevertookhiseyesoffthechorus;Alekhineneverlookedupfromhispocketchessset!”OfcourseAlekhinehadhisownfierygeniusattheboard,andbycombiningthatwithhisintense

dedicationhewasmorethanamatchfortherawtalentofCapablanca.Hehadmadeacarefulstudyofall

ofCapablanca’sgames,andthoughhefoundfewspecificweaknessestoexploit,hedidfindoccasionalerrorsthatgavethelietothemythofCapablanca’sinvincibility.Evenso,AlekhineconsideredCapablancathefavoritegoingintotheir1927matchinBuenosAires.He

hadneverbeforedefeatedthemightyCubanandhadfinishedadistantsecondbehindCapablancaattheNewYorktournamentearlierthatyear.AndyetthateasyvictorywaspartofCapablanca’sundoing.CapablancalostthefirstgameinBuenosAires,andalthoughhecamebacktobrieflytakethelead,he

musthavebeensurprisedtofindhimselfinsuchabitterfight.Thematchbecameatestofwills,andhereAlekhine,whooncesaid,“WhatIdoisnotplay,butstruggle,”wasinhiselement.Thedrivethatledhimtoprepareeighthoursaday“onprinciple”wouldnotlethimlose.Capablancawasunusedtosuchstrenuouseffortandfinallywentdowntodefeatafterthirty-fourgames.(Arecordthatwouldstanduntilmy1984–85matchwithKarpovlastedforty-eightgames.)AsAlekhinelaterwroteoftheirmatch,“IdidnotbelieveIwassuperiortohim.Perhapsthechief

reasonforhisdefeatwastheoverestimationofhisownpowersarisingoutofhisoverwhelmingvictoryinNewYork,1927,andhisunderestimationofmine.”Asacautionaryepilogue,weshouldalsokeepinmindthatAlekhinehimselfcouldletdownhisguard.

Alekhine’soverindulgenceofalcoholdamagedhishealthandhiscareer—manycredithisshocking(andbrief)lossofthetitletoMaxEuwein1935tothisasmuchastohisDutchchallenger’sstrongplayanddeeppreparation.Nolongerunderestimatinghisopponent,andonastrictregimenofmilk,Alekhinereclaimedthetitletwoyearslater.

PreparationPaysOffinManyWays

Wecan’tallhavethesingle-mindeddedicationofanAlekhine.Fewlivesandfewendeavorspermitsuchdevotion.Butintruthit’snottheamountoftimethatreallycounts—it’sthequalityofyourstudyandhowyouuseyourtime.Becominga24/7fanaticwhocountseveryminuteandsecondisn’tgoingtomakeyouasuccess.Thekeystogreatpreparationareself-awarenessandconsistency.Steadyeffortpaysoff,evenifnotalwaysinanimmediate,tangibleway.Oneinteresting,andhumbling,thingI’venoticedwhileanalyzingmyowngamesforpublicationishow

poorsomeoftheideasIpreparedreallywere.FromthesafetyofretirementInowlookbackatthehugeamountofanalysisIdidinpreparationformytournamentsandworldchampionshipmatches.Onlyafractionoftheseideaseversawthelightofday,eitherbecausemyopponentdidn’tfallintomytraporbecauseintheheatofbattleIfoundabettervariationtoplay.NowIseethatinmanycasesthatwasnotabadthing.Withthebenefitofpowerfulcomputerprograms,itbecomesclearthatinsteadofwieldingExcalibur,Iwasinmanycasespreparingtochargetheenemywitharustypocketknife.Still,thiskindofpreparationservedmewellinawayIneverquiteappreciatedwhileIwasworkingonitwithsuchdetermination.Theseperiodsofintensepreparationwererewardedwithgoodresults—evenwhenIdidn’tenduputilizingthefruitsofmylabor.Therewasanalmostmysticalcorrelationbetweenworkandachievement,withnodirecttiebetweenthem.PerhapsIwasbenefitingfromthechessequivalentoftheplaceboeffect.GoingintobattlewithwhatIbelievedwerelethalweaponsgavemeconfidenceeventhoughtheywentlargelyunusedandwouldn’tinsomecaseshavebeeneffective.Thereisalsoapracticalbenefittosuch“wasted”effort.Theresearchalawyerdoespreparingfora

casethatnevergoestotrialstillenricheshisunderstandingofthelawandmakeshimbetterathisjob.Workleadstoknowledge,andknowledgeisneverwasted.Evenifourweaponsremainsheathed,ouropponentsknowtheyexistandmaybedistractedbythepotentialfornastysurprises.

Thisethichasbeenfollowedbymanypeopleknowntohistoryasgreatgeniuses.WecannotdoubtthebrainpowerofThomasEdison,buthistruegeniuslayinhiscapacityforendlessexperimentation.Increatingtheelectriclightbulb,hetestedthousandsofsubstancestofindafilamentthatwouldn’tburnout,evenworkingwithrareplantfiberssentinfromaroundtheworld.“Opportunity,”Edisonsaid,“ismissedbymostbecauseitisdressedinoverallsandlookslikework.”Thiswasanechoofanothergreatthinkerandworker,ThomasJefferson,whowrote,“I’magreatbelieverinluckandIfindtheharderIwork,themoreIhaveofit.”Theworstofitisthatweareusuallyawareofourdeficiencieswhenitcomestopracticeandhard

work.WecriticizeourselvesharshlyafterspendinganhouratworksurfingtheWeborforleavingthegymbagbythedoorwhilewewatchtelevision.Butofcoursethisself-flagellationproducesnomorebenefitthanthoseNewYear’sresolutionsthatrarelyoutlastthewinter.Beforeyoutellyourselfyoudon’thavethetalentofaJordanoranAlekhine,remembertheextraordinaryamountoftimetheydevotedtopracticeandstudy.Tosucceedlikethemyoumustputintheefforttheydid.Otherwise,youcanneverknowwhatyou’recapableof.Ibelievethatifopportunityisn’tprovidedatayoungage,itcanbecreatedlaterinadulthoodthroughdisciplineandimaginativeinvolvementinthepursuitswecareabout.Youcan—andmust—lookforwaystoexperimentandtopushtheboundariesofyourcapacityindifferentareas.

TurningaGameintoaScience

IfAlekhinebroughtanewlevelofdedication,evenobsession,tothegameofchess,themanwhosucceededhimonthethroneprofessionalizedandcodifiedthisdevotion.ThefirstofthesevenSovietchampions,MikhailBotvinniksoughttodemystifythegamethroughhiswritingandteaching.Botvinnik’smostlastingcontributionstochessculturewereintheareaofpreparation.Everthe

engineer,heestablisheddetailedtrainingregimens.Theseencompassednotonlyspecificchessresearch,butalsophysicalandpsychologicalpreparation.Thesemethodsaresocommonplacenowitishardtoimagineatimewheneveryplayerdidn’tdothesethings,butatthetimeBotvinnikwasatrueinnovator.Hissysteminvolvedresearchingtheopeningphaseofthegame,studyinghisopponents’styles,andrigorousanalysisofhisowngames,whichwerepublishedsotheycouldbecriticizedbyothers.Togivejustoneexampleoftheextremeshewouldgoto:duringtrainingsessionsforatournamentBotvinnikwouldhavedistractingmusicplayinginthebackgroundandevenrequestedthatoneofhistrainers,Ragozin,blowsmokeinhisface.IwasBotvinnik’sfavoritepupilatthechessacademy,andIoweagreatdealtohimforaddingfocus

anddisciplinetomynaturalaptitude.Hetaughtmetoavoidcomplexityforcomplexity’ssake,saying,“YouwillneverbecomeanAlekhineifthevariationscontrolyouandnottheotherwayaround.”SoBotvinniklaidouttheidealtournamentregimen,establishingastricttimetableformeals,rest,andbriskwalks,asystemIfollowedmyentirecareer.Ifyousaidyoudidn’thaveenoughtime,thatmeantyouwerenotwellorganized.Andforgetabouttellingthegreatteacheryouweretiredthatday!Sleepandrestweretobeascarefullyscheduledastraining,anditwassimplyinexcusabletogetinsufficientrest.Botvinniksummeduphisphilosophybystating,“Thedifferencebetweenmanandanimalisthatmaniscapableofestablishingpriorities!”IwasluckybecauseIhadbeenwellpreparedforBotvinnikbymymother,Klara,whoinheriteda

strongsenseoftheimportanceoforderandroutinefromherfamily.Formeitwassimplythewaythingswere,andIalwaysfeltcomfortablewithit.Sleep,meals,school,studytime,recreationtime,allwerepartofaschedule.

OfcourseitwaseasierthirtyyearsagowhenIwasgrowingup.Therewerefewerdistractionsavailable,feweracceptableactivitiesforachild,especiallyintheUSSR.Todaydistractionsarevirtuallyunlimited,andthecomputerizedworldmakesinstantentertainmentubiquitousandavailabletoeveryone.Mobilephones,videogames,andgadgetsallowustowastetimeinadozendifferentwaysthatdon’tusuallyadduptoanythingatall.Withsomuchactivityintheirownlives,parentshavefewopportunitiestoteach,letalonedemonstrate,

rulesandregimenandtopresentagoodexample.Icouldobservethewaymymotherprogrammedherlifeandmyactivities,andIhadnodoubtitwasallforthebest.AsIgrewolderandmovedintotheseriouschessworldasayoungteenager,Icontinuedtobe

surroundedbyhardworkingcoachesandmentors.Botvinnik’swordsandexamplestrengthenedwhatIhadalreadylearnedfrommymother.Heprovidedthegameplan,helpingmetodeveloptheroutinesandpracticesthatreinforcedageneralethicabouthardworkanddoggedpreparation.Now,thoughretiredfromprofessionalchess,Istickwithmyroutineascloselyaspossible.Thismeans

hoursofsleep,mealtimes,hoursofworkondifferentprojects,andstayingconsciousofhowthesethingsarebalanceddailyandweekly.I’veadaptedmynewactivitiesintotheoldchessprogram,preservingthepatternsthathavekeptmecomfortableandproductive.Wherethereusedtobechess,thereisnowpolitics.WherebeforeIwouldanalyzethegamesofmychessopponents,Inowanalyzethestatementsofmypoliticalopponents.Myafternoonnapisstillsacrosanct.

TargetingOurselvesforEfficiency

AlekhineandBotvinnik,andlaterBobbyFischer,hadatalentforworkingconstantlyandeffectively.Theycouldkeeppouringmoreenergyinandgettingpositiveresultsbackout.Wecanallworklongerhours,studymore,watchlessTV,buttheabilitytoremaineffectiveunderincreasingstrainvariesfrompersontoperson.Everyonehasauniquelevelofefficiencyinhisratioofworktoresults.ACapablancamightbecreativeforanhourbutburnoutaftertwo.AnAlekhinemightneedfourhourstogetthosesameresults,butiscapableofworkingforeighthourswithoutadropinproductivity.Itiscriticaltoknowwhatmotivatesyou,tofindouthowtopushyourselfthatextramile.Formeit’s

stickingtoaregimen.AslongasIdon’tmakeexceptionstomyprogram,Ifeelmotivated.IalsoknowthatIneednewchallengestostayengaged.TheminuteIbegintofeelsomethinghasbecomerepetitiveoreasy,Iknowit’stimetoquicklyfindanewtargetformyenergy.Othersusedifferentdevices,suchascompetition,settinggoals,orusingincentives.AnatolyKarpov

wasnotbynatureahardworker,buthespenttentotwelvehoursadaypreparingforhismatchwithBorisSpasskyin1974.Karpovistremendouslycompetitive,andhiswilltowinspurredhimtonewlevelsofeffort.ItpaidoffandhebeatSpasskyconvincingly.Ifdisciplinesoundsdull,orevenimpossibleintoday’sfast-pacedworld,youshouldtakeamomentto

considerhowyoumightbenefitfromtargetingjustafewsmallareasofyourlifeforefficiency.Havingagoodworkethicdoesn’tmeanbeingafanatic,itmeansbeingawareandthentakingaction.Ifyouspendfifteenminutesadaystudyingopenings,inayearyou’llbeastrongerchessplayer.IfyouspendanhouradaylearningMandarin,inafewyearsyoumaybereadyforanentirelydifferentcareer.Thisisn’tacookbook,andI’mnotofferingarecipeforyoursuccess.Everyonemustcreatehisown

successfulcombinationswiththeingredientshehas.Thereareguidelinesforwhatworks,buteachpersonhastodiscoverwhatworksforhim.Thisdoesn’thappenbyitself.Throughpracticeandobservation,youmusttakeanactiveroleinyourowneducation.

Withthefundamentalingredientsbehinduswemovenowtotheevaluationandanalysisphaseofdecision-making.Knowingwhattolookforisonlythefirstchallenge.Gooddecisionsrequiretheabilitytoweighallofthefactorspresentandtodecidethebestbalanceamongthem.

parttwo

CHAPTER7

MTQ:MATERIAL,TIME,QUALITY

Everychessplayerisfamiliarwiththeconceptsofmaterial,time,andquality.Thebalanceamongthesethreefactorsisthefoundationofeverymoveinchess—andineverydecisionwemake.Makingacorrectevaluation—andthenacorrectdecision—requiresunderstandingthetrade-offsandrelativevaluesofthesecoreelements.Materialdescribesourtangibleassets.Timeishowlongittakestoachieveaspecificobjective.Quality,themostimportantelementandagoaluntoitself,isvalue—orevenpower.Westrivetogainineveryareaandalsotoinvestandbalancethefactorscorrectly.

EvaluationTrumpsCalculation

ItwasacuriousexperiencewhenIfirsttriedtothinkseriouslyaboutwhatexactlygoesthroughmymindwhenIlookatachessposition.Afteralifetimeoflivingandbreathingthegame,Icanonlycompareittotryingtounderstandwhathappensinyourbrainasyoureadthisbook.Forme,chessisalanguage,andifit’snotmynativetongue,itisoneIlearnedviatheimmersionmethodatayoungage.LikeanativeEnglishspeakertryingtoexplainthedifferencebetweenthatandwhich,suchfamiliaritymakesitdifficultformetoconsidermyapproachtothegameobjectively.NowthatI’mremovedfromtheheatofbattleandtournamentplay,Icanlookbackatmygamesandperformanceswithgreaterintrospectionandbetterunderstandwhatgoesintostrategicassessment.Improvingyourdecision-makingislikestudyingyournativelanguage.Eventhoughmostofusdon’t

knowmuchaboutthemechanicsofthelanguagewelearnedaschildren,thatdoesn’tpreventusfromspeakingitfluently.Butstill,weallmakemistakes:incorrectgrammar,wordsweuseimproperly,awkwardsentences.Millionsofbooksonmoreeffectivewritingaresoldeveryyeartonativespeakerswhorecognizethevalueofcommunicatingwithgreaterprecision.Similarly,withdecision-makingweallhaveanapparatusthatgetsusthroughlife.Buttherearestillimprovementsthatcan(orisitmay?)bemade.Todosorequiresconsciousthoughtaboutsomethingyou’vedoneunconsciouslyallyourlife.Sincethe

dayyoustartedtocrawl,you’vebeenmakingcountlesschoices,andliketherestofus,you’vedevelopedsystemsandtendenciesthatyouemployinstantly,constantly,withoutbeingtheleastbitconsciousofthem.Wearen’tgoingtooverturnalifetimeofexperience,norwouldwewantto.Weneedtostartoutby

becomingawareoftheprocessesthatworkforus,thenmoveontoimprovingthemstepbystep.Whatbadhabitshaveyoupickedupinyourdecision-making?Whichstepsdoyouskipandwhichdoyouoveremphasize?Doyourpoordecisionstendtostemfrombadinformation,poorevaluation,incorrectcalculation,oracombinationofthesethings?

Material,theFundamentalElement

Fewofuswilleverleadamultinationalcorporationorruninanationalelection,butallofourroutine

dailydecisionsbenefitfromanimprovedprocess.Thekeytothatistheabilitytocorrectlyassessandevaluateasituation.Bybecomingmoreawareofalltheelements,allthefactorsinplay,wetrainourselvestothinkstrategically,oraswesayinchess,positionally.Evaluatingapositiongoeswellbeyondlookingforthebestmove.Themoveisonlytheresult,the

productofanequationthatmustfirstbeimaginedanddeveloped.So,determinetherelevantfactors,measurethem,and,mostcritically,determinetheoptimalbalanceamongthem.Beforeyoucanbeginyoursearchforthekeystoaposition,youhavetoperformthisbasicduediligence.Wecancategorizethesefactorsintothreegroups:material,time,andquality.Thesimplestandperhapsmostimportantareatoevaluateismaterial.Assets,stock,cash,goods,

piecesandpawns,it’sallmaterial.Inchess,thefirstthingwedowhenwelookattheboardiscountthepieces.Howmanypawns,howmanyknightsandrooks?DoIhavemoreorlessmaterialthanmyopponent?Whenwefirstlearnthegame,weareallterriblematerialists.Wecaptureasmanyenemypiecesaswe

canwithoutpayingmuchattentiontootherfactors.AgamebetweentwobeginnerscanlookmorelikePac-Manthanchessasthetwocompetitorsgobbleupeachother’spieces.Thisisanormalandhealthywaytostartout.Beingtoldthevaluesisonething,butonlyexperiencereallyteachesyouwhatthosevaluessignifyinthe“realworld”ofchess.Inotherareastoo,mostofourobjectivemeasurementsofsuccessandfailurecomedowntomaterial.

Onabasicpersonallevel,thatmeansfood,water,andshelter.Nowthatweasasocietycanexpressvalueelectronically,itmightbeanaccountbalance,orstocksorfundsinbanks.Inwarfareit’swhichsidehasmoresoldiers,moreguns,moreships.Inbusinessit’sfactories,employees,stock,cashonhand.Itisn’talwayseasytoassessthetruevalueofmaterial.Weallhavepersonalattachmentstocertain

assetsthathavelittletodowiththeirobjectivevalue.Thesesentimentalattachmentscandistortyourevaluationabilityconsiderably,ifnotalwaysinaharmfulway.WhenIwasachild,myfavoritepiecewasthebishop,fornoreasonIcanremembertoday.Eveninmy

earliestgamesIwasagreatbelieverinthepowerofthebishop,andIavoidedtheirexchangeatallcost,ahabitthatoftenproveddetrimental.Otherbeginnersmightbeattractedtotheunusualleapingabilityoftheknightor,alternatively,developafearofthismostunpredictablepiece.AsignificantpartofBotvinnik’sintensiveresearchofhisopponentswasdedicatedtodiscoveringsuch

biasesintheirplay.Hewouldcombthroughtheirgameslookingforerrors,thentrytocategorizetheminawayhecouldlaterexploit.InhisteachingsBotvinnikmadeitclearthattheworsttypeofmistakewasoneproducedduetoabadhabitbecauseitmadeyoupredictable.Ourfriends,colleagues,andfamilyusuallyknowmuchmoreaboutourbadhabitsthanwedo.Hearing

aboutthesepsychologicalticscanbeassurprisingasbeingtoldbyyourspousethatyousnore.Prejudicesandpreferencesinyourdecisionsareunlikelytobeharmfulaslongasyouareawareofthemandactivelyworktoironthemout.Awarenesscanmeanthedifferencebetweenaharmlesshabitandabiasthatleadstoadangerouslossofobjectivity.Itdoesn’ttakelonginchessoranyotherpursuittorealizethatthereismuchmoretolifethanmaterial.

Thefirsttimeyouarecheckmateddespitehavingabigmaterialadvantage,you’velearnedanimportantlesson.Theultimatevalueofthekingtrumpseverythingelseontheboard,andyourvaluesystembeginstoadjust.Yourealizethatotherfactorscanbeevenmoreimportant.

TimeIsMoney

Anyonewhohaseverworkedforanhourlywageknowsthatinthemostbasicsensetimehasvalue.Youremployerexchangesmaterial—money—forlabor,asmeasuredbythehoursyouwork.Thisis“clocktime,”measuredandunderstoodinthesamewayeverywhere.Itisquitedifferentfromwhatchessplayerscall“boardtime,”whichisthenumberofstepsittakestoaccomplishanobjective.Chessplayersareusedtothinkingofbothtypesoftimeduringagame.Yourclockistickingandyou

havealimitedamountoftimetomakeallyourmoves:clocktime.Thenyouhavethegameitself,wheretimeisdividedneatlyintomoves,alternatingbetweenyouandyouropponent.HowmanymovesdoesittaketogetfrompointAtopointB?Howlongwillittakeformyknighttothreatenhisqueen?CanIreachmyobjectivebeforemyopponentreacheshis?Thatisboardtime.AndasIhopetoshow,successineverykindofenterpriserequirestheabilitytounderstandandusebothsortsoftimetoyouradvantage.Thesimplestwaytodemonstratethisistolookatthedifferencebetweenplayingwhiteandblack.

Whitegoesfirst,puttinghimasinglemoveaheadatthestart,givinghimanadvantageinboardtime.Itisamatterofhistoricaldebatewhethertheadvantageofthefirstmoveshouldproveenoughtoforceawinforwhiteifbothsidesplayperfectly.Ashumanswearesofarfromperfectthatthiscanneverbeproven.Amongamateurs,whoaremorelikelytomakeerrorsandwastefulmoves,thenarrowadvantageofthatsinglemoveatthestartisrarelydecisive.Butamongprofessionals,beingonemoveaheadisatangibleplus.Withpreciseplay,thatsinglemoveallowswhitetoapplypressureandmakethreatsagainstblack’sposition.Whiteisacting,blackisreacting.Statisticsbearoutthevalueofthefirstmove:attheGrandmasterlevelwhitewinstwenty-ninepercentofthetime,blackeighteenpercent,andfifty-threepercentofgamesaredrawn.Butifwhitetakestoolongtodecidehismoves,hecanfindhimselfrushingdecisionsattheendofthegametoavoiddefaulting—thatis,hemightsquanderhisadvantageinboardtimeduetoadisadvantageinclocktime.Amilitarycommanderisusedtothinkingoftimeinthesamewayasachessplayer,butinthereal

worldthingsaremuchmoredynamic.Thereispracticallynolimittothenumberof“moves”youandyourenemiescanmakeatthesametime.Multipleattacksandcounterattackscantakeplaceconcurrentlyaroundthebattlefield,oraroundtheworld.Butthedefinitionoftimeremainsthesamebecauseinbothcaseswhatmattersishowquicklyanobjectivecanbeachieved,whetheritbeonthebattlefieldorthechessboard.Timeisnotgainedjustbymovingfasterorbytakingshortcuts.Timecanoftenbeboughtorswapped

formaterialassets.Thinkofitaspayingextramoney(material)forexpressdelivery(time).Timeformaterialisthefirstofthetrade-offsinourevaluationsystem.Whenisitworthmaterialtoachieveanobjective,andhowmuchmaterialtoinvest?Howdoweknowwearegettingour“material’sworth”intime?

WhenTimeMattersMost

NooneunderstoodthevalueoftimeandmaterialbetterthanMikhailTal.ThefirsttimeIsawTalinperson,Iwastenyearsold,andwhilehisyearasworldchampionhadcomeandgonebeforeIwasborn,histhrillinggameswerethefavoriteofeveryschoolboy.Talwastheultimate“timeplayer.”Whenhisattackinggeniuswasinfullflight,hispiecesseemedtomovenotjustbetterbutsomehowfasterthanhisopponent’s.Howwasthispossible?TheyoungTalcaredmuchlessformaterialthanmostplayersandwouldhappilygiveupalmostanynumberofpawnsandpiecesinexchangeformoretimetobringhisotherforcesintoactionagainsttheenemyking.Heconstantlypushedhisopponentsontothedefensive,leadingtoerrorsanddisaster.Thissoundssimple,butfewhavebeenabletoimitateTal’suniquegiftfor

knowingjusthowfarhecouldgo,andfewwoulddaregiveupasmuchmaterialashewould.It’seasytoseethatwhenyou’reattacking,beingamoveaheadismoreimportantthanmaterial.But

howmuchmoreimportant?Isonemoveworthtwopawns?Ortwomovesworthabishop?Thereisnosimplevaluechartfortime,onlycase-by-caseevaluation.Askageneralifhewouldratherhaveanothercompanyofmenoranextrafewdays.Duringpeacetimehe’dratherhavethemen,whileinaguerrillacombatsituationtheextratimecouldbemuchmorevaluable.Inchesswetalkaboutopenpositionsandclosedpositions.Anopenpositionhasmanyclearlinesfor

yourpieces,moreoptionstomoveindifferentdirections,andmoreopportunitiesforattackandcounterattack.Aclosedpositionusuallymeansaslow,strategicmaneuveringgame,thechessequivalentoftrenchwarfare.Inanopengamethevalueofamoveismuchgreaterthaninaclosedgamebecauseasingleattackcandomuchmoredamage.Ifthepositionisblockedandthereislittleactivityoverall,thereislessneedforspeed.Thesefactorsoccurinbusinessaswell.Imaginethatyouownacompanythatisworkingonanew

productline.Youknowacompetitorisworkingonasimilarprojectandisataroundthesamestageindevelopment.ShouldyourushyourproductstomarkettobeatCompanyB?OrshouldyouspendmoremoneyondevelopmenttotrytoensureyourproductissuperiortoCompanyB’s?Ofcoursetheanswersalwaysdependonreal-worldfactors,sorecognizingwhatsortofsituationweareinisacrucialpartoftheevaluation.Beforeyoustartconsideringtrade-offs,takeagoodlookaround.Whatindustryarethesecompaniesin?Whattypeofproductisit?Timeisalwaysafactor,butisitreallyoftheessenceinthiscase,orareyoujustbeingimpatient?Puttinganewheartmedicineonthemarketisn’tthesameastryingtogetthelatestgadgetoutintimeforChristmasshoppers.What’simportantisrecognizingtheexchangebetweentimeandmaterial.MythirdworldchampionshipmatchwithAnatolyKarpovpresentsawonderfullyclearexampleofthis

constantfluctuation.Itwastheeighthgameofour1986match,whichwassplitbetweenLondonandLeningrad,asSt.Petersburgwasstillknownatthetime.Searchingforanadvantage,IofferedKarpovapawninexchangefortheopportunitytoattackhisking,judgingthatthetwomovesIwouldgainagainsthiskingwereworththepriceofapawnontheothersideoftheboard.Karpovhaddonethesamemath,andafterhisevaluationhecapturedthepawn.Myattackquicklybuilt

upsteamuntilitwasKarpov’sturntooffermaterialinordertoorganizeadefenseofhisking.Heexposedhisrooktomybishop;takingitwouldgivemeaslightmaterialadvantage,butatthecostofabandoningmyattackandallowinghimtoconsolidatehisposition.Thiswasaclassicexampleofthefluidityinthefactorsofmaterialandtimeastheyplayedaroleinbothofourgames.Igaveupmaterialforattackingtime,andlaterKarpovofferedthematerialbacktogaintimeforhisdefense.Ideclinedtheoffer,notwantingtogofromlendertoborrowersoquickly.(It’sworthnotingthat

Karpov,asamatterofstyle,wouldcertainlyhavetakenthematerialhadourpositionsbeenreversed.Takingtherookguaranteedasmalladvantagewithnorisk,exactlythesortofsituationKarpovenjoyed.)Iignoredtherookandinsteadcontinuedon,downapawn,lookingforawaytobreakthrough.AfewmoveslaterIevengaveupanotherpawntokeepmyattackalive,eventhoughthismeantIwaslikelytoloseifmyattackdidn’tsucceed.Assooftenhappens,anadvantageinboardtime—pressureandthreatsthatforceyouropponenttoreact—resultsinanadvantageinclocktime.Moveaftermove,Karpovhadtoburnalotoftimefindinghiswaythroughallthedangerstohisking.Withtenmovesstilltogountilwegotmoretimeaddedtoourclocks,Karpovlostontime,anearlyunprecedentedeventinhislongcareer.Thisgameservesasatestamenttomyphilosophyofpreferringtimeovermaterial,favoringdynamic

factorsoverstaticfactors.Theseevaluationpreferencesarepartofone’sstyleandaren’tnecessarilysuperiororinferiortothoseofothers,onlydifferent.Karpovlostthatgame;doesthatmeanhewaswrong

inhisevaluationoftheposition?OrthatIwasright?Neither.Inanothersituation,materialmighthavetriumphedovertime.What’simportanthereistorecognizethesefactorsatplay.

TheThirdFactor:Quality

Eachpieceinchesshasastandardvaluethatallowsustoquicklyaddupwho’saheadinthearmsrace.Ourstandardofmeasurement,ourbasiccurrency,isthepawn.Eachplayerstartswitheightofthesefootsoldiers,themostlimitedandleastvaluablemembersofthearmy.Eventhewordpawnhascometoconnoteweaknessandexpendability.Weevensay“pawnsandpieces,”notincludingtheminthesameclassasbishops,knights,androoks.Pawnsprovideausefulsystemofequivalentvalue.Knightsandbishopsaresaidtobeworththree

pawns.Rooksarefivepawns,whilethequeenisworthnine.(Theking,whosecaptureendsthegame,isweakbutpriceless.)Soinformed,abeginnercangointobattleknowingthatheshouldn’tgiveupaknightforapawn,orarookforaknight.Butfortheexperiencedplayer,muchmoregoesintotheevaluationofapositionthancountingpieces

andmoves.Thepiecevaluesfluctuatedependingonyourpositionandcanchangeaftereveryturn.Thesameistrueaboutthevalueofamove,unlesswebelieveTal’sknightsreallywerefaster.Materialisthefundamentalreferencepoint;timeismovementandaction.Tobecorrectlyunderstoodandutilizedthetwoelementsmustbegovernedbyathirdelement:quality.Generationsofplatitudesteachusthatthereisgoodmoneyandbad.Thereiseventheentrenched

notionof“qualitytime.”Inchesswetalkaboutaweakknightoraparticularlystrongpawn,becausetheirvaluechangesdependingontheirplacementandonotherfactors.Aknightlocatedinthecenteroftheboard—whereitcontrolsmoreterritoryandcanjointhefightinanyregion—isalmostalwaysmorevaluablethanoneneartheedgeoftheboard,aconceptthatisimmortalizedintheoldchessmaxim“Aknightontherimisdim.”Ontherealfieldofbattleaswell,allterrainisnotequallyvalued.Throughoutthehistoryofwarfare

combatantshavesoughtthehighestgroundavailable.Fromtheheightsyourarchers,andlateryourartillery,canshootfartherandyourcommanderscanbetterseethebattledevelop.Satellitesandairpowerhavechangedtheseancientequationsinmanyways,butitwillalwaysbetruethatwhereyourforcesareplacedcanbeasimportantastheirstrengthinnumbers.Placementprovides,orlimits,utility,whichiswhatthecommander—orthebusinessexecutiveorthechessplayer—seeks.

WhatMakesaBadBishopBad?

Weoftentalkabouthavinga“good”bishopora“bad”bishop,andunderstandinghowthiscanbeprovidesinsightintothesubtlebutessentialdifferencesinthematerialsthatweworkwitheveryday.Mychildhoodfavorite,thebishop—calledanelephantinRussianandafoolinFrench—isagoodexamplebecauseofthewayitsmovementislimited.Thebishopcantravelasmanysquaresasitlikesinanydiagonaldirection,butononlyonecoloroftheboard.Thisgivesitgreatrangebutmakesitpredictable.Ifmanyofthesquaresofthebishop’scolorareoccupiedbypawnsofthesamecolor,itsmobilityisextremelylimited.Suchabishopiscalledbad,butitsintrinsicnatureisnodifferentfromwhenthegamestarted.Its

qualityhasbeendiminishedbythecircumstancesaroundit.Fromapracticalstandpoint,thatofutility,it

isinferiorandshouldbeconsideredassuch.IfIhaveabadbishop,Iwouldbegladtotradeitoffforanotherpiece.TheCEOandthegeneralhavetobealerttobadpiecesintheirworldsaswell.WhenJackWelchtook

overthebehemoththatwasGeneralElectricin1981,oneofthefirstthingshedidwastomakealistofallthedivisionsinthecompanythatweren’tperforminguptohisstandards.Thedirectorsofthoseoperationsweretoldtheyhadtoimproveortheirdivisionswouldbesoldorcloseddown.Insteadofhangingontounitssolelyfortheirpresumedmaterialvalue,GEwouldfocusonwhatitwasbestatandcutbackintheareaswhereitwasn’tdoingwell.AnychessmasterwouldrecognizeWelch’sstrategyasemployingtheprincipleofimprovingyour

worstpiece.HewasapplyingTarrasch’sdictum“Onebadlyplacedpiecemakesyourwholepositionbad!”Ifyouhaveabadbishop,youtrytofindawaytoactivateit,tomakeit“good.”Ifitcan’tberehabilitated,youtrytoswapitofforeliminateit.Thesameistrueofineffectivematerialinanybusinessorenterprise.Putthatbadpiece,thatunderperformingasset,togooduseorgetridofitandyouroverallpositionwillimprove.Returningtoourstockportfolios,wecanseewhythesamestrategiesdon’talwaysapply.Anygood

investmentcounselorwilltellyoutokeepabalancedportfoliowithamixofriskyandstableassetsdependingonyourage,needs,andincome.Ifyouconstantlysellthethingsthataren’tperformingwellatthemoment,youwillinevitablybeoutofpositionatsomepoint—anditcouldhappenatacrucialjuncturewhenyouhaveeverythingtolose.

PuttingtheElementsintoAction

Onlyinextremecasescanmaterialinchessbecompletelyinertandworthless.Aknightthatistrappedinthecornermaysomedayescapeandplayacriticalroleinthefight.Oneofthedifficultiesprogrammershaveinimprovingcomputerchessprogramsisthe“conceptofnever”andhowitrelatestothevalueofmaterial.Evenaweakhumanplayercanseethatapiecehaspermanentlybeentrappedandisthereforeworthless.Buttoacomputerthatpiecestillhasthesamenumericvalueinitscalculationsasbeforeitwastrapped.Perhapssomepointsaredeductedforlossofmobility,butthereisnogoodwaytoteachacomputerthatabishoponsquareXisworththreepawnsbutonsquareYit’sonlyworthone.Thisgivesusdifferentclassesofmaterial:long-termanddynamic.Investmentportfoliosworkmuch

thesameway.Dependingonpersonalstyleandneeds,yourportfoliomightbefullofdynamic(liquid)assets,whichrequireconstantattentionandreassessment.Ortheportfoliomightbeaimedatlong-termgrowthandpreservationofcapital(bonds)foraretirementthatisstilldecadesoff.MyplayintheaforementionedgamewithKarpovshowedmypreferencefordynamismandhisforthelongterm.Isacrificedpawnstomakemyremainingmaterialmorevaluableintheshortrun.Hadmyattackfailed,hisinvestmentinlong-termmaterialadvantageswouldhavewontheday.ThiswasatypicalthemeofmanyofmygamesagainstKarpovthankstoourdifferentnaturesregarding

timeandmaterial.Inourfirstworldchampionshipmatchmyskillswerenotsowelldeveloped,andKarpov’smaterialadvantagedeflectedmyattacks.Hisevaluationsweresuperior.ButbytheLondonmatch,ayearandahalflater,Ihadlearnedtobelessrashwithgivingawaymaterial,anditwasadifferentstory.

Double-EdgedEvaluation

“Whoiswinning?”isasimpleenoughquestion,butrealevaluationisacomplexundertaking.Firstwecountmaterial.Ifoneplayerhasasignificantadvantagehere,wecansayheiswinningunlesshisopponenthascompensationintimeand/orquality.Whoseforcesarebetterdevelopedandplacedmoreaggressively?Howquicklycanonesideattackandtheotherdefend?Howlongwillittakeforreinforcementstoarrive?Whocommandsmoreterritory?Issomeone’skingindanger?Theseareallqualitativeevaluations,andeachcarriesadifferentdegreeofsignificance.

Onewaytoillustratetherelativenatureofqualitativeevaluations—thetypethatleadersineveryenterprisemustdoeachday—istoexaminethequalitiesofagroupofpawnsonachessboard.Achessvisualaidwillhelpushere(youdon’tevenneedtoknowhowtomovethepieces).Takealookatthedifferencebetweenthewhiteandblackpawnsinthediagram.Bothsideshavethe

fullcontingentofeight,sotheyareequalinmaterial.Thequalitativedifferencehereisstructure,theformthepawnstakeasagroup.White’sareorderlyandformacompletewallacrosstheboard.Black’sarefragmentedintothree“islands.”Intwocases,oneblackpawnstandsinfrontofanother,limitingitsmobility.Thuswewouldsaythatwhitehasa“superiorpawnstructure.”Inthatwewouldbecorrect,andthegamewouldbesimpleiftherewerenopiecesorkings.Butina

realgame,thepawnstructurewouldbejustonefactorinevaluatingtheposition.Theholesbetweentheblackpawnscouldpossiblybenefitblack,givinghimcompensationforhisinferiorstructure.Achessplayerwholikeslong-termstaticadvantagessuchasasolidstructurewouldundoubtedlyprefertoplaythewhiteside.ButshowsuchapositiontothegreatDavidBronstein,whochallengedBotvinnikfortheworldtitlein1951,andhewouldsurelypreferblack!Likeme,Bronsteinwasadynamicplayerwhoalwaysfavoredshort-termactivityoverlong-termconsiderations.Herehewouldbecontenttohavethosestructuralholesbecausehewouldusethemtoactivatehispieces.Itendtolookatstructureinchessasadouble-edgedsword;itcancutbothways,dependingonwhatkindofplayeryouare.Onlythetrulyaccomplishedstrategistwillbeabletoseehow—andwhy—theconceptofstructureworksthiswayinthesituationshefaceseveryday.Finer,double-edgedfactorssuchasstructurecomeintofocusonlywhentheforcesareevenlymatched

intheessentialareas.Thestrongertheplayers,andthemorebalancedthegame,themoretheevaluationcomesdowntothetiniestdetails.Whilemajordifferencesinmaterialandtimearerelativelyobvious,distinctionsinthesemoresubtlecriteriaonlyshowundergreatpressure,anditisthemarkofagreatplayertobeabletodetectandexploitthem.Thesayinggoesthatthe“devilisinthedetails,”andthesesecondaryfactorsarethechessplayer’sdevils.Anypoliceofficercanfollowathief’sfootstepsinthesnow,butSherlockHolmescoulddeduceanamazingamountfromcluesinvisibletoothers.

PersonalReturnonInvestment

Whatarethesmallerissuesthatcanhaveabigimpactonourlives?Fewofusneedtoworryaboutfoodandwater,yetweobsessovermaterialthingsasmuchasourancestors.Thehigherconceptsofutility,quality,andhappinesssoundtoovagueandphilosophicaltothinkabout.Wethinkabouttimeassomethingnottowaste,notassomethingtoinvest.Ourpursuitofeducationprovidesanelegantrebuttaltothatidea.Whatisgoingtocollegeifnotan

investmentofmaterialandtimeforquality?Wegivetimeandmoneytogainskillsthatwillraiseourintrinsicvaluetoanemployer.Highereducationisonewaywe(orourparents)makematerialsacrificestoincreasethequalityofourpositioninthefuture.Themorewecanaffordtoinvest,thegreaterourreturnwillbe.Ifyouhavethemoneyandgradestogotoatopuniversity,youwillbeabletogainasuperioreducation,makebettercontacts,andbebetterpositionedtoenterthejobmarket.Perhapsamoreopenlymercenarypath,gettinganMBA,offersaclearerexample.Anexecutivemaking

ahundredthousanddollarsayeardecidestoleaveagoodjobandspendtensorhundredsofthousandsofdollarstogobacktoschool.Byallaccounts,goingtobusinessschoolisn’tmuchfun,soshort-termenjoymentisn’tamotive.Consideringtheinvestmentoftimeandmaterial,thequalitativereturnmustbejudgedtobehighsincebusinessschoolenrollmentscontinuetorise.Thatreturninqualitycomesintheshapeofskillsandcontacts,whichthenleadtoabetterjob.Higher

payandmoreresponsibilityenhancethenewMBA’squalityoflife,oratleastthat’sthewaytheformulaissupposedtowork.Certainly,manypeoplewithbusinessdegreesareunhappy.Anewhigh-payingjobmighttakeupsomuchtimethatnoneisleftforactivitiesthataresignificantcomponentsofhappiness.Thedifficultyisinbeingawareofthesesmallfactorsandevaluatingthembeforewemakeadecisionthataffectsthem.Thequestionswemustaskarenotonlyabouttrade-offs.Givingupmaterialdoesn’talwaysresultina

gainoftime,orviceversa.Atleastinchess,youcanhaveitallorloseitall.Theplayerwithawinningpositionwillusuallyhavemorepiecesandbeaheadintimeandhavesuperiorplacementandposition.Considerthisthe“richgrowricher”variation.Apoliticianonthecampaigntrailisseekinghappinessbywayofwinningtheelection.Thecandidate

hasalimitedamountoftimeandalimitedamountofmoney.Hisstrategyispredicatedonusingthesethingstogivethebiggestpossibleboosttohisimageintheeyesoftheelectorate.Althoughahugeamountofmoneyisspentoncampaigns,nowmorethanever,experienceshowsthatsubtleelementscanstillsurprise.Asinglesoundbiteorgaffecanshiftperceptiondramatically,forbetterorforworse.DanQuayle’smanglingofthespellingofthewordpotatoinfrontofaclassroomfullofkidswhileonthecampaigntrailmangledhispoliticalcareerforever.However,suchthingsonlyrarelyovercomemorefundamentaladvantagesanddisadvantages.

MTQontheHomeFront

Theseexchangesbetweenmaterial,time,andqualityarejustaspowerfulinourpersonallives.Forexample,mywife,Dasha,andIrecentlyboughtanewhome,anordealthatformeinvolvednofewerconsiderations—andnolessstress—thanplayinginaworldchampionshipmatch.Anyonewhohasboughtahomeorevenrentedanapartmentknowshowmanytrade-offsareinvolved.Theygowellbeyondtheobviousoneofmaterialvs.quality.Evenifyoubelievethat“yougetwhatyoupayfor”andthemoreyoupaythebetterhouseyou’llget,figuringoutpreciselywhat“better”meansiscomplex,especiallyifyouhaveafamily,whichincreasesthenumberofdecisionsandthenumberofdecision-makers.

Thesameclichérulesinbothrealestateandchess:“location,location,location.”Whereyouliveisasimportantaswhatyoulivein.Ifyouhavechildren,you’llwanttobenearaschool;ifyouworklonghours,you’llwanttobenearyouroffice.Inanycase,you’llwantaneighborhoodthat’ssafe,convenienttoshoppingandentertainment,andsoon.Thesearetheobviousqualitiespeoplelookfor.Wehaveequivalentguidelinesinchesstoo.“Playinthecenter.”“Getyourkingtosafetyquickly.”Theserulesofthumbserveasusefulguidesforbeginners.Butasplayersadvance,theybegintodetecttheoccasionalexceptionstotherules,andcapitalizingontheseexceptionsiswhatseparatesagreatplayerfromagoodone.Thereisnouniversalformulaforevaluation.Wegetcaughtupinstandardizedrhetoricandendupwith

somethingthatdoesn’tfitouruniqueneeds.Forthemostpartweallknowwhatwelikeandmakedecisionsaccordingly,butunderpressurewecaneasilybeconfusedandlosesightofourgoals.Thelittlethingsarehardtokeepinmindwhentherearesomanybigthings,soit’snosurprisethatthe“smallstuff”causesthemostproblems.Manyfailbyoverdependenceontheareastheybestunderstand.Itiscomfortingtosticktowhatyou

know,andyouareoftenunawarethataproblemcanbeseenfromadifferentperspective.Ifyouaresofocusedonjustoneaspectofasituation—ifyoufallblindlyinlovewithyourbishops,orthatcorneroffice,orthatbigtreeinthebackyard—youwillalmostcertainlymakemistakesinyourevaluation.Whileyoucan“haveitall”inchess,andperhapseveninlife,thatelysianconditionisnotusefulfor

learning.Mostofthetimewewillhavetobalance,exchange,andevaluateoverandover.Ifwedothiswellenoughtoblendmaterial,time,andqualityintoamultidimensionalevaluation,wegainaclearideaofwhatwewantandcanthenplanonhowtoachieveit.Whenweseeallthefactors,wecanthenlearnhowtoshiftthemandbuildthem.WithoutexpandingourpowersofevaluationweriskfulfillingOscarWilde’sfamousobservationaboutknowing“thepriceofeverythingandthevalueofnothing.”Materialisonlyasvaluableastheuseitcanbeputto.Timeforactionisonlyimportantifithelpsus

makeourmaterialmoreuseful.Mostpeoplewouldwelcomehavinganextrahourintheday,butnotthemaninajailcell.Themessagehereis,usetimetoimproveyourmaterial,notjustacquiremoreofit.Materialforitsownsakeisasuselessaswastedtimeinthepursuitofourgoals.Usefulmaterialandwell-spenttimeleadtowinninginachessgame.Inthecorporateworldtheylead

tohigherrevenues.Inwarandpoliticstheyleadtovictory.AndImightaddthatineverydaylife,“victory”cansimplistically,perhapsalittleromantically,bedefinedashappiness.Moneycan’tbuyit,afterall.ButIbelievethatbyusingyourtimewiselyyoucanputallyourmaterialtoyourbestadvantageandachievetheultimategoalofquality.That’sthepromiseofthematerial-time-qualityconcept—inchessandinlife.

CHAPTER8

EXCHANGESANDIMBALANCES

FreezingtheGame

Animbalanceisanylackofsymmetrythatcanbeexploitedtoone’sadvantage.Inchessthisreferstothequantitativeandqualitativedifferencesbetweenyouropponent’sforcesandyourown.Agamemayappeartobedeadlocked,butwhenyouplaylikeamasteranddiligentlyconsiderallthreeMTQfactors,imbalancesalwaysexistbecauseevenifthepiecesarecompletelysymmetricalontheboard,itisalwayssomeone’sturn.Theplayerwhosemoveitishasanadvantageintime,whichbreaksthebalance.Suspendingthegameintimeisausefulwaytoteachstudentshowtoevaluatequalitativefactorssuch

asstructureandspace.Wedothisbyshowingachesspositionwithoutrevealingwhosemoveitis.Atfirstthissoundspreposterous.Iftheentirepurposeistodecidethebestmove,isn’titessentialtoknowwhosemoveitis?Thepurposeofthistechniqueispreciselytoremovetheanxietyaboutchoosingthenextmoveandtoencouragetheplayertoappreciatethesubtleelementsinplayacrosstheboardwithoutprejudice.Thistechniquetaughtstudentstobetterconsiderthevariousdestinationsandtoevaluatethemthoroughlyinsteadoffocusingonwheretogo.Inrealplaythestudentsimmediatelystartmakingsuggestionsforthenextmove,tryingoneafteranotherwithoutthinkingthingsthrough,andtheytendtomissthebigpictureandthestrategicpossibilitiesthatarepresentateachmove.IexperiencedasimilarsyndromewhenIventuredintothebusinessoftheInternet.In1999,mypartnersandIweregettingreadytolaunchagiantInternetchessportalbearingmyname.

Asthesitenearedcompletion,thedesignersworkedwithtestersandfocusgroupstoseehowwellthedesignandnavigationworkedinpractice.ItwastragicomictowatchthetesterscompletelyignorethesignsandinstructionsthathadcarefullybeenworkedoutbymyteamandmeanddeliberatelyplacedbytheWebdesigners.Instead,followingwhattheexpertstoldmeisthenormalpattern,theuserswouldimmediatelyclickonwhatevercaughttheireyeand,ifunhappywiththeresult,jumpbackandtryagain,orthey’dgooffinatotallydifferentdirection.Theyignoredmostofthemenuchoiceswehadworkedsohardtoperfect.Thedesiretobequickandtokeepmovingforwarddrovethem.Unfortunately,thisreflectshowmanyofusgoaboutmakingdecisionsallthetime.Wetakeourbest

guessandplungeforward,barelyconsideringtheoptionsbeforeus.Thereisahugedifferencebetweenjustbrowsingthepossiblemovesandevaluatingthesituation.Frequentlyourintuitiveleapsprovefruitful,andforatleastashorttimewegetwhatwewantandneed.Butmyyearsasachessplayerhavetaughtmehowimportantitistodotheanalysisthatwillclearlyshowyouwhichoftheoptionsissuperior.Instinctiveevaluationisbetterthannoneatall,butwecan’tconfuseitwithunderstandingeveniftheresultsaren’talwaysbad.Forexample,gettingbacktothosebeginningchessstudents,whatifoneofthem,throughintuitionor

luckorboth,hurriedlycallsouttherightmovewhenpresentedwithapositiontoanalyze?It’stohiscredit,butitdoesn’tmeanhereallyunderstandstheposition,anditmayleadtotheformationofbadhabits.Onlyadeliberateanalysisleadsustothecoreoftheposition.Thisinturnnarrowsouroptionsandinformsourdecisions.That’swhenwereintroducethetimefactoranduseourevaluationtodecideonthe

bestmove.Thisisolationtechniqueisutilizedinbusinessschoolstotrainstudentsinvariousmethodsof

evaluatingacompanyoracasestudy.Tostartout,theclassmightbegivenonlyabalancesheetwithnoknowledgeofthecompetition,perhapsevenoftheindustry.Ortheymightbeshownonlythemarketshareofthecompany’sproductsrelativetothecompetition.Introducingelementsonebyoneattemptstoeliminategapsineducationandevaluationhabits.Whenstudentshavethefullpicture,theycanseehowalltheelementscombinetoformasingle,uniqueimage.Oncewehavefrozenplay,westillhavetoknowwhattoanalyzeandhowtoweighthatanalysis.Ona

chessboard,thenumberoffactorstoconsiderislimited,butthenumberofwaystoconsiderthemisunlimited.Aswediscussedearlier,evenstrongplayerswilldifferovertherelativeimportanceofthedifferentelements.Thesimplesttestistopresentapositionandasksomeonewhichsidehewouldprefertoplay.Whiteorblack?Whoisbetterandwhy?Thepositionmaybeequal,butahumanbeingisacreatureofpreferenceandcanneverbecompletelyobjective.Beingawareofyourpreferencesandprejudicescanbeascriticalashowwellyouobservetheexternalfactors.Wecanmoveourtheoreticalchesspositiontothemilitarybattlefieldorthecorporateboardroom.

Beforeagenerallaunchesanattackheevaluatesasmanyfactorsashecan.Hemustconsiderterrain,weather,forcereadiness,supplylines,politicalsupport,anddozensofotherthingsbeforehemakeshismove.Successfulcompaniesfocusonlong-termgoalsestablishedbyaccurateevaluation.ACEOcan’tberuledbyaperceivedneedtorespondimmediatelytoeverymovethecompetitionmakesorhewon’thaveanyrealstrategyofhisown.

TheSearchforCompensation

Aproperevaluationisasearchforadvantageorcompensationfordisadvantage.Fewadvantagesareunconditional,andmostdisadvantages—likeclouds—comewithasilverlining.Tarraschwasexaggeratingonlyslightlywhenhewrote,“Everymovecreatesaweakness.”Unlessamovedeliverscheckmate,ithasnegativesaswellaspositives.Thesameistrueofstaticcharacteristics.Forexample,whenyourpawnsadvance,yougainspacetomaneuveryourpieces,butattheexpenseofweakeningyourdefenses.Whentroopsadvance,linesofcommunicationandsupplycanbecutorbecomedisorganized.Materiallossesaretypicallytheonlypurelynegativefactor,althoughinextremecasesyoumight

benefitbylosingamemberofyourownforces.Ifanarmy’sfast-movingcavalryishemmedinbyitsownfootsoldiers,ageneralcan’tjustsacrificehisslower-movingtroops.Butinchessit’snotuncommontoplaya“clearancesacrifice”bythrowingapawnintotheteethoftheenemytoclearthelinesforyourpiecestoadvance.Ifanassetisnearlyworthlessandhasnoprospectsofimprovement,youmightaswellgetwhatyou

canforitwhileyoucan.Amateurswhodabbleinthestockmarketarefamousforholdingontolosingstocksallthewaytothebottom,imaginingthattheyhaven’treallylostanythinguntilthey’vesold,whichisaself-destructivefallacy.Thecold-bloodedinvestorknowsthatgettingsomethingnowisbetterthannothinglater.AtatournamentinYugoslaviain1983Ihadtheopportunitytodisposeofsomefallingsharesinthe

formofabishop.InmygameagainsttheleadingHungarianplayer,LajosPortisch,Iwasstrainingtofindawaytoexploitmyslightleadindevelopment.Iwantedtousethisdynamicadvantagetolaunchanattackonhisking.Theproblemwas,allofmypiecesneededtousethesamecentralsquare.IfIplayedmyknightthere,itwouldblockmybishop,cuttingitoutofthegameentirely.Thisledmetowonder—ifthe

bishopwasn’tparticipatingactivelyatthisexactmomentinthegame,whycouldn’tIexchangeitforsomethingofvalueintheblackposition,suchasthepawnrightinfrontoftheblackking?Givingupabishopforasinglepawndoesn’tmakeanysensefromamaterialperspective,butIhadthe

initiative—anadvantageinboardtime—anditwasmoretimeIneeded.Thatis,mypieceswereclosetoreachingkeytargetsbeforemyopponentcoulddefendthem.Withalittlemorespeedtheywouldcrashhomewithdecisiveeffect.TogainthatboardtimeIinvestedmorematerial.Thebishopwouldotherwisebeunemployedinmyplannedoperation,andthiswayitcouldbesacrificedtofurtherincreasemydynamicadvantage.Igaveupthebishop,andwithhiskingexposed,Portischhadtolosemoretimerunningforcover.Eventuallymyactivityoverwhelmedhismateriallead.Inchessasinlifewetotaluptheplusesandminusesinaposition,thengotoworkfiguringouthowto

improveoursideoftheledger.Wewanttocreateweaknessesinouropponent’scampwhilestrengtheningourown.Essentialtothisisturningourweaknessesintostrengths,oratleastminimizingthem.Atheoreticalweakness,aby-the-bookdisadvantage,thatcan’tbeexploitedbyyouropponentisreallynotaweaknessatall.Successfullyexploitingyouradvantagesleadstogreateradvantages,eventuallygreatenoughtowina

decisiveamountofmaterial.Thisiswherethealchemycomesin,thetransformationofonetypeofadvantageintoanother.Withaccurateplaywecanturnmaterialintotimeandbackagain,orinvestbothforahighreturninquality.

TheLawsofThermodynamics,Chess,andQualityofLife

Thefirstlawofthermodynamicstellsusthatthetotalamountofenergyinasystemisconstant,thatifwemoveenergyintoonearea,weloseanequalamountfromanother.Toputitanotherway,energycan’tspontaneouslybecreatedordestroyed,onlytransferredfromoneplacetoanotherortransmutedfromoneformintoanother.Onthechessboardwetrytobreakthatlaw—tocreatebothenergyandmaterial.Ifapawnreachesthe

othersideoftheboard,itcanbe“promoted”intoanypiece,evenanotherqueen.(Ofcourseyoucan’thaveanotherking.Inchess,bigamyisacceptablebutmonarchyisabsolute.)Thatwayweimprove—weaddto—theenergyofourownpieces.Ofcourseinatypicalgameofattackandcounterattack,ouropponentdoesthesamething,marshalinghisforcesandincreasinghisactivitylevel,whichiswhatmakesthegamedynamic.Ifdoneright,eachchessboardtransformationincreasesthequalityofourposition.Inexchangefortime

—saytwomoves—Icanbringmyknightovertoasuperiorlocation,andinsodoingI’veincreasedthatknight’senergy,hispowertodoharm.OrwhenIsacrificeapawn,myopponenthastoloseamoveortwotocaptureit,givingmetimetoaugmentmyattack.Again,thematerial-time-qualityconceptformsthebasiclawofchess.Acompanycan—andshould—viewitsownplayingfieldinasimilarway.Anadvantageincash

reserves—material—isturnedintoresearchonnewproducts,oremployeebonuses,ormoreadvertising,oramodernizedfactory.Lookingattheassetsofyourcompetitorsenablesyoutofindimbalancesyoucanexploit.Evenifyouropponentdominatesinmanyareas,youcantrytodevelopapositiveimbalanceofyourown—anddisplacesomeenergy.Ifwecandetectorcultivateaweakspotinouropponent’sposition,wecanthenattempttotransformourpositiontotakeadvantageofthatweakness.Here’sanexamplefromtheworldoftechnology.

StrategyontheBrowserBattlefield

Theexpressionbrowserwarwasinwideuseinthelatenineties,whenNetscapeandMicrosoftwerebattlingforWebmarketshare.NetscapeNavigatorwasfirstandalsobest;MicrosoftExplorerlaggedwaybehindinjustabouteveryrespect.Itsearlyversionsweremediocre,andNavigatorhadalargeandloyalcustomerbase.Inresponse,Microsoftdevelopedamasterfulstrategyofexchanges.Ithadnegativequalitative

imbalancesinproductquality,userbase,andbrandrecognition.Butthiswarwasn’tjustbrowserversusbrowser,itwascompanyversuscompany,andhereMicrosofthadsomepositiveimbalancesagainstNetscape.First,ithadamassivematerialadvantageincold,hardcashthankstothesuccessofitsofficesuitesandoperating-systemsoftware.Second,Microsofthadaplacementadvantage;itcouldbundleExplorerwithitsotherpopularsoftware.IfyouboughtWindowsorMSOffice,theMicrosoftbrowsercameinstalledonyourcomputer.Microsoftdidn’tjustgivethebrowserawaywithothersoftware.Leveragingitsmassiveamountof

cash,itsimplygaveitawaytoeverybodyfree.Thiswasabrutallyefficientexchangeofmaterialforpositionalquality,anditworkedwonderfully.Tobefair,theyalsoinvestedalotofmoneyintoimprovingthequalityoftheExplorerbrowser,butthatwasn’tthemostimportantfactorintheracewithNavigator.ThemuchsmallerNetscapesawwhatwasgoingonandtriedtokeepup.TheyalsocriedfoulandwenttothecourtstotrytostoporatleastslowMicrosoft’sappropriationoftheirenergyinthebrowserwars.Butsuchasmallcompanycouldn’taffordtogiveitsmainproducttoeveryoneforfreeandstillmaintainquality.Netscape’sattemptstobundleNavigatorwithothersoftwarewerefutileinthefaceoftheninety-fivepercentdesktopdominanceofWindows.WithintwoyearsMicrosoftwentfromlessthanatenpercentshareofthebrowsermarkettoovereightypercent.TheycontinuedtogainuntilNetscape—andalltheothercompetition—wasentirelymarginalized.Microsoftexploiteditsoverwhelmingadvantageinresources.InAmericanCivilWarterms,itplayed

GeneralGranttotherestofthesoftwareworld’sGeneralLee.TheUnion’sGrantwasn’tthemostbrillianttactician,butheknewhewouldeventuallyweardowntheSouthernarmybysheerweightoftroopsandsupplies.AwarofattritionsuitedGrant—ifnothismen—justfine,andhehadthebrutallypragmaticnatureneededtowinsuchawar.Withsomestretching,wecanevenmakeananalogytotheColdWar.ByconstantlyincreasingmilitaryspendingtheUSAeventuallybankruptedtheUSSR,whichcouldn’tkeepupthepaceofspending.AlthoughinthiscasetheCommunistsidealsosufferedfromthefatal“bug”ofabankruptideology.

AllChangeComesataCost

Whenmeasuringimbalances,youshouldconsidertheelementsofyouroperationnotjustinrelationtoyourrivals’,butalsoinrelationtooneanother.Inchesswetalkabouthavingharmonyinourposition.Areyourpiecesworkingtogether?Isyourmaterialdevelopedinaccordancewithyourstrategicgoals?Thedifficultyofachievingsuccessfulcoordinationincreaseswiththenumberofassets.Thecorporatemegamergersofthepastdecadeillustratethiswell.TimeWarnerandAOLcametogetherinadealofrecordproportionsin2001,andinvestorsarenowconsideringseparatingthecompaniesagain.Biggerisn’talwaysbetter,especiallyifitcomesatthecostofcoordination.Thechessbishopcanmoveonlydiagonally,meaningeachbishopspendsitsentirelifeonthesquares

ofonecolor,whiteorblack.Eachplayerstartsthegamewithtwobishops,andthe“bishoppair”can

attackordefendanysquareontheboard.Whentheyworksidebyside,twobishopscanbeadevastatingattackingforce.Thisiswhywhenonebishopiscaptured,oftentheotherisgreatlydiminishedaswell.Theremainingbishopcantargetonlyhalfthesquaresontheboard,soyouropponentknowsheissafeonthosesquares,atleastfromthebishop.Thecombinedpowerofthebishoppairisfargreaterthanthesumofitsparts.Similarly,twocompaniesmightcombinetobeworthfarmorethantheywerebeforeiftheycanworktogetherinharmony.Or,asinthecaseofTimeWarnerandAOL,theymightturnouttobeworthlessbecauseofconflicts.

OverextendingOurReach

Physicsalsotellsusthat“orderedsystemsloselessenergythanchaoticsystems.”Inchessterms,whenourpiecesworktogether,theycanturnoneadvantageintoanotherwithoutlosingquality.Apositionoracompanyoramilitaryunitthatisdisorganizedcanbetornapartbyattemptingatransformation.Tryingtoachievetheobjectivecanleavethemsodepletedthattheyarequicklywipedout.Thishappensmostfrequently—inchessandinlife—whenpositionsorcircumstancesarealreadytenuous.Thephrasehasteningdefeatappearsfrequentlyintheannotationofchessgames.Aplayerinadifficult

positiontendstomakemistakesduetothepsychologicalpressurethatcomeswithknowinghe’sintrouble.Butanotherkeydynamicisalsoatwork:aninferiorpositionislessabletowithstandthelossofenergyrequiredbyanattemptatchange.Thisiswhyacompanythatisinfinancialtroubleshouldnevergambleonariskyventure.Withoutstabilitythatriskyventurecouldleadtothetotalcollapseofthecompany—evenifthegamblesucceedsinitsimmediateobjectives.Businessestoohastendefeatbyoverextendingthemselves.Intheearly1970s,PanAmairlinesfound

itselfinadifficultposition.Theglobalenergycrisisof1973camerightontheheelsofacourtbattlethatawardedimportantinternationalroutestothecompany’scompetitors.Oncedominant,PanAmwasnowingravetrouble.PanAmtriedtosolvesomeofitsproblemswiththepurchaseofadomesticairline,but,assooften

happens,aboldmovefromapositionofweaknesswasseverelypunished.TheyoverpaidforNationalAirlinesandaccumulatedhugedebt.Theyheldonbysellingassetsandroutes,expendingtheirmaterialresourcesandhopingforafavorablechangeinconditions.Thecompanywassofragilethatallitwouldtakewasonemorenegativedevelopmenttoknockitout.In1988theLockerbieterroristbombingofPanAmFlight103wastheproverbiallaststraw.Bookingsplummeted,andafurtheroverallfallinairtravelthankstothefirstGulfWarledthecompanytodeclarebankruptcyin1991.Thefirstairlinegiantundoubtedlyhadmorethanitsfairshareofbadluck,butthedirectorsofPanAm

alsosufferedfromtheirownmistakesandmadethemselvesmuchmorevulnerabletobadluckbyoverextendingtheirmaterialandbynottakingcareoftheimbalancesintheirownposition.Theydidn’tdevelopdomesticroutes,theyhadaweakcashreserve,theyhadpendingcourtcases.Thisanalysisisnotmeanttoserveasarecommendationtobeconservativeortoplanonlyfortheworst-casescenario.Risk-takingisessentialinanyendeavor.It’sthecontextofthatriskthatissocritical.Ifyouaresensitivetoyourvulnerabilitiesandnegativeimbalances,youcanfactorthemintoyourstrategy.Oneimbalanceisrarelydecisive.Youmustbeabletoseewhenaconfluenceisformingandwhetheritisinyourfavor.In1993,Icommittedthedreadfulmistakeoflaunchinganattackfromapositionofweakness.This

wasn’tatthechessboard,however,butinchesspolitics.Eversincetheinternationalchessfederation,FIDE,hadinterruptedmyfirstworldchampionshipmatchin1985,Ihadfeudedwiththeirleadershipalmostwithoutpause.Intherun-uptomy1993worldchampionshipmatchwithNigelShort,the

Englishmancalledmewithatemptingoffer:tolaunchourownProfessionalChessAssociationandplaythematchoutsideofFIDE.Hereatlastwasachancetobreakawayfromthecorruptbureaucracyandintroducechessintotheworldofmodernsport.ShortwasthefirstWesternchallengerfortheworldtitlesinceBobbyFischerin1972.Withhis

involvementIthoughtwecouldgeneratetremendousinterestandrallytheworld’sGrandmastersagainstFIDE.Justafewyearsbefore,Ihadcreatedanotherprofessionalplayers’union,butithadfounderedwhentheWesternGMsformedanoppositionbloc.SuddenlyherewasNigel,thelastpresidentoftheGrandmasterAssociation,offeringtojoinforces.Now,Ithought,wecouldreallyunitethechessworld.Thisturnedouttobeaterribleblunder,theworstofmycareer.Afterwemadeourannouncement,itquicklybecameapparentthatIhadmisjudgedthesituation.Shorthadnosuchsupport.Ihadoverextended.Suddenlywewereonourownandwereimmediatelyportrayedas“renegades”and“hijackersoftheworldchampionship.”FIDEessentiallyexcommunicatedbothofusandheldanalternativeworldchampionshipmatchparalleltotheoneShortandIplayedinLondon.Thusbeganaschisminthechessworldthathasneverproperlyhealed.IwassoeagertoachievemygoalthatIwasoblivioustohowunlikelytheplanwastosucceed.Ifailedtocorrectlyevaluatemypositionandinsodoingignoredseveralfatalimbalances.Thereareimbalancesinourdailylivesandweconstantlystruggletotransformthempositively.

Gainingcontrolmeansfindingthemostfavorablebalanceandworkingconstantlytomakepositiveexchanges.NormanMailerwrotethatateverymomentweareeither“livingalittlemoreordyingalittlebit.”Thereisnostandingstill,nomaintainingaperfectequilibrium.Wecan,however,ineffectfreezetimebypausingforamomentinourconstantsearchforwhattodonextandinsteadcalmlyevaluatetheplusesandminuses.Wecanfloutthelawsofthermodynamicstocreateenergyandquality—valueandpower—throughpositivetransformations.

CHAPTER9

PHASESOFTHEGAME

Beforetheendgame,thegodshaveplacedthemiddlegame.—SIEGBERTTARRASCH

AbrahamLincolnbeganhisfamous“HouseDivided”speechin1858withabrilliantobservation:“Ifwecouldfirstknowwherewearegoingandwhitherwearetending,wecouldbetterjudgewhattodoandhowtodoit.”Lincolnmighthaveaddedthatit’sworthknowingnotonlywhereyouaregoing,butwhereyouare.Planningandinnovationbothrequiresolidgroundinginthepresent.Wecanknow“whitherwearetending”onlywhenweknowwhereweare.Overthecenturies,countlessmethodshavebeendevelopedtoexplainthegameofchesstostudentsand

helpthemtobetterunderstandthepaththeyareonineachgametheyplay.Oneofthemostdurablemethodsistobreakthegameintothreeparts,orphases:theopening,themiddlegame,andtheendgame.Thereisnoagreed-uponformulafordeterminingexactlywhenoneendsandanotherbegins,butwithoutquestioneachphasehasdistinctivecharacteristicsandeachposesproblemsthatbenefitfromdifferentmodesofthinking.

KnowWhyWeMakeEachMoveWeMake

Simplyput,theopeningisthephaseofthegamewherethebattlelinesaredrawn.Thepawnsestablishthecontoursofstructure,thepiecesgetoffthebackrankandtakeuphostileordefensivepositions.Theopening,though,isfarmorethanatrivialmobilizationofforces.Itestablisheswhatsortofbattleistocomeandisthefirstandbestopportunitytomovethegameintochannelswhereyouarebetterequippedtofightthanyouropponent.Theopeningisthesubtlest,mostdifficultphaseofthegame,especiallyatthehighestlevelofcompetition.Anessentialelementofthisstartingphaseistheactualopening—thetermweusetodescribethe

hundredsofpredeterminedsequencesofmoves—thesetplays,ifyouwill—thatgreatchessplayershavedevisedtobegingames.Theseusuallyhavenames,suchastheaforementionedDragonvariation.Thesepropernamescanderivefromtheplayerwhocoinedthevariation,thecityorcountrywheretheoriginatinggamewasplayed,oraliteral—orpoetic—descriptionoftheposition.TheDragonvariationissaidtogetitsnameforthewaythealignmentofthepawnslooksliketheconstellationDraco.Thenamesoftheopeningsmakeupmuchofchessplayers’jargon,populatingourdiscussionswitheverythingfromtheSicilianDragontotheMaroczyBind,fromtheMarshallAttacktotheKing’sIndian.Players,evenclubamateurs,dedicatehourstostudyingandmemorizingthelinesoftheirpreferred

openings.Thisknowledgeisinvaluable,butitcanalsobeatrap.ManymakethemistakeofbelievingthatiftheyknowwhatafamousGrandmasterplayedinthisexactpositionbackin1962,theydon’thavetothinkforthemselves.Thetheoryisthis:iftheycanjustfollowthegamesofgreatplayers,movebymove,forasaslongastheycan,andiftheyremembermorethantheiropponent,he’lleventuallymakeamistake.Incompetitiveplay,though,thattheoryrarelyholdsup.Longbeforeaplayerbecomesamaster,he

realizesthatrotememorization,howeverprodigious,isuselesswithoutunderstanding.Atsomepoint,

he’llreachtheendofhismemory’sropeandbewithoutapremadefixinapositionhedoesn’treallyunderstand.Withoutknowingwhyallthemovesweremade,he’llhavelittleideaofhowtocontinuewhenplayinevitablyadvancesbeyondthemoveshewasabletostoreinhismemory.InJune2005inNewYorkIgaveaspecialtrainingsessiontoagroupoftheleadingyoungplayersin

theUnitedStates.Ihadaskedthemeachtobringtwooftheirgamesforustoreview,onewinandoneloss.Atalentedtwelve-year-oldracedthroughtheopeningmovesofhisloss,eagertogettothepointwherehethoughthe’dgonewrong.Istoppedhimandaskedwhyhehadplayedacertainpawnpushinthesharpopeningvariation.Hisanswerdidn’tsurpriseme:“That’swhatVallejoplayed!”OfcourseIalsoknewthattheSpanishGrandmasterhademployedthismoveinarecentgame,butIalsoknewthatifthisyoungsterdidn’tunderstandthemotivebehindthemove,hewasalreadyheadedfortrouble.Thisboy’sresponsetookmebacktomyownsessionswithBotvinnikthirtyyearsearlier.Onmorethan

oneoccasionhechidedmeforcommittingthissamesinofblindemulation.Thegreatteacherinsistedthathisstudentsrecognizetherationalebehindeverymove.Asaresult,allofuslearnedtobecomegreatskeptics,evenofthemovesofthebestplayers.WewoulddiscoverapowerfulideabehindeachGrandmastermove,butwealsofoundimprovements.Westudied,wequestioned,wegrappledwiththeideabehindaseriesofmoves,andeventuallywecouldbuildourunderstandingandcreatemoreandbetterstrategies.Forplayerswhodependonmemorization,theopeningendswhentheirmemoryrunsoutofmovesand

theyhavetostartthinkingforthemselves.Aroteopeningmightcarryyoutomovefive,orevenmovethirty,butthispracticealwaysinhibitsyourdevelopmentasaplayer.Itisonethingforaworld-classplayertorelyonmemorization;healreadyknowsallofthewhysbehindthemoves.Foryourowndevelopmentit’sfarmoreimportanttothinkforyourselffromtheverystart.Thepurposeoftheopeningisn’tjusttosurvivethebeginningofthegame,it’stosetthestageforthe

typeofmiddlegameyouwant—orthetypeofgameyouropponentdoesn’twant.Toknowwhatthisisrequirespreparation,study,andoppositionresearch.Whichopeningsdoestomorrow’sopponentplay?Whathappenedthelastfewtimesyouplayedeachother?Canyoufindanewideainoneoftheseopeningsthatmightgiveyouanearlyadvantage?Whattypesofpositiondoeshedislike?Whichopeningchoicecanleadyouintothosepositions?Ifyoumaketherightdecisionsattheoutset,youcannarrowthefieldofviewandbeginunfoldingyourstrategywithcareandprecision.Creativityintheopeningphaseisnowmostoftencultivatedinthecomfortofhomeinsteadofinthe

firesofcompetition.Computerdatabasescontainalmosteveryseriousgameeverplayed,including,thankstotheInternet,thoseplayedjustyesterday.Youcancallupyouropponent’sentirecareerinasecondandlookfortendencies,weaknesses,holesinhisopeningrepertoire.Thenyouheadtotheboardtofacesomeonewhohasdoneexactlythesameresearchonyou.BythetimeaplayerbecomesaGrandmaster,almostallofhistrainingtimeisdedicatedtoworkonthis

firstphase.Theopeningistheonlyphasethatholdsoutthepotentialfortruecreativityanddoingsomethingentirelynew.Forfindingsomethingthatnooneelsehasfound.Althoughtheareanarrowseachyear,thereremainsagreatdealofunexploredterritory.Youcansetoffonyourownwithoutanyoneknowingwhatyouareworkingon.Youcanlookfortrapsandnewideasandthenreturnfromyourexplorationsreadytospringthemonyouropponents.It’sasexcitingasbeinganinventorinalaboratory,tryingoutideasintheprivacyofyourowncreativespace.Whoamonguswouldn’tagreethatheisathismostimaginativewhenheisawayfromtheofficeorhisregularplaceofwork?Withsomuchprecedentandhistoryavailableatanyone’sfingertips,thepowerofsurpriseismoredifficulttoharness,butitalsopacksagreaterpunchwhenyoudofindsomethingnew.Sodedicateyourselftomakingthetime,findingaspaceinwhichyoucanthinkandlearn,andfindingnewideaswithwhichtoshockyouradversaries.

ArtIsBornfromCreativeConflict

It’sgenerallyagreedthattheopeningphaseisoverwhenthepieceshavelefttheirstartingsquaresandthekinghascastledoutofthecentertosafety.Nowwecometothemiddlegame,inwhichtheforcesbecomeengaged.Thepieceshavebeendeveloped,thekingsaresafe(or,formoreexcitement,arenot),andthebattlelineshavebeendrawn.It’stimefortheforcestomeetandforbloodtobespilled.Itisatimeforcreativity,fantasy,andenergy.Atthestartofthegamethepiecesareinert.Theopeningcoilsthespring,puttingthepiecesinpositiontoreleasetheirenergies.Inthemiddlegamecometheexplosions.Itisraretobeexactlywhereyouwanttobeaftertheopeningphasehasended,andit’salmost

impossibleforbothplayerstobehappy.Youropponentisalwayscountering,interferingwithyourplans,andviceversa.Thismeansfreshevaluationsarealwaysrequired.Youmustconstantlyprocessnewreportsfromthefront.Evenifyouhavebeeninthisexactpositioninanothergame,itiscriticaltoevaluateitanew,especiallysinceyouropponentisalsoawareyou’vebeenherebeforeandmayhavepreparedsomethingnasty.Thethingthatworkedlasttimemaynotworkthistime,preciselybecauseitworkedlasttime.Surveythelandscape,examinetheimbalances,andformulateastrategy.OurMTQanalysisissimilartowhatthoseinthecorporateworldcallSWOTreports,whichstandsfor

Strengths,Weaknesses,Opportunities,Threats.Thedifferenceinchessisthatyouropponent’severymove,decision,andactionisrighttherebeforeyou,allthetime.Still,youmustsimultaneouslyanalyzebothpositions—hisandyours—beforeyoucanformulateandexecuteyourstrategy.Youmustalsobeawareofanyimmediateneedforaction.Doyouneedtoputdeeperstrategicconcernsonholdandrespondtoimminentdanger?Canyoucreateathreatthatwillforceyouropponentonthedefensiveandoutofhisgameplan?Iftherearen’tanyimmediatetacticalconsiderations,youcancontinuedevelopingyourstrategyandpushingtowardyourintermediateobjectives—theprocessyoubeganintheopening.Alloftheelementsthatelevatechesstoanartarenativetothemiddlegame.Pooropeningresearch

canbeovercomebytacticalbrilliance.Deepcalculationscanoperateinharmonywithdaringvisions.Totaldisasterlurksaroundeverycornerasthedynamicforceofthepiecesismaximized.Battlefieldcommanderstakeoverfromarmchairgenerals.Morethananything,themiddlegamerewardsactionoverreaction.Itistheattackingphase,andthefightfortheinitiativeisparamount.Themiddlegamerequiresalertnessingeneralandalertnesstopatternsinparticular.Thesearegeneral

ideasthatanyonecanlearnwithpractice;themoreyouplay,thebetteryoubecomeatrecognizingthepatternsandapplyingthesolutions.Thatis,tofindsimilaritiestopositionsyouhaveseenbeforeandthentorecallwhatworked(orwhatdidn’twork)inthatsituation.Thereisstillpotentialforgreatcreativity,ifyouareabletorelateknownpatternstonewpositionstofindtheuniquesolution:thebestmove.Inthebusinessworld,forexample,acompanyentersthemiddlegameassoonasaproductislaunched

intothemarket.Preparationisoverandnowit’stimetomaneuverwithadvertisingandpricepoints.Howisthisproductsimilartopreviousones?Howisitdifferent?Whathasworkedbeforeandhowcanthiscampaignimproveonpastefforts?Everydecisioninthisphaseislargelybasedonourabilitytofindparallels.Thetouchofgeniuscomesinextendingthembeyondwhatothersbelievedpossible.Whatlittleconcretestudyofthemiddlegamethereiscomesfromitsevolutionfromtheopening,oneof

thekeytransitionpoints.Theopeningservesonlytoestablishtheoutlinesofthemiddlegame,soitcanbeuseful,evenessential,topushyourstudyoftheopeningphaseintothe“realworld”ofmiddle-gameaction.Thisiswhyitissoimportanttostudycompletechessgames,notjustlookattheopeningmoves.Thisisalsowhybusinessschoolshavelargelyswitchedtothecase-studymethodinsteadoffocusingontheory.Allthestudyandpreparationintheworldcan’tshowyouwhatit’sreallygoingtobelikeinthewild.Observingtypicalplansinaction,mistakesandaccidentsincluded,isvastlysuperiortoivory-

towerplanning.

MakeSureaGoodPeaceFollowsaGoodWar

Muchbelovedbywriters,politicians,andbusinesspeopleasametaphor,theendgameissimplytheresultofpieceexchanges.Whenthedynamicpotentialofthearmieshasdiminishedtoaminimallevel,themiddlegamehasended.Theenergyandtensionofthemiddlegamewithallitselementsofsurprise,attack,anddefensegivewaytoatechnicalphase.Whenonlythelastfewsurvivorsremainonthebattlefield,rawlogicandcalculationtakeover.Andthenweareintheendgame.Thereisstillagreatdealofunchartedterritoryintheopeningphaseofthegame.Newideas,new

concepts,newplansinoldandforgottenvariations,thereisstillmuchtodiscoverintheopening.ThetacticalpatternsandstrategicconceptsofthemiddlegamehavebeenwellmappedoutbygenerationsofGrandmasters,althoughthereareoccasionalfreshtwists.Intheendgame,however,theplansandpossibilitiesareopenandknowntoall,analmostmathematicalexercise.Thisisn’ttosaythateverythingispredetermined.Withflawlessplayfrombothsides,theendgamewilladvancetowardapredictableconclusion.Butsincehumansareflawed,damagecanbeinflictedorrepaired.Evenifoneplayerisatacleardisadvantage,hemaysimplyoutplayhisopponent.Theendgamerepresentsthetreatynegotiationsafterthefightinghasended.ThemasterfulFrench

diplomatTalleyrandpulledoffjustsuchanendgamecoupattheCongressofViennain1814–15.Francewentintotheconferencewithlowhopes.AfteritsdefeatintheNapoleonicWars,itwasadisgracedandoccupiednationthatcouldexpecttohavelittleinfluenceatthecongressthatwouldreshapeEurope.AndyetthewilyTalleyrand(havingcraftilymaneuveredtohaveNapoleonremovedfrompower)managedtodividetheconqueringalliesandcreatenewalliancesthatpreservedmostofFrance’sterritorialboundaries.Francehadenteredthenegotiatingphase,theendgameafterthewars,withalosingposition.ButwithalmostnothinginMTQassetsathisdisposal,byskillfulmaneuveringTalleyrandchangedthefateofEurope.Theoppositecourseisalsopossible,sadly.Fewthingsaremoretragicthanplayingastrongopening,a

brilliantmiddle-gameattack,thenhavingthewinevaporatewithonewrongmoveintheendgame.ThishappenedtomeonnolessastagethanmyworldchampionshipmatchagainstNigelShortinLondon,1993.InafierceopeningduelIconfrontedanewopeningideaNigelhadintroducedearlierinthematch.I

gotasignificantedgeoutoftheopeningandinthemiddlegamesuccessfullyresistedhisattemptstogetthingsbackontrack.Ibroughtamaterialadvantageintotheendgame.Thegamehadsimplifieddowntojustonerookformyopponentandarookandtwopawnsforme.(Wedon’tcountthekingsastheyarealwaysontheboard.)ItwasawinningpositionandIwasonlywaitingforShorttoresign—thatwasmyfirstmistake.Wewerebothonautopilotforthefinalmoves,andnotuntilafterthegamedidsomeonepointoutwehadbothblunderedhorriblyneartheend.EvenwithjusttwopawnsandtworooksontheboardIhadmadeaslip,playinga“natural”movewithmypawnthatpermittedShortadefensivemaneuverthatwouldallowhimtodrawthegame.ButShort,alsoblindtotheopportunity,respondedwithhisown“natural”move.Heresignedahalfdozenmoveslater.Howcouldtheworldchampionandhischallengerbothmisssomethingsoimportantintheendgame

despitehavingsofewpiecesontheboardtocreatecomplications?Ithinkit’sbecausethearidityoftheendgame,itslackofdynamism,leadsplayerstobecomeblindtoopportunity.Thetechnicalphasecanbeboringbecausethereislittleopportunityforcreativity,forart.Boredomleadstocomplacencyand

mistakes.Thesameistrueintheworkplace.Ifoneisfacedwitharepetitivejob,itcanbedifficulttostayalertto

opportunitiestosolveproblemscreatively.Yourinstinctsslowlygonumbwheneveryanalysisreturnsthesameanswersoverandover.Whatshouldbeasearchforexcellenceandthebestsolutioneventuallyturnsintoa“goodenough”mentality.Wemuststrivetokeepthingsfreshsowecanrelyonandenhanceourinstinctsinsteadoffallingintomentalruts.GeneralElectric’sJackWelchoncesenttheseniormanagerofanunderperformingGEsectoronamonth’svacationsohecouldcomebackand“actasthoughyouhadn’tbeenrunningitforfouryears.”Manycompaniesregularlyrotatemanagersorhaveprogramswheretopexecutivesdropinonotherareassoproblemscanbeseenthroughfresheyes.Ifwedon’tstaysharp,theedgesbegintoblur,andsubtledifferencesfallthroughthecracks,differencesthatcanbecriticallyimportantatdecisivemoments.Endgameplayistypicallyseenasbinary:goodorbad,withlittleroomforstyle.Butthebestendgame

playersfindinspirationinthedetails,intheprecisionittakestocompleteasuccessfulmoveatatimewhenthefieldofbattlepresentsfewoptions.Cautious,patient,andcalculatingplayersexcelintheendgame.PetrosianandKarpov,forexample,werebetterinthisphaseofthegamethanSpasskyandI.Attackerswhothriveonthedynamismofthemiddlegameandthecreativeaspectsoftheopeningoftenfindanaturalenemyinthesterileendgame.

EliminatingPhaseBias

Ofcoursethebestplayersinhistoryhadtoexcelateveryphaseofthegametoreachthetop.Thereis,however,stillroomtoshineincertainareas.Ifreelyconfessthatmyendgameprowessfellshortofmymiddle-gameskillsandmyopeningplay.Karpovwasstrongerinthemiddleandfinalphasesthanhewasintheopening,althoughhecompensatedbyworkingwithwell-chosencoaches.VladimirKramnik,whotookmytitlein2000,hasexcellentopeningpreparation,andheshinesinthe

endgameaswell.Inthedynamicmiddlegame,butonlyrelativetohisplayintheopeningandtheendgame,thequalityofhisplaylacksconsistency.It’sagoodexercisetobreakdownyourownskillsandperformancesthisway.Whatareyourstrong

points?Creativepreparation?Fluidaction?Calculatingdetails?Doyoushyawayfromanyoftheseareas?Manyplayersdependtooheavilyonatalentforoneareaoranother,whichlimitstheirgrowthandtheirsuccess.Atenableendgameisbetterthananinferiormiddlegame,butifyoudon’tlikequietpositions,youmaynotrealizethisuntilitistoolate.Youmustworktodiscoverandeliminatetheweakerpartsofyourgame.Formethishasalwaysmeantcontrollingmydesireforactionandstoppingtoconsiderwhenitmight

becounterproductive.Myloveofdynamiccomplicationsoftenledmetoavoidsimplicitywhenperhapsitwasthewisestchoice.Thisinclinationwasstronginmeevenawayfromthechessboard,wheremyinstinctswereusuallycorrect.Myyearsworkingtoovercomethistendencyinmychesshashelpedmeinmytransitiontopolitics.Iamquickertorealizewhenit’stimetostopattackingandtobeginmaneuveringandnegotiating.

Don’tBringaKnifetoaGunfight

Onephaseoftenchangestoanotherinvisibly—andsometimeschangesbackwithaslittlenotice.Whatis

importantistonotmakeassumptionsaboutapositionthatdependtoomuchonthecharacteristicsofasinglephase.Whatworkstoyourbenefitinthemiddlegamemayhurtyouintheendgame.Andanacutesenseoftimingisessential.I’veseenmanyexamplesofoneplayerrelaxingintoatechnicalendgameonlytofindthathisopponentisstillinthecreativemiddlegame.Intheeleventhroundofthe2002ChessOlympiadinSlovenia,Ihadtheblackpiecesagainstthetop

Germanplayer,ChristopherLutz.Thegameslowlysimplifiedintoapositionwithoutqueensandonlythreepiecesperplayer.Lutzbroughthisknightstothefarsideoftheboardwheretheybecametangledupinseekingrelativelyinsignificantgains.Inanendgamethislossoftimewouldn’tbeamajorfactor.Butwithhispiecesontheothersideoftheboard,Isawachancetomountanattackonhisking.EvenafteritwasclearwhatIwastryingtodo,Lutzunderestimatedthedanger.Hewasalreadyin

endgamemodeandwasn’tabletoswitchbackintoadynamicmiddle-gamementalitytoreacttothethreat.Mysmallarmysooncorneredhiskingandforcedhimtoresign.Misunderstandingthenatureofthepositionandplaying“inthewrongphase”asLutzdidcanhappenatothertransitionpointsaswell.Underestimatingdynamicfactorsalsohappensintheearlystagesofplay.Evenawell-preparedplayer

candelaythinkingcriticallyintheearlymiddlegame.Routinemovesmightpassintheopening,buttheycanleadtounpleasantsurprisesifyouropponentispayingattentiontomoreaggressivelinesthanyouare.Thatis,ifheisalreadyplayingthemiddlegamewhileyou’restillinanopeningmind-set.Theseerrorsintransitionoccurineveryareathatinvolvesplanningandstrategy.Nomatterwhat

pursuitasmartplannerisengagedin,hetakesallthreephasesintoaccountthroughout.Whatsortofmiddlegameishisopeninggoingtoleadto?Isitoneheispreparedfor?Doeshehaveexperiencewiththistypeofnegotiationorbattleorjoborproject?Ifso,howdidthephasesofthe“game”evolve?Austria’sRudolfSpielmannwrotewemust“playtheopeninglikeabook,themiddlegamelikea

magician,andtheendgamelikeamachine.”Yourgoalshouldbenotjusttoperformwellineachphasebuttomakethetransitionsseamless.Wemustnowtaketheresultsofallthisstudyandevaluationandtransformitintoaction.

CHAPTER10

THEATTACKER’SADVANTAGE

Evenabulletfearsthebrave.—RUSSIANSAYING

FlexingYourIntuitionLeadstoStrongDecision-Making

Intuitionandinstinctformthebedrockofourdecision-making,especiallytherapid-firedecisionsthatmakeupourdailylives.Wedon’thavetoanalyzewhyweturnlefthereandrightthereonthewaytowork,wejustdoit.Achessplayercanspotasimplecheckmateinthreemoveswithouthesitationevenifhe’sneverseenthatexactpositionbeforeinhislife.Wedependonthesepatternsthewaywedependonourautonomicsystemstokeepusbreathing.Wearenotlikewhales,whichhavetothinkabouteverybreath.Youwouldn’twanttoconsidereverydecisionyoumake,andsoyourelyonpatternsgleanedfrom

experience.Theseareessentialshortcutsandhavenodrawbacksaslongastheyareconfinedtothebasicfunctions.Problemsarisewhenwebegintorelyonpatternsformoresophisticateddecisionsinourlives.Thisstiflescreativityandleadstoa“onesizefitsall”approachtodecision-makingaswetrytoforcethesamepatternsandsolutionsontoeveryproblemweface.Withthesheerquantityofdecisionswemakeeveryday,evensmallimprovementsandadaptationsin

ourprocessesmakeahugecumulativedifference.It’slikemakingatinyenhancementinanassemblylinethatshavesafewprecioussecondsofftheproductionofeachcar.Bigbranchesinthedecisiontreerequireextracaution.Thesearetheforksintheroadthatleaveus

withnowayback.Itisanoldchessmaximthat“pawnscan’tmovebackward,”whichismorethanasimplestatementoftheobvious.IfIputmybishoponabadsquare,Icanlaterchangemymindandmoveitback,andthesamegoesforanyotherpiece.Butpawnscanonlymoveinonedirection,forward.Weoftentalkabout“committalmoves,”usuallycapturesorothermovesthatchangethepositionirrevocably.Everypawnmoveisofthissortandmustthereforebeconsideredmorecarefully.Life’srulesaren’tasclearasthoseofchess;wecan’talwaysknowwhenadecisionwillleadto

irreversibleconsequences.Aswithdetectingacrisis,sometimesitisobviousandatothertimesyouhavetogooninstinct.Itisalwaysvaluabletoaskourselvesifwewillbeabletoreversecourseifourdecisionturnsoutpoorly.Whatwillouralternativesbeifthingsgowrong?Isthereasatisfactoryalternativecoursewherewecankeepouroptionsopenlonger?Thismentalityrequiresustoovercomethedesiretoreleasethetension.Manybaddecisionscome

fromwantingtojustgettheprocessovertoescapethepressureofhavingtomakethedecision.Thisistheworsttypeofhaste,anunforcederror.Resistit!Ifthereisnobenefittomakingthedecisionatthemomentandnopenaltyindelayingit,usethattimetoimproveyourevaluation,togathermoreinformation,andtoexamineotheroptions.AsMargaretThatcherputit,“I’velearnedonethinginpolitics.Youdon’tmakeadecisionuntilyouhaveto.”Asever,mypersonalpreferenceistoerronthesideofintuitionandoptimism.Decisionsderivedfrom

positivethinkingmaynotbeanymoreaccuratethanconservativedecisions,butwedefinitelylearnmorefromourmistakes.Overtimeourdecisionswillbecomemoreaccurateasweexerciseandhoneourintuition.Mostofusarehappierwhendoing,whenfulfillingthehumanneedtopushboundaries.AsF.ScottFitzgeraldwrote,“Vitalityshowsnotonlyintheabilitytopersist,butintheabilitytostartover.”Ifweerrandmustbeginagain,wemust.Thisvitalityisn’tonlyaboutqualityoflife;stayingmotivatedandinvolvedindecision-makingisonekeytoimprovingit.Oneofthebestwaystodothisistotaketheinitiative,whichputspositivepressureonyouwhilechallengingyourcompetition.Iliketosaythattheattackeralwayshastheadvantage.

TheAggressionDoubleStandard

IreceivedsomeunusualwordsofwisdomwhenattheageofseventeenIwasawardedmyfirstspotonthemightySovietChessOlympiadteam.WehadtraveledtoMaltaforatournamentwiththeHungariansandwerespendingtwodaysinRomeonthewayback.Myteammateswereatleasttwicemyageonaverage,sowehadverydifferentagendasonourfreedays.Whiletheotherstooktheopportunitytodosomesightseeing,includingatriptotheVatican,IwenttoseeTheEmpireStrikesBack,whichIwouldneverhavebeenabletoseeintheUSSR.Ican’tsaywhatspiritualguidancemycompatriotsreceivedattheVatican,butthereinthetheater,IwasbeingcounseledbyYoda,ashewarnedLukeSkywalkerthat“anger,fear,aggression;thedarksideoftheForcearethey.”Iwasperplexed.Inallhonesty,atseventeenIcompletelysympathizedwithLuke’simpatiencewithsuchapassiveoutlook.Didn’thehavetogoafterDarthVaderandprotecthisfriends?Whatwassobadaboutaggression?AsIgotolderandrosethroughthechessranks,Irealizedthatapersistentdoublestandardwasat

work.Inpoliticalandsociallife,thepersonwhomountsadecisiveattackisabadguy,ablackhat—exceptwhenhe’snot.WepraiseaCEO’smanagementstyleasaggressive,buttheaverageemployeecouldbefiredforbeing“aggressive.”Insomefieldsevenambitionisviewedwithsuspicion.Anyonewhoobviouslywantstogetaheadcanbecriticizedfortryingtodrawattentiontohimself.Evenworse,theyareaccusedofnotbeing“ateamplayer.”Atthesametime,chessmagazinescelebratedmy“aggressivechess”andmy“violentattacks,”inthesamewaythatsportsfanspraisetheaggressiveattackersontheirfavoriteteams.Suchtermsareprovidedspecial,almostalwayspositive,meaningintheworldofgamingandsport.Wewant“aggressiveattackers”onourfavoriteteamsevenifwedon’twantthemtomoveintoourneighborhood.Orintothestatehouse.

AsI’vementioned,manypeople—oldfriendsandperfectstrangersalike—questionedmyabilitytomoveintopolitics.Citingmyaggressivestyleofplayingchess,theywouldask,ifattackersareborn,notmade,howcouldIchangemystripesandsucceedinanenvironmentinwhichattackingisnotonlyineffectivebutcangetyouintorealtrouble?OfcourseIknewthatIhadtheabilitytoadapttoanewenvironment.Anyonewhoreallycaresaboutsomethingcandothat.ButintruthIthinkaggressivenessisasmuchofanassetinpolitics,business,andotherwalksoflifeasitisinchess.Puttinglimitsonourambition—and,yes,ouraggressiveness—putslimitsonourachievement.Peoplewhohaveanaggressivephilosophyabouttheirworkalsotendtobeaggressivewiththeirself-criticism.MyconcernisnotaboutwhetherI’mbeinganiceguy;it’swhetherI’mconstantlychallengingmyself,myenvironment,andthosearoundme.Itistheoppositeofmoralandphysicalcomplacency.

TheInitiativeRarelyRingsTwice

Tobesure,theplatitudesaboutwinningbeingthe“onlything”areasbanalastheonesaboutwinningnotbeingimportantatall.WhathasalwaysconcernedmeasacompetitorishowtodevelopmyownsystemofcontrolledaggressionthatwouldmakemebetteratwhatIdo—whetherit’spoliticsorchess.Aggressioninthiscontextmeansdynamism,innovation,improvement,courage,risk,andawillingnesstotakeaction.Forme,thefirstessentiallessonwaslearninghowtounbalancethesituationandtaketheinitiative.You’vegottobangafewrockstogethertocreatefire.Whenit’syourmoveandyouarecreatingtheactioninsteadofreactingtoyouropponent’sactions,you

controltheflowofthegame.Inreacting,youropponent’smovesbecomemorelimitedandthusmorepredictable.Fromtheleadpositionyoucanseefartheraheadandcontinuetocontroltheaction.Aslongasyougeneratethreatsandpressure,youmaintaintheinitiative.Inchessthiseventuallyleadstoanattackthatcannotbeparried.Inbusinessitleadstogreatermarketshare.Innegotiationsitleadstoabetterdeal.Inpoliticsitleadstoariseinthepolls.Inallsuchcases,whenvictoryisimminent,theaggressorimprovesthequalityofhismaterialandalsogainsthelusterofimprovedstatus—benefitsthatarebothtangibleandintangible.Thisistheattacker’sadvantage.Butit’snotenoughtosimplyattack.Onceyou’veseizedtheinitiative,youmustexploitandfeedit

constantly,whetherbymountinganall-or-nothing,lightning-quickattackorbytakingtheBorisSpasskyapproachofsqueezinggradually.AsSteinitzremindedus,theplayerwiththeadvantageisobligedtoattackorhewillsurelylosehisadvantage.Agreatattackergetsthegreatestpossibleadvantageoutofapositionwithoutoversteppingandtryingtoachievemorethanwhatispossible.Betruetoyourownstyle,butonlywithinthecontextofplayasitexistsonthechessboard.Alargepartofusingtheinitiativeismobility,flexibility,anddiversion.Theoddsareagainstyour

winningagameagainstastrongplayerifyouhaveonlyasinglepointofattack.Thinkofitinmilitaryterms:stationingallthemeninallthedivisionsofyourarmytoattackonespotwillleaveyouterriblyexposedwhenyoubecomethedefender.ThisiswhattheAlliesknewwhentheypreparedforthefamousD-dayattack,OperationOverlord,whichwasthelargestseaborneinvasioninhistory.Theydevelopednumerousdiversionarytactics—includingaPotemkin-styledummyunit,completewithstagesetsandfakeequipment—tokeeptheNazistooconfusedabouttheirpositionandtheirintentionstopreparedefenses.Likewise,youshouldemploywhatchessplayerscallthe“principleoftwoweaknesses.”Insteadof

becomingfixatedononespot,keepthepressureon—keeptakingtheinitiative—soyoucancreatemultipleweakspotsinyouropponent’sposition.Oneweaknessaloneisrarelyenoughtocausedefeat.Theopponentofanaggressiveplayerislikelytobecomenervousanddistractedfromhisgame.No

matterhowsecurehispositionappearstobe,hewillfocusonthepossibilityoflosingmaterial,andonthelikelihoodofdefeat.Andthiswillinevitablyleadhimtochangesinhisapproachandhisthinking—changesthatyou,theaggressor,canexploit.ThisisthedynamicthatNimzowitschhadinmindwhenhewrote,“Thethreatisstrongerthantheexecution.”Anattackdoesn’tevenhavetocometofruitiontohaveadevastatingeffectontheenemy’sposition.Ifyouropponenthastolosetimerushingtodefendonearea,itmayleadtoanopportunitytowinelsewhere.PriortoD-day,AllieddoubleagentsledtheNazistobelievethemainattackwascomingatPas-de-Calais,whichcausedHitlertosendRommelandhiseliteforceswellawayfromtheactualinvasionsite.Nimzowitsch’sfamousphraseisalsoaboutperception,somethingakintotheoldWallStreetline“Buy

therumor,sellthenews.”Anticipationofsomething’shappeningcanbemorepowerfulthantheeventitselfor,putanotherway,isinseparablefromtheeventitself.

AnAttackerbyChoice

AsIlookbackonmycareer,I’mfascinatedtoseesomanyparallelsbetweenmydevelopmentasachessplayerandmydevelopmentasaperson.AlthoughbyanydefinitionIplayedanaggressive,attackinggameofchessthroughoutmycareer,mygamesbecame,overtime,moresolidandlessspeculative.Inmythirties,afteradecadeasworldchampion,Iwaslesslikelytoembarkonanuncertainassaultandmorelikelytobepatientandwaitforjusttherightmomenttoattackinsteadofrushingahead.It’shardtoknowhowmuchIwasbeingaffectedbythegeneralconservatismthatoftencomeswithage,butIthinktherewasmoreatworkherethanthat.BecauseIwasn’tonlyplayingdifferently—Iwasplayingbetter.Iwasplayingwithrealexperience,andIhadlearnedthatdefensefollowedbyawell-timedcounterattackagainstanoveraggressiveopponentcouldbemoreeffectivethanalwaystryingtomeetfirewithfire.InolongerfeltIhadtoprovesomethingineverygamebylaunchingablitzkrieg.Iwastakingamore

professionalapproach:Iwastheretowin,notmakeastatement.ThepeoplewhoareclosesttometellmethattheyseethesamethingatworkinthewayIcametodeal,laterinlife,withthemediaandinmybusinessaffairs.ThetwokeyeventswerethebreakwithFIDEin1993andthecollapseoftheProfessionalChessAssociationIstarted,whichcombinedreallytookthewindfrommysails,makingmemorecircumspect.TheFIDEbreakcoincidedwiththepainfuldissolutionofmyfirstmarriageandmyseparationfrommywifeandmydaughterPolina.Stabilitybothontheboardandinmyprivatelifereturnedinthesecondhalfofthe1990s.Owen

Williamsjoinedmeasmyfull-timebusinessagent,andIhadstartedanewfamilythatincludedaninfantson,Vadim.In1999,IlaunchedanInternetcompanybearingmyname,whichliterallyturnedmeintoaglobalbrand.Italsoforcedmetobecomeawareofthebroader,long-termeffectsthatthesefamilyandbusinessdecisionswouldhave.SuddenlyitbecamecleartomethatIcouldnolongerpretendIwastherebelfightingtheestablishment;inmanyways,Ihadbecometheestablishment.AndintruthIfounditsometimesdifficulttomaintainthecombativeedgenecessarytostayontop.Inresponse,Ispentsometimereviewingmyevolutionasachessplayer,lookingbackatoldgamesanddrillingdowntounderstandhowIhadachievedmysuccessesand,evenmore,howIcouldtakethelessonsofthosesuccesses—and,yes,failures—soIcouldremaintruetothefundamentalsinmynewcareerinpolitics.AndwhatInowseeisthatdespitetheserecenttransformations,mybestresultsbothonandoffthe

boardalwayswereandcontinuetobetheproductofanattacker’smind-set.Thedifferenceisthatwhatcamenaturallytomeattwenty-twooftenrequiredmoreconsciousdecision-makingatmycurrentforty-three.Greaterknowledgecarriestheburdenofadditionalthingstoconsider,andthatopensthedoorfordoubttocreepin.Overthinkingnumbsourinstinctsandturnswhatshouldbeaquickdecisionintoamentalcommitteemeeting.ThelastthingIcannowaffordistofindmyselfsittingatthechessboard,orinabusinessmeeting,wondering,“WhatwouldtheyoungGarryKasparovdo?”IusedtoattackbecauseitwastheonlythingIknew.NowIattackbecauseIknowitworksbest.Asa

politicianIknowthatthereisalwaysatimeandplacefordiplomacy,butIalsoknowthatyouwinmoreoftenwhenyounegotiatefromapositionofstrength.Andsometimesthatmeansplayingtheaggressor.

Whatyoucandoorthinkyoucando,beginit.Forboldnesshasmagic,power,andgeniusinit.

—GOETHE

Theaggressivementalityinvolvedinsuccessfulattackingrequiresareadinesstoupsetthestatusquo,

evenapassionfordoingso.Itmeansabandoningthemorecomfortablewait-and-seeapproachofthedefensivepositionandpushingintotheunknown.

Defending,bycontrast,requiresthatwemarshalourresourcesinaconstantattempttominimizeourexposuretoattack.Becauseheonlyhastoensurethathisweaknessesareprotected,thedefenderhasfeweranglestocover.Butasthepaceoftheworldaccelerates,theadvantageissteadilymovingtowardtheattackingside.Inthemilitaryrealm,theartofdefenseisnearlyobsoletetoday.Theadventofheavymobilearmor

ensuredthatWorldWarIwouldbethelaststagnantwarofattrition.AtthestartofWorldWarII,GermantanksblitzkriegedacrossEurope,oftentakingmoreterritoryinasingledaythantheGermanarmyhadcapturedinmonthstwenty-fiveyearsearlier.Todaywehavelaser-guidedbombsthatcandestroyacementbunkerahundredmetersunderground.Staticdefenseisdead.Today’swarfareisabouthittingfirstandhittinghard.Wecanseethistrendmirroredacrosstherestofsociety.Withthingsmovingsoquickly,apassive

approachtoinvestingandcorporatestrategyisasobsoleteassiegefortressesandtrenchwarfare.Ifyoudon’tstayaggressivelyinfront,youwillquicklybeleftbehind.Examplesabound,butweseethisparticularlyinthefieldoftechnology.DoesthenameAltaVistaringabell?Itwasoneofthemanysearchenginesthatwaspushedtothemarginsduringthebrowserwars,firstbyYahoo!andthenbytheGooglejuggernaut.BythetimeGoogleovertookit,Yahoo!hadsurgedaheadofthecurveenoughtodiversifyitsbusinessintocontentareassuchasnewsandentertainmentandservicessuchasfreee-mail.AltaVistaandothersearchenginessuchasLycosandHotBotdidn’tandsoweresubsumedbytheirattackers.Bycontrast,whenApplereplacedtheiPodmini,oneofthemostpopularelectronicproductsinhistory,

withthenano,theywereacknowledgingthatsuccessintoday’smarketplacebelongstotheattacker.Appledidn’twaitaroundforitssalestosloworforanothercompanytoenterthemarketandtakeabiteoutofitsmargins.Theysteppedrightovertheirownproduct,releasedanewone,andevensucceededinpersuadingmillionsofusersthatthenanowasbetterthantheiPodthey’djustbought.Bycontrast,aswesawearlier,MicrosoftwaitedtwoyearstobeginworkonanewExplorerbrowser,onlymakingtheeffortwhentheirmarketsharehadalreadystartedtofallsignificantly.

TheTransitionfromImitatortoInnovator

Thelessvisiblebutevenmorevitalreasontoinvestinresearchandinnovationisthatyouhavetostayonthecuttingedgeifyouaregoingtomakeabigimpact.Youcan’tsuddenlyswitchfromfollowertoleaderbecauseonlytheleadercanseewhat’scomingaroundthebend.Eventhemostsuccessfulimitatorseventuallybecomeinnovatorsiftheywanttoexpandtheirterritoryandbecomemoresuccessful.Thosewhofailtomakethistransitionareusuallysupplantedbyotherimitators.Asriskyasinnovationcanbe(oneofmyfavoritesayingsis“Pioneersgetfilledfullofarrows”),failingtoinnovateisriskierstill.Thetransitionfromimitatortoinnovatorisseenineveryaspectofsociety.Inchess,ayoungplayercan

advancebyimitatingthetopGrand-masters,buttochallengethemhemustproducehisownideas.JapanesegoodswereformanyyearsreviledbyAmericansascheap,poorlymadeknockoffsofU.S.andEuropeanproducts.Thefloodofinexpensiveimportsandimitationsintothemarketrapidlycreatedanenormousshiftintheconsumerelectronicsindustry.Unabletoadaptquicklyenough,mostAmericanmanufacturerssoonabandonedthemarketorwentoutofbusinessentirely.TheJapaneseweresoonfacedwiththeneedtoproducehigher-endmodelswiththenewfeaturesconsumerswanted.Itdidn’ttakelongforimitatorstogivetheJapanesecompaniesatasteoftheirownmedicine.KoreaandTaiwanwerequick

tomoveintothelower-endmarketastheJapanesecompaniesspentmoremoneyonresearchanddevelopment.TheJapanesebecameinnovators.JustlikeDarwinisminnature,innovationisquiteliterallyaboutsurvival.Wehavetokeepevolving,andthatmeansstayingaggressiveinsteadofstandingstill.

TheWilltoAttack

AsTartakowersaid,“Thefirstessentialforanattackisthewilltoattack.”Allofourplanningandevaluationskillsareacademiciftheyaren’tcombinedwiththenervetoemploythemandtostrikewhentheopportunityarises.Ifyou’realreadyinafight,youwantthefirstblowtobethelastandyouhadbetterbetheonetothrowit.Attackingrequiresperfecttimingaswellasnerve.Knowingtherighttimetoattackisasmuchanartas

ascience,andevenforthebestit’softenguesswork.Thewindowofopportunityisusuallysmall.Noneonsignappearstoannouncethatabigopportunityisrightaroundthecorner.Mostofall,detectingopportunitiesrequireslettinggoofassumptionsofallkinds.Thisisespeciallytrueinquietpositions,thoseperiodsofstabilitythatseemunlikelytoproduceattackingchances.Weareoftenremindednevertounderestimateouropponents,butoverestimatingthemalsoleadstomissedopportunities.Ifyoukeepanopenmindandconsideranaggressiveoptionfirstineverysituation,youwon’tmissthosechances.Assumeitistherighttimetostrike!Pushingtheactiongivesusmoreoptionsandagreaterabilitytocontrolourfate,whichcreatespositive

energyandconfidence.Thisenergywecreateisnosmallthing.Taloncesaidthatperhapstheworstmoveofhislifewasonehedidn’tmake,aspeculativesacrificeheponderedforfortyminutesbeforeuncharacteristicallydeclining.Attackersmaysometimesregretbadmoves,butitismuchworsetoforeverregretanopportunityyouallowedtopassyouby.

partthree

CHAPTER11

QUESTIONSUCCESS

SuccessIstheEnemyofFutureSuccess

OnNovember9,1985,Iachievedthegreatgoalofmyyounglife:Ibecametheworldchampionofchess.DuringthecelebrationafterwardIwastakenasidebyRonaPetrosian,thewifeoftheformerworldchampion.“Ifeelsorryforyou,”shesaid.“Thegreatestdayofyourlifeisover.”Whatathingtosayatavictoryparty!Butthosewordsresonatedinmyheadinthemanyyearsthatfollowed,andnow,afteralifetimeasa

competitor,Iknowfirsthandthatoneofthemostdangerousenemiesyoucanfaceiscomplacency.I’veseen—bothinmyselfandmycompetitors—howsatisfactioncanleadtoalackofvigilance,thentomistakesandmissedopportunities.Successandsatisfactionmaybeourgoals,buttheycanalsoleadtobadhabitsthatwillimpedegreatersuccessandsatisfaction.

TheGravityofPastSuccess

AfterthathugeearlyvictoryIspentthenextfifteenyearsinaconstantbattletoaugmentmystrengthsandeliminatemyweaknesses.IbecameconvincedthatifIworkedunrelentinglyanddiligentlyandplayedtothebestofmyability,noonecoulddefeatme.AndIbelievedthatuntilthedayIretiredinMarch2005.How,then,canIexplainmylosstomycountrymanKramnikinour2000worldchampionshipmatch?Inchapter2welookedathissuccesspurelyatthechesslevel,byanalyzinghowhesucceededinselectingandcontrollingthebattlefieldforourcontest.Thestrategicfailureonmyparthaddeeperorigins,however.Ingreatpartmyownsuccesshadmadeitdifficult,ifnotimpossible,formetoseewhatwasgoingon

inthechampionshiptournamentagainstKramnik.InthetwoyearspriortotheOctober2000match,Ihadbeenplayingsomeofthebestchessofmylife,refutingthecriticswhohadpredictedtheendofmyreignatthetop.Theykeptcitingmyadvancedage;atthirty-fiveIwasalreadyadecadeolderthanmostofmyopponents.ButIkeptwinning.In1999Ipushedmyrecordratingtonewheightsandwasinthemiddleofa“grandslam”tournamentwinningstreakwhenIstartedpreparationsfortheworldchampionshipmatch.IfeltasthoughIcouldmovemountainsatthechessboard.SohowdidKramnik’sinfuriatingBerlinDefensestopmeinmytracks?Ironically,myyearsofsuccesshadmademevulnerable.Oneofthestrongestpointsofmygamehad

alwaysbeenmyabilitytoadaptandmeetnewchallenges,andKramnikusedthatstrategyagainstme.Despitemydiscomfortinthepositionsheledmeinto,IkeptinsistingtomyselfthatIcouldadjustasthematchplayedoutandthatIhadenoughtimetorecoverandwin.Inmyfirstworldchampionshipmatch,withKarpovin1984–85,therehadbeennolimittothenumberofgameswewouldplay,andIwasabletoadapt,altermystrategy,andrecoverthelead.Butinamatchofjustsixteengamestherejustwasn’tenoughtime.

Ihadbeenoutpreparedbymyyoungopponent,andIwassostunnedthatIwasincapableofevenacknowledgingthatIwasinserioustrouble.Whentherealizationfinallyhitme,itwasalreadylateintheshortmatchandIwentfromfeelingsureIwouldrecovertobelievingitwasimpossible.Iputupalittlefighttowardtheend,butitwasn’tenough.Iendedthefifteen-gamematchwithtwolossesandnotasinglewin.IlostbecauseIwasoverconfidentandcomplacent.Evenwhileitwashappening,itwasdifficultfor

metocreditmyonetimestudentwithpossessingthetalenttooutfoxme.NordiditeveroccurtomethatKramnikcould—orwould—preparebetterthanIhad.Ihadalsoneglectedtoconsiderthathehadbeenoneofmyassistantsinmy1995worldchampionshipmatchagainstAnand.Heknewallmyhabitsandallmytactics.Insteadofdevisingastrategytousethatknowledgeagainsthim,Iignoredit.Andflushwithpastsuccess,Icouldn’tconceivetherewereanyseriousweaknessesinmygame.ThisiswhatIcallthegravityofpastsuccess.Winningcreatestheillusionthateverythingisfine.We

thinkonlyofthepositiveresultwithoutconsideringallthethingsthatwentwrong—orthatcouldhavegonewrong—alongtheway.Afteravictorywewanttocelebrate,notanalyze.Wereplaythetriumphantmomentinourminduntilitlooksasthoughitwereinevitable.Mostofusareguiltyofthesamebadhabitinourday-to-daylives.Myadvice?Theoldsaying“Ifit

ain’tbroke,don’tfixit”shouldbelefttotheplumbingtradeandneverappliedtohowweleadourlivesathomeandatwork.Questionthestatusquoatalltimes,especiallywhenthingsaregoingwell.Whensomethinggoeswrong,younaturallywanttodoitbetterthenexttime,butyoumusttrainyourselftowanttodoitbetterevenwhenthingsgoright.Failingtodothisleadstostagnationandeventualbreakdown.Forme,itledtoacrushingdefeat.

CompetitionandAnticomplacencyTactics

Failureduetocomplacencyexistsineveryenterprise.Incompetitiveenvironmentssuchasthemilitaryandthecorporateworld,italmostalwaysspringsfromdoing“businessasusual”whilethecompetitioniscatchingupandsurpassingus.Theconsequencesofrestingonreputationandoutdatedexperiencecanbedire.In1919,duringtheRussiancivilwar,MarshalKlimentVoroshilov—afavoriteofStalin’s—routedthe

WhiteGuardwithaswarmofmassedcavalryunits.Intheyearsbeforemechanizedwarfare,itworkedbrilliantly.ButwhentheGermansinvadedin1941,theRedArmyveteransleadingtheSoviettroopsfoolishlystillbelievedthathorseswereparamount.WhentheNaziarmoreddivisionsrolledin,themountedRedArmywascompletelyineffectual,andHitler’stanksencircledLeningrad.Horseswerenomatchfortanksandartillery.Americancarcompaniesintheseventieswerenomatch

fornewJapaneseproductionandmanagementtechniques.Constantreinventionisanecessityinfast-movingareassuchasmanufacturingandtechnology.Sohowdoweinspireourselvestokeeppushingforbetterresults?Competitionisoneinspiringway.

Afterall,whorunsaracewantingtocomeinsecond?Whogrowsupwantingtobethevicepresident?Whositsdownatachessboardreadytorelinquishhisking?Athletesoftentalkaboutfindingmotivationinthedesiretomeettheirownchallengesandplaytheirownbestgame,withoutworryingabouttheiropponents.Thoughthereissometruthtothis,Ifinditalittledisingenuous.Whileeveryonehasauniquewaytogetmotivatedandstaythatway,allathletesthriveoncompetition,andthatmeansbeatingsomeoneelse,notjustsettingapersonalbest.AsktheOlympicrunnerwhobreakshispersonalrecord,oreventheworldrecord,andfinishesaclosesecondhowgoodhefeels.Wedon’tneedtowonderifhewouldtrade

atenthofasecondforagoldmedalinsteadofsilver.Weallworkharder,runfaster,whenweknowsomeoneisrightonourheels.Someofmybest

performancescameintheheatofclosecompetition.Justasracingdogsgomuchfasteraftera“rabbit,”wepushourselvestogreaterexertionsifwehaveacompetitormatchingusstrideforstridetothefinishline.Therecanbenofinerexampleoftheinspiringpowersofcompetitiontoshatterthestatusquothan

Hungary’sJuditPolgar.Polgar,theonlywomanamongthetopseveralhundredplayersontheinternationalratinglist,gainedfameforhersparklingattackingchess.If,basedonPolgar’sgames,to“playlikeagirl”meantanythinginchess,itwouldmeanrelentlessaggression.Polgarfirstcameontheinternationalsceneattheageoften,andattwelvewaswinningopeninternationaltournaments.In1991shebrokeBobbyFischer’sthirty-year-oldrecordtobecometheyoungestGrandmastereverattheageoffifteen.(Thatrecordhassincebecomeapopulartargetand,thankstotheproliferationoftheoncerareGMtitle,hasbeenbrokenmanytimes.ItisnowheldbyUkraine’sSergeyKarjakin,whoin2002becameaGMattwelveyears,sevenmonths.)Alongwithhertwochess-playingoldersisters,SusanandSofia,Polgarwashomeschooledbyher

father,Lazlo,whohadatheorythat“geniusescanbecreated.”Theexperimentalcurriculumhedevisedforthegirlsfocusedonchess,andit’shardtoarguewiththeresults.Theissueofnatureversusnurturehasalwaysbeenahottopicinchess.IsupposethatsincethePolgarsaresisterstheydon’tresolvethedebateeitherway,buttheirupbringinganddevelopmentcertainlymakeagoodcasefornurture.Enclaveswherewomen’schesswastraditionalhadproducedsomestrongplayers,butformostofthe

game’shistorythefewwomenwhoplayedchesscompetentlywereregardedascuriosities.TheformerSovietrepublicofGeorgiaboastedNonaGaprindashviliandMaiaChiburdanidze,twoofthefirstwomentomakeinroadsintotheinternationalchessworldinthesixtiesandseventies.Likemostwomenplayerstheylimitedtheirgrowthbyconcentratingonwomen-onlyevents,especiallyinthecriticalearlyyearsoftheirdevelopment.Overtime,everyonehadsimplyacceptedthatthatwasthewayitwas.ThePolgarschangedallthat.Withafewexceptionsforofficialeventssuchasthewomen’sChess

Olympiad—wherethesisterstwicecomposedthefirstthreeboardsofthewinningHungarianteam—theyshunnedwomen-onlyeventsandsoughtoutthetoughestcompetition.Susan,theeldest,waspushedoutintotherough-and-tumbleworldofinternationaltournamentchessasateenagerandbecameoneofthefirstwomentoreceivethe“men’s”Grandmastertitle.Attheageoffourteen,inRome,middlesisterSofiascoredoneoftheastonishingopentournamentresultsonrecord,batteringafieldofGrandmasters.AndafterwinningtheHungariannationalchampionshipin1991attheageoffifteen,Juditsaidshewouldonlyconsiderplayingonthe“men’s”ChessOlympiadteam.WhatcouldtheHungarianfederationsay?ThankstothePolgarstheadjectivemen’sbeforeeventsandthe“affirmativeaction”women’stitlessuchasWomanGrandmasterhavebecomeanachronisms(thoughtheyarestillinuse).Byseekingoutandoftenbestingthetoughestcompetition,thePol-garsshowedthatthereareno

inherentlimitationstotheiraptitude—anideathatmanymaleplayersrefusedtoacceptuntiltheyhadunceremoniouslybeencrushedbyatwelve-year-oldwithaponytail.In2005,Juditreturnedtochessaftertakingayearofftohaveachild.Herfirstengagementafterherreturnwasatoughone,theCorussupertournamentintheNetherlands,andshefinishedwithapositivescoreandgainedratingpoints.OntheOctober2005ratinglist,JuditPolgar,attwenty-nine,wasrankednumbereightintheworld,justfourpointsbehindVladimirKramnik.ItmaywellbethatthePolgarswerepartlypushedtoexcellencebytheirdesiretoprovethatwomen

canbeascapableattheboardasmen.What’smostnotableforourpurposesisthattheybecamebetterplayersthananyotherwomenbyfacingtoughercompetitionthanthosewomen.

ItoowouldhavebeenunabletoreachmypotentialwithoutanemesislikeKarpovbreathingdownmyneckandpushingmeeverystepoftheway.WhenanewgenerationofchessplayersemergedintheninetiesandKarpovceasedtobethemainthreattomydominantposition,Ihadtorefocusandfindnewsourcesofinspiration.SoIdedicatedmyselftofightingbackagainstthenewwaveoftalentedyoungstars,somethingfewworldchampionshadmanagedtodoforlong.WithoutKarpovtofocusmyenergieson,Ibecamemoreheavilyinvolvedwithchesspoliticsand

sponsorshipactivities.Thisperiodalsomarkedmyincreasedinvolvementincomputerchessandotherexhibitions.Notuntil1998,aftermylosstoIBM’scomputerDeepBlue,didIrealizeIhadbecomedistractedfromchess.Irededicatedmyselftoworkingharderthaneveronmygame—andonbeatinghumanopponents.Theresultswereevident,anddespitemymatchlosstoKramnikin2000Iplayedsomeofthebestchessofmylifeintheyears1999–2001.Everygoodplayerhashisorherownmethods.Afterafifty-yearcareer,theamazingViktorKorchnoi

haskepthiscompetitivefiresburningandisstillplayinghigh-levelchesswellintohisseventies.“ViktortheTerrible”hasledadifficultandcolorfullifebothonandofftheboard,defectingfromtheUSSRin1976afteryearsofbattleswiththeSovietauthorities.HebecameevenmoreofathornintheirsideafterhefledtotheWest,firsttotheNetherlandsandthentohiscurrenthomeinSwitzerland.ItbecamedifficultfortheSovietcensorstokeepthedefector’snameoutofthenewswhenhewaswinningsomanytournamentsanddefeatingthetopSovietplayers.ThreetimeshefacedthemuchyoungerKarpovinworldchampionshipcontests,failingeachtimebutcomfortinghimselfwithhisbittersweettitle:StrongestPlayerNevertoBecomeWorldChampion.KorchnoihashadarevengeofsortsbycontinuingtoplaycompetitivechesswhileKarpov—twentyyearsyounger—haslargelyretiredfromtherigorsoftournamentplay.WhenhewastheageatwhichIretired,Korchnoiwasnotyetathispeak!DespitehisimpressivecareerKorchnoihasalwaysbeenabletoplayasifhehassomethingmoreto

prove.Defyingageisnotnearlyenoughforhim;heisnotcontentjusttoturnupandmovethepiecesaround.Korchnoienjoysshowingplayersahalfcenturyhisjuniorthattheystillhavesomethingtolearnfromhim.Atatournamentin2004,KorchnoidefeatedtheNorwegianprodigyGrandmasterMagnusCarlsen,atriumphofaseventy-three-year-oldoverafourteen-year-old.Korchnoihasmaintainedhisdrivebyrefusingtolookbackatwhatwouldbetheglorydaysforjust

aboutanyoneelse.Heisstilldrivenbythegameofchessandbyanearnestdesiretobeathisopponent,notmerelytodohisbest.KorchnoiisaninspirationtomebecauseIalsobelieveit’sessentialtohavebenchmarksinourlivestokeepusalert.Inchessandothersportswehaveratings,opponents,andtournaments,sothingsseemclear,butasI’velefttheprofessionalworldofchess,Iseethatmoreisrequired.Regardlessofthemethodsweusetomotivateourselves,wehavetocreateourowngoalsand

standardsandthenkeepraisingthem.Itcanfeelabitparadoxicaltomusteruptheconfidencethatwearethebestbutstillcompeteasifwewereoutsidersandunderdogs.Butthat’swhatittakes.Itisjustashardtochangeaworkingformula,butanyonewhowantstoexceloveralongcareerwillfinditnecessarytodoboththings:nurtureyourinherentstrengthsbutbenimbleenoughtodevelopnewavenuesofattack.DespitehavingwoneightgoldmedalsoverthreeOlympics,CarlLewisstillwantedmoreattheageofthirty-five.Toqualifyforthe1996OlympicGamesinAtlanta,heembarkedonanentirelynewtrainingprogram,leavingbehindeverythingthathadworkedforhim.Heknewthathisageandinjuriescreatednewchallenges.HewentontowinanothergoldinAtlanta,andhediditbynotbeingafraidtochangewhatworked.

Findingwaystomaintainourconcentrationandmotivationisthekeytofightingcomplacency.Maybeyoudon’thavearatingsystematworkorathomethewayprofessionalchessortennisplayersdo,butthatdoesn’tmeanyoucan’tdevelopone.Whatmetricscanyoucontrivetomeasureyourperformance?Certainlymoneycanbevaluedandeasilymeasured,butitcan’tbetheonlything.Perhapsyoushouldcreateyourown“happinessindex,”whichcanbeassimpleasamentaloractuallistofthingsthatmotivateyouandgiveyoupleasureandsatisfaction.Beforeyoucanfight,youhavetoknowwhatyouarefightingfor.Everyparentsaysheorshewantsto

spendmoretimewithhisorherkids,buthowmanypeopleactuallyknow,downtothehour,howmuchtimetheydospendtogethereachweek,eachmonth?HowmanyhoursatworkdoyouwasteplayingsolitaireorsurfingtheWeb?Whatifyoukepttrackandknewtheanswer?Thenyouwouldhaveatargettopursue.Mostofusneedtodevelopamorehelpfultechniquethanthevaguepromiseofthecliché“Justdoit.”AnticipatingNike’sadagencybytwocenturies,Goethewrote,“Knowingisnotenough;wemustapply.Willingisnotenough;wemustdo.”

InFavorofContradiction

Themotivationtoquestionourmethodscancomefromwithin,oritmaycomefromwithout.Inthebusinessworld,onlyanunusualbosswillhireemployeeswhoapproachthingsdifferentlyandwhowillchallengehisideasandpractices.Ittakesgreatwillpowerandself-confidencetosurroundourselveswithsmart,talentedpeoplewhoweknowwillconfrontus.Nooneenjoysbeingcontradictedor“corrected”—there’saconstantriskoflosingauthorityorcreatingananarchyofmixedmessages.Buttheleaderwhoiswillingtoriskthesethingshasthepotentialforextraordinarysuccess.Thesepeopleareextraordinarybecausetheyhaveovercomethedreadofbeingchallenged,whichis

thesameasthechildishfearofsimplybeingwrong.Thisfearcanbecripplingtoyourdevelopmentandsuccess.I’velearnedfrommyyearsofplayingcompetitivechesstotrustinmyabilitytousetheoppositiontomakemyselfstrongerandtogathermoreinformationabouttheprocessathand.Wheneveryoufeelthreatened,rememberthewordsofEmerson,whowrote,“LetmeneverfallintothevulgarmistakeofdreamingthatIampersecutedwheneverIamcontradicted.”Feudalandcastesystemshavejustaboutdiedoutinmostnationsacrosstheglobe,buttheyarealive

andwellinthechessworld.Nationalandinternationalfederationsestablishclassesandcategoriesbasedonacomplexratingsystemthatallowsplayerstocompeteforprizesagainstopponentswhoareatasimilarlevel.First-categoryplayersaren’tallowedtoparticipateinthesecond-categorycompetitionanymorethanatwenty-year-oldcouldplayintheunder-twelvechampionship.Ofcoursetherearenorestrictionsintheoppositedirection.Anambitiousnoviceisfreetogetkilledinthe“open”sectionwherethehighest-ratedplayerscompete.SonoonecouldcomplainthatitwasunfairwhenIwontheSovietnationalunder-eighteentournamentattheageoftwelve.Ifitischallengesthathelpusimprove,whythen—apartfromprizemoney—doesn’teveryonewantto

playintheopensectionofatournament?There’snodoubtaboutit:you’lllearnmorefromninelossestostrongopponentsthanfromsixwinsandthreelossesagainstplayerswhoareatroughlyyourownlevel.Thesamethingholdstruewithplayerswhodon’tattendtournamentsbutplayagainstchesssoftware.APCprogramatitsmaximumstrengthwillwipeoutanycasualplayerwithoutmercy.Ironically,themaintaskofchesssoftwarecompaniestodayistofindwaystomaketheprogramweaker,notstronger,andtoprovideenoughoptionsthatanyusercanpickfromdifferentlevelsandthemachinewilltrytomakeenoughmistakestogivehimachance.Sohowmuchofachanceshouldyouaskforagainstthemighty

machine?Everypersonhastofindtherightbalancebetweenconfidenceandcorrection,butmyruleofthumbis,

loseasoftenasyoucantakeit.Playingintheopensectionandgoing0-9everytimeisgoingtocrushyourspiritlongbeforeyougetgoodenoughtomakeadecentscore.Unlessyouhaveasuperhumanego,ortotallylackone,aconstantstreamofnegativitywillleaveyoutoodepressedandantagonizedtomakethenecessarychanges.Butasmuchasyouenjoywinning,rememberthatwinningeverytimeisnotideal.Setbacksandlosses

arebothinevitableandessentialifyou’regoingtoimproveandbecomeagood,evengreat,competitor.Theartisinavoidingcatastrophiclossesinthekeybattles.Thissameprinciplealsoappliesintherealworld,where,ifyou’rewellinsulatedbyyoursupportersandstaff,youcanbelievethatyouarerightvirtuallyallofthetime.It’snotonlydictatorsandpharaohswhoarealwaysright.PoliticiansandCEOstendtobothattractandhirelike-mindedstaffersandemployees.Theygainenergybytalkingwiththeiravidsupportersandaccusecriticsofnotbeingsupportive.Whenthingsgowrong,theyassigntheblametoothers.Itisdangerouslyeasytogofromsucceedinginbusinessorpoliticsbecauseyouareoftencorrecttosurroundingyourselfwithotherswhotellyouyouarecorrectbecauseofwhoyouare.

TheDifferenceBetweenBetterandDifferent

Ifyoucanlearntoacceptcriticismandinviteyourpeopletopresentnewinformation—particularlythatwhichmaycontradictanideaorpracticethatyouholddear—youwillquicklylearntoadoptnewandpotentiallypowerfulmethodsintoyourgameplan.Learntoseevalueinothermethodsandtakewhatyouneedfromthemtoimprove—butnotnecessarilyreplace—yourown.

CHAPTER12

THEINNERGAME

TheGameCanBeWonBeforeYouGettotheBoard

SouthAmericanliberatorSimónBolívarsaid,“Onlyaninexperiencedsoldierbelievesthatallislostafterbeingdefeatedforthefirsttime.”IntheweeksandmonthsaftermynemesisVladimirKramniktooktheworldchampionshiptitlefromme,inNovember2000inLondon,IhadplentyoftimetoabsorbexactlywhatKramnikhadachievedandhowhehaddoneit.Ispenthoursidentifyingandanalyzingtheweaknessesofminethathehadexploited,andhoursmorefiguringouthowtoturnthetablesonKramnikandexploithisflaws.Weplayedoveradozengamesafterthatmatch,allofthemdrawsbutone.Thelonevictorywasmine.Thatwincameinthefinalroundofasupertournament,andIhadtowinthatgameifIwastoovertakeKramnikforfirstplace.IronicallyhisopeningwastheverysameBerlinDefensethathadsofrustratedmeintheall-importantLondonmatch.That,alongwiththesubstantialleadIhadmanagedtomaintainintherankings,gavemeasmallbitofconsolation.AllthattimeIhadspentfindingtheholesinmygamepaidoffwithasatisfyingvictoryagainstKramnik,butevenmoreimportant,itwasanessentialpartofmypsychologicalrecuperationafterthelossofmyworldchampionshiptitle.Gettingbackintotheringafterabruisinglossisnevereasy,especiallywhenyouknowthatyouropponenthasbeenemboldenedbyyourperceivedweakness.That’swhyIalwaysthinkofSimónBolívarandrememberthattheexperiencedsoldierwhostudiesthebattlefieldsintheaftermathofthewarreturnswithbothwisdomandrenewedcourage.Fewthingsareaspsychologicallybrutalasseriouschess.Youspendfiveorsixhoursintotal

concentration,atwarwithanothermind.Inthebackgroundisatickingclock.Thereisnowheretohide,andyouhavenoteammatestotosstheballto,norefereestoblame,nodicetorollornewcardstoturnover.Chessisoftencalledaonehundredpercentinformationgame,becausebothplayersknoweverythingthatisgoingonallthetime.Whenyoulose,it’sbecausetheotherplayerbeatyou,plainandsimple.Inthis,chesshasmuchmoreincommonwithboxingthanothersportsorgames.Asmy1993worldchampionshipchallengerNigelShortoncesaidinaninterview,“Chessisruthless:you’vegottobepreparedtokillpeople.”Youcan’toverestimatetheimportanceofpsychologyinchess,andasmuchassomeplayerstryto

downplayit,Ibelievethatwinningrequiresaconstantandstrongpsychologynotjustattheboardbutineveryaspectofyourlife.

TheStormBeforetheCalm

Itbeginswithintensepreparation,whichrequiresthatyoumotivateyourselftoworklong,grueling,lonelyhours.ItoftenfeelslikeaSisypheantask,sinceyouknowthatperhapsonlytenpercentofyouranalysiswilleverseethelightofday.Andthenthegameisimminent,theadrenalineisflowing,andyou’reinabattletocontrolyournervesandfears.Someplayerslosesleeporappetite,somedolast-

minutepreparationandfocusonthegame,whileotherswatchamovieortakeawalktocleartheirhead.IalwaysknewsomethingwaswrongifIwasn’tonedgebeforeagame.Nervousenergyistheammunitionwetakeintoanymentalbattle.Ifyoudon’thaveenoughofit,yourconcentrationwillfade.Ifyouhaveasurplus,theresultscanbeexplosive.SeveraltimesinmycareerIhadanextraordinaryfeelingbeforeagamethatnomatterwhomy

opponentwasorwhathedid,Iwasgoingtotearhimlimbfromlimb.Thishappenedin1993beforemygamewithKarpovintheLinares,Spain,supertournament.EventhoughIwasplayingwiththeslightdisadvantageoftheblackpieces,Iwasbouncingoffthewallsinanticipation.Ihadastrangefeelingthatsomethingphenomenalwasgoingtohappen.MyoldrivalKarpovandIweretiedforfirstplacewithonlyfourroundstoplay.MytrainerSergey

Makarichev,sensinghowoptimisticIwas,boastedbeforethegamethatIwasgoingtowipeKarpovoutthistime.Indeedthatwaswhathappened,althoughnoonecouldhavepredictedthecomedictwistattheconclusion.Aftersacrificingapawnandseizingtheinitiative,Ireachedadominatingposition.MypiecesquicklypushedKarpov’sbackagainstthefirstrank,whichwashighlyunusual.Onmovetwenty-fourIpromotedapawn,announcing,“Queen,”andlookingovertotherefereewiththeimpliedrequestthathedelivermeasecondqueen.ButbeforeIreceivedthereferee’sresponse,Karpovplayedanillegalmove!HeclaimedthatsinceIhadn’tyetactuallyplacedanewqueenontheboard,hecouldchoosewhichpiecemypawnwouldbepromotedto,andthathechoseabishop,amuchweakerpiece.Thelittlefarcewasquicklyresolved.IgotmynewqueenandKarpovresignedthreemoveslater.Thatwinwaspartofafive-gamestretchIconsideroneofthebestseriesoftournamentroundsofmylife:fourwinsandadrawagainsttheworld’stopplayerstoclinchthetournamentvictory.InhindsightIknowthatmuchofthecreditforthatwingoestothedynamicofpsychology.Iwentintothetournamentwithapremonitionofvictory,andthereismuchmoretothatthansimplythepowerofpositivethinking.Creativeandcompetitiveenergyisatangiblething,andifwecanfeelit,socanouropponents.

Don’tGetDistractedWhileTryingtoDistract

Likejustabouteveryoneonearth,realchessplayersfallbetweentheliterarycaricaturesoftheultrarationalJamesBondvillainKronsteenandVladimirNabokov’spsychoticLuzhin.Inmyexperiencemostofthemarebunchedtowardtherationalendofthebellcurve,buttherearenotableexceptions.TheincrediblestoryofViktorKorchnoi’s1978worldchampionshipmatchagainstAnatolyKarpovinthePhilippinesisenoughtomakeanyonewonderifchessplayersmightindeedbecrazy.Tensionsbetweenthetwosideswereatapeakbeforethematchevenbegan.The“hateddefector”

KorchnoiwaschallengingthefullmightoftheSovietmachineanditschampionKarpov.Countlesspettyprotestswerefiledbybothsidesbeforetheystartedthefirstgame.Theyarguedabouttheflagsonthetable,theheightandstyleofthechairs,thecoloroftheyogurtKarpovateduringthegames.ButnoneofthesewereasbizarreasthestoryofDr.VladimirZukhar,apsychologyprofessorwhocametoBaguioCityaspartofKarpov’sentourage.ZukharsatintheaudienceandstareddirectlyatKorchnoiduringeverygameoftheworld

championship.HisassociationwithKarpovandhisdisconcertingmienledthesuperstitiousKorchnoiandhisoverprotectiveteamtosuspectfoulplayofasupernaturalkind.ZukharwasaccusedofbeingaparapsychologistwhowasattemptingtodisruptKorchnoi’sthinking.Korchnoi’steamaskedthatZukharnotbeallowedtosittooclosetothestage,whiletheSovietsfoughteveryrequestandrespondedwiththeirowndemands.ThusbeganabizarreescapadethatsawZukharchangingseatsdaily,oftenflankedby

membersofKorchnoi’sdelegation.Priortogameseventeenofthematch,KorchnoievenrefusedtoplayunlessZukharmovedfartherback,aprotestthatcostthechallengerelevenminutesonhisclock,timehecouldlaterhaveusedwhenhefoundhimselfinseveretimetrouble.Later,Korchnoibroughtinhisown“parapsychologist,neurologist,andhypnotist”tocombatZukhar’spowers.Thesagacontinuedinsimilarfashionthroughoutthematch.Wasitallposturing?Orisitreallypossible

thatthetwogreatestchessplayersontheplanet,andtheirclosestassociates,weredistractedbysuchsideshowsduringthemostimportantmatchoftheircareers?Karpovwonthefinalgame—withZukharsittingupfront—towinthethirty-two-gamematchbyasinglepoint.IoftenwonderhowmuchbetterKorchnoiwouldhavedoneifhehadn’tinvestedsomuchenergyrespondingtoKarpov’sprovocationsandspeculatingaboutwhetherKarpovwasreceivingsecretmessagesinhisyogurt.Incidentally,Karpov’sfirstvictorycameingameeight,afterhestartledhisopponent—andthefans—byrefusingtoshakeKorchnoi’shandbeforethegame.Anotherpsychologicalgambitwellplayed?

BreakingtheSpellofPressure

Yearsofcompetitiongotmeusedtothetensionthatcamewitheachgameandimportantevent.Itwasn’tsoeasyformeatthestartofmycareer,however.InJanuary1978,attheageoffourteen—anagingprodigy—IparticipatedintheSokolskyMemorialtournamentinMinskwiththehopesofearningascoregoodenoughtoqualifyformymastertitle.Ialsoneededtofollowupmyjuniorsuccesses.AfterclinchingtwoconsecutivenationaljuniortitlesIhadfailedtowintheworldunder-sixteenchampionshipin1976and1977.Meanwhile,myclosestjuniorrival,ArturJussupow,hadjustwontheworldunder-twentytitle.Makingmattersworse,Iwouldbeaconspicuousoutsideratthetournament.ItwashighlyunusualforajuniortobeinvitedtoplayinastrongeventinanotherSovietrepublic—fromAzerbaijantoByelorussiainthiscase.IwasallowedtoplayonlyattheinsistenceofmymentorBotvinnik,sosuccesswascriticalforbothourreputations.Andtocapitalloff,Iwasabitscaredofsomeofmyexperiencedopponents.Mymothercameupwithanidea.“Garik,”shetoldmethedaybeforethefirstround,“youcandowell

here,butbeforeeachgameIwantyoutomemorizesomelinesfromPushkin’spoemEugeneOnegin.Itwillsharpenyoursenses.”Ifollowedheradvice,andOneginbecamethemagicfeatherthatdistractedmefrommyanxiety.Iwonmyfirstgamesandmyconfidencereturned.Intheend,InotonlyscoredenoughpointstoqualifyformymastertitlebutIalsowonthetournament—withalittlehelpfromournationalpoet.Icanstillrecalltheopeninglines,albeitinRussianofcourse.

Myuncle—highidealsinspirehim;butwhenpastjokinghefellsick,hereallyforcedonetoadmirehim—andneverplayedashrewdertrick.Letotherslearnfromhisexample!

Feelinguneasyunderpressureiscompletelynatural;whenwebegintofeelnonchalantaboutnewchallenges,itmaybetimetoworry.Ifeverythingseemseasy,youaren’tpushingyourselfhardenough.Ifyoudon’tkeepupyourpsychologicalstrength,youwon’tbeabletorespondwellwhenfacedwithsetbacks.Psychologicalmusclesatrophyfromdisusejustasphysicalandmentalonesdo.Ifithasbeenawhilesinceyouexperiencedthenervousthrilloftryingsomethingnew,perhapsyou’vebeenavoidingachallengefortoolong.Weallneedaregulardietofchangeaswellasahealthynervousenergytomaintainourdefenses.

Wemusthavethosedefensesingoodworkingorderwhenfailurestrikes.Itisdifficulttolearnfromatoughlossandstillcomeoutthenextdaybelievingwearethebest.Ittakesastrongmindtobalancethesesomewhatcontradictorystorylines,especiallyafteraparticularlycrushingdefeat.Ourtheoryofmindovermattercanalsoworkagainstusifweareconvincedthingsarehopeless.Onedefeatquicklyleadstoanother,thenanother.Thiscanhappenoverasingletournamentorevenacareer,fallingintoarutoffailure.

StayingObjectiveWhentheChipsAreDown

Inmy1986championshipmatchwithKarpovinLeningrad,IwaswellintheleadwhenIsuddenlycrashedwiththreelossesinarow,leavingthematchtiedwithfivegamesremaining.Afterthethirdloss,ingamenineteen,Ihadanemergencysessionwithmycoachesaboutwhattodowithwhiteinthenextgame.ShouldIforceaquickdrawtostabilizemyselfandrecover,orshouldIfightonasusual?“Whynotfight?”Isaid.“I’vejustlostthree,howcouldIpossiblylosefourinarow?”GrandmasterMikhailGurevich,whohasplentyofexperienceinbothchessandcasinos,remindedmethatplayingtheoddsthatwaydoesn’twork.Whenyouplayroulette,youcanlosemanytimesinarowbybettingonblackeverytime.It’ssadbuttrue,andit’salessonworthattendingtoineveryenterpriseinlife:itmakesnosensetobelievethatfaringpoorlynowmeansyou’lldobetterlater.Therearenocosmicscalesthatwilleventuallybalanceoutontheirown.Itookhisadviceandmadeashortdrawingametwenty,drewgametwenty-one,andthen,fullyrecovered,scoredacrushingvictoryingametwenty-twotoretaketheleadandholdontomytitle.Casinosoftenputupdigitalsignsnexttoroulettewheelsthatdisplaythelastdozenwinningnumbers,

encouragingpeopletobelievethattheycangainanadvantagewiththisinformationwheninrealityitisworthless.Thewheeldoesn’tknowhowthelastspincameout.Itisdangeroustofoolourselvesintobelievingthatsomethingisduetohappenwhenthereisnorelationbetweentheeventsofthepastandwhatcouldoccurinthepresent.Tobelievethecasinoistodolittlemorethantofollowsuperstition.

PretenderstotheCrownandFatalFlaws

Alongwiththeeternal“Whowasthegreatestever?”debate,oneofthemostpopulardiscussionsatchessclubsorontheInternetmessageboardsiswhodeservesthedubioustitleof“greatestplayernevertobeworldchampion.”ThroughoutchesshistoryweencountergreatplayerswhocameclosebutneverascendedtochessOlympus.Theselegendswerenotlackinginchessskills,andindeedtheycreatedmanyofthegame’senduringmasterpieces.Butforonereasonoranother,theywereneverawardedtheultimatehonor.Whenweaskwhythesegreatplayersneverquitemadeittothetop,wehavetogobeyondshrugging

ourshouldersandblamingitonfate.It’snotalwaysclearpreciselywheretoplacetheblame,andeachcaseisdifferentandoffersinsightintothepsychologyoffailure.SupportersofthedynamicRussianplayerMikhailChigorincan’tsayhedidn’thavehischances.Twice

hejoustedfortheworldchampionshipagainstWilhelmSteinitz,towardtheendofthenineteenthcentury,andbothtimeshelost.ThroughouthiscareerChigorinfoughtagainsttheconventionalwisdom,sometimestoafault.Hewasneverabletofullyharnesshiswildcreativity.Oncehefixatedonanidea,histheoreticalpointbecamemoreimportanttohimthanwinning,andthislackofcompetitivepragmatism

preventedhimfrommakingittothetop.Chigorinteachesusthatwecannotsacrificeresultstoablindbeliefinourmethods,nomatterhow

innovativetheymaybe.Iseeinhimatendency,whichmanyhave,torespondtoasetbackbytellinghimselfthathedidn’tfollowthroughenough,thatifonlyhehadgoneevenfurtherinthesamedirection,thingswouldhaveturnedoutbetter.Thelessonhereisthatyoumustrelyonyourinnerobservertolookatyourresultsdispassionately,andtopushyouregoasidelongenoughtofullyandrigorouslyquestionyourapproach.HadChigorinbeenabletoreininhisfantasyonjustafewoccasions,theworldmighthavehaditsfirstRussianchampiondecadesbeforeAlekhine.IfanychessplayercanbeforgivenforcursingtheFatesitwouldbeAkibaRubinstein.Now,nearlya

centuryafterhejoinedtheelite,thequalityofhischessisstillabovereproach.Butacertainsportingimpracticalitycosthimdearlyonmorethanoneoccasion.Rubinsteinwasunwillingorunabletoconsiderboththelargertournamentsituationaswellasthegameathand,andhelostsightofthebigpictureandtookunnecessaryrisks.Ifheonlyneededadrawtofinishfirst,hisnaturewouldstillpushhimtoplayacomplicatedwinningattemptthatmightendindisaster.Buthismoreconsequentialfailingswereawayfromtheboard.Achampionshipcontenderintheearlytwentiethcenturyneededcharismaandaknackforcultivatingsponsorship,andRubinsteinwastheepitomeoftheshyandunsocialchessplayer.Nomatterhowgreathischessskills,helackedthepeopleskillstobeaself-promoterandfund-raiser.SodespitehismanytournamentsuccessesRubinsteinneversucceededinputtingtogetherthemoney

thatwasneededtochallengeLasker.ThetimidPolejustwasn’tcapableofthekindofposturingandheatedpublicexchangesthatguaranteedaplaceatthetable.TheboldCubanCapablancasoonsurpassedhimasthenumberonecontender.It’struethatinchessasinpolitics,fund-raisingandglad-handingmatter.Onlyinanidealworlddoesthemostqualifiedcandidatewintheelection.Intherealworld,themomentyoubelieveyouareentitledtosomethingisexactlywhenyouareripetoloseittosomeonewhoisfightingharder.Rubinsteinwasn’ttheonlyleadingplayertoretirewithoutgettingashotattheworldchampionship.

PaulKeresspentdecadesinthehighestranksofchessbeforeandaftertheSecondWorldWar.TheEstonian-bornSoviet’sopportunitytochallengeforthetitlewashinderedbytheoutbreakofwar,butafterthewarended,KereslostoutagainbecausetheSovietauthoritiespreferredthe“goodRussian”Botvinnik,andtheyallowedhimtoadvance.Fateaside,however,Kereshadmultiplechancestoqualifyfortheworldchampionshipandalwayscameupshort.Icannotassignanyparticularfailingtohischess,butbecauseofhistrackrecordIamskepticalthathewouldhavebeenamatchforBotvinnikunderthebrightlightsoftheworldchampionshipstage.DavidBronsteindidearnashotatBotvinnik.Their1951matchendedinadraw,andbecausechess

traditionallyentitlestheincumbentto“drawodds”—i.e.,thechampionkeepsthecrownifthematchisdrawn—Botvinnikretainedhistitle.Everafter,Bronsteinlikedtotellhisstudentsthatifhehadn’tlostthepenultimategameofthatmatch,theywouldlistentohim“asiftotheoracleofDelphi!”TheyoungBronsteinarrivedathismatchagainstthelivinglegendBotvinnikhavingalreadyachieved,

forhim,agreatvictoryjustbyreachingthechampionshipmatch.Bronsteinwasthemostcreativeplayerofhisgeneration,andheseemedtohavealltheingredientsnecessarytobringdowntheworldchampion.Buthavingsethissightsonreachingthefinal,hefounditimpossibletoraisethemtowinningthematchitself.Takingprideinourachievementsmustn’tdistractusfromourultimategoals.Amarathonerwhomakesgoodtimeovertwenty-sixmilesisn’tgoingtogetcreditunlesshefinishesthelast385yards.Afterreachingtheheights,Bronsteinwasunabletomaintainhisconcentrationandplayhisbestchess.HecommittedseveraloftheworsterrorsofhiscareerduringhismatchwithBotvinnik.Adefeatcanbedoublydamagingwhenwefeelwe’vedoneourbestandstillfailed.Thisiscontraryto

everyparent’swordsofconsolationtoachildwhosesoccerteamhaslost:“Youdidyourbest.”Wearesupposedtofeelbetterknowingthateveniftheoutcomewasn’tpositive,wecouldn’thavedoneanymore.Andyet,someonewithaspirationstobethechampionoftheworlddoesnotwanttohearthathedidhisbestandwasstillconvincinglybeaten.Indeed,couldtherebeanythingworse?

ThomasSzasz,thefamous“antipsychiatrist,”wrote,“Thereisnopsychology;thereisonlybiographyandautobiography.”IthinkofthatstatementandI’mreminded,asachessplayer,thatresultsarewhatmatterintheend.Wedon’tliveourliveswithmotivationaltricksandploys;wecannotfoolourselvesforlong.Perhapsthosewhofailunderpressurearethosewhobelievetoomuchintheirmethodsofmotivationandallowthemtobecomeadistraction.Overthinkingcandistractusfromourconcreteobjectives.Itcomesdowntomakingthebestmovesandreachingthecorrectdecisions.Todothiswemustaccept

responsibilityforourresults.Everydecisionwemakebuildsourcharacterandformsthebasisofourfuturedecisions.Wemustnotberelegatedtoasupportingroleinourownlives.Theinnergameisthegame.It’snotpsychology.Itislifeasitshouldbelived,anautobiographyinprogress.

CHAPTER13

MANVS.MACHINE

EntertheMachines

Oneentityintheworldiscompletelyfreeofgenderprejudiceandpreconceivedideasaboutwhoisstronger,menorwomen,andthatisthecomputer.Throughoutthehistoryofmechanicalanddigitalcomputing,chesshasbeenneartheforefrontofdesigners’minds.Assoonasmaninventsamachine,itseemsthenextstepistoturnhiscreationintoachessplayer.Onereasonisthatsomanygeniusesandinventorshaveplayedthegame—maybenotbrilliantly,butwithpassionandinterest.Chesshasalwaysmaintainedapositionas,inGoethe’swords,“atouchstoneoftheintellect.”Justabouteveryonewhocreateda“thinkingmachine”wasquicktoputittothetestofmasteringtheworld’smostrespectedgame.Thefirstchess-playing“machine,”knownastheTurk,wasintroducedtothegeneralpublicin1769.

TheHungarianengineerBaronWolfgangvonKempelencreateditfortheamusementoftheHapsburgempressMariaTheresa.ThispurelymechanicaldevicewashiddenbeneathamajesticmannequindressedasaTurk.Predictably,itwasafake:itsoutstandingplayingstrengthwasinfactsuppliedbyachessmastercleverlysecretedinsidethedevice.Themainchallengeofchessprogrammingisthelargenumberofcontinuationsinvolved.Inanaverage

positionthereareaboutfortylegalmoves.Soifyouconsidereveryreplytoeachmove,youhavesixteenhundredpositions.Aftertwomovesthereare2.5millionpositions,afterthreemoves,4.1billion.Theaveragegamelastsfortymoves,sothenumbersinvolvedarebeyondastronomical.Remarkably,thefirstcomputerprogramwaswrittenbeforeacomputerexistedthatcouldrunit.Its

creatorwasAlanTuring,theBritishmathematicianwholedthegroupthatbroketheGermanEnigmacodeduringWorldWarIIandiswidelyconsideredthefatherofmoderncomputerscience.Hedevelopedaseriesofinstructionsforautomatedchessplay,butsincetherewasasyetnomachinethatcouldexecutethisfirst-everchesscode,Turingworkedthroughithimself,onpaper.Aroundthesametime,intheUnitedStates,anothergreatmathematicalmind,ClaudeShannon,wasoutliningseveralstrategiescomputerscouldusetoplaychess.In1950thenuclearlaboratoryofLosAlamoswastheunlikelysiteofthenextstepforwardinchess

computing.WhenthegiganticmachineMANIAC1wasdelivered,thescientiststesteditbywritingachessprogram.Afterplayingagainstitselfandthenlosingtoastrongplayer—despitebeinggivenanextraqueen—themachinebeatayoungwomanwhohadjustlearnedthegame.Itwasthefirsttimeahumanhadlosttoacomputerinagameofintellectualskill.Thenextadvancescameintheformofsmarterprogramming,inwhichthedevelopers“taught”the

computerhowtoavoidwastingtimeconsideringinferiormoves.Themathematical“alpha-beta”chessalgorithmwasdeveloped,whichallowedtheprogramtorapidlypruneoutweakmovesandseefurtherahead.Thisisabrute-forcemethod,nowinuniversaluse,inwhichtheprogramstopsevaluatinganymovethatreturnsanevaluationscoreinferiortothescoreofthecurrentfirst-movechoice.Thefirstprogramsthatusedthismethod,runningonsomeofthefastestcomputersoftheday,reachedarespectableplayingstrength.Bythe1970s,earlypersonalcomputerscoulddefeatmostamateurs.

ThenextleapcamefromthefamousBellLaboratories.KenThompson,creatoroftheUNIXoperatingsystem,builtaspecial-purposechessmachinewithhundredsofchips.Hismachine,whichhenamedBelle,wasabletosearchabout180,000positionspersecond.Supercomputersatthetimecouldonlymanage5,000.Seeinguptoninemovesaheadduringagame,Bellecouldplayatthelevelofahumanmasterandfarbetterthananyotherchessmachine.Itwonjustabouteverycomputerchesseventfrom1980to1983,beforeitwasfinallysurpassedbygiantCraysupercomputers.Asthetechnologydeveloped,newconsumerchessprogramswithnamessuchasSargon,Chessmaster,

andFritzbenefited,inparticularfromthefasterprocessorsengineeredbyIntel.DedicatedmachinesmadeacomebackthankstoagenerationofchessmachinesdesignedatCarnegieMellonUniversity.ProfessorHansBerlinerwasacomputerscientistaswellasaworldchampionatcorrespondencechess,anancientformofplayingthegamethroughthemail.Hismachine,HiTech,waslatersurpassedbythecreationsofhisgraduatestudentsMurrayCampbellandFeng-hsuingHsu.Theytooktheircomputerchampion,DeepThought,andjoinedIBM,wheretheirprojectwasrechristenedDeepBlue.TheDeepBluemachinethatIfacedinmatchesin1996and1997—moreontheminamoment—

consistedofanIBMSP2serverequippedwithalargenumberofspecialchesschips.Thiscombinationwascapableofsearching200millionpositionspersecond.Likeallmodernchessmachines,DeepBluealsohadaccesstoavastdatabaseofpreprogrammedopeningpositionsculledfromhumanGrandmasterplay.Containingmillionsofpositions,theseopeningdatabasesimitateandofcoursesurpasshumanknowledgeandmemoryoftheopenings.Byaccessingthesedatabasesofmoves,aprogramwillplaywelloveradozenmovesaccordingtoapresetroutinebeforeitbeginstocomputeforthefirsttime.Withoutthebenefitofthishumanknowledgeintheopenings,theprogramswouldbeconsiderablyweaker.Somedatabasesaredrawnintoserviceonlyattheendofthegame.These“endgametablebases,”

anothercreationofKenThompson,recordeverypossiblepositionwithsixorfewerpieces(somesetswithsevennowexist)andtheirmostefficientsolutions.Withtheaidoftheseoracleswehavediscoveredpositionsthatrequireovertwohundredaccuratemovestoforceawin,alevelofcomplexitypreviouslyundreamtof—andstillimpossibleforanyhumantomaster.Fortunately,thetwoends—openingresearchandendgamedatabases—willnevermeet,soitishighly

unlikelythatanyonewilleverseeacomputerplayitsfirstmove1.e4andannouncecheckmatein33,520moves.

AndaChildShallLeadUs

Myfirstexperienceswithcomputerswerefarmorepleasantthanthemorefamousencounterswe’llcometoinamoment.In1985Iwastwenty-twoyearsoldandtherecentlycrownedworldchesschampion.Oneofmynewperkswasanearlypersonalcomputer,oneofthefewinmyhometownofBaku.Onecouldn’tdoagreatdealwithitasIrecall,butitfascinatedmejustthesame.OnedayIreceivedapackageinthemailfromastrangernamedFredericFriedel,achessfanandsciencewriterbasedinHamburg,Germany.Hesentmeanadmiringnoteandafloppydiskcontainingseveralcomputergames,includingonecalledHopper.Videogamesweren’tyetthephenomenontheyhadbecomeintheUnitedStates,andIenthusiastically

tookupthisnewchallenge.IspentmuchofmyfreetimeoverthenextfewweekspracticingHopperandsettingeverhigherrecordscores.AfewmonthslaterItraveledtoHamburgforachessevent,andImadesuretolookupMr.Friedelat

hissuburbanhome.Imethiswifeandtwoyoungsons,Martin,ageten,andTommy,agethree.Theymade

mefeelquiteathome,andFredericwaseagertoshowmethelatestdevelopmentsonhisowncomputer.ImentionedthatIhadcompletelymasteredoneofthelittlegameshehadsentme.“Youknow,I’mthebestHopperplayerinBaku,”Isaid,omittinganymentionofthetotallackof

competition.“What’syourhighscore?”heasked.“Sixteenthousand,”Ireplied,alittlesurprisedthatthisextraordinarynumberfailedtoelicitatleasta

raisedeyebrow.“Veryimpressive,butthat’snotsuchabigscoreinthishouse.”“What?Youcanbeatit?”Iasked.“No,notme.”“Ah,okay,Martinmustbethevideogamewhiz.”“No,notMartin.”WithasinkingfeelingIrealizedthesmileonFrederic’sfacemeantthatthehouseholdHopper

championwasthethree-year-old.Iwasincredulous.“Youcan’tmeanTommy!”MyfearswereconfirmedwhenFredericledhislittleboyovertothecomputerandsathimdownnexttousasthefamiliargameloaded.SinceIwastheguest,theyletmegofirst,andIrosetotheoccasionwithapersonalbestofnineteenthousandpoints.Mysuccesswasshort-lived,however,asTommytookhisturn.Hislittlefingerswereablur,and

beforelongthescorereadtwentythousand,thenthirtythousand.IfiguredIshouldconcededefeatbeforewesattherewatchingthroughdinnertime.Mycausewasclearlyhopeless.LosingtoalittlekidatHopperwaseasieronmyegothananylosstoKarpov,butitstillgavemefood

forthought.HowwasmycountrygoingtocompetewithagenerationoflittlecomputergeniusesbeingraisedintheWest?HereIwas,oneofthefewpeopleinanentireSovietcitywithacomputer,handilyoutperformedbyaGermantoddler.Andwhatabouttheimplicationsforchess?WhatifwecouldimprovethewaywestudiedchessthewayweusedourPCstowritelettersandstorerecords?Thiswouldbeapowerfulweapon,onethatIshouldn’tbethelasttohave.ButmyfirstopportunitytoemploywhatIlearnedfromthislessonwasn’trelatedtochess.WhenI

signedasponsorshipdealwiththecomputercompanyAtari,ItookaspaymentoverahundredoftheirmachinestobringbacktoayouthclubinMoscow,thefirstofitskindintheSovietUnion.Wecouldn’tbeleftintheStoneAgewhileTommyandhisnimble-fingeredcompatriotstookovertheworld.IhadalsohadthechancetoaddresstheotherissuewithFrederic—howahomecomputercouldbe

turnedintoachesstool.OurconversationsledtothecreationofthefirstversionofChessBase,anamenowsynonymouswithprofessionalchesssoftwarethankstothecompanyofthesamenamethatFredericcofoundedinHamburg.ChessBasewastheresultofembracinginnovationandofbeingalerttothetrendsandthepossibilities.(AndwhileMartinandTommyhavesofarfailedtotakeovertheworld,botharesuccessfulcomputerdesignandprogrammingprofessionals.)

Kasparovvs.DeepBlue

Mysix-gamematchesagainsttheIBMsupercomputerDeepBluein1996and1997receivedunprecedentedattentionaroundtheworldforachessevent.TheofficialWebsiteofthe1997rematchgeneratedWebtrafficsimilartothatoftheAtlantaOlympicGames.NewsweekranacoverstorytitledTHEBRAIN’SLASTSTAND,andathousandsubplotsweredeveloped.WasDeepBluereallyartificialintelligence?WasIthedefenderofhumanity?Whenitwasallover,peopledebatedtheimplicationsofmyinitialwin

inPhiladelphia,mylossinNewYorkayearlater,andIBM’srefusaltoplayathird,decidingmatch.Forthosewhomaynotrememberhowthewholethingplayedout,here’sabriefsummary.Aftermy

firstmatchwithDeepBluein1996inPhiladelphiareceivedsomuchpublicity,IBMthrewitsfullweightbehindasix-gamerematchinMay1997tobeheldindowntownManhattan.In1996,Ilostthefirstgameofthematch,butafterthatwake-upcallIcamebacktowinthreegamesandeasilydefeatthecomputer4–2.FortherematchIBMclaimed“DeeperBlue”wastwiceasfastandmuchsmarter.TheyhadhiredhumanGrandmasterstoworkfull-time“teaching”thecomputerbyimprovingitsevaluationfunction.Themediaattentionforthefirstgameoftherematchwasbeyondthatofaworldchampionship.Over

threehundredjournalistswereaccredited,andthefive-hundred-seatauditoriumsoldoutat$25perticket.OfcourseIwasnervous.Beinghuman,Iwasunabletoignoreallofthesedistractions,unlikemysiliconopponent.ButIplayedwellenoughtowinthefirstgamewithwhite.Thesecondgamewould,however,changethecourseofthematch,andofhuman-machinecompetition.I’vetalkedaboutcomputersandtheirinabilitytomakelong-termplans.Theycalculatevariationsina

linearway,examiningeachmoveinturn,searchingdeeperanddeeper.EvenatDeepBlue’s200millionmovespersecond,ittookitalongtimetoseefarenoughaheadtoplaycompetentstrategicchess.Itwouldoccasionallymakesillymovesnostronghumanwouldconsider,anditdidthisinitslossingameone.Gametwowasanentirelydifferentmatter.ThemachineplayedwiththesubtletyofaKarpov,especiallyatonekeymomentwhenIwasdesperatelyhopingtogaincounterattackingchances.Iattemptedtosacrificematerialforactivity,butuncharacteristicallyforamachine,DeepBluedeclinedtowinmaterial.Insteaditplayedaquietprophylacticmovethatendedmyhopes,thesortofmovenocomputerhadeverbeforemade.Insteadofgoingforashort-termadvantage,itclosedinforthekill.Facedwithalosingpositionandstunnedbythegodlikequalityofthemachine’splay,Iresigned.Isoonreceivedanevengreatershock.Itturnedoutthatthefinalpositionofthesecondgamewasnota

losingoneformeafterall.Withitslastmovethecomputerhadblundered,andIhadresignedinadrawnposition!Itfeltlikebeingkickedinthestomachafteralreadybeingknockeddown.WhenIwasshownthedrawingline,IrealizedthatIwouldhavecontinuedonagainstanyhuman.ButduringthegameIcouldn’timaginethemachinemakingsuchamistake,andIhadassumedmypositionwashopeless.Ihadcompletelypsychedmyselfout.Myfeelingsofembarrassmentandangerwerequicklyjoinedbydoubtandsuspicion.HowcouldDeepBlueplaysofantasticallywellandtheninthesamegamemakesuchanelementary(foracomputer)blunder?MymindbegantoreelwiththoughtsaboutjusthowfarIBMmightgotowin.Wouldnotbillionsofdollarsin“freefavorablepublicity”—IBM’swords—beworthgivingthemachinealittlehumanhelpatakeymoment?Alwaysonetospeakmymind,Isuggestedthispossibilityinthepressconferenceafterthedrawnthird

game.Ishouldhaveconsideredthattheuproarthatfollowedwouldonlyheightenthetension,somethingthatofcoursehadnoeffectonmyopponent.Imissedaclearwininthefourthgame,andbythenIwasexhaustedandconfused.Wassomethingfishygoingon,orwasDeepBluereallysostrong?InthefifthgameIagainmissedgoodwinningchances,sothematchremainedtiedwithonewinapieceandthreedraws.Everythingwassetforashowdowningamesix,butlookingbacktoday,Iseemyfatehadalreadybeensealed.Ittookonlynineteenmovesformetoresigntheworstgameofmycareerandlosethematch.Iwas

simplyinnoconditiontoplaychessbythatpoint,andImadeaninfantileblunderintheopening.Afterafewmorefeeblemovesthegameandthematchwereover.Iwasashamedofmyperformanceandforlettingthemysterioussecondgamegettome.WorsethanthelossofthefinaldecisivegamewasIBM’sblowtothescientificandchesscommunities

bydecidingtoimmediatelyshutdowntheDeepBlueproject.Forhalfacenturychesshadbeen

consideredauniquefieldforthecomparisonofthehumanandmachineminds,ofintuitionversuscalculation.TothisdaythesixgamesIplayedwiththemultimillion-dollarmachinearetheonlyonesevermadepublic.Itwasasiftheyhadgonetothemoonandnottakenpictures.ThetragedyofIBM’shurrieddismantlingofDeepBlueovershadowedtheirdisappointingly

questionablebehaviorduringthematch.IBMwasnotonlymyopponentattheboardinthe1997rematch,butalsotheorganizeroftheevent.Therewassomuchantagonism,withsomanyunansweredquestionsaboutwhatwasgoingonbehindthescenes,thatitwashardtoavoidcomingupwithconspiracytheories.Idon’thaveanyproofoffoulplay,butIfeeltheydidn’tprovemucheitherthankstotheirdecisiontoterminatetheircreation.Iliveindoubt.BeforeIamaccusedofbeingasoreloser,Iwillpleadguiltytothecharge.Ihatelosing,especially

whenIdon’tunderstandthereasonfortheloss.Whenweanalyzethosesixgamestoday,wefindthatonthewholeDeepBluewasinferiortotoday’sPCprograms.OnlyinafewkeymomentsdidtheIBMcomputerplayextraordinarilysubtlemoves,movesthateventodaymakeonequestionhowtheyemergedfromthesamemachinethatlostgameoneandblunderedattheendofgametwo.Wehavediscussedtheimportanceofpreparation,andthiswasanotherillustrationoftheincomplete

natureofthisfamouschapterintheman-machinesaga.Goingintothematch,DeepBluewasacompleteunknowntome,ablackboxliterallyandfiguratively.Buttheycould,anddid,analyzeeveryoneofmygamesandcustomizeDeepBlue’splaytoexploitthatadvantage.Theclosednatureofthecontestcreatedthepotentialforhumaninterference,althoughinthepre-Enron

eraitsoundedlikeparanoidfollytosuggestthatacorporategiantmightresorttosubterfugetogainpublicityandahugesurgeinitsstockprice.Despitetheseremainingsourfeelings,Iwasamazedattheenormousappealthematchclearlyhadforthegeneralpublic.IknewIwantedtocontinuetheadventure,althoughinthefuturetheenvironmentwouldneedtobemuchmoreopenandscientific.

IfYouCan’tBeat’Em,Join’Em

MyenthusiasmforfindingnewwaystousecomputertechnologytopromotethegameofchessdidnotdisappearwhenIBMpulledtheplugonDeepBlue.In1998Iturnedtoanewexperimentdedicatedtoenablinghumanstofightalongwithmachinesinsteadofagainstthem.Grandmastersplaychessbycombiningexperiencewithintuition,backedupwithcalculationandstudy.

Computersplaychessbybrutecalculation;their“study”consistsofagiganticdatabaseofopeningmoves.Atpresentthereisaroughequilibriumbetweenthesemethods;thebestcomputersplayataroundthesamestrengthasthebesthumans.Asmicroprocessorshavegotfaster,humanshavelearnednewtrickstoexposetheweaknessesofcomputerplay.Inevitablythemachinesmustwin,butthereisstillalongwaytogobeforeahumanonhisorherbestdayisunabletodefeatthebestcomputer.TheconceptofAdvancedChessillustratesthecostsandbenefitsofhuman+computercollaboration.I

developedthisgameasawayofansweringtheelusivebutfascinatingquestion,whatwouldacombinationofhumanintuitionandcomputercalculationproduceonthechessboard?WouldtheycombineintoaninvinciblecentauroranuncoordinatedFrankenstein’smonster?InJune1998,withtwopowerfulcomputersattheirsides,twoGrandmasters,VeselinTopalovandI,facedoffacrosstheboardinthefirstmatchofitskind.AlthoughIhadpreparedfortheunusualformat,oursix-gamematchwasfullofstrangesensations.We

allusecomputerprogramsinouranalysisandtraining,soweknowwhattheyarecapableofandwhattheirweaknessesare.Buthavingoneavailableduringplaywasasdisturbingasitwasexciting.Being

abletoaccessadatabaseofafewmilliongamesmeantwedidn’thavetostrainourmemoriesnearlyasmuchintheopening.Butsincewebothhadequalaccesstothesamedatabase,theadvantagestillcamedowntocreatinganewmoveatsomepoint,andmakingsureitwasbetterthanwhathadbeenplayedbefore.Inthemiddlegame,havingacomputerrunningmeantneverhavingtoworryaboutmakingatactical

blunder.Wecouldconcentratemoreondeepplanninginsteadoftheprecisecalculationsthattakeupsomuchofourtimeinregulargames.Again,sincewewerebothusingcomputers,itwasamatterofhowwellweusedthemtocheckourplansandwhoseplanwasmoreeffective.AswhenIplayedagainstDeepBlue,therewouldbenowaybackifImadeanerror.Themachinewouldnotforgiveanymistakesbymakingoneofitsowninreturn.Itwasdifficulttofindthebestwaytoutilizethemachine’sabilities.IfeltIwasinaracetocheckthe

validityofthecomputer’sevaluation.Itgivesitsopinioninstantly,butitsrecommendationchangesasitsanalysisgoesdeeperanddeeper.JustasagoodFormulaOnedriverreallyknowshisowncar,sodidwehavetolearnthewaythecomputerprogramworked.Thereisastrongimpulsetounquestioninglyfollowthemachine’sevaluationifthemoveitrecommendslookslikesomethingthecomputerwouldusuallyplaywell.That’sadangeroushabit.Despitethehuman+machineformula,mygameswithTopalovwerefarfromperfect,mostlyduetothe

unforgivingclockandtheintensetimepressurewewereunder.Towardtheend,wehadnotimeonourclockstoconsultthemachinesformorethanafewseconds.Puttingthatflawaside,theresultswereinteresting.JustamonthearlierIhaddefeatedtheBulgarian4–0inamatchofregularrapidchess.OurAdvancedChessmatchfinishedina3–3draw.AnimportantbenefitofAdvancedChessisthatthecomputercreatesalogofeveryvariationthe

playersexaminedduringplay.Thisleavesadiaryoftheplayers’thoughtsthroughoutthegame,whichisbothfascinatingforonlinespectatorsandimmenselyvaluableasatrainingtool.Normallyitisforbiddentotakeanynotesduringagame,butinAdvancedChessweprovideacompletemapofthepaththegametookthroughtheplayers’minds.TheexperimentcontinuedinLeóninlateryearswithotherplayers,andin2005theethosofAdvanced

ChessfounditstruehomeontheInternet.TheonlinesitePlaychess.comhostedwhattheycalleda“freestyle”chesstournamentinwhichanyonecouldcompeteinteamswithotherplayersorcomputers—whichevertheyprefer.Luredbythesubstantialprizemoney,groupsofstrongGrandmastersworkingwithseveralcomputersatthesametimeenteredthecompetition.Atfirst,theresultsseemedpredictable.Theteamsofhumanplusmachinetotallydominatedeventhe

strongestcomputers.ThemightychessmachineHydra,whichishardware-basedlikeDeepBlue,wasnomatchforastronghumanusingarelativelyweaklaptop.Humanstrategicguidancecombinedwiththetacticalacuityofacomputerwasinvincible.Thesurprisecameattheconclusionoftheevent.ThewinnerwasrevealedtobenotaGrandmaster

withasouped-upmachine,butapairofamateurAmericanchessplayersusingthreecomputersatthesametime.Theirskillatmanipulatingand“coaching”theircomputerstolookdeeplyintopositionseffectivelycounteractedthesuperiorunderstandingoftheirGrandmasteropponents.Weakhuman+machine+superiorprocesswasgreaterthanastrongcomputerand,remarkably,greaterthanastronghuman+machinewithaninferiorprocess.The“freestyle”winnershadtakenadvantageofsuperiorcoordinationoftheircontrastingmethodsand

strengths.Theyunderstoodtheirtools—humanandmachine—andfiguredouthowbesttogetthemostfromthem.Amanagermightsaytheybuiltaneffectiveteamfromagroupofindividualswithdisparateskillsets.Anarmycommanderwouldrecognizethatawell-coordinatedforcewillalmostalwaystriumph

overanumericallysuperiorenemywholacksorganization.Acompanywithanefficientmanagementstructure,orassemblyline,willoftenhavebettermarginsthanalarger,lessagilecompetitor.Processiscritical,especiallysinceitsbenefitsmultiplywitheachcycle.

StayingOutoftheComfortZone

Oppositepairsworkinginharmony:thishasbecomeathemeofourquesttoperfectdecision-making.Calculationandevaluation.Patienceandopportunism,intuitionandanalysis,styleandobjectivity.Attheperformanceleveltheseelementscometogetherinmanagementandvision,strategyandtactics,planningandreaction.Successcomesfrombalancingtheseforcesandharnessingtheirinherentpower.Andaswe’veseenagainandagaininthisbook,theonlyconsistentmethodforachievingsucha

balanceistoconstantlyseektoavoidourcomfortzone.It’sabadhabittobecomeoverreliantononeskillorwayofdoingthingsjustbecauseithasinthepastworkedwellforyou.It’sbettertothrowyourselfoff-balance,asTopalovandIdidinthatfirstgameofAdvancedChess.OneofthelessonsItookawayfromthatmatchIthinkaboutalmosteveryday:theonetimeyouaresurelylearningsomethingiswhenyouarenervouslyattemptingsomethingnew,evenifitissimplysolvingaroutineprobleminanovelway.Ifyouwantanillustrationofhowdeeplyyouaresetinyourroutines,trybrushingyourteethleft-handed,orputtingonyourtrousersleftlegfirst.Ourmentalroutinesarenolessingrained—andtheyhavemoreprofoundconsequences.Engagingwiththeweakestpointsinourgameanddrillingdownsowereallyunderstandthemisthe

bestandfastestwaytoimprove.Workingtobecomeauniversalplayer—someonewhocandefendaswellasattackandisathomeinanytypeofposition—maynotalwayshaveanobviousimmediatebenefit,especiallyifyouareinaspecializedfield.Butinmyexperienceworkingtowardauniversalstylecreatesarisingtidethatliftsallboats.Gainingexperienceinoneareaimprovesouroverallabilitiesinunexpected,ofteninexplicableways.IwasluckyinthatIwasvirtuallyforcedbyAnatolyKarpovtobecomeamorepositional,strategic

player.Itwassinkorswimforme:eitherIbroadenedmystyleandmyunderstandingorIwouldn’tbeabletobeathim.Thesituationisnotsoclearformostpeople.Wecangothroughourday-to-dayliveswithoutchangingourhabitsandnothingterriblewillhappentous.Theproblemisthatitisalsohighlyunlikelyanythingatallwillhappentous—includinggoodthings.Successfullyavoidingchallengesisnotanaccomplishmenttobeproudof.WhenIwasinthefifthgrade,thegreatestmysterythatschoolheldformewasdrawing.Itseemedlike

anoccultscience;Ijustcouldn’tdoit,andtothisdayI’mlousyatit.InsteadofworkingatdrawingasIdidmyothersubjects,I—cleverlyIthought—convincedmymothertodomydrawinghomework.Shewasquitegood;infact,shewasgoodenoughtocatchtheattentionofmyteacherwithafinepictureshemadeofabirdinatree.IcouldnosoonerhavedrawnthatmyselfthanIcouldhavepaintedtheMonaLisa.MyteacheraskedmeifIwouldbeinterestedinenteringadrawingcompetition,inwhichIwouldhavetoperforminfrontofjudges,notathome.Ifyouthinkthisistheendofthestory,youhaven’trealizedhowproudandcompetitiveIwaseventhen.Insteadofconfessing,Ispentthenextfewweeksathometrainingmyselftodrawthepictureofthebird

exactlyasmymotherhad.Ispenthoursonit,reproducingitlinebylineasifmemorizingachemicalformula.EventuallyIcouldmanageaquitereasonablefacsimileofthebird.Sweatingnervouslyatthecompetition,Iproducedacreaturethatwasalmostidenticaltomymother’soriginal.IhavenodoubtthatthatbirdwasandistheonlythingIcoulddrawintheworld.

OfcoursenowIwishIhaddonemydrawinghomeworkmyselfandactuallylearnedtoappreciateandcultivatetheskillitrequires.ButevenifIcan’tdrawapicture,Ididbenefitfromthelessonthatexperienceoffered.IsteppedoutofmycomfortzoneandpushedabitattheboundariesofwhatIthoughtIcoulddo.Anditwasn’tsuchabadbird,afterall.Ithaslongbeenfashionabletotalkaboutleft-brainandright-brainactivities,evenleft-brainedand

right-brainedpeople.Butitdoesn’trequireadiscussionofbrainsciencetounderstandhowindulgingourcreativesideandlettingourmindswanderinartisticpursuitscanbeenormouslyhelpfulinbreakingusoutofourproblem-solvingroutines.ThegreatphysicistRichardFeynmanoffersaninspiringexampleofabrilliantmanwhopushedthe

boundariesandrefusedtobedefinedbyhisachievementsinoneparticulararea.WhenRobertOppenheimerwasinchargeoftheManhattanProject,whichproducedtheatomicbomb,hedescribedFeynmanas“themostbrilliantyoungphysicisthere.”Buthewasalsothegreatesttroublemaker.Hesaweverythingasachallenge,asapuzzletobesolved.Feynmanenjoyedpickingthelocksinthetop-secretofficesofLosAlamosjusttoseeifhecould.HebecameaseriousamateurpainterandmusicianandlovedtoperformasadrummeratBraziliancarnivalcelebrations.IhavenodoubtthatFeynman’sfreespiritandplayfulmindwereassetstohisscientificwork,not

detriments.Inhispopularbooksheinsistedthatsciencewasalivingsubject,notjustacoldsetofformulas.Heexcelledincombiningtechniquesandtransformingadifficultproblemintoacomparableonethatwaseasiertosolve.Thisskillwasdirectlyrelatedtohisinclinationtostayopentonewideasineveryaspectofhislife.Todayoursocietyplacesgreatemphasisonspecializationandfocus.Studentsusedtogooffto

universitywiththeideaofbroadeningthemselves;nowithasbecomeamostlyvocationalexperience.Studentsusehighereducationasameanstodevelopaskillthatwillmakethemattractivetoemployers.Weplacesomuchemphasisonbeinggoodatwhatwedothatwefailtorealizethatgettingbetteratwhatwedomightbebestachievedbygettingbetteratother—andwildlydifferent—things.Itsoundsstrangetosaythatbeingabetterartistmightmakemeastrongerchessplayerorthatlistening

toclassicalmusiccanmakeyouamoreeffectivemanager.AndyetthisisexactlythesortofthingthatFeynmanhadinmindwhenhesaidthatbeingadrummermadehimabetterphysicist.Whenweregularlychallengeourselveswithsomethingnew—evensomethingnotobviouslyrelatedtoourimmediategoals—webuildcognitiveandemotional“muscles”thatmakeusmoreeffectiveineveryway.Ifwecanovercomeourfearofspeakinginpublic,orofsubmittingapoemtoamagazine,orlearninganewlanguage,confidencewillflowintoeveryareaofourlives.Don’tgetsocaughtupin“whatIdo”thatyoustopbeingacurioushumanbeing.Yourgreateststrengthistheabilitytoabsorbandsynthesizepatterns,methods,andinformation.Intentionallyinhibitingthatabilitybyfocusingtoonarrowlyisnotonlyacrime,butonewithfewrewards.Myrelationshipwithcomputersovertheyearshasbeencontentious,butIreadilyacknowledgethey

havehadamajorimpactonthewayIthink.Bothplayingagainstthemandusingthemasananalyticaltoolforcedmetorecognizeflawsinmydecision-making.Likeanytool,computersextendourreachandpresentuswithnewwaysofsolvingoldproblems.Theyalsopresentuswithanentirelynewsetofproblems,butthiscanbeablessingindisguise.Solvingnewproblemsiswhatkeepsusmovingforwardasindividualsandasasociety,sodon’tbackdown.

CHAPTER14

INTUITION

WeKnowMoreThanWeUnderstand

AgathaChristiesaidofintuition,“Youcan’tignoreitandyoucan’texplainit.”Butwedon’tneedapatexplanationtorecognizehowimportantitisandinvestigatehowwecandevelopourstoitsmaximumpotential.Despitetheeffortsofpsychologistsandneurologists,humanthoughtisstillbestdescribedbymetaphor,

poetry,andotherliterarydevicesweusetoexpresswhatwedonotfullyunderstand.Notbeingapoet,Iwillkeepmyfocusonthemorepracticalmissionofunderstandingwhatwemightcallexecutivebrainmanagement.AldousHuxley,ignoringFreudandwritinglongbeforetheinventionofbrainscans,definedexperience

as“amatterofsensibilityandintuition,ofseeingandhearingthesignificantthings,ofpayingattentionattherightmoments,ofunderstandingandcoordinating.Experienceisnotwhathappenstoaman;itiswhatamandoeswithwhathappenstohim.”Allalongthishasbeenabookabouttakingaction—aboutplayinganactiveandfocusedroleinour

owndevelopment.Becausethetruthisthatwecan’tsitaroundandexpectwisdomtoaccumulatealongwithgrayhair.I’vetalkedabouttheimportanceoflearningfromyourmistakes,butintruththat’salmostapassiveact,atleastincomparisontoactivelygoingoutinsearchofnewexperiencesthatwillteachyounewandextraordinarythings.Learningfromourmistakesistheleastweshouldaskfromourselves.Togetmorewemustdemanditandgolookingforit.Intuitioniswhereitallcomestogether:itistheindispensableproductofourexperience,our

knowledge,andourwilltoknowanddomore.It’smyopinionthat,contrarytopopularbelief,wecannottrulyexperiencethesparkofintuitioninafieldinwhichwehavelittlepracticalknowledge.Thefirst-timechessplayerwhomakestherightmovebasedonhisfeelingforacertainpieceisprobablyexperiencingluck,notintuition.Butwhenaknowledgeableplayerfindsthebestmovesimplypresentinhismindwithoutcombingthroughhundredsofvariations,that’sthepowerofintuition.Eventhevaguestofhunchesisbasedonsomethingtangible—someknowledge,eventhoughitmaybeburieddeepbelowourconsciousmind.Apositiveimpressionofanewco-workercanstemfromadeeplyembeddedrecollectionofanother’svoice,face,orname.Thatwecannotexplainorunderstanditdoesnotmeanthatthispowerfulforceofrecollectedknowledgedoesnotexist.Discussingthecomplexityofhumanintuitionremindsmeofthedilemmathatwassummedupbythe

onetimeheadoftheSpanishroyalhousehold,SabinoFernándezCampo,whosaid,“WhatIcantellyouisnotinteresting,andwhatisinterestingIcannottellyou.”SoinsteadoftheoryIhadbeststicktoconcreteexamplesthatmighthelpmeconvinceyoutohavemorefaithinyourinstincts.Thisistheessentialelementthatcannotbemeasuredbyanyanalysisordevice,andIbelieveit’sattheheartofsuccessinallthings:thepowerofintuitionandtheabilitytoharnessanduseitlikeamaster.

Intuitionvs.Analysis

AfterIwroteaseriesofshortnewspaperarticlesontheworldchampionswhocamebeforeme,Ibecameobsessedwiththeideaofanalyzingindepthhowthegamehaschangedoverthedecadesandhowitsdevelopmenthasbeenpushedalongbyitsgreatestpractitioners.Ihadinmindabiographyofchessitselftoldthroughthecarefulanalysisofthegreatestandmostinfluentialgames.Thisproject,whichhastakenupalargepartofmylifeforthepastthreeyears,cametolifeasaseriesofbookstitledMyGreatPredecessors.DuringmyworkonMyGreatPredecessorsIgainednotjustdeeperrespectfortheachievementsofthe

worldchampions,butagreateradmirationforthewaysthatthegameofchesscanbringoutthebestinthehumanmind.Fewactivitiesareastaxingtoourfacultiesasaprofessionalchesstournament.Memoryisinoverdrive,rapidcalculationisessential,theoutcomehangsoneverymove,andamatchgoesonforhourafterhour,dayafterday,allwiththeworldwatching.Itistheidealscenarioformentalandphysicalmeltdown.WhenIbegantoanalyzethegamesofmyworldchampionforebears,Iwas,therefore,preparedtobea

littleforgiving.Notinmyanalysis,butinmyattitudetowardtheirmistakes.HereIwasinthetwenty-firstcentury,standingontheshouldersofgiantswithgigahertzofchessprocessingpoweratmyfingertips.WiththeseadvantagesandtheobjectivityofhindsightIshouldn’tjudgemypredecessorstooharshly,Itoldmyself,evenasIwouldhope,yearsfromnow,toreceivesomeforgivenessforthemistakesImadeintheheatofcompetition.Animportantpartoftheprojectwastocollectalltherelevantanalysisthathadbeendoneonthese

gamesbefore,especiallythepublishedanalysesoftheplayersthemselvesandtheircontemporaries.Theprincipalthemeoftheseriesistoillustratetheevolutionofthegame,sothecommentaryofthetimeisasvaluableasthegamesthemselvesinrevealingthementalityoftheplayersofeachera.Onewouldassumethattheanalyst,workinginthecalmofhisstudyandwithunlimitedtimetomove

thepieces,wouldhaveamucheasierjobthantheplayersthemselves.Hindsightistwenty-twenty,afterall,orsowearetold.TomysurpriseIfoundthatwhenothertopplayersintheprecomputerage(before1995,roughly)wroteaboutgamesinmagazinesandnewspapercolumns,theyoftenmademoremistakesintheirannotationsthantheplayershadmadeattheboard.Hindsight,itseemed,wasbadlyinneedofbifocals.Evenwhentheplayersthemselvespublishedananalysisoftheirowngames,theyoftenwerelessperceptivethantheyhadbeenwhileactuallyplayingthegame.Here’sanexampleofhowaherdofexpertsfailedtosee,decadeafterdecade,howhumanintuition

triumphedinthecrucialmoment.Gamesevenwasthedecisiveencounterofthe1894worldchampionshipmatchbetweenthefifty-

seven-year-oldchampionWilhelmSteinitzandhisyoungGermanchallenger,twenty-five-year-oldEmanuelLasker.Theplayershadsplitthefirstfourgamestwowinsapiece,followedbytwodraws.Thencamewhatthecommentatorsatthetimepredictedwasluckynumberseven.Whichoftheplayerswouldbetheluckyoneisperhapsnotyetcleartothisday.Laskermisplayedearlyonwiththewhitepieces,andSteinitzexploitedhischancessoeffectivelythat

hehadacleanpairofextrapawnswhenthesmokeclearedatmovetwenty.IfaGrandmastertodayresignedinsuchaposition,itwouldn’tprovokemuchsurpriseamongtheviewingpublic.Playwasmuchlesspreciseacenturyago,andofcourseLaskerhadnothingtolosebyplayingon.Attheveryleasthewouldtireouthiselderopponentforthenextencounter.Alreadyashrewdpsychologistofthechessboard,Laskerlikelyhopedthatthesheerbravadoofhisdecisiontopressonwoulddisturbthedogmaticveteran.

Mostanalysesofthegameatthetimewentsomethinglikethis:Steinitz,asblack,hadaclearlywinningposition.Laskerlaunchedadesperateattackagainstblack’sking,sacrificingapiece.Stillwinningbutnowundersomepressure,Steinitzcommittedasuicidalmistakethatcosthimthegame.TheshockofblunderingsobadlyaffectedSteinitzsomuchthathewentontolosethenextfourgamesinarowandtheworldtitle.Atleastthat’stheofficialstory.Butthere’sanotherwaytoseethegame.Therevisedstorywouldgosomethinglikethis.Steinitzhadan

objectivelywinningposition—buthemadeafewerrors,andthoseerrorsallowedLaskertolaunchariskybutbrilliantattack,makingthepositionquitecomplicated.Thechallenger’ssubsequentplayandpiecesacrificesetmanypracticalproblemsforblack.Underconstantpressure,Steinitzfailedtodefendaccuratelyandlost.Steinitz’sfinalmistakecameinapositionwherehewasalreadylosing.ThepsychologicalblowofbeingoutplayeddespitehissuperficiallysimpleandwinningpositionstunnedSteinitz,andhewasunabletorecoverinthematch.Morethanhisself-confidencehadbeenshakenbytheloss.TheprinciplesofsoundandlogicalchessthatSteinitzheldsodearhadseeminglybetrayedhim.Hewassurehehadbeenwinningandhehadplayedaccordingtohisphilosophy.Andyethehadlost.Theresultmayhavebeenthesameeitherway,butthereisaworldofdifferenceingettingthestory

right.AveteranmastersuchasSteinitzwouldnothavebeensodamagedbyamereoversight,nomatterhowgraveitsconsequences.Allchessplayersknow“chessblindness”canstrikeanyoneatanytime.WhatshookSteinitzwasthathehadn’tblundered.ThegamehadbeentakenoutofhisgripbytheyoungLasker’senergeticplay.WecantellfromthewaythegameprogressedthatLaskercouldnothaveseenallthewaytotheendofeveryvariation,buthedidn’thaveto.Hisintuitiontoldhimhewouldhavegoodpracticalchances.HowcouldsomanystrongplayersmissinanalysiswhatLaskersensedduringthegame?EvenLasker

himselfneverchallengedtheofficialstoryinhislaterobservations,buthisintuitionhadledhimunfailinglyandcorrectlyduringthegame.Itturnsoutthatthisisnotatallunusual,evenacenturylater—inmyowngamesandanalysisaswellasothers’.Forstarters,itisimpossiblefortheanalystsittinginhiscomfortablestudytoreplicatethelevelofconcentrationreachedduringagame.Thefreedomwehaveinanalysistomovethepiecesaroundcanbeacrutchthatleadsustouseoureyesinsteadofourminds.Whenseatedattheboard,wehavenochoicebuttofocusourfullpowers.Overandoveragaintheselegendaryfigures,atthemostcrucialmomentsoftheircareers,intuitively

foundthebestmoves.Competitivepressuremadethempushdeeper.Thoseofuswhocomealonglaterandapplyallourskillsandknowledgetotheanalysisofthemovesaren’tunderthatpressure.Someofoursensesareturnedoffandwebecomelikeasightedpersonwhoismidwaythroughlearningbraille:weperceivetheinformationthat’sinfrontofus—underourfingertips—butwecan’tfullyunderstandit.Thethingsweusuallythinkofasadvantages—havingmoretimetothinkandanalyze,havingmoreinformationatourdisposal—canshort-circuitwhatmattersevenmore:ourintuition.

HowLongIsLongEnough?

Thisexampleisnotintendedtoencourageyoutoblindlyfollowyourgutinstinct,ortorelyindiscriminatelyonsimplefirstimpressions.Aswe’veseenoverandover,diligentstudyandthegatheringofknowledgeaboutwhatcamebeforeinchessareessentialtobecomingasuccessfulcompetitor.WhatIdowanttoillustrateisthepowerofconcentrationandinstinct.ThebiggestproblemIseeamongpeoplewhowanttoexcelinchess—andinbusinessandinlifeingeneral—isnottrustingtheseinstinctsenough.Toooftentheyrelyonhavingalltheinformation,whichthenforcesthemtoa

conclusion.Thiseffectivelyreducesthemtotheroleofamicroprocessorandguaranteesthattheirintuitionwillremaindormant.Everythingcomesatacost.Challengingyourselfinnewwaysinevitablyleadstoafewfailures.At

timesyourinstinctswillallpointinonedirection,andthatdirectionisadeadend.Soyouerr,youlearn,youmakefewermistakes,yougainmoreconfidence,youtrustyourinstinctsmorereadilyandyoucontinuethecycle.Theresultoftryinganythingiseitherfailureorsuccess.Ifyouwishtosucceed,youmustbravetheriskoffailure.Whenthedot-combubblebegantoexpandinthe1990s,itsetoffthealarmbellsofjustaboutevery

“oldeconomy”analyst.Surelythiscouldn’tbereal;companieswithoutrevenuesimplywerenotworthbillionsofdollarsofmarketcapital.Fiveyearslater,afterthemarketshadplummetedandthousandsofcompanieshadgonebankrupt,itwaseasytosaythatthosesoberanalystshadbeencorrectallalong.Theytrustedtheirintuitionandstayedwellawayfromthewildsideofthetechmarketwhilesomanyothershadclosedthetraditionalplaybook,jumpedallthewayin,andgotbadlyburned.Butweretheconservativedoomsayersreallyright?Sure,ittakesdisciplinetoresistjumpingintothe

poolwhenalltheotherkidsaredoingit,butafterawhileitcanbecomeahabitandyouneverjumpinatall.Somecreditshouldbegiventothefewwhoplayeditwell,whosefineintuitivesensestoldthemtofirstgoinandsecondjusthowlongtostayin.Forallthefamousdisasterstories—andmyowndot-comventureissomewhereonthatlist—plentyofinvestorsranintotheburningbuilding,filledtheirpocketswithInternetgold,andgotoutbeforeitcollapsed.Theconservativecrowdwasrightonthefundamentals,butthatdidn’tmeantherewasn’tmoneytobemadebyasavvyfew.Anydisciplineinwhichaccesstoinformationisnearlyunlimitedbuttimeisamajorfactorhasastrong

intuitiveelement.Stockanalystssearchforvisualpatternsinstockcharts,shapessuchas“teacups”and“risingwedges,”thewaychessplayerslookforcheckmatingpatterns.Intuitiontellsusnotjustwhatandhow,butalsowhen.Icanpondermymovefortenseconds,tenminutes,oronehour.Awell-developedintuitionletsmeknowwhenIhavereachedacriticaljuncturethatrequiresmoretimeandspecialattention.Astheydevelop,ourinstincts—ourintuitivesenses—becomelabor-savingandtime-savingdevices;theyliterallycutdownthetimeittakestomakeaproperevaluationandact.Youcancollectandanalyzenewinformationforeverwithoutevermakingadecision.Somethinghastotellyouwhenthelawofdiminishingreturnsiskickingin.Andthatsomethingisintuition.

ThePerilsofIgnoringaTrend

Thepatternrecognitionthatchessplayersrelyonisessentialineverywalkoflife.Ineverynewsituationwehavetodeterminewhetherwhatwearedealingwithisatrendorsomethingunique.Detectingtrends,preferablybeforeanyoneelse,isoftenbasedonintuitionandintangibleelements.Hasithappenedbefore?Willitdevelopthesamewaythistime?Figuringoutwhetheraneventisaone-off,anewtrend,oranoldtrendinnewclothesisespecially

importantinthepoliticalworld.Duringeveryelectionseasonthemediareportsahalfdozen“newparadigms,”althoughfewturnouttobebothnewandrelevant.IntheU.S.presidentialelectionin2004theDemocratslookedbackatAlGore’sdefeatin2000andchosethewrongmanasJohnKerry’srunningmate.ThechoiceofJohnEdwardsmighthavemadesenseintheKerrycampaignheadquarters,butifyou

lookedatthetrendsthatwereevidentfromthecountry’selectoralmap,itmadenosenseatall.BushhaddominatedtheSouthinthe2000election,andtherewasnoreasontobelievethatEdwardscouldcarry

evenasingleSouthernstatefortheDemocrats.OnElectionDay2004theDemocratic“blues”againlosttheentireSouth;theyevenlostEdwards’shomestateofNorthCarolinabythesamethirteenpointsGorehadlostitbyin2000.Tofurtheraddinsulttoinjury,theDemocratshadspentheavilyinNorthCarolinatomakeitarespectablelossandsavefaceforEdwards.TheDemocratschosetobelievethatGore’slossintheSouthhadbeenanaberration.Goingbya

“material,time,quality”analysis,thisledthemonthepathtodisaster.Theywerepunishedfortheirmismanagementoffinancialresources,theirfailuretorecognizeatrendquicklyenough,andfortheirpoorchoiceofbattlefield.IftheyhadproperlyinterpretedthelossoftheentireSouthin2000asthetrenditclearlyturnedouttobe,theymighthaveselectedDickGephardtinsteadofEdwards.TheadditionoftheMidwesternstalwartwouldhavecreatedagoodchanceofflippingIowaandMissouriandchangingtheireighteenelectoralvotesfromredtoblue,providingKerrywitha269–268victoryoverBushdespitethelossofOhio.Gore’snearmissin2000lulledtheKerrycampaignintobelievingnothingessentialhadchangedin

2004.Inonewaytheywerecorrect.Theonlychangeinthe2004electoralmapfromthatof2000wasthattheDemocratsswappedthegainofNewHampshireforthelossofNewMexicoandIowa.Butmorethananything,theKerrycampaignhadlostsightofthepoint:theyrefoughtthelosingbattlesof2000insteadofseekingoutnewtacticaladvantages.Theylookedatthe2000mapandchosetofightthetrenditrepresentedinsteadoflookingfornewopportunities,suchasgoingaftertheMidwestwithavice-presidentialcandidatefromMissouri.Tobefair,thepointisthatnobodyknowsforsurewhenachangeisatrenduntilit’salreadytoolate.

Politicaloperativesandmarketingexecutivesarepaidalotofmoneytoprocesstheavailableinformationandmaketherightchoices.Inevitably,somebodyhastobewrong.Inthe2006U.S.midtermelections,forexample,boththeDemocratsandtheRepublicansbeteverythingontheissueofthewarinIraq.MostpollsshoweditwasaloserissueforRepublicansandtheBushadministration,butKarlRoveandotherGOPstrategistswereconvincedtheyhadenoughvotesinkeyracestokeepcontrolofCongress.However,thetoughtalkand“supportthetroops”rhetoricthatwassosuccessfulforRepublicansin2004wasafailurein2006.EvensomemoderateRepublicanswhohadstoppedsupportingBushonIraqweresweptfromofficebytheantiwartidethatsomeRepublicanshadunderestimatedasjustawave.Distinguishingbetweenananomalyandamovementcan’tbedonewithpollsanddataalone.Wehave

tofocusourattentiononanyneweventandextendalloursenses.Whatexactlymakesitnew?Inwhatwaysisitlikesomethingwehaveseenbefore?Howhastheenvironmentchanged?Ifwecananswerthesequestions,wewillhaveanexcellentchanceofknowingwhetherasinglesnowflakeisabouttobecomeablizzard.

CHAPTER15

CRISISPOINT

Everythingiscondensedintoonesinglemoment.Itdecidesourlife.

—FRANZKAFKA

OneSingleMoment

Whatwouldintimidateyoumore,beingtold“Solvethisproblem”orbeingtold“Findoutifthere’saproblem”?Solvingproblemscouldbedescribedaseasycomparedtofiguringoutwhetherthereisaprobleminthefirstplace.It’shardtosaywe’reluckywhenwefaceacrisis,butweatleasthavetheluxuryofknowingthatactioniscalledfor—ofbeingforcedtomove.Thetruesttestsofskillandintuitioncomewheneverythinglooksquietandwearen’tsurewhattodo,orifweshoulddoanythingatall.Anyonewhohassatforamultiple-choiceexamknowsthemostfearedoptionis“noneoftheabove.”

Suddenlyit’sopen-ended.Maybethereisnosolutionatall,whoknows?Trythisshortmathematicstest,whichwon’trequireacalculator.

13×63=?(a)109(b)819(c)8,109

Notroubleatall,ofcourse.Theanswerisfoundbyasimpleprocessofelimination.Ourintuitiontellsusinstantlythatwedon’thavetocalculateanything.Butifweadd“(d)noneoftheabove,”wehavetodotheworkandsolvetheequationnomatterhowobviouslywronganswers(a)and(c)are.Wetouchedonthisearlier,inourdiscussionofcomposedchesspuzzles.Inthesepuzzles,youare

presentedwithapositionandstipulations.“Whitetocheckmateinthreemoves”isprecise.“Whitetoplayandwin”ismoreopen-ended,butinbothcasesweknowbeforewestartthatthereissomethingtobefound.Relievedoftheneedtoevaluateandbevigilant,weturnthematterovertotheproblem-solvingsectionofourbrain.Insuchcases,wecanperformthesetaskswithremarkableefficiency.In1987,Iwasinvitedtoa

specialreceptioninFrankfurtheldbyAtari.Alloftheirmanagerswerethere,andthemasterofceremonieswastheheadoftheirGermandivision,AlwinStumpf.Itwasaninformalandentertainingeveningwherewediscussedpoliticsaswellaschessandcomputers.(Infact,IearnedthefriendlycondescensionofmosteveryonewithmypredictionthatasaconsequenceofthechangesintheUSSR,theBerlinWallwouldsoonfall,perhapsinaslittleasfiveyears.“Afinechessplayer,”everyonesaid,“buthedoesn’tknowanythingaboutpolitics!”Asitturnsout,myforecastallowedthreeyearstoomany.)Afterthebanquetwasfinished,HerrStumpftookthemicrophoneandgrandlypronouncedthatwewere

abouttoseesomethingextraordinary:hehadseenmeperformanamazingfeatontelevisionandnowIwasgoingtodoitinperson.Ihadnoideawhathehadinmindwhenhepointedtoalongtableonthe

othersideoftheroomthatwehadpassedonthewayin.Stumpfexplainedthatthetableheldadozenchessboards,eachsetuptoreflectapositionfromahistoricgameofchess,spanning150yearsofplay.Infrontofeachboard,afacedowncardlistedthedate,place,andnamesoftheplayers.IwastobetestedtoseeifIcouldidentifyeachgamebylookingatthepositionontheboard.Stumpfwalkedovertothetableandinvitedmetojoinhimsothechallengecouldbegin.WhenIremainedinmyseat,alookoffearcrossedhisface—hewasclearlyworriedthathehad

gravelyinsultedmewithhislittlesurprise.Isaid,“I’mhonoredyouareinterestedinunderstandingthehumanmind,butIhopeyouwillforgivemeifIstayseated.”Stumpflookedforlorn.Iwasgoingtoruinhisbigmoment!ButthenIsaidthatIcouldn’thelpglancingattheboardsaswehadwalkedintothehallandthatIwouldliketotrytonameallthegamesfromhere,inmychairacrosstheroom.SoonebyoneInamedtheplayers,thetournament,andeventhenextmoveofeachgamerepresentedonthedozenboards.Theeffectwassatisfactorilyjaw-droppingfortheguests,andlookingbackonit,Itrytoforgivemyself

ayouthfuldisplayofthedramatic.WhatIdidnotexplain,andlikelydidn’tevenrealizeatthetimemyself,wasthattheyhadmadeiteasyforme.Notwiththegameselection,becausenotallofthepositionswereeventakenfromworld-famousencounters.Butofcourseeachpositiontheyhadselectedwasfromthecriticalmomentofeachgame.Noself-respectingchessfanwouldselectanondescriptpositionfromadeservedlyforgottengamewhentherearesomanyfascinatingandfamouspositionstochoosefrom.Itwasenoughtoknowthatsincethefirstpositionwasthekeymomentofaknowngamefromhistory,

theotherswerelikelysimilar.Hadthepositionsappeareduninterestingortrivial,IwouldperhapshaveassumedtheparticipantshadbeenplayingsomecasualgamesbeforeIarrived.WhenIglancedattheboards,IquicklyrecognizedthatIdidn’thavetoevaluatethepositions;allIhadtodowaslookthemupinmymemory.Knowingasolutionisathandisahugeadvantage;it’slikenothavinga“noneoftheabove”option.

Anyonewithreasonablecompetenceandadequateresourcescansolveapuzzlewhenitispresentedassomethingtobesolved.Wecanskipthesubtleevaluationsandmovedirectlytoplugginginpossiblesolutionsuntilwehituponapromisingone.Uncertaintyisfarmorechallenging.Insteadofimmediatelylookingforsolutionstothecrisis,wehavetomaintainaconstantstateofasking,“Isthereacrisisforming?”

DetectingaCrisisBeforeIt’saCrisis

Detectingacrisisinthemakingisaseparateskillfromsolvingone.(HereI’mdistinguishingcrisisfromcatastrophe;itdoesn’ttakemuchskillorintuitiontorealizewhenthingshavegonehorriblywrong.)Ina1959speechinIndianapolis,JohnF.KennedyfamouslyobservedthattheChinesewordfor“crisis”iscomposedoftwocharacters,onemeaningdangerandtheothermeaningopportunity.Thoughthisturnsoutnottobeliterallytrue,itisapoeticandmemorablewaytoillustrateausefulconcept.IwassomewhatsurprisedtodiscoverthattheEnglishdefinitionofthewordisalsoillustrative.From

itscommonusagewemightassumeitmeanssomethinglike“disaster,”whichneedsnofurthersynonyms.Butinfact,crisisreallymeansaturningpoint,acriticalmomentwhenthestakesarehighandtheoutcomeuncertain.Italsoimpliesapointofnoreturn.Thissignifiesbothdangerandopportunity,soKennedy’sspeechwasaccuratewhereitmattered.Greatsuccesswithminimalriskoffailureisagoalheldbymany,especiallyinthemodernpolitical

andcommercialenvironment.Itmayevenbeachievable—ifyouhavemanyadvantagestostartwith,the

wayanheirtoafortunedoeswhenheentersabusiness.Anditwouldbepleasant,ifboring,toforevertakeourboatdowncalmandstraightstreams,neverencounteringrapidsorbendsinthecourse.Butformostofus,avoidingcrisesentirely—whichoftenonlymeanspostponingthemor,worse,ignoringthemaltogether—carriesagreatriskofitsown.Instead,realsuccessdependsondetecting,evaluating,andcontrollingrisk.Ofthesethreethings,detectionisoftenthemostimportantandalwaysthemostdifficult.Importantbecausewithoutit,insteadofcontrollingriskweendupfightingtosurvivewhenthecrisishits.Difficultbecauseitrequiresalertnesstothemostsubtlechanges.WorldchampionBorisSpasskyonceobserved,“Thebestindicatorofachessplayer’sformishis

abilitytosensetheclimaxofthegame.”Itisvirtuallyimpossibletoplaythebestmoveeverysingleturn,becauseaccuracycomesattheexpenseoftimeandviceversa.Butifwecandetectthekeymoments,wecanmakeourbestdecisionswhentheymattermost.Themoveswemakeonthechessboardarefarfromequalinimportance,andyoumustrelyonintuitiontotellyouthathere,atthisprecisemoment,youneedtospendsomeextratimebecausethegamemayhingeonthisonedecision.Apartfromitsmeritasanindicatorofgoodorpoorform,theabilitytodetectthesecrisispointsisa

gaugeofoverallstrengthinachessplayer—andinadecision-maker.Thegreatestplayersaredistinguishedbytheirabilitytorecognizecrucialfactorsthatarebothspecificandgeneral.Analysisofpastgamesillustratesthiswell,despitethechallengesIreferredtoearlierofcomprehendingtodaywhatwasgoingthroughthemindofsomeoneonehundredyearsago.Wecan’tbepositivethatLaskerknewacertainmovewastheclimaxofthegame,butwecantellfromanalyzinghisplaywhenhefoundthebestmovesandwhenhedidn’t.Usuallywealsoknowhowmuchtimetheplayersinvestedineachmove.

LearningfromaCrisis

Chateaubriandwrote,“Momentsofcrisisproducearedoublingoflifeinman.”Thesearethetimeswhenwearetested,whenwedevelopourskillsandoursenses.Takeamomenttolookbackonyourlastcrisisandhowyouhandledit.Ifyoucannotrecallarecentcrisisinyourlife,evenonesuccessfullyaverted,youareeitherlucky,bored,orboth.Itisnotpurebravadothatleadssomeindividualstoconstantlypushthemselvesandthosearoundthem

tothebreakingpointinpursuitofconflict.Timesofconflictcancreateopportunitiesthatwouldneverotherwiseexist.Provokingacrisisrequiresperfecttimingifyouplantosurvivetheconsequences.Youcanhavetheotherkeyfactorsonyourside—materialandquality—andstillberuinedifyoumisjudgetheprevailingenvironment.

AFinalChessStory:TheCrisisinSevilleIcanlookbackatmychesscareerandpickoutmorethanafewcrisispoints,butonlyoneMountEverest.IwouldliketosharethetaletoinvestigatethemeansIusedinwinningthemostimportantgameofmylife.Afterwinningtheworldchampionshipin1985,Ihadlittletimetosavorthetasteofvictory.The

traditionalcyclecalledforatitledefenseeverythreeyears.Duringthattimethechallengerwouldbeproducedbyrigorousqualificationthroughregionaltournaments,giant“interzonal”tournaments,andfinallyaseriesofcandidatematches.Thiswassogruelingthatachallengerinthefinalwasundoubtablyaworthycontender.Infact,sincethequalificationsystembeganin1950—whenitwasjustasingletournament—onlytwoplayerswhoreachedaworldchampionshipmatchhavefailedtobecomechampioneventually.Thisprocesswasinterruptedinmycase,however,thankstotherematchclause,adefunctrulethat

FIDEresurrectedintheseventiesunderSovietpressuretofavorKarpov.Ifthechampionlost,hehadtherighttoanautomaticrematchayearlaterwithnoqualificationprocess.ThisrulehadbeenabolishedafterBotvinnik,whohadpoorscoresinworldchampionshipmatchesbutwasdevastatingintherematches,usedittoreclaimthetitlehelosttoSmyslovin1957andthenTalin1960.ToavoidthesamefateIwouldhavetobeatKarpovagainin1986.Bearinmindthatwehadalready

playedthelongestchampionshipmatchinhistoryin1984–85,thenplayedanothergruelingmatchin1985,inwhichItookthetitle.Inarrowlywontherematchin1986,buttheordealwasstillnotover.Thequalificationcyclehadstartedonschedulein1985despiteourcanceledmarathonmatch,therescheduledmatch,andtherematch.ThismeantthatIwasduetofacethescheduledchallengerin1987,exactlyayearafterbeatingKarpov.Andwhowouldmyopponentbethistime?Karpov.Evadingthemainqualificationprocess,mynemesishadbeendroppedintoa“superfinal”andhadduly

demolishedtheleadingcontender,AndreiSokolov.InOctober1987wesatdowninSeville,Spain,tobeginourfourthworldchampionshipmatchinthreeyears.IfIhadthoughtIwastiredoflookingatKarpovbackin1984,Iwasreallysickofhimbynow.Atleastthistimetherewerenomoretricks.IfIwonthismatch,Iwouldn’thavetoseehimoranyothertitlechallengerforanotherthreeyears.Apartfromthefreedomfromtheexhaustingbattleofthematchitself,thisalsomeantnothavingtoendurethemonthsofintensepreparationthatalwaysprecedesuchamatch.

Must-WinStrategyPerhapsmyeagernesstoavoidplayinganothermatchwithKarpovforanotherthreeyearsiswhatledtosuchaturbulentstarttoourmatchinSeville.Fourofthefirsteightgamesweredecisive,twowinseachandfourdraws.Iwasdisappointedwithmyunevenplayandmyinabilitytoputanydistancebetweenus.AfteraterribleKarpovblunder,Iwontheeleventhgamefromadubiouspositiontotaketheleadforthefirsttimeinthematch,scheduledfortwenty-fourgames.AfterfourdrawsKarpovwonthesixteenthgametodraweven.AtthispointIbegantothinkonlyofmytitle.A12–12score—adrawnmatch—wouldallowmetoretainthechampionship.HardlytheconvincingvictoryIhadhopedfortoendourmarathon,butbeggarscannotbechoosers,and,moreimportant,adrawwouldgivemethreeyearsofpeace.Iwentintodefensivemodeandstoppedpressinghim.Astretchofsixquiteuneventfuldrawsfollowed,settingupashowdowninthefinaltwogames.Ididn’twanttopushandKarpovdidn’thavetheenergytodoso.Twomoredrawsseemedthemost

logicalresult.Membersofmyanalysisteamthoughtsotoo.Theydidn’ttellmeabouttheirsidewagersuntilafterthematchhadended,butGrandmasterZurabAzmaiparashvilimadeabetagainstGrandmasterJosefDorfmanonthelasttwogames,givingawayphenomenaloddsforanyoutcomeotherthantwomoredraws.ItwouldhavedonemyheartagreatdealofgoodhadDorfmanlosthisbet,butunfortunatelythestring

ofdrawswouldendatsix.Afteratough,prolongeddefenseIsufferedoneoftheworsthallucinationsofmycareerandblunderedtoalossingametwenty-three.SuddenlyKarpovwasupbyapointandwasonlyadrawawayfromtakingbackthecrownhehadlosttometwoyearsearlier.Theverynextdayafterthiscatastrophe,Ihadtotakethewhitepiecesintoamust-wingametwenty-four.Caissa,thegoddessofchess,hadpunishedmeformyconservativeplay,forbetrayingmynature.Iwouldnotbeallowedtoholdontomytitlewithoutwinningagameinthesecondhalfofthematch.Onlyoncebeforeinchesshistoryhadthechampionwonafinalgametoretainhistitle.Withhisback

againstthewall,EmanuelLaskerbeatCarlSchlechterinthelastgameoftheirmatchin1910.ThewinallowedLaskertodrawthematchandkeephistitleforafurtherelevenyears.TheAustrianSchlechterhad,likeKarpov,areputationasadefensivewizard.Infact,hisuncharacteristicallyaggressiveplayin

thefinalgameagainstLaskerhasledsomehistorianstobelievethattherulesofthatparticularmatchrequiredhimtowinbytwopoints.In1985thesituationhadbeenreversed.Ihadgoneintothefinalgameleadingbyapoint,andKarpov

neededtowintotiethematchandsavethetitlehehadheldsince1975.Asdiscussedinchapter2,inthatdecisivegameKarpovstartedoutwithanall-or-nothingattack.Atthecriticalmomenthewasbetrayedbyhisowninstinctsandfailedtofindthebestmoves.Hehadstartedoutthegameplayinginmydirectstyleonlytoslowdowntohisownmorecautiousapproachinmidstream,withpredictablypoorresults.Whenpreparingformyturnontheothersideofthissituation,Irecalledthatcriticalencounter.What

strategyshouldIemploywiththewhitepiecesinthismust-winfinalgame?Therewasmoretothinkaboutthangametwenty-threeandgametwenty-four,ofcourse.Thesewerealsogames119and120betweenus,anextraordinarynumberoftop-levelencountersbetweenthesametwoplayers,allplayedinaspanofthirty-ninemonths.Itfeltlikeonelongmatch,withthisfinalgameinDecember1987theclimaxofwhatwehadstartedinSeptember1984.MyplanforthefinalgamehadtoconsidernotonlywhatIwouldlikebestbutwhatmyopponentwouldlikeleast.AndwhatcouldbemoreannoyingforKarpovthanmyturningthetablesandplayinglikeKarpov?

ErrorsonBothSidesHadInotbattledagainstKarpovfor119games,Iwouldhavebeenincapableofsurvivingtheall-important120th.Thelossofgametwenty-threeitselfhadthepotentialtobecrushing,andIhadlessthantwenty-fourhourstopreparewhatcouldbemylastgameasworldchesschampion.The“secret”ofmypreparation?Playingcardswithmyteamandgettingagoodfiveorsixhoursofsleep.Theaggregatescoreofourworldchampionshipmarathonwassixteenwinsapieceandeighty-seven

draws.Victoryinthis120thgamewouldmeannotonlywinningthismatchbuttakingtheleadinouroverallscore.Sowhycardsandsleepinsteadofopeningpreparation?After119gameswithKarpovtherewasnothingmyteamandIweregoingtouncoverinafewhoursofanxiousanalysis.Wedecidedonabasicstrategy,nothingmorethanthat.Therestofthetimewasbetterspentrecoveringmynervousandphysicalenergyforthebattleahead.Thismightsoundstrangegivenmytypicallyobsessivepreparation,butitwasasimplematterofallocationofresources.Here,Iwouldbebestservedtotradetimeforquality.ThestrategyIhadchosenwouldrequirenotexplosiveenergybutaslowburn.ThemagnificentTeatroLopedeVegawaspackedforgametwenty-four.Theentiregamewasshown

liveonSpanishtelevision.Theusualpregamemurmuroftheaudiencehadbeenreplacedbyalowroar.IwaslatertoldthattheexcitedSpanishradioandtelevisioncommentatorssoundedasiftheywerecoveringthefinalroundofaheavyweightboxingmatch,whichinasensetheywere.ThearbiterstartedmyclockandIpushedmyc-pawnforwardtwosquares,justasIhaddoneeight

timespreviouslyinthematch.ThedifferencewouldcomeinthenextfewmovesasIkeptmycenterpawnsbackandinsteaddevelopedontheflanks,carefullyavoidingado-or-diebattle.Iopenedslowly,evenalittlepassively,tokeepasmanypiecesaspossibleontheboard.ThistechniquewouldputpsychologicalpressureonKarpov,despitehisexpertiseinsuchmaneuvers.Withnoclear,forcingcontinuationshewouldconstantlybetemptedtosimplifyandexchangepiecesevenatthecostofaslightlyinferiorposition.Obviouslywithfewerpiecesontheboardthelevelofcomplexitywoulddrop,reducingthechancesofadecisiveresult,butaslongasIcouldputasufficientlyhigh“qualitypricetag”ontheseexchanges,IfeltIwasgettinggoodvalue.Myslow-cookmethodhadtheadditionaladvantageofgettingKarpovintoserioustimetrouble.With

thestakessohighhewasbeingextra-cautious,takingvaluableminutestodouble-checkmoveshewouldnormallymakequickly.Asthegameprogressed,Karpovexchangedhalfthepieces,buthispositionwas

stillunderuncomfortablepressure.Hewassoclosetoequalizingoneverymove,buthecouldn’tquitegethisheadabovewater;inthemeantimehisclockwasbecomingafactor.Seeingachancetoplayforanattack,Imovedmyknighttothecentrale5square,offeringapawn.

Karpovtookthebaitandgrabbedthepawn,atemptationthatcouldhaveledtodisaster.Andhehadtoplayquicklynow,asitwasstillalongwaytomoveforty,when,bytherulestheninforce,thegamewouldbeadjournedandmoretimeaddedbeforecontinuationthenextday.(Today,mostlyduetotheplayersusingcomputerstohelpthemanalyze,suchadjournmentsareobsolete.)Iexchangedrooks,leavingmewithqueen,knight,andbishopagainsthisqueenandtwoknights.Hehad

anextrapawn,butIhadseenatacticalpossibilitythatwouldgivemeapowerfulattack.Hispiecesweredangerouslyuncoordinated,andhiskingwasvulnerable.IfIcouldpenetrateintohispositionwithmyqueen,Icouldexploitbothofthesefactorsatthesametime.Thequestionwaswheretomovemyqueenonmovethirty-three.Karpovcouldonlywait,knowinghewouldhavetoreplyalmostimmediatelyorhewouldn’thaveenoughtimetomakethenexteightmoveswithoutlosingontime.Lostinthought,Iwasstartledbyataponmyshoulder.TheDutcharbiterleanedoverandsaid,“Mr.

Kasparov,youhavetowritethemoves.”IhadbecomesowrappedupinthegamethatIhadforgottentomakenoteofthelasttwomovesonmyscoresheetasrequiredbytherules.Thearbiterwasofcoursecorrecttoremindmeoftheregulations,butwhatamomenttobestrict!Distracted,Iplayedmyqueentothewrongsquare.Imissedasubtletyandfailedtoseewhyadifferent

movewiththesameideawouldhavebeenstronger.MymovegaveKarpovacleverdefense,andsuddenlyhewasonemovefromreclaiminghistitle.Butunderpressurefromtheclock,hemissedthebestmove(thoughourexchangeoferrorswouldnotbediscovereduntilwellafterthegame),andthemomentumwasstillwithme.Karpov’sbestopportunitytodefendhadpassed,andmyforcessurroundedtheblackking.Iregained

mysacrificedpawnwithinterest,andbythetimewereachedmoveforty,endingthetimescramble,mypositionwasclearlysuperior.Thegamewasadjourneduntilthenextdaywiththetitlestillupintheair.Itwasgoingtobealongnight.

KeepingaGripontheTitleGettingagoodnight’ssleepbeforethegamehadbeenwise,butnowtherewasworktodo.Thirteenpieceswerestillontheboard,includingqueens,toomuchmaterialfordefinitiveendgameanalysis.Ihadanextrapawn,butwithsuchlimitedmaterial,Karpovhaddefinitechancesofadraw.Alotofchesswasstillahead.Wespentthenightinvestigatingpossibledefensivesandhowtobreakthemdown.BeforethegameIgavemychancesasfifty-fifty:fiftypercentchanceofawin,fiftypercentchanceofadraw.ThebestnewswasthatIcouldplaythispositionforever,maneuveringaroundtoprovokeamistakeby

myopponent.Blackwouldbetieddownondefensetheentiretime,andKarpovknewit.Theprospectofsuchprolongedtorturetookitstoll;IcouldseeitinhiseyeswhenhewalkedonthestageafewminutesafterIdid.Hisfatalisticexpressiontoldmethathehadalreadylostthegamepsychologically,whichboostedmyconfidence.Themaneuveringbegan.IrememberbeingsurprisedwhenearlyonKarpovmadeapawnpushthatmy

teamandIhadestablishedasbadforblack’sdefensivechances.ApparentlyKarpovandhisteamdisagreedwithouranalysis,orperhapsitwasapsychologicalerror.Sometimesthehardestthingtodoinapressuresituationistoallowthetensiontopersist.Thetemptationistomakeadecision,anydecision,evenifitisaninferiorchoice.AndKarpov’smovemadethepositionmoreconcrete,reducingthelevelofuncertainty.Butinmyfavor,hisstructurewasnowfixed,presentingmewithclearertargets.Convincedofthequalityofouranalysis,ItookKarpov’ssignificantdeviationfromitasamistake,notapotential

improvement,furtherincreasingmyconfidence.Afteranothertenmovesofsteadysqueezing,Ibegantofeelthewinwasinthebag.Karpov’spieces

werepinnedupagainstthewall,andalittlemoremaneuveringwouldleadtodecisivematerialgain.LaterIheardthatFIDEpresidentFlorencioCampomaneswasbusycallingaspecialmeetinginanotherroomtodecidehowtohandletheclosingceremony,whichwasscheduledtobeheldonthesameday.Butitstilllookedasifthisgamecouldlastforever;whatwastobedone?Twocriseswereavertedatoncewhensomeoneranintothemeetingroomtoannounce,“Karpovresigned!”ItwaswithoutquestiontheloudestandlongeststandingovationIhadeverreceivedoutsidemynative

country.ThetheaterthunderedasSpanishtelevisioncutfromfútboltobroadcasttheconclusionofthematch.IhaddonewhatKarpovhadfailedtodoin1985:wonthefinalgameanddrawnthematchtoretainmytitle.ThistimeIwouldhaveagood,longtimetoenjoyit.

IlefttheSevillestageandjumpedintothearmsofoneofmyteammembers,shouting,“Threeyears!Ihavethreeyears!”Sadly,timedoesnotstopatthesemoments,nomatterhowmuchwemightwishitto.ThosethreeyearspassedfasterthanIcouldhaveimagineduntilwewerethereagain,KarpovandI,face-to-faceinourfifthstraightworldchampionshipmatch.Ourepicduelshaveformedapartofchesshistorythatmostoftoday’stopplayersgrewupwatching.Bytheendofthatlastmatchin1990—yetanothernarrowwinforme—ourcareerscoresagainsteach

otherwereclose.Andyetineveryencounter,ineachmatch—Moscow,St.Petersburg,Seville,Lyon—ateachdecisivemoment,Ihadwon.Thismeansmoretomethananystatisticaboutwinsandlosses.ItmeansIperformedmybestwhenitmatteredmost.

ENDGAME

TheFightinRussiaToday

OnMarch10,2005,Iplayedmylastprofessionalgameofchess.ThirtyyearsafterIplayedmyfirstmajoreventatthenationallevel,nearlytwentyyearsafterIbecameworldchampion,Iretiredattheageofforty-one.IleftafterwinningmyfinaltournamentinmybelovedLinaresandstillasthetop-rankedplayerinthegame,inevitablyleadingtonumerous“Why?”inquiriesfromallquarters.Faithfultomyownpreaching,Ihadlookeddeeplyatthiscriticalmove.Thiswasnotaspontaneous

movebutalogicalstep.Myshifttobecomingafull-timememberoftheRussianpoliticaloppositionmovementreflectedboththeneedsofmycountryandmydesiretomakeadifferenceintheworldaroundme.IwasfortunatetohaveattainedmostoftheambitiousgoalsIhadsetformyselfinthechessworld.Newchallengesandnewwaystomakeanimpactwerewaitingformeinpoliticsand,Ihoped,inwriting.Oneoftheconstantthemesofthisbookhasbeenhowessentialitistocontinuallychallengeourselves.

Theonlywaytodevelopistoventureintotheunknown,totakerisks,andtolearnnewthings.Wemustforceourselvesoutofourcomfortzoneandtrustourabilitytoadaptandthrive.EverythingthatIhavewrittenhereledmetoretirefromthechessworld.IcravednewchallengesandwantedtobewhereIfeltIwaswantedandneeded.InfightingforthesurvivalofRussia’sfragiledemocracy,Ifoundapreciouscause,aworthychallenge,andanewwaytochannelmyenergy.Thisdecisionwasnotaboutrunningforhigheroffice,norwasitapersonalvendettaagainstVladimir

Putinoranyoneelse.Mineisamissionofpositivechange.Putinisonlythecurrentsymbolofwhatwearefightingagainst.Idon’twantmyten-year-oldsontoworryaboutRussianmilitaryserviceinanillegalwarsuchasChechnyaortofeartherepressionofadictatorship.Iwanttohaveachancetooffermyvision,strategicthought,andfightingspirittopreventthosethingsfromhappening.ManygoontoaskaboutthedangersofopposingthisKremlinregimeandifthisisafoolhardymove.

Afterall,havinghisfatherattackedorjailedwon’tbeofmuchbenefittomyson.TothisIcanonlysaythatsomethingsmustsimplybedone.Succeedorfail,thisisafightthatmustbefought.AstheSovietdissidentsfamouslyputit,“Dowhatyoumustandsobeit.”MillionslikemeinRussiawantafreepress,theruleoflaw,socialjustice,andfreeandfairelections.Mynewjobistofightforthosepeopleandtofightforthosefundamentalrights.ToachievetheseendsmycolleaguesandIhaveformedabroadnonideologicalcoalitionoftrue

oppositiongroupsandactivists.IamworkinginsideRussiaandabroadtobringattentiontothedecimationofRussia’sdemocraticinstitutions.MychessfameandtheskillsIdevelopedinthechessworldhaveprovenequallyvitaltothistask.MyhopeisthatinthisbookIhavemanagedtopassalongsomeofthewisdomandstrategiesI’velearned,andthatyoutoowillfindwaystousetheworld’sgreatestgametoyoureveryadvantage.

YourLifeIsYourPreparation

Whatwemakeofthefutureisdefinedbyhowwellweunderstandandmakeuseofourpast.Ourpast

createsamapnotonlyofwherewehavecomefrom,butofwherewearegoing;onitaremarkedthethingswehavevalued,andtheplaceswehavefoundsuccessorfailure.Butthemostwondrousthingaboutthismapisthatvastportionsofitareyettobefilledin.Withinsightandeffortwecantracenewroutestoourownsatisfaction.Thenextpartofmylifewillcontainmanynewchallenges.Ihavenewgoals,newpeopleinmylife,

andIhaveleftbehindtheonlyvocationIhaveeverknown.Andyetasforeignasthisnewcourseseemedatfirst,mylifeinchesshasleftmewellprepared.Iaskmyself,howcanIbeafraidofamereKGBlieutenantcolonelafterovercominganOlympusofchesschampions!WhyshouldmynervesfailmeinfrontofheadsofstateorCEOsofmultinationalcorporationswhenIhavespentmyentirelifeonstage?Afteralifetimeofpreparationandself-examinationIbelieveIhavethetoolsIneedtoadapttothis

newstruggle.Therearenewstrategies,newtactics,andIdon’texpectthetransitiontoalwaysbesmooth.Mypersonalmapisfullofgrayareas,anditsouterbordersareneverentirelycomplete.Mostimportant,Ihavelearnednottofearthoseunknownterritories.Myten-year-oldson,Vadim,isreachingtheagewheremyownchildhoodmemoriesarevivid.While

hislifewillofcoursebeverydifferentfrommine,IdearlyhopetoprovidehimtheguidanceIknowmyfatherwouldhavecontinuedtoprovideme.AfterahecticlifeIwasfortunatetomeetDasha,nowmyfriend,supporter,andwife.Aboveall,I’minfinitelygratefulthatthesamepersonwhoguidedmethroughmyfirstcareer,mymother,Klara,isagainwithmeatthestartofmysecond.WheneverI’mfacedwithadifficultpath,herwordsinspireme:“Ifnotyou,whoelse?”

NoMoreSecrets

Thepurposeofthisbookistoinspirefellowexplorers.Wecanalllookatourpersonalmapsandcastoffforunknowndomainswherewewillencounternewchallenges.Wecanacceptthatfailureisanecessarypartofsuccess.ThefaiththatledMagellantoattempttocircumnavigatetheglobein1519iswhywerememberhim.Butfewrememberthathewasnotamongtheeighteensurvivorswhocompletedthejourney.Likeanyexplorerwemustfirstplanourroute,ourstrategy.Thenwemustmarshalourresources,

allocatingthemcarefullywhileobtainingwhatweneedanddiscardinganyexcess.Onceunderway,weneedtomaintainasharptacticaleyebyneverbackingawayfromconflictunlesswearecertainitbestsuitsourneedstodoso.Remainingalertfordangersandopportunitiesshouldnotbeallowedtodistractusfromourcourse.Wemustatalltimesbeawareofchangesinourenvironment,lookingforchancestomakepositiveexchangesthatwilltakeadvantageofnewconditions.Aboveall,wemustbeconsciousofeverydecisionwemake.Notonlyinevaluatingeachfuturecourse

ofactionbutinlookingbacktoanalyzeourpastchoicesandtheeffectivenessoftheprocessbywhichwemadethem.Insteadofmakingusweary,ourexplorationsshouldenergizeus,suffusinguswithnewconfidenceand

inspiration.Oursensesaresharpened,andunknownchallengessoonbecomeasightmorewelcomethanafamiliarroutine.Newstimulidevelopourintuition.Weseethetrendsforming,thebigpictureandthedetailsstayinfocusatthesametime,thedotsbecomeeasiertoconnect.Whenacrisiscomes,ourinstinctsserveasanearly-warningsystem.Ifwearecaughtbysurprise,ourreflexesgiveusthechancetotaketheoffensiveinsteadofplayingdefense.NearlytwentyyearsagoIconcludedaprecociousautobiographywiththesewords:“Timeaftertime,

asI’veoutgrownanotherproblemordefeatedanotheropponent,Ihaveseenthatthemainbattlesareyet

tocome...Myfightisopen-ended.”NowIknowthisfightwasn’tonlywiththeSovietSportsCommitteeorFIDEortheKremlin,butalsowithmyownabilitiesandlimitations.Ourenergiescanbedirectedtowardtakingresponsibilityforourfates,towardcreatingchangeandmakingadifference.Howsuccessismeasuredisdifferentforeachofus.Thefirstandmostimportantstepisrealizingthatthesecretofsuccessisinside.

EPILOGUE

AStrategyforDemocracy

Attheendof2006,asthisbookwasheadedtotheprinterinseveralcountries,theinternalpoliticalchaosinRussiaspilledoutintotheworld’sheadlines.ABritishnational,KGBagentdefector,andharshcriticoftheKremlin,AlexanderLitvinenko,wasassassinatedwiththerareradioactivesubstancepolonium210.Theinvestigationintohisdeathcurrentlyspansatleastthreecountries.Litvinenko’smurdercameontheheelsoftheMoscowkillingofthewell-knowninvestigative

journalistAnnaPolitkovskaya—onRussianpresidentVladimirPutin’sbirthdaynoless.ThekillingshaveturnedaspotlightonwhattheWesthadassumedwastheautocratic-but-stablePutinregime.SuddenlytheforeignmediaisrealizingwhatweintheRussianoppositionhavebeensayingforyears—theKremliniseverclosertodictatorshipthandemocracyandyetisnotstableatall.Thisinteresthasledtoacorrespondingincreaseinattentiontomyownroleintheopposition

movementandtoquestionsabouthowmyformercareerasachesschampionhasaidedmymission.Withthatinmind,mypublisherwonderedifitwouldbeappropriatetoincludesomelast-minutecommentsabouthowIhaveappliedthelessonspresentedinthisbooktomypoliticalfightinRussia.Butthisepilogueismorethanatopicalconvenience.Whilewritingthisbookandpreparingmy

businesslectures,Ihavediscoveredagreatdealaboutsynthesizingtheselessonsandusingtheminpractice.ItisquiteaccuratetosaythatIhavebeenlearningfrommyownbook,confirmingtheoldadagethatthebestwaytolearnatopicistoteachit.Themostimportant,andmostdifficult,elementonmynewpoliticalagendawasdevelopingastrategy

thatwouldpumplifeintotheanti-Putinforces.Itwaslikesittingdowntoachessgamealreadyinprogressanddiscoveringmysidewasclosetocheckmateineveryvariation.Icouldimmediatelydrawaparalleltomyfirstworldchampionshipmatch,the1984–85marathonagainstAnatolyKarpov.ThereIspentmonthsastepawayfromtotaldisaster,asituationthatrequiredanentirelynewstrategy,onebasedmoreonsurvivalthantriumph.Ididit;Isurvivedtofightanotherday,andthenexttimewemetIwasvictorious.Theanti-Kremlinforceswereinasimilarlydirestatein2004.Unfortunately,inthisgameour

opponentschangetherulesregularlyandalwaystotheiradvantage.Buteveninthisunpredictableandunfaircontestagoodstrategygivesusafightingchance.Istartedwiththefundamentalsofplanning:athoroughevaluationofthepositionandthedeterminationofitsmostvitalelements.Findingtheoutlinesofthebigpicturecamefirst.Itwasnecessarytosortoutalliesfromenemies,aneasyenoughtaskintheblack-and-whiteworldofthechessboardbutfarmorecomplexinthegrayrealmofpolitics.Twothingseventuallybecamecleartome.First,thatthecontinuedexistenceoforganizedoppositionto

Putin’scrackdownwasinnowayguaranteed.Weneededtodigintosurviveorriskbeingpushedcompletelyofftheboard.Thereisnolosingwithgraceorreachingapeacefulaccordwithsuchanopponent.Whenfacinganauthoritarianregimebentontotalcontrol,everydayyouenduresendsoutamessageofhope:“We’restillhere.”Withnoaccesstotelevisionandotherstate-controlledmedia,itwasessentialforustofindotherwaystogetoutthosevitalwords.Secondwastheneedtoformacoalition.Theoppositionwasindisarray,smallpoliticaland

nongovernmentalgroupseachwithitsownissueswiththegovernment.Despitethenumerouscausesandideologiesrepresented,Ibecameconvincedthatweneededtounite,tofindcommoncauseagaintherepression.Theonethingweallhadincommonwastheknowledgethatdemocracywasouronlysalvation.Liberals,Communists,humanrightsactivists—weallbelieved,andcontinuetobelieve,thatgivenachoiceinafairelectiontheRussianpeoplewillrejectPutin’sattempttoturnourcountrybackintoapolicestate.Thismovedidnotarisespontaneously.Myfirststepswereasthecofounderandchairmanofthe

Committee2008:FreeChoiceinJanuary2004.Thiswasacoalitionoflike-mindedliberalsandmembersofthemedia—thatis,notjustpoliticians—dedicatedtoensuringfreeandfairelectionsin2008,whenPutin’ssecond,andconstitutionallyfinal,termofofficeends.MyworkthereconvincedmethatRussia’sproblemsweretoobigtosolvefromanyinternalorideologicalstance.InthisbookIdiscussthetendencytodiscoverproblemsthatcannotbesolvedfromwithintheavailable

framework,andherewassuchaproblem.NegotiationswereusedtogainpoliticalcapitalthatwastradedforsuperficialconcessionsbytheKremlin,aprocessthatonlyperpetuatedthecorruptsystemandmadeusapartofit.Tohavearealimpactitwasnecessarytofocusonthecoreissue:youwereeitherworkingwiththeKremlinordedicatedtodismantlingtheregime.Similarideasaboutunitingwerealreadyintheair,andtheyledtotheformationoftheAll-RussiaCivil

CongressinDecember2004,andIwaselectedcochair.Ihadbeenobservingthedissatisfactionoftheactivistsoneveryside.TheyweretiredofdancingtoPutin’stunewhilewatchingtheirpartyleaderscutdealsforpaltryhandouts.TheCivilCongresswasconceivedasaunifyingplatform,butitfellshortwhenforcesfrombothsidesofthepoliticalspectrumwereasofyetunabletoleavebehindtheYeltsin-eracivilwarmentalityandtoworkalongsidetheirtraditionaladversaries.Mygreatestcontributionwouldbetohelpbridgethisgap.InMarch2005Iretiredfromprofessionalchessandcouldplanmynexttacticalmaneuveronthe

politicalfront.Amajorobstaclewasthattherulingadministrationcontrolledallaccesstotelevision.Withoutaccess,thepoliticalgrassrootsweredyingoutalloverthecountry.WeneededtofindawaytoreachoutbeyondtheGardenRing,thewealthycenterofMoscow.Weneededanorganizationthatwouldunifytheoppositiongroupsacrosstheideologicaldividesaswellasdevelopournationwidenetworkofactivists.ThisneworganizationwastheUnitedCivilFront(UCF),andunderthisbannerItraveledRussiafromVladivostoktoKaliningradtospreadourmessage,totalkaboutwhythecountrysidewassopoorandtheelitessorich.And,mostimportant,tosaythatitwasnottoolatetocometogetherandfightforourcivillibertiesanddemocracy,becauseonlythosethingswouldimprovethedeterioratingstandardofliving.Thismixingofoppositiongroupshasalsohadseveralpositivesideeffects.Theleftistsandthosestill

mourningtheSovietUnionhavecometorecognizetheimportanceofliberaldemocracyandpoliticalfreedom.Theliberalshavelearnedtoaccepttheneedforthesocialprogramstoutedbytheleft.UnityhasnotonlystiffenedtheoppositiontothePutingovernment,buthasalsoclarifiedandadvancedthespecificgoalsofourmembergroups.Eachoftheseentitiescontributedtomyeducation.Iwaslearningquicklyandweweremaking

progress,butwestillneededtoreachalargeraudiencebothinsideandoutsideRussia.Itwastimetogoontheoffensive.TheGroupofEight(sevenbymycount!)heldasummitinSt.Petersburginthesummerof2006,andtheleadersandmediaofthefreeworldwouldbeinRussia.Itprovidedagoldenopportunitytouniteandalsotogetourmessageout.WeorganizedaconventioninMoscow,aninternationalconferencethatbroughtactivistsfromallover

Russiatoshareideasandsupport.Wealsoinvitedtheinternationalmediaandspeakersfromalloverthe

worldwhowerenotafraidtospeakstronglyfordemocracyintheshadowoftheKremlin.MyAll-RussiaCivilCongresscochairsandIwrotecountlesslettersofinvitation,callinginfavorsandtwistingarmswhennecessary.Eventuallymanyprominentfigurescontributedstatementsofsupport,althoughfewG-8administrationshadthecouragetoopenlyendorseus.WetitledoureventtheOtherRussiaConference,sonamedtotelltheworldthatthestable,democraticRussiaPutinpresentedwasnotreality.Weknewwehadachievedsignificantprogresswhentheadministrationmadeeffortstoharassusat

everyturn.(Ifthisistrulyameasureofsuccess,IshouldbeproudthatthehumbleUCFofficeswereraidedbysecurityforcesthismonth,afewdayspriortoourDecember16marchinMoscow.)TheOtherRussiamovementhasunitedtheRussianopposition,andalthoughoursituationisstillprecarious,wehavesucceededinforcefullypromotingourselvesintoanimportantpieceonthepoliticalchessboard.ThedevelopmentoftheRussianoppositionhasoccurredinparallelwithmyownevolutionasa

politicalthinker.TheUnitedCivilFrontaddedpoliticalclouttotheconceptoftheAll-RussiaCivilCongress.Itallfinallycametogether,literallyandfiguratively,intheOtherRussia.Asunfavorableasourpositionmaystillbe,myevaluationofouropponents’forcesdiscoveredthat

theyarenotwithouttheirownweaknesses.UnliketheoldSovietregime,thisrulingelitehasagreatdealatstakeoutsideRussia.Theirfortunesareinbanks,stockmarkets,realestate,andfootballteams,predominantlyforeign.Thismeanstheyarevulnerabletoexternalpressure.TheyliterallycannotaffordthecuttingoftiesthatwouldcomewithopenhostilitybetweenanincreasinglydictatorialRussiaandtheWest.Sofar,however,ithasbeendifficulttoconvincetheso-calledleadersofthefreeworldandthefree

presstobringsuchpressuretobear.PutinusesRussia’senergywealthasacudgel,andEurope’sleadersmeeklyfallinline.ThusthethirdelementofmystrategyhasbeentoexposethishypocrisyinasmanyeditorialpagesasIcanreach.Thisplanisnotsoshortsightedastonotkeepinmindthepotentialconsequences.Itisessentialto

maintainourcoalitionbecauseiftheincreasinglyshakyPutinregimecollapsesduetointernalconflict,itcouldleadtototalchaos.ItisworthrememberingthatjustfifteenyearsagothemightySovietregimedisintegrated,muchtothesurpriseofWesternintelligenceagencies.Wehavetoalwayslookaheadenoughmovestobewellprepared,evenforvictory!

GLOSSARY

Thisglossaryisintendedasaconciseguidetosomeofthechessterminologyusedinthetext.Manyofthetermsrepresentconceptsexplainedindetailinthebook.Belowisachessdiagramofthestartingposition.Thechessboardhassixty-foursquares.Eachplayer

beginswitheightpiecesandeightpawns.

Thecoordinatesontheedgeoftheboardarethebasisofalgebraicchessnotation,thesymboliclanguagefortranscribingthemovesofagame.Forexample,“1.e4”representsapawnmovingtothee4squareonthefirstmove.Theopeningmoves“1.e4e52.Bc4”putsawhitepawnone4,thenablackpawnone5,andthenawhitebishoponc4.Insimilarfashiongameshavebeenpreservedforhundredsofyears.Moderncomputerdatabasescontainmillionsofgames.

blitzchess—Gameswithlittletimegiventoeachplayer,usuallyfiveminutes.

center—Thefourcentralsquaresofthechessboard(d4,e4,d5,e5,inalgebraicnotation).Controllingthecenterisoneoftheprimarystrategicgoals.Theplayerwithcontrolofthemiddleoftheboardhasanadvantageinpiecemobilityand,therefore,attackingpotential.Thepositionalvalueofvarioussquarestypicallycorrelatestotheirproximitytothecenter.

check—Whenaplayer’skingisunderattack.Theplayerincheckmustdooneofthreethings:movetheking,capturetheattackingpiece,orinterposeapiecetoblockthelineofattack.

checkmate—Apositioninwhichthekingcannotavoidcapture.(Thekingisneveractuallycaptured.)Thedecisiveendofthegame.

chessclock—Adual-actiontimepiecethatrecordstheamountoftimeeachplayerhasremaining.Aplayermakeshismoveandpressestheclock.Thisstopshisclock’smovementandsimultaneouslystartshisopponent’sclock.Clocktimeismeasuredfortheentiregame,notpermove.Aplayerloseswhenhistimeexpires.

classicalchess—Gameswithalargeamountofclocktimeforeachplayer.Atleastninetyminutes,oftenovertwohours.

color—Thepiecesarereferredtoaswhiteorblackregardlessoftheactualcolorofthechessmen.Whitealwaysmovesfirst,whichconfersasubstantialadvantageattheprofessionallevel.

combination—Aforcingsequenceofmoves,oftensacrificial,withaspecificgoal.

draw—Theendofagamewithoutadecisiveresult.Usuallythisoccursbyofferandacceptancebetweentheplayers.Itcanalsocomeaboutbyruleinthecasesofstalemate,lackofprogress(fifty-moverule),orthreefoldrepetitionofthesameposition.Inthetraditionalscoringsystemadrawisworthhalfapointforeachplayer.

endgame—Thefinalphaseofthegame,comingafterthemiddlegame.Mostofthepieceshavebeenexchanged,andplaybecomestechnicalinsteadofstrategic.

FIDE—Theinternationalchessfederation,knownbyitsFrenchacronym(FédérationInternationaledesÉchecs).

gambit—Anopeninginwhichonesideofferstogiveupmaterialinexchangeforpositionaladvantage.

game—Asingleencounterbetweentwoplayers.

Grandmaster—Thehighestinternationaltitle.Withrareexceptionsthetitleisawardedtoaplayerwhohasachievedthreequalifyingtournamentresultsandhasreachedaminimum2500rating.TheRussianczarNicholasIIinventedthetitleforthefivefinalistsofthegreat1914tournamenthesponsoredinSt.Petersburg.ThereareroughlyonethousandGrandmastersintheworldtoday.Withsomany“GMs,”unofficialtitlessuchassuperGrandmasterareusedtodistinguishthetopplayers.

initiative—Theabilitytogeneratethreatsagainstyouropponent’sposition.Theplayerwiththeinitiativecontrolsthecourseofthegamethroughhisabilitytomakemoreeffectivethreats.

match—Aseriesofgamesbetweentwoplayers.

material—Allofthepiecesandpawnsontheboard,minusthekings,whichneverleavetheboard.Amaterialadvantagemeanshavingthegreatertotalvalueofpieces.

middlegame—Thephaseofthegamethatfollowstheopeningandprecedestheendgame.Thedemarcationisnotexactoruniversallyagreedon.Ataminimum,piecedevelopmenthasbeencompletedandcomplexstrategicandtacticalplayisstillpossible.

opening—Theinitialphaseofthegame.Theopeningmovesareoftencomposedofspecificmemorizedsequencescalledopenings.Theopeningisgenerallyconsideredoverwhenthepiecesarenolongerontheiroriginalsquaresandoriginalplayhasbegun.

pawn—Thechessmanoflowestvalueduetoitslimitedmobility.Eachsidestartswitheightpawns.Pawnsarenotusuallyreferredtoaspieces,atermusedfortherestofthearmy.Pawnshavetheuniqueabilitytopromoteintoapiece—almostalwaysaqueen—whentheyreachtheothersideoftheboard.

piecevalues—Therelativepowerofthechesspiecesistypicallymeasuredbytheirvaluecomparedtoanumberofpawns.Knightsandbishopsareworththreepawns(orbishopsafractionmore),rooksfivepawns,thequeenninepawns.

rapidchess—Gameswithashortamountofclocktimeforeachplayer,betweenblitzchessandclassicalchess.Typicallyaroundthirtyminutes.

rating(orElorating)—Anumericalrepresentationofaplayer’sperformancebasedontheresultsofgames.Thisratingsystem,developedbytheAmericanphysicsprofessorArpadElo,wasadoptedby

FIDEin1970.Grandmastersaretypicallyrated2500–2800+.Astrongamateurtournamentplayermightberated1800.Anadultbeginnercouldbeexpectedtoreacha1200ratinginafewmonthsoftournamentplay.Arangeof200pointsisconsideredaclass.

sacrifice—Givingupmaterialforpositionalortacticaladvantage.Typicallyasacrificehasaspecifictacticalgoal,suchascreatingattackingchancesagainsttheopponent’sking.

space—Anelementofachesspositionrepresentingpiecemobilityandthenumberofsquarescontrolled.Aplayerwithanadvantageinspacecanmorefreelymaneuverhispieces.

tactics—Themeansofeffectingastrategicplan.Everymoveinachessgamehassometacticalcomponents.Tacticsrequirecalculationandarethefoundationofcombinations.

timecontrol—Theamountofclocktimegiventotheplayers.Thisisdecidedbyrulesofthetournamentandvarieswidely,fromblitzgamesthatlasttenminutestoclassicalgamesthatcanlastsevenhours.

win—Awinisworthonepointandoccursbycheckmateorwhenoneplayerresigns.Fewprofessionalgamesendincheckmateasplayersresignassoonasalossappearsinevitable.

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS

Thisbookrepresentstheaccumulatedexperiencesofalifetime,butasspaceprecludesmythankingeveryoneIhaveevermet,Iwilllimitmyselftoafewpeoplewithoutwhosehelpthisbookwouldnotbewhatitis.OwenWilliams,myagentofelevenyears,seededtheideaofthebookandwasaguidinghandinthe

projectfromadifficultopeningtoawinningendgame.Hiswife,RebeccaWilliams,wasthefirstandmostdevotedreaderandcriticoftheever-evolvingmanuscript.MarkBicknellofEveryman,publisheroftheMyGreatPredecessorsbookseries,openedthedoorstoPFD,theinternationalliteraryagency.MarkReiterofPFDUSAkickedtheprojectintogear.EmilyLoose,thenatPenguin,movedeverythingintherightdirection.KlausStadler,atmyGermanpublisher,Piper,deservesmanythanksforhisenthusiasticsupportofthebookatacrucialstage.EduardEilazianoriginatedthenotionofmybusinessspeechesandsomeofhisideashavecarried

throughtothebook.MyfriendandcollaboratorMigGreengardhasbecomemyvoiceinEnglishtothepointthatsometimesourwritingexpressesmythoughtsbetterthanmyownwritinginRussian!MyeditorAnnikLaFargeatBloomsburychampionedtheprojectfromthestartandtirelesslyshapedtheU.S.edition.FortheEnglishtranslationoflinesfromPushkin’sEugeneOnegin,IusedthePenguinedition,

translatedbyCharlesJohnston.IthankStanleyDruckenmillerforhiscounselaswellashissteadysupportofchesseducationinthe

UnitedStatesviatheKasparovChessFoundation,andmyfriendandcoachMichaelKhodarkovsky(merecoincidence!),headoftheKCF.DanandAnnaBentonhavehelpedintoomanywaystocount.CarlGershmanforhissupportofanewstrategicconceptfortheRussianopposition.FredericFriedelforhislastingfriendshipandexpertise.JimandCarolMcKayfortheirfriendshipandmoralsupport.Thisbookwouldnothavebeenpossible,indeednothingwouldbepossible,withouttheloveand

supportofmywife,DashaKasparova.Shewasanindispensableanchorduringmydifficulttransitionawayfromprofessionalchessandsheisjustasindispensablenow.

Tomymother,foralifetimeofinspirationandsupport.

Copyright©2007,2008byGarryKasparov

Allrightsreserved.NopartofthisbookmaybeusedorreproducedinanymannerwhatsoeverwithoutwrittenpermissionfromthepublisherexceptinthecaseofbriefQuotationsembodiedincriticalarticlesorreviews.ForinformationaddressBloomsburyUSA,175FifthAvenue,

NewYork,NY10010.

PublishedbyBloomsburyUSA,NewYork

LIBRARYOFCONGRESSCATALOGING-IN-PUBLICATIONDATA

Kasparov,G.K.(GarriKimovich)Howlifeimitateschess:makingtherightmoves,fromtheboardtotheboardroom/

GarryKasparov.—1stU.S.ed.p.cm.

“October2007.”ISBN-13:978-1-59691-387-5(hardcover)ISBN-10:1-59691-387-8(hardcover)

1.Kasparov,G.K.(GarriKimovich)2.Chessplayers—SovietUnion—Biography.3.Chess.4.Decisionmaking.5.Strategy.I.Title.

GV1439.K38A32007794.1092—dc22

[B]2007019706

FirstpublishedbyBloomsburyUSAin2007Thise-bookeditionpublishedin2010

E-bookISBN:978-1-59691-827-6

www.bloomsburyusa.com