Hooked:HowtoBuildHabit-FormingProducts

ByNirEyal

withRyanHoover

Copyright©2014NirEyal

Allrightsreserved.

ISBN:1494277530

ISBN-13:978-1494277536

LibraryofCongressControlNumber:2014900549

v1.2

ForJulie

TABLEOFCONTENTS

Introduction

1.TheHabitZone

2.Trigger

3.Action

4.VariableReward

5.Investment

6.WhatAreYouGoingToDoWithThis?

7.CaseStudy:TheBibleApp

8.HabitTestingandWhereToLookForHabit-FormingOpportunities

Appendix

AbouttheAuthors

Acknowledgements

Contributors

NotesandSourcesNote:Somesectionsofthisbookhaveappearedinarticlespreviouslypublishedbytheauthor.

INTRODUCTION

79 percent of smartphone owners check their device within 15 minutes of

waking up every morning.[i] Perhaps more startling, fully one-third of

Americanssaytheywouldrathergiveupsexthanlosetheircellphones.[ii]

A2011universitystudysuggestedpeoplechecktheirphones34timesper

day.[iii]

However, industry insiders believe that number is closer to an

astounding150dailysessions.[iv]

Faceit,we’rehooked.

Thetechnologiesweusehaveturnedintocompulsions,ifnotfull-fledgedaddictions. It’s the impulse to check amessage notification. It’s the pull tovisit YouTube, Facebook, or Twitter for just a few minutes, only to findyourselfstill tappingandscrollinganhourlater.It’stheurgeyoulikelyfeelthroughoutyourdaybuthardlynotice.

Cognitivepsychologistsdefinehabitsas,“automaticbehaviorstriggeredby

situational cues:” things we do with little or no conscious thought.[v]

Theproductsandservicesweusehabituallyalteroureverydaybehavior, justas

theirdesignersintended.[vi]

Ouractionshavebeenengineered.

Howdocompanies,producinglittlemorethanbitsofcodedisplayedonascreen,seeminglycontrolusers’minds?Whatmakessomeproductssohabit-forming?

Formanyproducts,forminghabitsisanimperativeforsurvival.Asinfinitedistractionscompeteforourattention,companiesarelearningtomasternoveltactics tostayrelevant inusers’minds.Today,amassingmillionsofusers isno longer good enough. Companies increasingly find that their economicvalueisafunctionofthestrengthofthehabitstheycreate.Inordertowintheloyalty of their users and create a product that’s regularly used, companiesmust learnnotonlywhatcompelsusers toclick,butalsowhatmakes themtick.

Althoughsomecompaniesarejustwakinguptothisnewreality,othersare

alreadycashingin.Bymasteringhabit-formingproductdesign,thecompaniesprofiledinthisbookmaketheirgoodsindispensable.

First-To-MindWins

Companieswhoformstronguserhabitsenjoyseveralbenefitstotheirbottomline.Thesecompaniesattachtheirproductto“internaltriggers.”Asaresult,usersshowupwithoutanyexternalprompting.

Instead of relying on expensivemarketing, habit-forming companies link

theirservicestotheusers’dailyroutinesandemotions.[vii]

Ahabitisatworkwhenusers feela tadboredand instantlyopenTwitter.They feelapangoflonelinessandbeforerationalthoughtoccurs,theyarescrollingthroughtheirFacebookfeeds.Aquestioncomestomindandbeforesearchingtheirbrains,theyqueryGoogle.Thefirst-to-mindsolutionwins.Inchapterone,thisbookexploresthecompetitiveadvantagesofhabit-formingproducts.

How do products create habits? The answer: They manufacture them.While fans of the television showMadMen are familiar with how the adindustryoncecreatedconsumerdesireduringMadisonAvenue’sgoldenera,those days are long gone. Amulti-screenworld of ad-wary consumers hasrenderedDonDraper’sbigbudgetbrainwashinguselesstoallbutthebiggestbrands.

Today, small startup teams can profoundly change behavior by guidingusersthroughaseriesofexperiencesIcall“hooks.”Themoreoftenusersrunthroughthesehooks,themorelikelytheyaretoformhabits.

HowIGotHooked

In2008,IwasamongateamofStanfordMBAsstartingacompanybackedbysomeofthebrightestinvestorsinSiliconValley.Ourmissionwastobuilda platform for placing advertising into the boomingworld of online socialgames.

Notablecompaniesweremakingbillionsofdollarssellingvirtualcowsondigital farms while advertisers were spending huge sums of money toinfluencepeopletobuywhatevertheywerepeddling.IadmitIdidn’tgetitatfirstandfoundmyselfstandingatthewater’sedgewondering,“Howdotheydoit?”

Attheintersectionofthesetwoindustriesdependentonmindmanipulation,

Iembarkeduponajourneytolearnhowproductschangeouractionsand,attimes,createcompulsions.Howdidthesecompaniesengineeruserbehavior?Whatwerethemoralimplicationsofbuildingpotentiallyaddictiveproducts?Most importantly, could the same forces that made these experiences socompellingalsobeusedtobuildproductstoimprovepeople’slives?

Where could I find the blueprints for forming habits? To mydisappointment, I found no guide. Businesses skilled in behavior designguardedtheirsecretsandalthoughIuncoveredbooks,whitepapers,andblogposts tangentially related to the topic, there was no how-to manual forbuildinghabit-formingproducts.

Ibegandocumentingmyobservationsofhundredsofcompaniestouncoverpatternsinuserexperiencedesignsandfunctionality.Althougheverybusinesshad its unique flavor, I sought to identify the commonalities behind thewinnersandunderstandwhatwasmissingamongthelosers.

I lookedfor insightsfromacademia:drawinguponconsumerpsychology,human-computer interaction, and behavioral economics research. In 2011, IbegansharingwhatIlearnedandstartedworkingasaconsultanttoahostofSilicon Valley companies, from small startups to Fortune 500 enterprises.Eachclientprovidedanopportunity to testmy theories, drawnew insights,and refine my thinking. I began blogging about what I learned atNirAndFar.comandmyessaysweresyndicated toothersites.Soon, readersbeganwritinginwiththeirownobservationsandexamples.

Inthefallof2012,Dr.BabaShivandIdesignedandtaughtaclassattheStanfordGraduateSchool ofBusiness on the science of influencing humanbehavior.Thenextyear, IpartneredwithDr.StephHabif to teacha similarcourseattheHassoPlattnerInstituteofDesign.

Theseyearsofdistilledresearchandreal-worldexperienceresultedinthecreation of the HookModel: a four-phase process companies use to formshabits. Through consecutive hook cycles, successful products reach theirultimategoalofunprompteduserengagement,bringingusersbackrepeatedly,withoutdependingoncostlyadvertisingoraggressivemessaging.

While I draw many examples from technology companies given myindustry background, hooks are everywhere — in apps, sports, movies,games,andevenourjobs.Hookscanbefoundinvirtuallyanyexperiencethatburrows intoourminds (andoftenourwallets).The four stepsof theHookModelprovidetheframeworkforthechaptersofthisbook.

TheHookModel

1.Trigger

Atriggeristheactuatorofbehavior—thesparkplugintheengine.Triggers

comeintwotypes:externalandinternal.[viii]

Habit-formingproductsstartbyalertinguserswithexternal triggers likeanemail,awebsite link,or theappicononaphone.

Forexample,supposeBarbra,ayoungwomaninPennsylvania,happenstoseeaphotoinherFacebooknewsfeedtakenbyafamilymemberfromaruralpartofthestate.It’salovelypictureandsincesheisplanningatriptherewithherbrotherJohnny, theexternal trigger’scall-to-actionintriguesherandsheclicks.Bycyclingthroughsuccessivehooks,usersbegintoformassociationswithinternaltriggers,whichattachtoexistingbehaviorsandemotions.

When users start to automatically cue their next behavior, the new habitbecomes part of their everyday routine. Over time, Barbra associatesFacebookwithherneedforsocialconnection.Chaptertwoexploresexternaland internal triggers, answering the question of how product designersdeterminewhichtriggersaremosteffective.

2.Action

Followingthetriggercomestheaction:thebehaviordoneinanticipationofareward. The simple action of clicking on the interesting picture in hernewsfeedtakesBarbratoawebsitecalledPinterest,a“pinboard-stylephoto-

sharing”site.[ix]

Thisphaseof thehook, asdescribed inchapter three,drawsupon theartand science of usability design to reveal how products drive specific useractions.Companiesleveragetwobasicpulleysofhumanbehaviortoincreasethelikelihoodofanactionoccurring:theeaseofperforminganactionandthe

psychologicalmotivationtodoit.[x]

OnceBarbracompletes the simpleactionofclickingon thephoto, she isdazzledbywhatsheseesnext.

3.VariableReward

WhatdistinguishestheHookModelfromaplainvanillafeedbackloopisthehook’s ability to create a craving. Feedback loops are all around us, butpredictableonesdon’tcreatedesire.Theunsurprisingresponseofyourfridgelightturningonwhenyouopenthedoordoesn’tdriveyoutokeepopeningitagainandagain.However,addsomevariabilitytothemix—sayadifferenttreatmagically appears inyour fridge every timeyouopen it—andvoila,intrigueiscreated.

Variablerewardsareoneofthemostpowerfultoolscompaniesimplementto hookusers; chapter four explains them in further detail.Research showsthatlevelsoftheneurotransmitterdopaminesurgewhenthebrainisexpecting

areward.[xi]

Introducingvariabilitymultiplies theeffect,creatinga focusedstate,which suppresses the areasof thebrain associatedwith judgment and

reason while activating the parts associated with wanting and desire.[xii]

Although classic examples include slot machines and lotteries, variablerewardsareprevalentinmanyotherhabit-formingproducts.

When Barbra lands on Pinterest, not only does she see the image sheintendedtofind,butsheisalsoservedamultitudeofotherglitteringobjects.Theimagesarerelatedtowhatsheisgenerallyinterestedin—namelythingstoseeonherupcomingtriptoruralPennsylvania—butthereareotherthings

that catch her eye as well. The exciting juxtaposition of relevant andirrelevant, tantalizing and plain, beautiful and common, sets her brain’sdopamine system aflutter with the promise of reward. Now she’s spendingmoretimeonPinterest,huntingforthenextwonderful thingtofind.Beforesheknowsit,she’sspent45minutesscrolling.

Chapterfouralsoexploreswhysomepeopleeventuallylosetheirtasteforcertainexperiencesandhowvariabilityimpactstheirretention.

4.Investment

ThelastphaseoftheHookModeliswheretheuserdoesabitofwork.Theinvestment phase increases the odds that the user will make another passthrough the hook cycle in the future. The investment occurswhen the userputs something into the product of service such as time, data, effort, socialcapital,ormoney.

However, the investmentphase isn’t aboutusersopeningup theirwalletsandmovingonwith theirday.Rather, the investment impliesanaction thatimproves the service for the next go-around. Inviting friends, statingpreferences,buildingvirtual assets, and learning tousenew features are allinvestmentsusersmaketoimprovetheirexperience.Thesecommitmentscanbe leveraged tomake the triggermore engaging, the action easier, and therewardmore excitingwith every pass through the hook cycle.Chapter fivedelves into how investments encourage users to cycle through successivehooks.

AsBarbraenjoysendlesslyscrollingthroughthePinterestcornucopia,shebuildsadesiretokeepthethingsthatdelighther.Bycollectingitems,she’llbegivingthesitedataaboutherpreferences.Soonshewillfollow,pin,re-pin,andmakeother investments,whichserve to increaseher ties to thesiteandprimeherforfutureloopsthroughthehook.

ANewSuperpower

Habit-forming technology is already here, and it is being used tomold ourlives. The fact thatwe have greater access to theweb through our variousconnected devices— smartphones and tablets, televisions, game consoles,andwearabletechnology—givescompaniesfargreaterabilitytoaffectourbehavior.

Ascompaniescombinetheirincreasedconnectivitytoconsumers,withthe

ability to collect,mine, and process customer data at faster speeds,we arefaced with a future where everything becomes potentially more habit-forming.AsfamedSiliconValleyinvestorPaulGrahamwrites,“…unlesstheforms of technological progress that produced these things are subject todifferentlawsthantechnologicalprogressingeneral,theworldwillgetmore

addictive in the next 40 years than it did in the last 40.”[xiii]

Chapter sixexploresthisnewrealityanddiscussesthemoralityofmanipulation.

Recently,ablogreaderemailedme,“Ifitcan’tbeusedforevil, it’snotasuperpower.” He’s right. And under this definition, building habit-formingproductsisindeedasuperpower.Ifusedirresponsibly,badhabitscanquicklydegenerateintomindlesszombie-likeaddictions.

Did you recognize Barbra and her brother Johnny from the previousexample?Zombiefilmbuffs likelydid.Theyarecharactersfromtheclassichorror flickNight of the LivingDead, a story about people possessed by a

mysteriousforce,whichcompelstheireveryaction.[xiv]

Nodoubtyou’venoticedtheresurgenceofthezombiegenreoverthepastseveral years.Games likeResident Evil, television shows likeTheWalkingDead, andmovies includingWorldWarZ, are a testament to the creatures’growing appeal. But why are zombies suddenly so fascinating? Perhapstechnology’sunstoppableprogress—evermorepervasiveandpersuasive—has grabbed us in a fearful malaise at the thought of being involuntarilycontrolled.

Althoughthefearispalpable,weareliketheheroesineveryzombiefilm—threatenedbutultimatelymorepowerful.Ihavecometolearnthathabit-formingproductscandofarmoregoodthanharm.“Choicearchitecture,”asdescribedbyfamedscholarsThaler,Sunstein,andBalz,offerstechniquestoinfluence people’s decisions and affect behavioral outcomes. Ultimatelythough, the practice should be, “used to help nudge people tomake better

choices (as judged by themselves).”[xv]

Accordingly, this book teachesinnovators how to build products to help people do the things they alreadywanttodobut,forlackofasolution,don’tdo.

Hooked seeks to unleash the tremendous new powers innovators andentrepreneurs have to influence the everyday lives of billions of people. Ibelieve the trinity of access, data, and speed presents unprecedentedopportunitiestocreatepositivehabits.Whenharnessedcorrectly,technologycanenhancelivesthroughhealthfulbehaviorsthatimproveourrelationships,

makeussmarter,andincreaseproductivity.

The Hook Model explains the rationale behind the design of manysuccessful habit-forming products and services we use daily. Although notexhaustivegiventhevastamountofacademicliteratureavailable,themodelis intended to be a practical tool (rather than a theoretical one) made forentrepreneursandinnovatorswhoaimtousehabitsforgood.Inthisbook,Ihave compiled the most relevant research, shared actionable insights, andprovidedapracticalframeworkdesignedtoincreasetheinnovator’soddsofsuccess.

Hooks connect the user’s problem with a company’s solution frequentlyenough to form a habit. My goal is to provide you with a deeperunderstandingofhowcertainproductschangewhatwedo,andbyextension,whoweare.

***

HowtoUsethisBook

Attheendofeachsection,you’llfindafewbulletedtakeaways.Reviewingthem,jottingthemdowninanotebook,orsharingthemonasocialnetworkisagreatwaytopause,reflect,andreinforcewhatyouhaveread.

Building a habit-forming product yourself? If so, the “Do This Now”sectionsattheendofsubsequentchapterswillhelpguideyournextsteps.

***

RememberandShare

-Habitsaredefinedasbehaviorsdonewithlittleornoconsciousthought.

-Theconvergenceofaccess,data,andspeedismakingtheworldamorehabit-formingplace.

- Businesses that create customer habits gain a significant competitiveadvantage.

-TheHookModeldescribesanexperiencedesignedtoconnect theuser’sproblemtoasolutionfrequentlyenoughtoformahabit.

- TheHookModel has four phases: trigger, action, variable reward, and

investment.[xvi]

1.THEHABITZONE

WhenI run, Izoneout. Idon’t thinkaboutwhatmybody isdoingandmymind usually wanders elsewhere. I find it relaxing and refreshing, and runaboutthreemorningseachweek.Recently,Ineededtotakeanoverseasclientcallduringmyusualmorningruntime.“Nobiggie,”Ithought.“Icanrunintheeveninginstead.”However,thetime-shiftcreatedsomepeculiarbehaviorsthatnight.

I left the house formy run at dusk and as Iwas about to pass awomantakingouthertrash,shemadeeyecontactandsmiled.Ipolitelysalutedwith,“Goodmorning!”—thencaughtmymistake.“Imean,goodevening!Sorry!”Icorrectedmyself,realizingIwasabout10hoursoff.Shefurrowedherbrowandcrackedanervoussmile.

Slightlyembarrassed,Inotedhowmymindhadbeenoblivioustothetimeofday.Ichidedmyselfnottodoitagain,butwithinafewminutesIpassedanother runner and again — as if possessed — I blurted out, “Goodmorning!”Whatwasgoingon?

Backhome,duringmynormalpost-runshower,mymindbegantowanderagainasitoftendoeswhenIbathe.Mybrain’sautopilotswitchturnedonandIproceededwithmydailyroutine,unawareofmyactions.

Itwasn’tuntil I felt thenickof therazorcuttingmyface that I realizedIhad lathered-up and started shaving. Although it is something I do everymorning,shavingwaspainfullyunnecessaryintheevening.Andyet,I’ddoneitanyway,unknowingly.

Theeveningversionofmymorning runhad triggeredabehavioral scriptthat instructedmy body to carry outmy usual, run-related activities— allwithout mindful awareness. Such is the nature of ingrained habits —behaviors done with little or no conscious thought — which by some

estimates,guidenearlyhalfofourdailyactions.[xvii]

Habits are one of the ways the brain learns complex behaviors.Neuroscientists believe habits give us the ability to focus our attention onotherthingsbystoringautomaticresponsesinthebasalganglia,anareaofthe

brainassociatedwithinvoluntaryactions.[xviii]

Habitsformwhenthebraintakesashortcutandstopsactivelydeliberating

overwhat todonext.[xix]

Thebrainquickly learns tocodifybehaviors thatprovideasolutiontowhateversituationitencounters.

Forexample,nailbitingisacommonbehaviorthatoccurswithlittleornoconsciousthought.Initially,thebitermightstartchompingonhercuticlesforareason—toremoveanunsightlyhangnail,forexample.However,whenthebehavioroccursfornoconsciouspurpose—simplyasanautomaticresponseto a cue — the habit is in control. For many persistent nail biters, theunconscious trigger is the unpleasant feeling of stress. The more the biterassociatestheactofnailchompingwiththetemporaryreliefitprovides,theharderitbecomestochangetheconditionedresponse.

Likenailbiting,manyofourdailydecisionsaremadesimplybecausethatwas thewaywe have found resolution in the past. The brain automaticallydeduces that if the decisionwas a good one yesterday, then it is a safe betagaintodayandtheactionbecomesaroutine.

On my run, my brain had associated making eye contact with anotherperson during my run with the standard “Good morning!” greeting, thus Iautomaticallyutteredthesewordsnomatterhowinappropriatelytimed.

WhyHabitsareGoodforBusiness

If our programmed behaviors are so influential in guiding our everydayactions, surely harnessing the same power of habits can be a boon forindustry.Indeed,forthoseabletoshapetheminaneffectiveway,habitscanbeverygoodforthebottomline.

Habit-formingproductschangeuserbehaviorandcreateunprompteduserengagement.Theaimis to influencecustomers touseyourproducton theirown,againandagain,withoutrelyingonovertcalls-to-actionsuchasadsorpromotions.Onceahabitisformed,theuserisautomaticallytriggeredtousetheproductduringroutineeventssuchaswantingtokilltimewhilewaitinginline.

However, the frameworkandpracticesexplored in thisbookarenotone-size-fits-all and do not apply to every business or industry. Entrepreneursshould evaluate howuser habits impact their particular businessmodel andgoals.While the viability of some products depends on habit-formation to

thrive,thatisnotalwaysthecase.

For example, companies selling infrequently bought or used products orservicesdonotrequirehabitualusers—atleast,notinthesenseofeverydayengagement. Life insurance companies, for instance, leverage salespeople,advertising, and word-of-mouth referrals and recommendations to promptconsumers tobuypolicies.Oncethepolicyisbought, there isnothingmorethecustomerneedstodo.

In this book, I refer to products in the context of businesses that requireongoing, unprompted user engagement and therefore need to build userhabits. I exclude companies that compel customers to take action throughothermeans.

Before diving into themechanics of how habits aremade,wemust firstunderstandtheirgeneral importanceandcompetitivebenefitsforbusinesses.Habitformationisgoodforbusinessinseveralways.

IncreasingCustomerLifetimeValue

MBAsare taught thatabusiness isworth thesumof its futureprofits.Thisbenchmarkishowinvestorscalculatethefairpriceofacompany’sshares.

CEOsandtheirmanagementteamsareevaluatedbytheirabilitytoincreasethevalueoftheirstocks—andthereforecaredeeplyabouttheabilityoftheircompanies to generate free cash flow. Management’s job, in the eyes ofshareholders, is to implement strategies togrowfutureprofitsby increasingrevenuesordecreasingexpenses.

Fostering consumer habits is an effectiveway to increase the value of acompany by driving higher customer lifetime value (CLTV). CLTV is theamountofmoneymadefromacustomerbeforesheswitchestoacompetitor,stops using the product, or dies. User habits increase how long and howfrequentlycustomersuseaproduct,resultinginhigherCLTV.

SomeproductshaveaveryhighCLTV.Forexample,creditcardcustomerstendtostayloyalforaverylongtimeandareworthabundle.Hence,creditcard companies are willing to spend a considerable amount of moneyacquiring new customers. This explains why you receive so manypromotional offers, ranging from free gifts to airline bonusmiles, to enticeyou to add another cardor upgradeyour current one.YourpotentialCLTVjustifiesacreditcardcompany’smarketinginvestment.

ProvidingPricingFlexibility

RenownedinvestorandBerkshireHathawayCEOWarrenBuffettoncesaid,“You can determine the strength of a business over time by the amount of

agonytheygothroughinraisingprices.”[xx]

Buffettandhispartner,CharlieMunger,realizedthatascustomersformroutinesaroundaproduct,theycometodependupon itandbecome lessprice-sensitive.Theduohavepointed toconsumer psychology as the rationale behind their famed investments in

companies like See’s Candies and Coca-Cola.[xxi]

Buffett and Mungerunderstandthathabitsgivecompaniesgreaterflexibilitytoincreaseprices.

Forexample,inthefree-to-playvideogamebusiness,itisstandardpracticefor game developers to delay asking users to pay money until they haveplayed consistently and habitually.Once the compulsion to play is in placeandthedesiretoprogressinthegameincreases,convertingusersintopayingcustomersismucheasier.Sellingvirtualitems,extralives,andspecialpowersiswheretherealmoneylies.

As of December 2013, more than 500 million people have downloadedCandy Crush Saga, a game played mostly on mobile devices. The game’s“freemium” model converts some of those users into paying customers,

nettingthegame’smakernearlyamilliondollarsperday.[xxii]

Thispatternalsoappliestootherservices.TakeEvernote,thepopularnote-takingandarchivingsoftware,forexample.Thesoftwareisfreetousebutthecompanyoffersupgradedfeatureslikeofflineviewingandcollaborationtoolsforaprice—whichmanydevotedusersarehappytopay.

Evernote’sCEOPhilLibin sharedsome revealing insightsabouthow the

companyturnsnon-payingusersintorevenuegeneratingones.[xxiii]

In2011,Libinpublishedachartnowknownasthe“smilegraph.”Withthepercentageofsign-upsrepresentedontheY-axisandtimespentontheserviceontheX-axis, the chart showed that, although usage plummeted at first, it rocketedupwardaspeopleformedahabitofusingtheservice.Theresultingdownandupcurvegave the chart its emblematic smile shape (andEvernote’sCEOamatchinggrin).

Inaddition,asusageincreasedovertime,sodidcustomers’willingnesstopay.Libinnotedthatafterthefirstmonth,only0.5percentofuserspaidfortheservice;however, thisrategradually increased.Bymonth33,11percentof users had started paying. At month 42, a remarkable 26 percent of

customerswerepayingforsomethingtheyhadpreviouslyusedforfree.[xxiv]

SuperchargingGrowth

Users who continually find value in a product aremore likely to tell theirfriends about it. Frequent usage creates more opportunities to encouragepeople to invite their friends,broadcastcontent,andshare throughword-of-mouth. Hooked users become brand evangelists — megaphones for yourcompany,bringinginnewusersatlittleornocost.

Productswithhigheruserengagementalsohavethepotentialtogrowfasterthan their rivals. Case in point: Facebook leapfrogged its competitors,includingMySpace andFriendster, even though itwas relatively late to thesocial networking party. Although its competitors both had healthy growthrates and millions of users by the time Mark Zuckerberg’s fledgling sitelaunched beyond the closed doors of academia, his company came todominatetheindustry.

Facebook’s successwas, in part, a result ofwhat I call themore ismoreprinciple — more frequent usage drives more viral growth. As tech-entrepreneur turned venture capitalist, David Skok points out, “The most

important factor to increasing growth is … Viral Cycle Time.”[xxv]

ViralCycleTimeistheamountoftimeittakesausertoinviteanotheruser,anditcanhaveamassiveimpact.“Forexample,after20dayswithacycletimeoftwodays,youwillhave20,470users,”Skokwrites.“Butifyouhalvedthatcycletimetooneday,youwouldhaveover20millionusers!Itislogicalthatitwouldbebetter tohavemorecyclesoccur,but it is lessobviousjusthowmuchbetter.”

Having a greater proportion of users returning to a service daily,dramatically increases Viral Cycle Time for two reasons: First, daily usersinitiateloopsmoreoften(thinktaggingafriendinaFacebookphoto);second,more daily active users means more people to respond and react to eachinvitation. The cycle not only perpetuates the process — with higher andhigheruserengagement,itacceleratesit.

SharpeningtheCompetitiveEdge

User habits are a competitive advantage. Products that change customerroutinesarelesssusceptibletoattacksfromothercompanies.

Many entrepreneurs fall into the trap of building products that are onlymarginallybetterthanexistingsolutions,hopingtheirinnovationwillbegoodenoughtowoocustomersawayfromexistingproducts.Butwhenitcomestoshakingconsumers’oldhabits,thesenaiveentrepreneursoftenfindthatbetterproducts don’t always win — especially if a large number of users havealreadyadoptedacompetingproduct.

A classic paper by John Gourville, a professor of marketing at HarvardBusinessSchool, stipulates that, “Many innovations fail because consumersirrationally overvalue the old while companies irrationally overvalue the

new.”[xxvi]

Gourvilleclaimsthatfornewentrantstostandachance,theycan’tjustbebetter, they must be nine times better.Why such a high bar? Because oldhabits die hard and new products or services need to offer dramaticimprovements to shake users out of old routines. Gourville writes thatproducts that require a high degree of behavior change are doomed to failevenifthebenefitsofusingthenewproductareclearandsubstantial.

For example, the technology I am using towrite this book is inferior toexistingalternativesinmanyways.I’mreferringtotheQWERTYkeyboardwhich was first developed in the 1870s for the now-ancient typewriter.QWERTY was designed with commonly used characters spaced far apart.This layout prevented typists from jamming the metal typebars of early

machines.[xxvii]

Ofcourse,thisphysicallimitationisananachronisminthedigital age, yet QWERTY keyboards remain the standard despite theinventionoffarbetterlayouts.

ProfessorAugustDvorak’skeyboarddesign,forexample,placedvowelsinthe center row, increasing typing speed and accuracy. Though patented in1932,theDvorakSimplifiedKeyboardwaswrittenoff.

QWERTYsurvivesduetothehighcostsofchanginguserbehavior.Whenfirst introduced to the keyboard, we chicken-peck at the keys one-by-one,usuallywith just a fingeror two.Aftermonthsofpractice,we instinctivelylearn toactivateallour fingers in response toour thoughtswith little tonoconscious effort, and the words begin to flow effortlessly from mind toscreen.Butswitchingtoanunfamiliarkeyboard—evenifmoreefficient—wouldforceustore-learnhowtotype.Fatchance!

Aswewill learn in chapter five, users also increase their dependencyonhabit-forming products by storing value in them — further reducing the

likelihoodofswitching toanalternative.Forexample,everyemailsentandreceivedusingGoogle’sGmail is stored indefinitely,providinguserswithalasting repository of past conversations.New followers on Twitter increaseusers’ clout and amplify their ability to transmit messages to theircommunities.MemoriesandexperiencescapturedonInstagramareaddedtoone’sdigitalscrapbook.Switchingtoanewemailservice,socialnetwork,orphoto-sharing app becomes more difficult the more people use them. Thenon-transferrable value created and stored inside these services discouragesusersfromleaving.

Ultimately,userhabits increaseabusiness’s returnon investment.Highercustomerlifetimevalue,greaterpricingflexibility,superchargedgrowth,anda sharpened competitive edge together equal amore powerful bang for thecompany’sbuck.

***

BuildingtheMindMonopoly

While user habits are a boon to companies fortunate enough to engenderthem,theirexistenceinherentlymakessuccesslesslikelyfornewinnovationsandstartupstryingtodisruptthestatusquo.Thefactis,successfullychanginglong-termuserhabitsisexceptionallyrare.

Altering behavior requires not only an understanding of how to persuadepeopletoact—forexample,thefirsttimetheylandonawebpage—butalsonecessitatesgettingthemtorepeatbehaviorsforlongperiods,ideallyfortherestoftheirlives.

Companies that succeed in building a habit-forming business are oftenassociated with game-changing, wildly successful innovation. But like anydiscipline, habit design has rules and caveats that define and explain whysomeproductschangeliveswhileothersdonot.

Forone,newbehaviorshaveashorthalf-life,asourmindstendtoreverttoour old ways of thinking and doing. Experiments show that lab animalshabituated to new behaviors tend to regress to their first learned behaviors

overtime.[xxviii]

Toborrowatermfromaccounting,behaviorsareLIFO—“last in, firstout.” Inotherwords, thehabitsyou’vemost recentlyacquiredarealsotheonesmostlikelytogosoonest.

This helps explain the overwhelming evidence that people rarely changetheirhabits for long.Two-thirdsofalcoholicswhocompletea rehabilitation

programwill pick up the bottle, and their old habits, within a year’s time.[xxix]

Researchshowsthatnearlyeveryonewholosesweightonadietgains

backthepoundswithintwoyears.[xxx]

Theenemyofformingnewhabitsispastbehaviors,andresearchsuggeststhatoldhabitsdiehard.Evenwhenwechangeourroutines,neuralpathways

remainetchedinourbrains,readytobereactivatedwhenwelosefocus.[xxxi]

Thispresentsanespeciallydifficultchallengeforproductdesignerstryingtocreatenewlinesorbusinessesbasedonformingnewhabits.

Fornewbehaviors to really takehold, theymustoccuroften. In a recentstudyattheUniversityCollegeLondon,researchersfollowedparticipantsas

they attempted to form a habit of flossing their teeth.[xxxii]

As one of itsfindings, the study concluded that the more frequently the new behavioroccurred, thestronger thehabitbecame.Likeflossing, frequentengagementwith a product— especially over a short period of time— increases thelikelihoodofformingnewroutines.

Google Search provides an example of a service built upon a frequentbehavior that helped create users’ habits. If you’re skeptical thatGoogle ishabit-forming(andyouareafrequentGoogleuser),justtryusingBing.Inahead-to-headcomparisonoftheefficacyofanincognitosearch,theproducts

are nearly identical.[xxxiii]

Even if the geniuses at Google have in factperfectedafasteralgorithm,thetimesavedisimperceptibletoeveryonebutrobotsandMisterSpock.Millisecondsmatter,buttheydon’thookusers.

Sowhy haven’tmoreGoogle users switched toBing?Habits keep usersloyal. If a user is familiar with the Google interface, switching to Bingrequires cognitive effort. Although many aspects of Bing are similar toGoogle,evenaslightchangeinpixelplacementforcesthewould-beusertolearnanewwayofinteractingwiththesite.AdaptingtothedifferencesintheBinginterface iswhatactuallyslowsdownregularGoogleusersandmakesBingfeelinferior,notthetechnologyitself.

InternetsearchesoccursofrequentlythatGoogleisabletocementitselfastheoneandonlysolutioninthehabituateduser’smind.Usersnolongerneedto think about whether or not to use Google, they just do. Furthermore,whenever thecompanycan identify theuser through tracking technology, itimproves search results based on past behaviors to deliver amore accurateandpersonalizedexperience,reinforcingtheuser’sconnectionwiththesearch

engine.Themoretheproductisused,thebetterthealgorithmgetsandthus,themore it is used. The result is a virtuous cycle of habit-driven behavior

resultinginGoogle’smarketdomination.[xxxiv]

HabitasStrategy

SometimesabehaviordoesnotoccurasfrequentlyasflossingorGoogling,but it stillbecomesahabit.Foran infrequent action tobecomeahabit, theusermust perceive a high degree of utility, either fromgaining pleasure oravoidingpain.

TakeAmazonasanexample:Thee-tailerhasitssightssetonbecomingtheworld’s one-stop shop. Amazon is so confident in its ability to form userhabits that it sellsand runsads fordirectlycompetitiveproductson its site.[xxxv]

Customersoftenseetheitemtheyareabouttobuylistedatacheaperpriceandcanclickaway to transact elsewhere.To some, this sounds likeaformulafordisaster.ButtoAmazon,itisashrewdbusinessstrategy.

NotonlydoesAmazonmakemoneyfromtheadsitrunsfromcompetingbusinesses,but it alsoutilizesothercompanies’marketingdollars to formahabit in the shopper’s mind. Amazon seeks to become the solution to afrequentlyoccurringpain-point—thecustomer’sdesiretofindtheitemstheywant.

By addressing shoppers’ price concerns,Amazon earns loyalty even if itdoesn’tmake the sale, and comes across as trustworthy in theprocess.Thetactic is backed by a 2003 study, which demonstrated that consumers’preferenceforanonlineretailerincreaseswhentheyareofferedcompetitive

price information.[xxxvi]

The technique has also been used byProgressive,the car insurance company, to drive over $15 billion of annual insurancesales,upfromjust$3.4billionbeforethetacticwasimplemented.

By allowing users to comparison shop from within the site, Amazonprovidestremendousperceivedutilitytoitscustomers.AlthoughshoppingonAmazonmaynotoccur as frequently as searchingonGoogle, the companysolidifiesitsplaceasthedefaultsolutiontocustomers’purchasingneedswitheach successful transaction. In fact, people are so comfortable comparisonshoppingonAmazon that they frequentlyuse the company’smobile app tocheck prices when standing in the aisles of real stores— often making a

purchasefrominsideacompetingretailer.[xxxvii]

IntheHabitZone

A company can begin to determine its product’s habit-forming potential byplottingtwofactors:frequency(howoftenthebehavioroccurs)andperceivedutility (how useful and rewarding the behavior is in the user’s mind overalternativesolutions).

Googling occurs multiple times per day, but any particular search isnegligiblybetterthanrivalserviceslikeBing.Conversely,usingAmazonmaybea less frequentoccurrence,butusers receivegreatvalueknowing they’ll

findwhatevertheyneedattheoneandonly“everythingstore.”[xxxviii]

As represented in figure1, abehavior thatoccurswithenough frequencyand perceived utility enters the Habit Zone, helping to make it a defaultbehavior.Ifeitherofthesefactorsfallsshortandthebehaviorliesbelowthethreshold,itislesslikelythatthedesiredbehaviorwillbecomeahabit.

Note that the lineslopesdownwardbutneverquite reaches theperceivedutilityaxis.Somebehaviorsneverbecomehabitsbecause theydonotoccurfrequently enough. No matter how much utility is involved, infrequentbehaviors remainconsciousactionsandnevercreate theautomatic responsethat is characteristic of habits. On the other axis however, even a behaviorwhichprovidesminimalperceivedbenefitcanbecomeahabitsimplybecauseitoccursfrequently.

Figure1

Thisconceptismeanttobeaguidingtheoryandthescaleoftheillustrationisintentionallyleftblank.Unfortunatelyforcompanies,researchthusfarhasnotfoundauniversal timescaleforturningallbehaviorsintohabits.A2010studyfoundthatsomehabitscanbeformedinamatterofweekswhileothers

can takemore than fivemonths.[xxxix]

The researchers also found that thecomplexity of the behavior and how important the habitwas to the persongreatlyaffectedhowquicklytheroutinewasformed.

Therearefewruleswhenitcomestoanswering“howfrequentisfrequentenough?” and the answer is likely specific to each business and behavior.However,asthepreviouslymentionedflossingstudydemonstrates,weknowthathigherfrequencyisbetter.

Think of the products and services youwould identify as habit-forming.Mostoftheseareuseddaily,ifnotmultipletimesperday.Now,let’sexplorewhyweusetheseproductssofrequently.

***

Vitaminsvs.Painkillers

It’s never been easier to launch a new product or service, yet most newendeavors fail.Why?Products fail for a variety of reasons:Companies runoutoffunding,productsentermarketstooearlyortoolate, themarketplacedoesn’tneedwhatcompaniesareoffering,orfounderssimplygiveup.Justasfailurehasmanycauses,successtoocanbeattributedtoavarietyoffactors.However, one thing is common to all successful innovations— they solveproblems.Thatmayseemobvious,butunderstandingthekindofproblemanewproductsolvescanbeatopicofmuchdebate.

“Areyoubuilding a vitaminor painkiller?” is a common, almost clichédquestionmanyinvestorsaskfounderseagertocashtheirfirstventurecapitalcheck. The correct answer, from the perspective of most investors, is thelatter: a painkiller. Likewise, innovators in companies big and small areconstantlyaskedtoprovetheirideaisimportantenoughtomeritthetimeandmoneyneededtobuildit.Gatekeeperssuchasinvestorsandmanagerswantto invest in solving real problems— or, meeting immediate needs — bybackingpainkillers.

Painkillerssolveanobviousneed,relievingaspecificpainandoftenhavequantifiable markets. Think Tylenol, the brand name version ofacetaminophen, and theproduct’s promiseof reliable relief. It’s thekindofready-madesolutionforwhichpeoplearehappytopay.

Incontrast,vitaminsdonotnecessarilysolveanobviouspain-point.Insteadtheyappeal tousers’ emotional rather than functionalneeds.Whenwe takeourmultivitamineachmorning,wedon’treallyknowifitisactuallymakingushealthier.Infact,recentevidenceshowstakingmultivitaminsmayactually

bedoingmoreharmthangood.[xl]

But we don’t really care, dowe? Efficacy is not whywe take vitamins.Takingavitaminisa“checkitoffyourlist”behaviorwemeasureintermsofpsychological,ratherthanphysical,relief.Wefeelsatisfiedthatwearedoingsomethinggoodforourbodies—evenifwecan’ttellhowmuchgooditisactuallydoingus.

Unlikeapainkiller,whichwecannotfunctionwithout,missingafewdaysof vitamin popping, say while on vacation, is no big deal. So perhapsmanagersandinvestorsknowbest?Perhapsbuildingpainkillers,notvitamins,isalwaystherightstrategy.

Notsofast.

Let’sconsiderafewoftoday’shottestconsumertechnologycompanies—say Facebook, Twitter, Instagram, and Pinterest. What are they selling —

vitamins or painkillers?Most people would guess vitamins, thinking usersaren’tdoingmuchofanythingimportantotherthanperhapsseekingaquickboost of social validation. After all, think back to before you first startedusing these services. No one ever woke up in the middle of the nightscreaming,“Ineedsomethingtohelpmeupdatemystatus!”

Butlikesomanyinnovations,wedidnotknowweneededthemuntiltheybecame part of our everyday lives. Before making up your mind on thevitamin or painkiller debate for some of the world’s most successful techcompanies,considerthisidea:Ahabitiswhennotdoinganactioncausesabitofpain.

It is important to clarify that the term “pain,” as it is frequently used inbusinessschoolandmarketingbooks,issomewhathyperbolic.Inreality,theexperiencewe are talking about ismore similar to an “itch,” a feeling thatmanifests within the mind and causes discomfort until it is satisfied. Thehabit-formingproductsweusearesimplytheretoprovidesomesortofrelief.Usingatechnologyorproducttoscratchtheitchprovidesfastersatisfactionthanignoringit.Oncewecometodependonatool,nothingelsewilldo.

My answer to the vitamin or painkiller question is that habit-formingtechnologies are both. These services seem, at first, to be offering nice-to-havevitamins,butoncethehabitisestablished,theyprovideanongoingpainremedy.

Seekingpleasureandavoidingpainare twokeymotivators inallspecies.Whenwefeeldiscomfort,weseektoescapetheuncomfortablesensation.Inthenextchapter,wewillexplorehowemotions,oftennegativeones, triggeruserstoreachforsolutions.Butfornow,theimportantthingtorememberisthathabit-formingproductscreateassociationsinusers’minds—andthatthesolutiontotheirpainmaybefoundinyourproduct’suse.

We’lldiscussthemoralityofmanipulationinchaptereight;however, it isworthnotingthatalthoughsomepeopleusethetermsinterchangeably,habitsarenot the same thingsasaddictions.Addictionsarepersistent, compulsivedependenciesonabehaviororsubstance.Addictions,bydefinition,areself-destructive. Thus, it is irresponsible tomake products that rely on creatingand maintaining user addiction, since doing so would mean intentionallyharmingpeople.

Ahabit,ontheotherhand,isabehaviorthatcanhaveapositiveinfluenceon a person’s life.Habits can be healthy or unhealthy, and you likely haveseveralhelpfulhabitsyoucarryoutthroughoutyourday.Didyoubrushyour

teeth today?Takeashower?Didyouexpressgratitudebysaying“thanks?”Or in my case, say “Good morning” while on an evening jog? These arecommonbehaviorsdonewithlittleornodeliberation—theyarehabits.

***

DivingIntoTheHookModel

Ready to learnmore about creatingpositiveuser habits?Readon togain adeeperunderstandingoftheHookModel:Asimpleyetpowerfulwaytohelpyourcustomersformhabitsthatconnecttheirproblemwithyoursolution.

Inthenextchapters,wediveintoeachphaseoftheHookModel.Alongtheway,Iwillprovideexamplesyoucanuseinthedesignofyourownproductorservice.Bylearningafewfundamentalsofhowthemindworks,youwillincreaseyouroddsofbuildingtherightproductfaster.

ByprogressingusersthroughthefourstepsoftheHookModel,—trigger,action,variablereward,andinvestment—hooksformhabits.

***

RememberandShare

-Forsomebusinesses, forminghabits isacriticalcomponent to success,butnoteverybusinessrequireshabitualuserengagement.

-When successful, forming strong user habits can have several businessbenefitsincluding:highercustomerlifetimevalue,greaterpricingflexibility,superchargedgrowth,andasharpercompetitiveedge.

-Habitscannotformoutsidethe“HabitZone,”wherethebehavioroccurswithenoughfrequencyandperceivedutility.

-Habit-forming products often start as nice-to-haves (vitamins) but oncethehabitisformed,theybecomemust-haves(painkillers).

-Habit-forming products alleviate users’ pain by relieving a pronounceditch.

- Designing habit-forming products is a form of manipulation. Productbuilderswouldbenefit fromabitof introspectionbeforeattempting tohookuserstomakesuretheyarebuildinghealthyhabits,notunhealthyaddictions(moretocomeonthistopicinchaptereight).

***

DoThisNow

Ifyouarebuildingahabit-formingproduct,writedowntheanswerstothesequestions:

-Whathabitsdoesyourbusinessmodelrequire?

-Whatproblemareusersturningtoyourproducttosolve?

- How do users currently solve that problem and why does it need asolution?

-Howfrequentlydoyouexpectuserstoengagewithyourproduct?

-Whatuserbehaviordoyouwanttomakeintoahabit?

2.TRIGGER

Yin(notherrealname)isinhermid-twenties,livesinPaloAlto,andattendsStanfordUniversity.Shehasallthecomposureandpolishyou’dexpectofastudent at a prestigious school, yet she succumbs to a persistent habitthroughout her day. She can’t help it; she is compulsively hooked onInstagram.

Thephotoandvideo-sharingsocialnetwork,purchasedbyFacebookfor$1billionin2012,hascapturedthemindsandattentionofYinand150million

other users like her.[xli]

The company’s acquisition demonstrates theincreasing power of— and immense monetary value created by— habit-formingtechnology.Ofcourse,theInstagrampurchasepricewasdrivenbya

hostoffactors,includingarumoredbiddingwarforthecompany.[xlii]

Butatits core, Instagram is an example of an enterprising team— conversant inpsychologyasmuchastechnology—thatunleashedahabit-formingproduct

onuserswhosubsequentlymadeitapartoftheirdailyroutines.[xliii]

Yindoesn’t realizeshe’shooked,althoughsheadmitssheregularlysnapsandpostsdozensofpicturesperdayusingtheapp.“It’sjustfun,”shesaysasshereviewsherlatestcollectionofmoodysnapshotsfilteredtolookliketheyweretakeninthelate1970s.“Idon’thaveaproblemoranything.IjustuseitwheneverIseesomethingcool.IfeelIneedtograbitbeforeit’sgone.”

What formedYin’s Instagram habit?Howdid this seemingly simple appbecomesuchanimportantpartofherlife?Aswewillsoonlearn,habitslikeYin’sareformedovertime,but thechainreactionthatformsahabitalwaysstartswithatrigger.

HabitsarenotCreated,TheyareBuiltUpon

Habitsare likepearls.Oysterscreatenaturalpearlsbyaccumulating layeruponlayerofanacrecalledmother-of-pearl,eventuallyformingthesmoothtreasure over several years. But what causes the nacre to begin forming apearl?Thearrivalofa tinyirritant,suchasapieceofgritoranunwelcomeparasite, triggers the oyster’s system to begin blanketing the invader with

layersofshimmerycoating.

Similarly, new habits need a foundation upon which to build. Triggersprovidethebasisforsustainedbehaviorchange.

Reflectonyourownlifeforamoment.Whatwokeyouupthismorning?Whatcausedyoutobrushyourteeth?Whatbroughtyoutoreadthisbook?

Triggers take the form of obvious cues like themorning alarm, but alsocomeasmoresubtle,sometimessubconscioussignalsthatjustaseffectivelyinfluenceourdailybehavior.Atriggeristheactuatorofbehavior—thegritintheoysterthatprecipitatesthepearl.Whetherwearecognizantofthemornot,triggersmoveustotakeaction.

Triggerscomeintwotypes:externalandinternal.

ExternalTriggers

Habit-forming technologies start changing behavior by first cueing userswithacall-to-action.Thissensorystimuliisdeliveredthroughanynumberofthingsinourenvironment.Externaltriggersareembeddedwithinformation,whichtellstheuserwhattodonext.

An external trigger communicates the next action the user should take.Often,thedesiredactionismadeexplicitlyclear.Forexample,whatexternaltriggersdoyouseeinthisCoca-Colavendingmachineinfigure2?

Figure2

Takeacloselookatthewelcomingmanintheimage.HeisofferingyouarefreshingCoke.Thetext“Thirsty?”belowtheimagetellsyouwhatthemanin the photo is asking and prompts the next expected action of insertingmoneyandselectingabeverage.

Online,anexternaltriggermaytaketheformofaprominentbutton,suchas the largeorange“Login toMint”prompt in theemail fromMint.cominfigure3.Hereagain,theuserisgivenexplicitinstructionsaboutwhatactiontotakeafterreadingtheemail:Clickonthatbigbrightbutton.

Figure3

Notice howprominent and clear the intended action is in the email fromMint? The company could have included several other triggers such asprompts tocheckyourbankbalance,viewcreditcarddeals,orset financialgoals.Instead,sincethisisanimportantaccountalertemail,Minthasreducedthe available actions to a single click: Logging in to view and fix youraccount.

More choices require the user to evaluate multiple options. Too manychoices or irrelevant options can cause hesitation, confusion, or worse,

abandonment.[xliv]

Reducing the thinking required to take the next actionincreases the likelihood of the desired behavior occurring unconsciously.We’llexplorethisfurtherinthenextchapter.

The Coca-Cola vending machine and Mint.com email provide good

examples of explicit external triggers. However, external triggers can alsoconveyimplicitinformationaboutthenextdesireduseraction.Forexample,we’ve all learned that website links are for clicking and app icons are fortapping.Theonlypurposeforthesecommonvisualtriggersistoprompttheusertoaction.Asareadilyacceptedaspectofinterfacedesign,thesecallstoaction don’t need to tell people how to use them, the information isembedded.

TypesofExternalTriggers

Companies can utilize four types of external triggers to move users tocompletedesiredactions:

1.PaidTriggers

Advertising,searchenginemarketing,andotherpaidchannelsarecommonlyused to get users’ attention and prompt them to act. Paid triggers can beeffective but costly ways to keep users coming back. Habit-formingcompaniestendnottorelyonpaidtriggersforverylong,ifatall.ImagineifFacebookorTwitterneededtobuyanadtopromptuserstorevisittheirsites—thesecompanieswouldsoongobroke.

Sincepayingforre-engagementisunsustainableformostbusinessmodels,companiesgenerallyusepaidtriggerstoacquirenewusersandthenleverageothertriggerstobringthemback.

2.EarnedTriggers

Earnedtriggersarefreeinthattheycannotbeboughtdirectly,buttheyoftenrequire investment in the formof timespentonpublicandmedia relations.Favorable press mentions, hot viral videos, and featured App Storeplacementsarealleffectivewaystogainattention.Companiesmaybelulledintothinkingthatrelateddownloadsorsalesspikessignallong-termsuccess,yetawarenessgeneratedbyearnedtriggerscanbeshort-lived.

Forearnedtriggerstodriveongoinguseracquisition,companiesmustkeeptheirproductsinthelimelight—adifficultandunpredictabletask.

3.RelationshipTriggers

Onepersontellingothersaboutaproductorservicecanbeahighlyeffectiveexternal trigger for action. Whether through an electronic invitation, aFacebook “Like,” or old fashioned word-of-mouth, product referrals fromfriendsandfamilyareoftenakeycomponentoftechnologydiffusion.

Relationship triggers can create the viral hypergrowth entrepreneurs andinvestors lust after. Sometimes relationship triggers drive growth becausepeoplelovetotelleachotheraboutawonderfuloffer.

Forexample,itishardtotopPayPal’sviralsuccessofthelate1990s.[xlv]

PayPal knew that once users started sending each othermoney online theywould realize the tremendousvalueof the service.The allure that someonejustsentyoumoneywasahuge incentive toopenanaccount,andPayPal’sgrowthspreadbecauseitwasbothviralanduseful.

Unfortunately,somecompaniesutilizeviralloopsandrelationshiptriggersin unethical ways by deploying so-called “dark patterns.” When designersintentionally trick users into inviting friends or blasting amessage to theirsocialnetworks,theymayseesomeinitialgrowth,butitcomesattheexpenseof the social currency of users, including their goodwill and trust. Whenpeoplediscoverthey’vebeenduped,theyventtheirfrustrationandstopusingtheproduct.

Properuseof relationship triggers requiresbuildinganengageduserbasethatisenthusiasticaboutsharingthebenefitsoftheproductwithothers.

4.OwnedTriggers

Owned triggers consume a piece of real-estate in the user’s environment.Theyconsistentlyshowupindailylifeandit isultimatelyuptotheuser tooptintoallowingthesetriggerstoappear.

Forexample,anappiconontheuser’sphonescreen,anemailnewslettertowhich the user subscribes, or an app update notification only appear if theuser wants it there. As long as the user agrees to receive a trigger, thecompanythatsetsthetriggerownsashareoftheuser’sattention.

Ownedtriggersareonlysetafteruserssignupforanaccount,submittheiremailaddress,installanapp,optintonewsletters,orotherwiseindicatetheywanttocontinuereceivingcommunications.

While paid, earned, and relationship triggers drive new user acquisition,owned triggers prompt repeat engagement until a habit is formed.Without

ownedtriggersandusers’tacitpermissiontoentertheirattentionalspace,itisdifficulttocueusersfrequentlyenoughtochangetheirbehavior.

***

Butexternaltriggersareonlythefirststep.Theultimategoalofallexternaltriggers is to propel users into and through the HookModel so that, aftersuccessivecycles,theydonotneedfurtherpromptingfromexternaltriggers.Whenusersformhabits,theyarecuedbyadifferentkindoftrigger:internaltriggers.

InternalTriggers

Whenaproductbecomestightlycoupledwithathought,anemotion,orapre-existing routine, it leverages an internal trigger. Unlike external triggers,whichusesensorystimulilikeamorningalarmclockorgiant“Log-InNow”button, you can’t see, touch, or hear an internal trigger. Internal triggersmanifest automatically in your mind. Connecting internal triggers with aproductisthebrassringofconsumertechnology.

ForYin,theyoungwomanwiththeInstagramhabit,herfavoritephotoappmanufactured a predictable response cued by an internal trigger. Throughrepeated conditioning, a connection was formed between Yin’s need tocapture images of the things around her and the app on her ever-presentmobiledevice.

Emotions, particularly negative ones, are powerful internal triggers andgreatly influence our daily routines. Feelings of boredom, loneliness,frustration, confusion, and indecisiveness often instigate a slight pain orirritation and prompt an almost instantaneous and often mindless action toquellthenegativesensation.Forinstance,YinoftenusesInstagramwhenshefearsaspecialmomentwillbelostforever.

Theseverityofthediscomfortmayberelativelyminor—perhapsherfearis below the perceptibility of consciousness—but that’s exactly the point.Ourlifeisfilledwithtinystressorsandwe’reusuallyunawareofourhabitualreactionstothesenaggingissues.

Positive emotions can also serve as internal triggers, and may even betriggeredthemselvesbyaneedtosatisfysomethingthatisbotheringus.Afterall,weuseproductstofindsolutionstoproblems.Thedesiretobeentertainedcanbethoughtofastheneedtosatiateboredom.Aneedtosharegoodnews

canalsobethoughtofasanattempttofindandmaintainsocialconnections.

Asproductdesigners, it isourgoal tosolvetheseproblemsandeliminatepain— to scratch the user’s itch. Users who find a product that alleviatestheirpainwillformstrong,positiveassociationswiththeproductovertime.After continued use, bonds begin to form— like the layers of nacre in anoyster—betweentheproductandtheuserwhoseneeditsatisfies.Gradually,these bonds cement into a habit as users turn to your product whenexperiencingcertaininternaltriggers.

A study at theMissouriUniversity of Science andTechnology illustrates

howtechsolutionscanprovidefrequentpsychologicalrelief.[xlvi]

In2011,agroup of 216 undergraduates volunteered to have their Internet activityanonymously tracked.Over thecourseof theacademicyear, theresearchersmeasured the frequency with which these students used the web and whattheyweredoingonline.

At the end of the study, the researchers compared anonymized data ofstudents who visited the university’s health services to treat symptoms ofdepression. “We identified several features of Internet usage that correlated

withdepression,”wroteSriramChellappan,oneofthestudy’sauthors.[xlvii]

“For example, participants with depressive symptoms tended to engage invery high email usage…Other characteristic features of depressive Internetbehavior included increased amounts of video watching, gaming, andchatting.”

Thestudydemonstratedthatpeoplesufferingfromsymptomsofdepressionused the Internet more. Why is that? One hypothesis is that those withdepression experience negative emotions more frequently than the generalpopulationandseekreliefbyturningtotechnologytolifttheirmood.

Consider,perhaps,yourownemotion-cuedbehaviors.Whatdoyoudo inresponsetoyourinternaltriggers?

When bored, many people seek excitement and turn to dramatic newsheadlines.Whenwefeeloverlystressedweseekcalm,perhapsfindingreliefin sites likePinterest.Whenwe feel lonely, destinations likeFacebook andTwitterprovideinstantsocialconnections.

To ameliorate the sensation of uncertainty, Google is just a click away.Email,perhapsthemotherofallhabit-formingtechnology,isago-tosolutionformany of our daily agitations, from validating our importance (or even,simplyourexistence)bycheckingtoseeifsomeoneneedsus,toprovidingan

escapefromlife’smoremundanemoments.

Oncehooked,usingtheseproductsdoesnotalwaysrequireanexplicitcall-to-action. Instead, they rely upon our automatic responses to feelings thatprecipitatethedesiredbehavior.Productsthatattachtotheseinternaltriggersprovideuserswithquickrelief.Onceatechnologyhascreatedanassociationinusers’mindsthattheproductisthesolutionofchoice,theyreturnontheirown,nolongerneedingpromptsfromexternaltriggers.

In the case of internal triggers, the informationaboutwhat to donext isencodedasalearnedassociationintheuser’smemory.

But the association between an internal trigger and your product is notformedovernight.Itcantakeweeksormonthsoffrequentusageforinternaltriggers to latchontocues.Newhabits are sparkedbyexternal triggers,butassociationswithinternaltriggersarewhatkeepsusershooked.

AsYinsaid,“IjustuseitwheneverIseesomethingcool.”Bythoughtfullymoving users from external to internal triggers, Instagram designed apersistent routine inpeople’s lives.Aneed is triggered inYin’smindeverytimeamomentisworthholdingonto,andforher, theimmediatesolutionisInstagram.Yinno longer requiresanexternalstimulus toprompther tousetheapp—theinternaltriggerhappensonitsown.

BuildingforTriggers

Productsthatsuccessfullycreatehabitssoothetheuser’spainbylayingclaimto a particular feeling. To do so, product designersmust know their user’sinternaltriggers—thatis,thepaintheyseektosolve.Butfindingcustomers’internal triggersrequires learningmoreaboutpeoplethanwhat theycantellyouinasurvey.Itrequiresdiggingdeepertounderstandhowyourusersfeel.

Theultimategoalofahabit-formingproductistosolvetheuser’spainbycreating an association so that the user identifies the company’s product orserviceasthesourceofrelief.

First, thecompanymust identifytheparticularfrustrationorpain-point inemotional terms, rather than product features. But how does a designer goaboutuncoveringthesourceofauser’spain?Thebestplacetostartistolearnthedriversbehindsuccessfulhabit-formingproducts—nottocopythem,buttounderstandhowtheysolveusers’problems.Doingsowillgiveyoupracticein diving deeper into the mind of the consumer and alert you to commonhumanneedsanddesires.

AsEvanWilliams,co-founderofBloggerandTwittersaid,theInternetis,

“agiantmachinedesigned togivepeoplewhat theywant.”[xlviii]

Williamscontinued,“WeoftenthinktheInternetenablesyoutodonewthings…Butpeoplejustwanttodothesamethingsthey’vealwaysdone.”

These common needs are timeless and universal. But talking to users toreveal thesewantswill likely prove ineffective since they themselves don’tknowwhichemotionsmotivatethem.Peoplejustdon’tthinkintheseterms.You’lloftenfindthatpeople’s“declaredpreferences”—what theysaytheywant — are far different from their “revealed preferences” — what theyactuallydo.

AsErikaHall,authorofJustEnoughResearchwrites,“Whentheresearchfocusesonwhatpeopleactuallydo(watchcatvideos)ratherthanwhattheywish they did (produce cinema-quality home movies) it actually expands

possibilities.”[xlix]

Lookingfordiscrepanciesexposesopportunities.WhydopeoplereallysendSMSmessages?Whydotheytakephotos?Whatroledoeswatchingtelevisionorsportsplayintheirlives?Askyourselfwhatpainthesehabits solve and what the user might be feeling right before one of theseactions.

Whatwouldyouruserwanttoachievebyusingyoursolution?Whereandwhen will they use it?What emotions influence their use and will triggerthemtoaction?

JackDorsey,co-founderofTwitterandSquare,sharedhowhiscompaniesanswer these important questions, “[If] youwant to build a product that isrelevanttofolks,youneedtoputyourselfintheirshoesandyouneedtowriteastoryfromtheirside.So,wespendalotoftimewritingwhat’scalleduser

narratives.”[l]

Dorseygoesontodescribehowhetriestotrulyunderstandhisuser,“Heisin the middle of Chicago and they go to a coffee store … This is theexperience they’re going to have. It reads like a play. It’s really, reallybeautiful. If you do that storywell, then all of the prioritization, all of theproduct, all of thedesign and all the coordination that youneed todowiththese products just falls out naturally because you can edit the story andeveryonecanrelatetothestoryfromalllevelsoftheorganization,engineerstooperationstosupporttodesignerstothebusinesssideofthehouse.”

Dorseybelievesacleardescriptionofusers—theirdesires,emotions,thecontextwithwhichtheyusetheproduct—isparamounttobuildingtheright

solution. In addition to Dorsey’s user narratives, tools like customer

development,[li]

usability studies, and empathy maps[lii]

are examples ofmethodsforlearningaboutpotentialusers.

Onemethodistotryaskingthequestion“why”asmanytimesasittakestoget to an emotion. Usually this will happen by the fifth “why.” This is atechnique adapted from theToyota Production System described byTaiichiOhnoasthe“5WhysMethod.”Ohnowrotethatitwas“thebasisofToyota’sscientific approach … by repeating ‘why?’ five times, the nature of the

problemaswellasitssolutionbecomesclear.”[liii]

When it comes to figuring out why people use habit-forming products,internal triggers are the root cause, and “why?” is a question that can helpdrillrighttothecore.

Forexample,let’ssaywe’rebuildingafancynewtechnologycalledemailfor the first time. The target user is a busy middle manager named Julie.We’ve built a detailed narrative of our user, Julie, that helps us answer thefollowingseriesof“whys:”

Why#1:WhywouldJuliewanttouseemail?

Answer:Soshecansendandreceivemessages.

Why#2:Whywouldshewanttodothat?

Answer:Becauseshewantstoshareandreceiveinformationquickly.

Why#3:Whydoesshewanttodothat?

Answer:To knowwhat’sgoingon in the livesof her co-workers, friends,andfamily.

Why#4:Whydoessheneedtoknowthat?

Answer:Toknowifsomeoneneedsher.

Why#5:Whywouldshecareaboutthat?

Answer:Shefearsbeingoutoftheloop.

Nowwe’vegotsomething!FearisapowerfulinternaltriggerandwecandesignoursolutiontohelpcalmJulie’sfear.Ofcourse,wemighthavecometo another conclusion by starting with a different persona, varying the

narrativeorcomingupwithdifferenthypotheticalanswersalongthechainof“whys.”Onlyanaccurateunderstandingofouruser’sunderlyingneedscaninformtheproductrequirements.

Butnowthatwehaveanunderstandingoftheuser’spain,wecanmoveontothenextstepoftestingourproducttoseeifitsolvesherproblem.

UnpackingInstagram’sTriggers

AlargecomponentofInstagram’ssuccess—andwhatbringsitsmillionsofusersbacknearlyeveryday—is thecompany’sability tounderstand itsusers’ triggers.Forpeople likeYin, Instagram is aharbor for emotions andinspirations,avirtualmemoirpreservedinpixels.

Yin’s habitual use of the service started with an external trigger - arecommendation from a friend and weeks of repetitious use before shebecamearegularuser.

EverytimeYinsnapsapicture,shesharesitwithherfriendsonFacebookandTwitter.ConsiderthefirsttimeyousawanInstagramphoto.Diditcatchyourattention?Diditmakeyoucurious?Diditcallyoutoaction?

Thesephotosserveasarelationshipexternaltrigger,raisingawarenessandservingasacue forothers to install anduse theapp.But InstagramphotossharedonFacebook andTwitterwere not the only external triggers drivingnewusers.Otherslearnedoftheappfromthemediaandbloggers,orthroughthe featured placement Apple granted Instagram in the App Store — allearnedexternaltriggers.

Onceinstalled,Instagrambenefitedfromownedexternaltriggers.Theappicon on users’ phone screens and push notifications about their friends’postingsservedtocallthemback.

With repeated use, Instagram formed strong associations with internaltriggers,andwhatwasonceabriefdistractionbecameanintradayroutineformanyusers.

Itisthefearoflosingaspecialmomentthatinstigatesapangofstress.ThisnegativeemotionistheinternaltriggerthatbringsInstagramusersbacktotheapptoalleviate thispainbycapturingaphoto.Asuserscontinue touse theservice,newinternaltriggersform.

But Instagram ismore than a camera replacement, it is a social network.Theapphelpsusersdispelboredombyconnectingthemwithothers,sharing

photos,andswappinglightheartedbanter.[liv]

Like many social networking sites, Instagram also alleviates theincreasinglyrecognizable“pain”knownas“fearofmissingout,”orFOMO.For Instagram, associations with internal triggers provide a foundation toformnewhabits.

Now it is time to understand the mechanics of connecting the user’sproblemwithyoursolutionbyutilizingthenextstepintheHookModel.Inthenextchapter,we’llfindouthowmovingpeoplefromtriggerstoactionsiscriticalinestablishingnewroutines.

***

RememberandShare

- Triggers cue the user to take action and are the first step in theHookModel.

-Triggerscomeintwotypes—externalandinternal.

- External triggers tell the user what to do next by placing informationwithintheuser’senvironment.

-Internaltriggerstelltheuserwhattodonextthroughassociationsstoredintheuser’smemory.

-Negativeemotionsfrequentlyserveasinternaltriggers.

-Tobuildahabit-formingproduct,makersneedtounderstandwhichuseremotionsmaybetiedtointernaltriggersandknowhowtoleverageexternaltriggerstodrivetheusertoaction.

***

DoThisNow

Refertotheanswersyoucameupwithinthelast“DoThisNow”sectiontocompletethefollowingexercises:

-Whoisyourproduct’suser?

-Whatistheuserdoingrightbeforeyourintendedhabit?

-Comeupwiththreeinternaltriggersthatcouldcueyourusertoaction.Refertothe“5WhysMethod”describedinthischapter.

-Whichinternaltriggerdoesyouruserexperiencemostfrequently?

-Finishthisbriefnarrativeusingthemostfrequentinternaltriggerandthehabityouaredesigning:

“Every time the user (internal trigger), he/she (first action of intendedhabit).”

-Referbackto thequestionaboutwhat theuser isdoingrightbefore thefirstactionofthehabit.Whatmightbeplacesandtimestosendanexternaltrigger?

-Howcanyoucoupleanexternaltriggerascloselyaspossibletowhentheuser’sinternaltriggerfires?

-Thinkofatleastthreeconventionalwaystotriggeryouruserwithcurrenttechnology(emails,notifications,textmessages,etc.).Thenstretchyourselftocomeupwithatleastthreecrazy,orcurrentlyimpossible, ideasforwaystotrigger your user (wearable computers, biometric sensors, carrier pigeons,etc.).Youmay find thatyourcrazy ideasspursomenewapproaches,whichmaynotbesocrazyafterall.Inafewyears,newtechnologieswillcreateallsortsofcurrentlyunimaginabletriggeringopportunities.

3.ACTION

ThenextstepinTheHookistheactionphase.Thetrigger,drivenbyinternalor external cues, informs the user ofwhat to do next; however, if the userdoesnot takeaction, the trigger isuseless.To initiateaction,doingmustbeeasier than thinking.Remember,ahabit isabehaviordonewith littleornoconsciousthought.Themoreeffort—eitherphysicalormental—requiredtoperformthedesiredaction,thelesslikelyitistooccur.

Actionvs.Inaction

If action is paramount to habit-formation, how can a product designerinfluenceuserstoact?Isthereaformulaforbehavior?Itturnsoutthereis.

Whiletherearemanytheoriesaboutwhatdriveshumanbehaviors,Dr.BJFogg,DirectorofthePersuasiveTechnologyLabatStanfordUniversity,hasdevelopedamodelthatservesasarelativelysimplewaytounderstandwhatdrivesouractions.

Foggposits that therearethreeingredientsrequiredtoinitiateanyandallbehaviors:(1)theusermusthavesufficientmotivation;(2)theusermusthavetheabilitytocompletethedesiredaction;and(3)atriggermustbepresenttoactivatethebehavior.

TheFoggBehaviorModel is represented in a formula,B=MAT,whichrepresents that a given behaviorwill occurwhenmotivation, ability, and a

trigger are present at the same time and in sufficient degrees.[lv]

If anycomponentofthisformulaismissingorinadequate,theuserwillnotcrossthe“ActionLine”andthebehaviorwillnotoccur.

Let’swalkthroughanexampleFoggusestoexplainhismodel.Imagineatimewhenyourmobilephonerangbutyoudidn’tanswerit.Whynot?

Perhapsthephonewasburiedinabag,makingitdifficulttoreach.Inthiscaseyourinabilitytoeasilyanswerthecallinhibitedtheaction.Yourabilitywaslimited.

Maybe you thought the caller was a telemarketer, someone you did notwant to speak to. So, your lack ofmotivation influenced you to ignore the

call.

Or,maybethecallwasimportantandwithinarm’sreach,buttheringeronyourphonewassilenced.Despitehavingbothastrongmotivationandeasyaccesstoanswerthecall,itwascompletelymissedbecauseyouneverhearditring—inotherwords,notriggerwaspresent.

Inthepreviouschapter,wecoveredtriggers,sonowlet’sdivedeeperintothe other two components of the Fogg Behavior Model: motivation andability.

Motivation

Whileatriggercuesanaction,motivationdefinesthelevelofdesiretotakethat action.Dr. EdwardDeci, Professor of Psychology at theUniversity ofRochester and a leading researcher on Self-Determination Theory, defines

motivationas,“theenergyforaction.”[lvi]

While thenatureofmotivation isawidelycontested topic inpsychology,FoggarguesthatthreeCoreMotivatorsdriveourdesiretoact.

Foggstatesthatallhumansaremotivatedtoseekpleasureandavoidpain,toseekhopeandavoidfear,andfinally,toseeksocialacceptanceandavoidrejection. The two sides of the threeCoreMotivators can be thought of aslevers to increase or decrease the likelihood of a person taking a particularactionbyincreasingordecreasingtheirmotivation.

MotivationExamplesinAdvertising

Perhapsnoindustrymakestheelementsofmotivationmoreexplicitthantheadvertising business. Advertisers regularly tap into people’s motivations toinfluence theirhabits.By lookingatadswithacriticaleye,wecan identifyhowtheyattempttoinfluenceouractions.

For example, Barack Obama’s 2008 presidential campaign leveraged adeeplyinspiringmessageandimageduringatimeofeconomicandpoliticalupheaval.An iconic poster designed by artist Shepard Fairey conveyed theideaof“hope,”notonlywiththewordprintedinboldlettersalongthebottomof the image, but also through Obama’s steadfast gaze as he lookedconfidentlytowardthefuture.(Unfortunately,theimagewasatthecenterofacopyright battle between Fairey and the Associated Press, which claimedownershipof theoriginalphotographused in theartwork,soI’vechosen to

not to include it here. If you can’t recall the image, there is a link in the

endnotes).[lvii]

Anotherexampleofmotivationinadvertisingrelatestotheoldsaying,“sexsells.” Long an advertising standard, images of buff, scantily clad (andusuallyfemale)bodiesareusedtohawkeverythingfromthelatestVictoria’sSecretlingerietodomainnamesthroughGoDaddy.comandfastfoodchainssuchasCarl’sJr.andBurgerKing(figure4).Theseandcountlessothersusethevoyeuristicpromiseofpleasuretocaptureattentionandmotivateaction.

Figure4

Of course, this strategy only appeals to a particular demographic’sassociation with sex as a salient motivator. While teenage boys — thecommon target for these ads—may find them inspiring, others may findthemdistasteful.Whatmotivatessomepeoplewillnotmotivateothers,afactthatprovidesall themore reason tounderstand theneedsofyourparticulartargetaudience.

SometimesthepsychologicalmotivatorisnotasobviousasthoseusedbyObamasupportersorfastfoodchains.TheBudweiseradinfigure5illustrateshow the beer company uses themotivator of social cohesion by displayingthree“buds,”cheering for theirnational team.Althoughbeer isnotdirectlyrelated to social acceptance, the ad reinforces the association that thebrandgoestogetherwithgoodfriendsandgoodtimes.

Figure5

On the flip-side, negative emotions such as fear can also be powerfulmotivators.The ad in figure 6 shows a disabledmanwith a shockingheadscar. The ad is impactful, communicating the risks of not wearing amotorcycle helmet. The words, “I won’t wear a helmet it makes me lookstupid,” along with the patient’s mental age (post-motorcycle accident) oftwo-yearsold,sendachillingmessage.

Figure6

As described in the previous chapter on triggers, understanding why theuserneedsyourproductorservice iscritical.While internal triggersare the

frequentitchexperiencedbyusersthroughouttheirdays,therightmotivatorscreateactionbyofferingthepromiseofdesirableoutcomes(i.e.,asatisfyingscratch).

However,evenwiththerighttriggerenabledandmotivationrunninghigh,productdesignersoftenfindusersstilldon’tbehavethewaytheywantthemto.What’smissinginthisequation?Usability,orrather,theabilityoftheusertotakeactioneasily.

Ability

In his book, Something Really New: Three Simple Steps to Creating Truly

InnovativeProducts[lviii]

,authorDenisJ.Hauptlydeconstructstheprocessofinnovationintoitsmostfundamentalsteps.First,Hauptlysays,understandthereasonpeopleuseaproductorservice.Next, layout thesteps thecustomermusttaketogetthejobdone.Finally,oncetheseriesoftasksfromintentionto outcome is understood, simply start removing steps until you reach thesimplestpossibleprocess.

Consequently, any technology or product that significantly reduces thestepstocompleteataskwillenjoyhighadoptionratesbythepeopleitassists.ForHauptly,easierequalsbetter.

Butcanthenatureofinnovationbeexplainedsosuccinctly?Perhapsabriefdetourintothetechnologyoftherecentpastwillillustratethepoint.

Afewdecadesago,adial-upInternetconnectionseemedmagical.Allusershad to do was boot-up their computers, hit a few keys on their desktopkeyboards,wait for theirmodemstoscreechandscreamas theyestablishedconnections,andthen,perhaps30secondstoaminutelater,theywereonline.CheckingemailorbrowsingthenascentWorldWideWebwasterriblyslow(by today’s standards), but offered unprecedented convenience compared tofindinginformationanyotherway.ThetechnologywasremarkableandsoonbecamearitualformillionsofpeopleaccessingthisnewmarvelknownastheInternet.

Of course, today fewof us could stand the torture of using a 2400 baudmodemafterwe’vebecomeaccustomedtoouralways-on,high-speedInternetconnections. Emails are now instantaneously pushed to the devices in ourpockets.Ourphotos,music,videos,andfiles—nottomentionthevastnessof the open web — are accessible almost anywhere, anytime, on anyconnecteddevice.

InlinewithHauptly’sassertion,asthestepsrequiredtogetsomethingdone(in this case, togetonlineanduse the Internet)were removedor improvedupon,adoptionincreased.

For example, consider the trend-line of the relationship between thepercentageofpeoplecreatingcontentonlineandtheincreasingeaseofdoingso,asshowninfigure7.

Figure7

Web1.0wascategorizedbyafewcontentproviderslikeC|net(nowcalledCNET) or theNewYork Times publishing to themasses,with only a tinynumberofpeoplecreatingwhatothersread.

Butinthelate1990s,bloggingchangedtheweb.Beforeblogging,amateurwriters had to purchase their owndomain, fiddlewithDNS settings, find awebhost, andsetupacontent-management system topresent theirwriting.Suddenly, new companies like Blogger eliminated most of these steps byallowinguserstosimplyregisteranaccountandstartposting.

Evan Williams, who co-founded Blogger and later Twitter, echoesHauptly’s formula for innovation when he describes his own approach to

building two massively successful companies.[lix]

“Take a human desire,preferably one that has been around for a really long time… Identify that

desireandusemodern technology to takeoutsteps.”Bloggermadepostingcontent online dramatically easier. The result? The percentage of userscreatingcontentonline,asopposedtosimplyconsumingit,increased.

Along came Facebook and other social media tools, refining earlierinnovations such as Bulletin Board Systems (BBS) and Really SimpleSyndication(RSS)feedsintotoolsforstatusupdate-hungryusers.

Then,sevenyearsafterBlogger’sbirth,anewcompanydescribedatfirstasa“micro-blogging”servicesoughttobringsharingtothemasses—Twitter.Formany, bloggingwas still too difficult and time-consuming.But anyonecould type short, casual messages. “Tweeting” began to enter the nationallexiconasTwittergainedwideradoption,climbingto500millionregistered

users by 2012.[lx]

Critics first discounted Twitter’s 140-character messagelimitationasgimmickyandrestrictive.Butlittledidtheyrealizetheconstraintactuallyincreasedusers’abilitytocreate.Afewkeyboardtapsandusersweresharing.Asoflate2013,340milliontweetsweresenteveryday.

More recently, companies such as Pinterest, Instagram and Vine haveelevatedonlinecontentcreationtoanewlevelofsimplicity.Now,justaquicksnapof a photo or re-pin of an interesting image shares information acrossmultiple social networks. The pattern of innovation shows that making agiven action easier to accomplish spurs each successive phase of the web,helping to turn the once-niche behavior of content publishing into amainstreamhabit.

Asrecenthistoryofthewebdemonstrates,theeaseordifficultyofdoingaparticular action impacts the likelihood that a behavior will occur. Tosuccessfully simplifyaproduct,wemust removeobstacles that stand in theuser’sway.AccordingtotheFoggBehaviorModel,abilityisthecapacitytodoaparticularbehavior.

***

Fogg describes six “elements of simplicity”— the factors that influence a

task’sdifficulty.[lxi]

Theseare:

-Time-Howlongittakestocompleteanaction.

-Money-Thefiscalcostoftakinganaction.

-PhysicalEffort-Theamountoflaborinvolvedintakingtheaction.

- Brain Cycles - The level of mental effort and focus required to take anaction.

-SocialDeviance-Howacceptedthebehaviorisbyothers.

- Non-Routine - According to Fogg, “How much the action matches ordisruptsexistingroutines.”

Toincreasethelikelihoodofabehavioroccurring,Fogginstructsdesignerstofocus on simplicity as a function of the user’s scarcest resource at thatmoment.Inotherwords,identifywhattheuserismissing.Whatismakingitdifficultfortheusertoaccomplishthedesiredaction?

Is the user short on time? Is the behavior too expensive? Is the userexhaustedafteralongdayofwork?Istheproducttoodifficulttounderstand?Is the user in a social context where the behavior could be perceived asinappropriate? Is the behavior simply so far outside of the user’s normalroutinethatitsstrangenessisoff-putting?

These factorswill differ by person and context, so designers should ask,“Whatisthethingthatismissingthatwouldallowmyuserstoproceedtothenext step?” Designing with an eye toward simplifying the overall userexperiencereducesfriction,removesobstacles,andhelpspushtheuseracrossFogg’sactionline.

Theactionphaseof theHookModel incorporatesFogg’s sixelementsofsimplicitybyaskingdesignerstoconsiderhowtheirtechnologycanfacilitatethesimplestactionsinanticipationofreward.Theeasieranaction,themorelikelytheuseristodoitandtocontinuethecyclethroughthenextphaseoftheHookModel.

Below are examples of simple online interfaces used by a number ofsuccessfulcompanies topromptusers tomovequickly into theHook’snextphase.

LoggingInwithFacebook

Traditionally, registering for anewaccountwith an apporwebsite requiresseveral steps. The user is prompted to enter an email address, create apassword, and submit other information such as a name or phone number.Thisburdenintroducessignificantfriction,detractingusersfromsigning-up.

Mobile devices present the special challenge of smaller screens and slowertypingspeeds.

However,todayitisnearlyimpossibletobrowsetheweboruseamobileapp without encountering a Facebook Login prompt (figure 8). Manycompanies have eliminated several steps in the registration process byenabling users to register with their sites by using their existing Facebookcredentials.

Figure8

While the Facebook login function is useful for time-starved people, itshouldbenotedthatforothers,thetooldoesn’tnecessarilyeaseregistration.Forexample,userswhoarewaryofhowFacebookmightsharetheirpersonalinformationmaynotfindtheloginbuttonhelpfulbecauseitmaytriggernewanxieties (and thus, brain cycles) about the social networking giant’strustworthiness.Again, theroadblocksconfrontingusersvarybypersonandcontext. There is no one-size-fits-all solution, so designers should seek tounderstandanarrayofpossibleuserchallenges.

SharingwiththeTwitterButton

Twitterhelpspeoplesharearticles,videos,photosoranyothercontent theyfindontheweb.Thecompanynoticedthat25percentoftweetscontainedalinkandthereforesoughttomaketheactionoftweetingawebsitelinkaseasy

aspossible.[lxii]

To ease the way for link-sharers, Twitter created an embeddable Tweet

buttonforthird-partysites,allowingthemtooffervisitorsaone-clickwaytotweetdirectlyfromtheirpages(figure9).Theexternaltriggeropensapresetmessage, reducing the cognitive effort of composing the tweet and savingseveralstepstosharing.

Figure9

SearchingwithGoogle

Google,theworld’smostpopularsearchengine,wasnotthefirsttomarket.Itcompeted against incumbents such asYahoo!, Lycos,AltaVista, andExcitewhen it launched in the late 1990s.HowdidGoogle come todominate themulti-billiondollarindustry?

Forone,Google’sPageRankalgorithmprovedtobeamuchmoreeffectivewaytoindextheweb.Byrankingpagesbasedonhowfrequentlyothersiteslinkedtothem,Googleimprovedsearchrelevancy.Comparedwithdirectory-based search tools such as Yahoo!, Google was a massive time-saver. ButGoogle also beat out other search engines that had become polluted withirrelevant content and cluttered with advertising (figure 10). From itsinception,Google’scleanandsimplehomepageandsearchresultspagesweresolelyfocusedonstreamliningtheactofsearchingandgettingrelevantresults(figure11).

Figure10-TheYahoohomepagecirca1998

Figure11-TheGooglehomepagecirca1998

Simply put, Google reduced the amount of time and the cognitive effortrequired to find what the user was looking for. The company continues torelentlessly improve its search engine by finding new ways to removewhatever might be in the user’s way— no matter how seemingly trivial.Whileitshomepageremainsremarkablypristine,Googlenowoffersmyriadtools to make searching easier and faster — including automatic spellingcorrection,predictiveresultsbasedonpartialqueries,andsearchresultsthatload even as the user is typing. Google’s efforts are intended to makesearchingeasiertokeepuserscomingback.

TakingPhotoswiththeAppleiPhone

Manyoflife’smosttreasuredmomentscomeandgoinaninstant.Wetryandcapture thesememories in photos, but if our camera is out of reach or toocumbersome to catch the shot, we lose those moments forever. ApplerecognizeditcouldhelpiPhoneownerstakemorephotosbymakingpicture-takingeasier.Thecompanymadethecameraappdirectlylaunchablefromthelocked screen, without requiring a password. Compared to the number ofsteps needed to access photo apps on other smartphones, the simple flickgestureofthenativeiPhonecameragivesitavirtualmonopolyasusers’go-tosolutionwhenevertheyneedtosnapaquickpic(figure12).

Figure12

ScrollingwithPinterest

How can a website make browsing easier? One solution popularized bydigitalpinboardsite,Pinterest,istheinfinitescroll.Inthepast,gettingfromoneweb page to the next required clicking andwaiting. However on sitessuchasPinterest,whenevertheusernearsthebottomofapage,moreresultsautomatically load. Users never have to pause as they continue scrollingthroughpinsorpostswithoutend(figure13).

Figure13

***

The examples above show how simplicity increases the intended userbehaviors.

MotivationorAbility—WhichShouldYouIncreaseFirst?

After uncovering the triggers that prompt user actions and deciding whichactionsyouwanttoturnintohabits,youcanincreasemotivationandabilityto spark the likelihood of your users taking a desired behavior. But whichshould you invest in first, motivation or ability? Where is your time andmoneybetterspent?

Theanswerisalwaystostartwithability.

Of course, all three parts ofB=MATmust be present for a singular useractiontooccur;withoutacleartriggerandsufficientmotivation,therewillbeno behavior. But for companies building technology solutions, the greatestreturnoninvestmentwillgenerallycomefromincreasingaproduct’sease-of-use.

The fact is, increasing motivation is expensive and time-consuming.Website visitors tend to ignore instructional text. Their attention is split onseveraltasksatonceandtheyhavelittlepatienceforexplanationsaboutwhyorhowtheyshoulddosomething.Instead,influencingbehaviorbyreducingthe effort required to perform an action is more effective than increasing

someone’s desire to do it.Make your product so simple that users alreadyknowhowtouseit,andyou’vegotawinner.

TheEvolutionofTwitter’sHomepage

In 2009, the Twitter homepagewas clutteredwith text and dozens of links(figure14).Thepagewasconfusing,especiallyfornewusersunfamiliarwiththeproduct.Twitter’svaluepropositionofsharingwhatyouweredoingwithfriendsand family failed to resonatewithmostusers,whowondered, “whywouldIwanttobroadcastmyactivities?”Thepagedesigndemandedahighlevelofattentionandcomprehension.

Figure14-TheTwitterhomepagein2009

Ayearlater,Twitterredesigneditshomepage,toutingitselfasaserviceto“shareanddiscoverwhat’shappening”(figure15).Althoughthepagebecamemorefocusedonaction,itwasstillvisuallyonerous.Evenmoreunfortunate,thetaskusersweremostlikelytodo—search—wasnotwhatTwitterreallywanted them to do. Twitter management knew from early users that thosewho followedotherpeopleon theserviceweremore likely to stayengagedandformahabit.ButsearchingonTwitterwasnothelpingthatgoal,sothecompanydecidedtomakeanotherswitch.

Figure15-TheTwitterhomepagein2010

During the company’s period of hypergrowth, the Twitter homepagebecame radicallymore simple (figure 16). The product description is itselfonly 140 characters long and has evolved from the cognitively difficultrequest that users broadcast their information (as seen in 2009), to the lesstaxing “Find out what’s happening, right now, with the people andorganizationsyoucareabout.”

Figure16-TheTwitterhomepagein2012

Thebig bold imageof people looking into somekindof light-emanatingevent, like a concert or a soccer match, metaphorically communicates thevalueoftheservicewhilepiquingcuriosity.Moststrikingly,thepagehastwoveryclearcalls-to-action:signinorsignup.Thecompanymadethedesiredaction as simple as possible, knowing that getting users to experience theservicewouldyieldbetterresultsthantryingtoconvincethemtouseitwhile

stillonthehomepage.

Ofcourse, it isworthnoting thatTwitterwas inadifferentplace in2012thanin2009.Peoplecametothesitehavingheardmoreabouttheserviceasitspopularitygrew.Twitter’shomepageevolution revealshow thecompanydiscovered its users’ scarcest resource. In 2009, the Twitter homepageattempted toboostmotivation.Butby2012,Twitterhaddiscovered thatnomatter how much users knew about the service, driving them to open anaccountandstartfollowingpeopleresultedinmuchhigherengagement.

Recently, Twitter’s homepage has been modified slightly to encouragedownloadingofthecompany’smobileapps(figure17).Thesimplicityofthelargesign-inorsign-uptriggersonthe2012versionremain,butTwitternowknowsthatdrivinguserstoinstalltheappontheirphonesleadstothehighestratesofrepeatengagement.

Figure17-TheTwitterhomepagein2013

OnHeuristicsandPerception

So far,we have discussed Fogg’s CoreMotivators and the six elements ofsimplicity as levers for influencing the likelihood of a particular behavioroccurring. These factors echo ideals of how people react when makingrationaldecisions.Forexample,everyEconomics101student learns thataspricesdecrease,consumerspurchasemore—inFogg’sterms,anexampleof

increasingabilitybydecreasingprice.

However,althoughtheprincipleseemselementary,thelaw,likemanyothertheories of human behavior, has exceptions. The field of behavioraleconomics, as studied by luminaries such as Nobel Prize winner DanielKahneman, exposed exceptions to the rational model of human behavior.Eventhenotionthatpeoplealwaysconsumemoreifsomethingcostsless,forexample,isatendency,notanabsolute.

Therearemanycounterintuitiveandsurprisingwayscompaniescanboostusers’motivationor increase theirabilitybyunderstandingheuristics—themental shortcutswe take tomake decisions and form opinions. It isworthmentioningafewofthesebrainbiases.Eventhoughusersareoftenunawareoftheseinfluencesontheirbehavior,heuristicscanpredicttheiractions.

TheScarcityEffect

In1975,researchersWorchel,Lee,andAdewolewantedtoknowhowpeople

wouldvaluecookiesintwoidenticalglassjars.[lxiii]

Onejarheldtencookieswhile the other contained just two stragglers.Which cookieswould peoplevaluemore?

While thecookiesand jarswere identical,participantsvalued theones inthe near-empty jar more highly. The appearance of scarcity affected theirperceptionofvalue.

Therearemany theoriesas towhy this is thecase.Forone,scarcitymaysignalsomethingabouttheproduct.Iftherearefewerofanitem,thethinkinggoes, itmightbebecauseotherpeopleknowsomethingyoudon’t.Namely,thatthecookiesinthealmost-emptyjararethebetterchoice.Thejarwithjusttwocookiesleftinitconveysvaluable,albeitirrelevant,informationsincethecookiesareidentical.Yet, theperceptionofscarcitychangedtheirperceivedvalue.

Inthesecondpartoftheirexperiment,theresearcherswantedtoknowwhatwouldhappento theperceptionof thevalueof thecookies if theysuddenlybecamescarceorabundant.Groupsofstudyparticipantsweregivenjarswitheither two cookies or ten. Then, the people in the group with ten cookiessuddenlyhadeighttakenaway.Conversely,thosewithonlytwocookieshadeight new cookies added to their jars.Howwould these changes affect thewayparticipantsvaluedthecookies?

Resultsremainedconsistentwiththescarcityheuristic.Thegroupleftwith

only twocookies rated them tobemorevaluable,while those experiencingsuddenabundancebygoingfromtwototen,actuallyvaluedthecookiesless.Infact,theyvaluedthecookiesevenlowerthanpeoplewhohadstartedwithtencookies tobeginwith.Thestudyshowed thataproductcandecrease inperceivedvalueifitstartsoffasscarceandbecomesabundant.

Foranexampleofhowperceptionofa limitedsupplycan increasesales,look no further than Amazon.com. My recent search for a DVD revealedtherewere“only14leftinstock”(figure18),whileasearchforabookI’vehadmy eye on says only threecopies remain. Is theworld’s largest onlineretaileralmostsoldoutofnearlyeverythingIwant tobuyorare theyusingthescarcityheuristictoinfluencemybuyingbehavior?

Figure18-“Only14leftinstock”?

TheFramingEffect

Contextalsoshapesperception. Inasocialexperiment,world-classviolinistJoshuaBelldecided toplaya free impromptuconcert inaWashington,DC

subway station.[lxiv]

Bell regularly sells out venues such as the KennedyCenterandCarnegieHallforhundredsofdollarsperticket,butwhenplacedin the context of the DC subway, his music fell upon deaf ears. Almostnobodyknew theywerewalkingpastoneof themost talentedmusicians intheworld.

Themindtakesshortcutsinformedbyoursurroundingstomakequickandsometimes erroneous judgments. When Bell performed his concert in thesubway station, few stopped to listen.Butwhen framed in the context of aconcerthall,hecanchargebeaucoupbucks.

But the framingheuristicnotonly influencesourbehaviors— it literallychanges how our brain perceives pleasure. For example, a 2007 study

attemptedtomeasureifpricehadanyinfluenceonthetasteofwine.[lxv]

TheresearchershadstudyparticipantssamplewinewhileinanfMRImachine.

As the machine scanned the blood flow in the various regions of theirbrains, the tasters were informed of the cost of each wine sampled. Thesamplestartedwitha$5wineandprogressedtoa$90bottle.Interestingly,asthepriceofthewineincreased,sodidtheparticipant’senjoymentofthewine.Notonlydidtheysaytheyenjoyedthewinemorebuttheirbraincorroboratedtheirfeelings,showinghigherspikesintheregionsassociatedwithpleasure.Littledidthestudyparticipantsrealize,theyweretastingthesamewineeachtime. This study demonstrates how perception can form a personal realitybasedonhowaproductisframed,evenwhenthereislittlerelationshipwithobjectivequality.

TheAnchoringEffect

Rarely canyouwalk into a clothing storewithout seeing signage for “30%off,”“buy-one-get-onefree,”andothersalesanddeals.Inreality,theseitemsareoftenmarketedtomaximizeprofitsforthebusiness.Often,thesamestorewillhavesimilarbutlessexpensive(yetnon-discounted)products.Irecentlyvisiteda store thatofferedapackageof three Jockeybrandundershirts at abuy-one-get-one-half-offdiscountfor$29.50.Aftersurveyingotheroptions,InoticedapackageoffiveFruitoftheLoombrandundershirtssellingfor$34.Aftersomequickmath,Idiscoveredthattheshirtsnotonsalewereactuallycheaperper-shirtthanthe“discounted”brand’spackage.

Peopleoftenanchortoonepieceofinformationwhenmakingadecision.Ialmostboughttheshirtsonsaleassumingthattheonefeaturedifferentiatingthetwobrands—thefactthatonewasonsaleandtheotherwasnot—wasallIneededtoconsider.

TheEndowedProgressEffect

Punch cards are often used by retailers to encourage repeat business.Witheach purchase, customers get closer to receiving a free product or service.Thesecardsaretypicallyawardedemptyandineffect,customersstartatzeropercent complete.What would happen if retailers handed customers punchcardswithpunchesalreadygiven?Wouldpeoplebemorelikelytotakeactioniftheyhadalreadymadesomeprogress?Anexperimentsoughttoanswerthis

veryquestion.[lxvi]

Twogroupsofcustomersweregivenpunchcardsawardingafreecarwashoncethecardswerefullypunched.Onegroupwasgivenablankpunchcard

with8squaresandtheothergivenapunchcardwith10squaresbutwithtwofreepunches.Bothgroupsstillhadtopurchase8carwashestoreceiveafreewash;however,thesecondgroupofcustomers—thosethatweregiventwofreepunches—hadastaggering82percenthighercompletionrate.Thestudydemonstrates the endowed progress effect, a phenomenon that increasesmotivationaspeoplebelievetheyarenearingagoal.

Sites such as LinkedIn and Facebook utilize this heuristic to encouragepeopletodivulgemoreinformationaboutthemselveswhencompletingtheironline profiles. On LinkedIn, every user starts with some semblance ofprogress(figure19).Thenextstepisto“ImproveYourProfileStrength”bysupplying additional information. As users complete each step, the meterincrementally shows theuser is advancing.Cleverly,LinkedIn’s completionbar jumpstarts the perception of progress and does not include a numericscale.Forthenewuser,aproperLinkedInprofiledoesnotseemsofaraway.Buteven the“advanced”user still hasadditional steps shecan take to inchtowardthefinalgoal.

Figure19

***

Most people remain unaware of how heuristics help us make split-seconddecisionsmultipletimesperday.Psychologistsbelievetherearehundredsofcognitivebiasesthatinfluenceourbehaviorsandthefourdiscussedhereare

just a few examples.[lxvii]

For product designers building habit-formingtechnology, understanding and leveraging these methods for boostingmotivationandabilitycanprovehighlyimpactful.

StephenAnderson, author ofSeductive InteractionDesign, created a toolcalledMentalNotestohelpdesignersbuildbetterproductsthroughheuristics.[lxviii]

Eachof thecards inhisdeckof50containsabriefdescriptionofacognitive bias and is intended to spark product team conversations aroundhowtheymightutilizetheprinciple.Forexample, teammembersmightaskthemselveshowtheycouldutilizetheendowedprogresseffectorthescarcity

effecttoincreasethelikelihoodofadesireduserbehavior.

Inthischapter,wediscoveredhowtotakeusersfromtriggertoaction.Wediscussedhowcognitivebiasesinfluencebehaviorandhowbydesigningthesimplestactioninanticipationofareward,productmakerscanadvanceuserstothenextphaseoftheHookModel.

Nowthatusershavepassedthroughthefirsttwophases,itistimetogivethemwhattheycamefor—therewardthatscratchestheiritch.Butwhatisitexactlythatuserswant?Whatkeepsuscomingbacktimeandagaintohabit-forming experiences and technologies? The answer to what we’re allsearchingforisthetopicofthenextchapter.

***

RememberandShare

-ActionisthesecondstepinTheHook.

-Theactionisthesimplestbehaviorinanticipationofreward.

-AsdescribedbytheDr.BJFogg’sBehaviorModel:

-Foranybehaviortooccur,atriggermustbepresentatthesametimeastheuserhassufficientabilityandmotivationtotakeaction.

-To increase thedesiredbehavior, ensureaclear trigger ispresent, thenincreaseabilitybymakingtheactioneasiertodo,andfinallyalignwiththerightmotivator.

- Every behavior is driven by one of three Core Motivators: seekingpleasure or avoiding pain, seeking hope and avoiding fear, seeking socialacceptancewhileavoidingsocialrejection.

- Ability is influenced by the six factors of time, money, physical effort,brain cycles, social deviance, and non-routineness. Ability is dependent onusersandtheircontextatthatmoment.

- Heuristics are cognitive shortcuts we take to make quick decisions.Productdesignerscanutilizemanyof thehundredsofheuristics to increasethelikelihoodoftheirdesiredaction.

***

DoThisNow

Refertotheanswersyoucameupwithinthelast“DoThisNow”sectiontocompletethefollowingexercises:

- Walk through the path your users would take to use your product orservice, beginning from the time they feel their internal trigger to thepointwhere they receive their expected outcome. How many steps does it takebeforeusersobtaintherewardtheycamefor?Howdoesthisprocesscomparewith the simplicityof someof the examplesdescribed in this chapter?Howdoesitcomparewithcompetingproductsandservices?

-Which resourcesare limitingyourusers’ability toaccomplish the tasksthatwillbecomehabits?

-Time

-Money

-Physicaleffort

-Braincycles(tooconfusing)

-Socialdeviance(outsidethenorm)

-Non-routine(toonew)

- Brainstorm three testable ways to make the intended tasks easier tocomplete.

-Considerhowyoumightapplyheuristicstomakehabit-formingactionsmorelikely.

4.VARIABLEREWARD

Ultimately,allbusinesseshelpusersachieveanobjective.Aswe learned inthe previous chapter, reducing the steps needed to complete the intendedoutcomeincreasesthelikelihoodofthatoutcome.Buttokeepusersengaged,productsneedtodeliveron theirpromises.Toformthe learnedassociationswe discussed in the chapter on triggers, usersmust come to depend on theproductasa reliablesolution to theirproblem—thesalve for the itch theycametoscratch.

The third step in the HookModel is the Variable Reward phase. In thisphase, you reward your users by solving a problem, reinforcing theirmotivationfortheactiontakeninthepreviousphase.Buttounderstandwhyrewards— and variable rewards in particular— are so powerful,wemustfirsttakeatripdeepinsidethebrain.

UnderstandingRewards

In the 1940s, two researchers named James Olds and Peter Milneraccidentallydiscoveredhowa special areaof thebrain is the sourceofourcravings.Theresearchersimplantedelectrodesinthebrainsoflabmicethatenabledthemicetogivethemselvestinyelectricshockstoasmallareaofthe

braincalled thenucleusaccumbens.[lxix]

Themicequicklybecamehookedonthesensation.

OldsandMilnerdemonstrated that the labmicewould forgo food,water,andevenrunacrossapainfulelectrifiedgridfortheopportunitytocontinuepressing the lever that administered the shocks. A few years later, otherresearchers tested the human response to self-administered stimulus in thesameareaofthebrain.Theresultswerejustasdramaticasinthemousetrial—subjectswantedtodonothingbutpressthebrain-stimulatingbutton.Evenwhen the machine was turned off, people continued pressing the button.Researchersevenhadtoforciblytakethedevicesfromsubjectswhorefusedtorelinquishthem.

Giventheresponsestheyhadearlierdemonstratedfromlabanimals,OldsandMilnerconcludedthattheyhaddiscoveredthebrain’spleasurecenter.In

fact,wenowknowother things that feelgoodalsoactivate thesameneuralregion.Sex,deliciousfood,abargain,andevenourdigitaldevicesalltapintothisdeeprecessofthebrain,providingtheimpetusformanyofourbehaviors.

However, more recent research has shown that Olds and Milner’sexperimentswere not stimulating pleasure per se. Stanford Professor BrianKnutson, conducted a study exploring blood flow in the brains of people

wageringwhile insideof an fMRImachine.[lxx]

The test subjects played agambling gamewhileKnutson and his team looked atwhich areas of theirbrains became more active. The startling results showed that the nucleusaccumbens was not activating when the reward (in this case a monetarypayout)wasreceived,butrather,inanticipationofit.

Thestudyrevealedthatwhatdrawsustoactisnotthesensationwereceivefrom the reward itself,but theneed toalleviate thecraving for that reward.Thestressofdesireinthebrainappearstocompelus,justasitdidinOlds’andMilner’slabmouseexperiments.

UnderstandingVariability

Ifyou’veneverwatchedaYouTubevideoofababy’sfirstencounterwithadog,it’sworthdoing.Notonlyarethesevideosincrediblycute,buttheyhelpdemonstratesomethingimportantaboutourmentalwiring.

Atfirst,theexpressiononthebaby’sfaceseemstoask,“Whatisthishairymonsterdoinginmyhouse?Willithurtme?Whatwillitdonext?”Thechildisfilledwithcuriosity,uncertainifthiscreaturemightcauseharm.Butsoonthe child figuresoutRover is not a threat.What follows is an explosionofinfectiousgiggles.Researchersbelievelaughtermayinfactbeareleasevalvewhen we experience the discomfort and excitement of uncertainty, but

withoutfearofharm.[lxxi]

Whatwedonotseeinthevideosiswhathappensovertime.Afewyearslater, what was once thrilling about Rover, no longer holds the child’sattentioninthesameway.Thechildhaslearnedtopredictthedog’sbehaviorandnolongerfindsthepupquiteasentertaining.Bynow,thechild’smindisoccupiedwithdumptrucks,fireengines,bicycles,andnewtoysthatstimulatethe senses—until they toobecomepredictable.Withoutvariability,wearelike children in that oncewe figure outwhatwill happen next,we becomeless excited by the experience. The same rules that apply to puppies alsoapply to products. To hold our attention, products must have an ongoing

degreeofnovelty.

Our brains have evolved overmillennia to help us figure out how thingswork.Onceweunderstandcausalrelationships,weretainthatinformationinmemory. Our habits are simply the brain’s ability to quickly retrieve theappropriate behavioral response to a routine or process we have alreadylearned.Habits helpus conserveour attention for other thingswhilewegoaboutthetasksweperformwithlittleornoconsciousthought.

However,whensomethingbreaksthecause-and-effectpatternwe’vecometoexpect—whenweencountersomethingoutsidethenorm—wesuddenly

become aware of it again.[lxxii]

Novelty sparks our interest,makes us payattention,and—likeababyencounteringafriendlydogforthefirsttime—weseemtoloveit.

RewardsoftheTribe,Hunt,andSelf

Inthe1950s,psychologistB.F.Skinnerconductedexperimentstounderstand

how variability impacted animal behavior.[lxxiii]

First, Skinner placedpigeons inside a box rigged to deliver a foodpellet to the birds every timethey pressed a lever. Similar to Olds’ and Milner’s lab mice, the pigeonslearned the cause-and-effect relationship between pressing the lever andreceivingthefood.

In the next part of the experiment, Skinner added variability. Instead ofproviding a pellet every time a pigeon tapped the lever, the machinedischarged foodaftera randomnumberof taps.Sometimes the leverwoulddispense food, sometimesnot.Skinner revealed that the intermittent rewarddramatically increased the number of times the pigeons tapped the lever.Adding variability increased the frequency of the pigeons completing theintendedaction.

Skinner’s pigeons tell us a great deal about what helps drive our ownbehaviors.More recent experiments reveal that variability increases activityinthenucleusaccumbensandspikeslevelsoftheneurotransmitterdopamine,

drivingourhungrysearchforrewards.[lxxiv]

Researchersobservedincreaseddopaminelevelsinthenucleusaccumbensinexperimentsinvolvingmonetaryrewards as well as in a study of heterosexual men viewing images of

attractivewomen’sfaces.[lxxv]

Variablerewardscanbefoundinallsortsofproductsandexperiencesthathold our attention. They fuel our drive to check email, browse theweb, orbargain-shop.Iproposethatvariablerewardscomeinthreetypes:Tribe,huntand self (figure 20). Habit-forming products utilize one or more of thesevariablerewardtypes.

Figure20

RewardsoftheTribe

Weareaspecies thatdependsoneachother.Rewardsof the tribe,orsocialrewards, aredrivenbyour connectednesswithotherpeople.Ourbrains areadaptedtoseekrewardsthatmakeusfeelaccepted,attractive,important,andincluded.Manyofourinstitutionsandindustriesarebuiltaroundthisneedforsocialreinforcement.Fromcivicandreligiousgroupstospectatorsportsand“watercooler”televisionshows,theneedtofeelsocialconnectednessshapesourvaluesanddrivesmuchofhowwespendourtime.

It is no surprise that socialmedia has exploded in popularity. Facebook,Twitter, Pinterest, and several other sites collectively provide over a billionpeoplewithpowerfulsocialrewardsonavariableschedule.Witheverypost,tweet, or pin, users anticipate social validation. Rewards of the tribe keepuserscomingback,wantingmore.

Sites that leverage tribal rewards benefit from what psychologist Albert

Banduracalled“sociallearningtheory.”[lxxvi]

Bandurastudiedthepowerof

modelingandascribedspecialpowers toourability to learnfromothers. Inparticular,Bandurashowedthatpeoplewhoobservesomeonebeingrewardedfor a particular behavior are more likely to alter their own beliefs andsubsequentactions.Notably,Banduraalsoshowedthat this techniqueworksparticularly well when people observe the behavior of people most likethemselves,or thosewhoareslightlymoreexperienced(and, therefore, role

models).[lxxvii]

Thisisexactlythekindoftargeteddemographicandinterest-level segmentation that social media companies such as Facebook andindustry-specificsitessuchasStackOverflowselectivelyapply.

Herearesomeonlineexamplesofrewardsofthetribe:

Facebook

Facebookprovidesnumerousexamplesofvariablesocialrewards.Logging-inreveals an endless stream of content friends have shared, comments fromothers, and running tallies of how many people have “liked” something(figure21).Theuncertaintyofwhatuserswill findeach time theyvisit thesitecreatestheintrigueneededtopullthembackagain.

WhilevariablecontentgetsuserstokeepsearchingforinterestingtidbitsintheirNewsfeeds,aclickof the“Like”buttonprovidesavariablerewardforthecontent’screators.“Likes”andcommentsoffertribalvalidationforthosewhoshared thecontent, andprovidevariable rewards thatmotivate them tocontinueposting.

Figure21

StackOverflow

StackOverflow is theworld’s largest question-and-answer site for softwaredevelopers. As with other user-generated content sites such as Quora,Wikipedia, and YouTube, all of Stack Overflow’s content is createdvoluntarily by people who use the site. A staggering 5,000 answers toquestions are generated per day by sitemembers.Many of these responsesprovidedetailed,highly technicalandtime-consuminganswers.Butwhydoso many people spend so much time doing all this work for free? Whatmotivates them to invest the effort into what others may see as theburdensometaskofwritingtechnicaldocumentation?

StackOverflowdevoteeswriteresponsesinanticipationofrewardsofthetribe. Each time a user submits an answer, other members have theopportunity to vote the response up or down. The best responses percolateupwards,accumulatingpointsfortheirauthors(figure22).Whentheyreachcertain point levels,members earn badges, which confer special status andprivileges. Of course, the process of accumulating upvotes (and, therefore,pointsandbadges) ishighlyvariable—nooneknowshowmany theywillreceivefromthecommunitywhenrespondingtoaquestion.

Figure22

Stack Overflow works because, like all of us, software engineers findsatisfactionincontributingtoacommunitytheycareabout;andtheelement

of variability turns a seeminglymundane task into an engaging, game-likeexperience. But on Stack Overflow, points are not just an empty gamemechanic,theyconferspecialvaluebyrepresentinghowmuchsomeonehascontributed to their tribe. Users enjoy the feeling of helping their fellowprogrammersandearningtherespectofpeoplewhoseopinionstheyvalue.

LeagueofLegends

LeagueofLegends,apopularcomputergame,launchedin2009andquicklyachieved tremendous success.But soon after its launch, the game’s ownersfound they had a serious problem: The online video game was filled with“trolls”—peoplewhoenjoyedbullyingotherplayerswhilebeingprotectedbytheanonymitythegameprovides.Soon,LeagueofLegendsearnedanastyreputation for having an “unforgiving — even abusive —

community.”[lxxviii]

A leading industry publication wrote, “League ofLegendshasbecomewellknownforatleasttwothings:provingthepowerof

thefree-to-playmodelintheWestandaviciousplayercommunity.”[lxxix]

To combat the trolls, the game creators designed a reward systemleveragingBandura’ssocial learningtheory,whichtheycalledHonorPoints(figure 23). The system gave players the ability to award points forparticularlysportsmanlikeconductworthyofrecognition.Thesevirtualkudosencouraged positive behavior and helped the best and most cooperativeplayers to stand out in the community. The number of points earned washighlyvariable and couldonlybe conferredbyother players.HonorPointssoonbecameacovetedmarkeroftribe-conferredstatusandhelpedweedouttrollsbysignalingtootherswhichplayersshouldbeavoided.

Figure23

RewardsoftheHunt

For years, scientists have tried to answer a central question of humanevolution:Howdidearlyhumanshuntforfood?Mostevolutionarybiologistsagree that consuming animalproteinwas a significantmilestone that led tobetter nutrition and, ultimately, bigger brains but the tactical details of the

hunt remain hazy.[lxxx]

We know our ancestors handcrafted spears andarrows for hunting, but evidence shows that these weapons were only

invented500,000yearsago,[lxxxi]

whereaswe’vebeeneatingmeatforover

2millionyears.[lxxxii]

Howthen,didwehuntduringthefirst75percentofourexistence?

AccordingtoHarvardevolutionarybiologistDanielLieberman,wechaseddown our dinner. Early humans killed animals using a technique known as“persistencehunting,”apracticestillcommonamongtoday’sfewremainingpre-agrarian societies. One of these groups, the San people of SouthernAfrica,hunt forkudu,a largedeer-likeanimal,usinga technique similar tothe way Lieberman believes humans hunted for the vast majority of ourspecies’ history. Thewaywe evolved to huntwild gamemay help explainwhywefindourselvescompelledtousecertainproductstoday.

InAfrica, thechasebeginswhenagroupofSanhunters separate a largekudubullfromtheherd.Theanimal’sheavyantlersslowshimdown,makinghim less agile than the female kudus.Once the animal is isolated from thepack,asingleSanhunterbeginsthehunt,keepingasteadypaceastheanimalleaps ahead in fear. At first, it appears themanwill never catch up to theboundingbeast.Attimeshestrugglestokeeptheanimalinsightthroughthedrybrush.

Butthehunterknowshecanusetheanimal’sweaknessestohisadvantage.The powerful kudu is much faster in short sprints, but the kudu’s skin iscovered with fur and can not dissipate heat like the runner’s skin can.According toLieberman, “Quadrupeds cannot pant andgallop at the same

time.”[lxxxiii]

Sowhile the kudumust stop to catch his breath, the hunterbeginsclosingin,nottocatchitbuttorunittoexhaustion.

AfterbeingtrackedforaswelteringeighthoursundertheAfricansun,thebeast is finally ready to give up, collapsing in surrender with barely astruggle. The meager hundred-pound San hunter outlasts the powerful 500

poundbeastwithlittlemorethanhispersistenceandthebiomechanicalgiftsevolutionhasgivenhim.Thehunterswiftlyandceremoniouslykillshisprize,piercingaveinintheanimal’snecksothathecanfeedhischildrenandhistribe.

By running on two feet and bereft of the body hair typical of otherprimates,ourspeciesgainedamassiveadvantageoverlargermammals.Ourabilitytomaintainsteadypursuitgaveusthecapacitytohuntlargeprehistoricgame. But persistence hunting was not only made possible because of ourbodies;changesinourbrainsalsoplayedasignificantrole.

During thechase, the runner isdrivenby thepursuit itself;and thissamementalhardwiringalsoprovidescluesintothesourceofourinsatiabledesirestoday.ThedoggeddeterminationthatkeepsSanhunterschasingkuduisthesamemechanismthatkeepsuswantingandbuying.Althoughitisalongwayfrom bushmen to businessmen, the mental processes of the hunt remainlargelythesame.

The search for resources defines the next type of variable reward— therewardsofhunt.Theneedtoacquirephysicalobjects,suchasfoodandothersupplies that aid our survival, is part of our brain’s operating system. Butwhereweoncehunted for food, todaywehunt for other things. Inmodernsociety, food can be bought with cash, and more recently by extension,informationtranslatesintomoney.

Rewardsofthehuntexistedlongbeforetheadventofcomputers.ButtodaywefindnumerousexamplesofvariablerewardsassociatedwiththepursuitofresourcesandinformationthatcompeluswiththesamedeterminationastheSanhunterchasinghisprey.

Here are a few examples of products that create habits by leveragingrewardsofthehunt:

MachineGambling

Mostpeopleknowthatgamblingbenefitsthecasinoorbrokerfarmorethantheplayers.Astheoldadagesays,“thehousealwayswins.”Yetdespitethisknowledge,themulti-billiondollargamblingindustrycontinuestothrive.

Slotmachines provide a classic example of variable rewards of the hunt.Gamblers plunk$1billion per day into slotmachines inAmerican casinos,

which is a testament to themachines’ power to compel players.[lxxxiv]

Byawardingmoneyinrandomintervals,gamesofchanceenticeplayerswiththe

prospect of a jackpot. Of course, winning is entirely outside the gambler’scontrol—yetthepursuitcanbeintoxicating.

Twitter

The“feed”hasbecomeasocialstapleofmanyonlineproducts.Thestreamoflimitlessinformationdisplayedinascrollinginterfacemakesforacompellingrewardofthehunt.TheTwittertimeline,forexample,isfilledwithamixofboth mundane and relevant content. This variety creates an enticinglyunpredictable user experience.Onoccasion a usermight find a particularlyinterestingpieceofnews,whileother times,shewon’t.But tokeephuntingformoreinformation,all that isneededisaflickof thefingerorscrollofamouse.Usersscrollandscrollandscrolltosearchforvariablerewardsintheformofrelevanttweets(figure24).

Figure24

Pinterest

Pinterest,acompanythathasgrowntoreachover50millionmonthlyusers

worldwide, also employs a feed, butwith a visual twist.[lxxxv]

Theonlinepinboarding site is a virtual smorgasbord of objects of desire. The site iscuratedbyitscommunityofuserswhoensurethatahighdegreeofintriguingcontentappearsoneachpage.

Pinterestusersneverknowwhat theywill findon the site.Tokeep them

searchingandscrolling,thecompanyemploysanunusualdesign.Astheuserscrolls to the bottomof the page, some images appear to be cut-off.Often,images appear out of view below the browser fold.However, these imagesoffer aglimpseofwhat’s ahead, even if just barelyvisible.To relieve theircuriosity,allusershavetodoisscrolltorevealthefullpicture(figure25).Asmoreimagesloadonthepage,theendlesssearchforvariablerewardsofthehuntcontinues.

Figure25

RewardsoftheSelf

Finally, thereare thevariable rewardsweseek foramorepersonal formofgratification. We are driven to conquer obstacles, even if just for thesatisfactionofdoingso.Pursuingatasktocompletioncaninfluencepeopleto

continue all sorts of behaviors.[lxxxvi]

Surprisingly, we even pursue theserewards when we don’t outwardly appear to enjoy them. For example,watching someone investing countless hours into completing a tabletoppuzzle can reveal frustrated face contortions and even sounds of mutteredprofanity. Although puzzles offer no prize other than the satisfaction ofcompletion, for some the painstaking search for the right pieces can be awonderfullymesmerizingstruggle.

Therewardsoftheselfarefueledby“intrinsicmotivation”ashighlighted

by the work of Edward Deci and Richard Ryan.[lxxxvii]

Their self-determinationtheoryespousesthatpeopledesire,amongotherthings,togainasenseofcompetency.Addinganelementofmysterytothisgoalmakesthepursuitallthemoreenticing.

Theexperiencesbelowofferexamplesofvariablerewardsoftheself:

VideoGames

Rewardsoftheselfareadefiningcomponentinvideogames,asplayersseekto master the skills needed to pursue their quest. Leveling up, unlockingspecial powers, and other game mechanics fulfill a player’s desire forcompetencybyshowingprogressionandcompletion.

Forexample,advancingacharacterthroughthepopularonlinegameWorldof Warcraft unlocks new abilities for the player (figure 26). The thirst toacquire advanced weaponry, visit uncharted lands, and improve theircharacters’scoresmotivatesplayerstoinvestmorehoursinthegame.

Figure26

Email

Youdonothave tobeahard-corevideogamer tobeheavily influencedbygame-likeexperiences.Thehumbleemailsystemprovidesanexampleofhowthesearchformastery,completion,andcompetencemovesuserstohabitual,sometimesmindless, actions.Have you ever caught yourself checking youremailfornoparticularreason?Perhapsyouunconsciouslydecidedtoopenitto see what messages might be waiting for you. For many, the number ofunreadmessagesrepresentsasortofgoaltobecompleted.

But to feel rewarded, the user must have a sense of accomplishment.

Mailbox, an email application acquired byDropbox in 2013 for a rumored$100million,aimstosolvethefrustrationoffightingwhatfeelslikealosing

inboxbattle.[lxxxviii]

Mailboxcleverlysegmentsemailsintosortedfolderstoincrease the frequency of users achieving “inbox zero”— a near-mysticalstateofhavingnounread emails (figure27).Of course, someof the foldersortingisdonethroughdigitalsleight-of-handbypushingsomelowpriorityemails out of sight, and then having them reappear at a later date. But bygiving users the sense that they are processing their inboxmore efficiently,Mailbox delivers something other email clients do not — a feeling ofcompletionandmastery.

Figure27

Codecademy

Learningtoprogramisnoteasy.Softwareengineerstakemonths,ifnotyears,ofdiligenthardworkbeforetheyhavetheconfidenceandskilltowriteusefulcode.Manypeopleattempt to learnhow towrite software,only togiveup,frustratedatthetediousprocessoflearninganewcomputerlanguage.

Codecademyseekstomakelearningtowritecodemorefunandrewarding.The site offers step-by-step instructions for building aweb app, animation,and even a browser-based game. The interactive lessons deliver immediatefeedback, in contrast to traditional methods of learning to code by writing

whole programs. At Codecademy, users can enter a single correct functionandthecodeworksordoesn’t,providinginstantfeedback.

Learning a new skill is often filledwith errors butCodecademyuses thedifficultytoitsadvantage.Thereisaconstantelementoftheunknownwhenitcomestocompletingthetaskathandandlikeagame,usersreceivevariablerewardsastheylearn—sometimestheysucceed,sometimestheyfail.Butastheir competency level improves, users work to advance through levels,mastering the curriculum. Codecademy’s symbols of progression andinstantaneousvariablefeedbacktapintorewardsoftheself,turningadifficultpathintoanengagingchallenge(figure28).

Figure28

***

ImportantConsiderationsforDesigningRewardSystems

VariableRewardsAreNotaFreePass

InMay2007, a site calledMahalo.comwasborn.A flagship featureof thenew site was a question-and-answer forum known as Mahalo Answers.UnlikepreviousQ&Asites,Mahaloutilizedaspecialincentivetogetuserstoaskandanswerquestions.

First,peoplewhosubmittedaquestionwouldofferabountyintheformof

a virtual currency known as “Mahalo Dollars.” Then, other users wouldcontribute answers to the question and the best responsewould receive thebounty,whichcouldbeexchangedforrealmoney.Byprovidingamonetaryreward,theMahalofoundersbelievedtheycoulddriveuserengagementandformnewonlineuserhabits.

Atfirst,Mahalogarneredsignificantattentionandtraffic.Atitshighpoint,

14.1millionusersworldwidevisitedthesitemonthly.[lxxxix]

Butovertime,users began to lose interest. Although the payout of the bounties werevariable,somehowusersdidnotfindthemonetaryrewardsenticingenough.

ButasMahalostruggledtoretainusers,anotherQ&Asitebegantoboom.Quora,launchedin2010bytwoformerFacebookemployees,quicklygrewinpopularity. Unlike Mahalo, Quora did not offer a single cent to anyoneansweringuserquestions.Why,then,haveusersstayedhighlyengagedwithQuora,butnotwithMahalo,despiteitsvariablemonetaryrewards?

InMahalo’scase,executivesassumedthatpayinguserswoulddriverepeatengagementwiththesite.Afterall,peoplelikemoney,right?Unfortunately,Mahalohadanincompleteunderstandingofitsusers’drivers.

Ultimately,thecompanyfoundthatpeopledidnotwanttouseaQ&Asitetomakemoney.Ifthetriggerwasadesireformonetaryrewards,theuserwasbetter off spending their time earning an hourly wage. And if the payoutsweremeanttotaketheformofagame,likeaslotmachine,thentherewardscamefartooinfrequentlyandweretoosmalltomatter.

However, Quora demonstrated that social rewards and the variablereinforcementofrecognitionfrompeersprovedtobemuchmorefrequentandsalient motivators. Quora instituted an upvoting system that reports usersatisfaction with answers and provides a steady stream of social feedback.Quora’ssocialrewardshaveprovenmoreattractivethanMahalo’smonetaryrewards.

Onlybyunderstandingwhattrulymatterstouserscanacompanycorrectlymatchtherightvariablerewardtotheirintendedbehavior.

Recently, “gamification”— defined as the use of game-like elements innon-gaming environments — has been used with varying success. Points,badges, and leaderboards can prove effective, but only if they scratch theuser’s itch.When there is amismatchbetween the customer’s problemandthe company’s assumed solution, no amount of gamificationwill help spurengagement.Likewise,iftheuserhasnoongoingitchatall—say,noneedtoreturn repeatedly to a site that lacks any value beyond the initial visit —

gamificationwillfailbecauseofalackofinherentinterestintheproductorserviceoffered.Inotherwords,gamificationisnotaone-size-fits-allsolutionfordrivinguserengagement.

Variable rewards are not magic fairy dust that a product designer cansprinkleontoaproducttomakeitinstantlymoreattractive.Rewardsmustfitintothenarrativeofwhytheproductisusedandalignwiththeuser’sinternaltriggersandmotivations.

MaintainaSenseofAutonomy

Quorafoundsuccessbyconnectingtherightrewardtotheintendedbehaviorof asking and answering questions. But in August 2012, the companycommitted a very public blunder — one that illustrates another importantconsiderationwhenusingvariablerewards.

Inaneffort to increaseuserengagement,Quora introducedanewfeaturecalled“views,”whichrevealedtherealidentityofpeoplevisitingaparticularquestion or answer. For users, the feedback of knowing who was seeingcontenttheyaddedtothesiteprovedveryintriguing.Userscouldnowknow,for example,whena celebrityorprominentventure capital investorviewedsomethingtheycreated.

However,thefeatureultimatelybackfired.Quoraautomaticallyoptedusersintothenewfeaturewithoutalertingthemthattheirbrowsinghistoryonthesite would be exposed to others. In an instant, users lost their treasuredanonymitywhenasking,answering,orsimplyviewingQuoraquestions that

werepersonal,awkward,orintimate.[xc]

ThemovesparkedauserrevoltandQuorareversedcourseafewweekslater,makingthefeatureexplicitlyopt-in.[xci]

In the case of Quora, the change felt forced and bordered on coercion.While influencing behavior can be a part of good product design, heavy-handedeffortscanhaveadverseconsequencesandrisklosingusers’trust.

We’lladdress themoralityofmanipulation ina laterchapter—butasidefrom the ethical considerations, there is an important point regarding thepsychologicalroleofautonomyandhowitcanimpactuserengagement.

As part of a French study, researchers wanted to know if they couldinfluencehowmuchmoneypeoplehandedtoatotalstrangeraskingforbusfare by using just a few specially encoded words. They discovered a

techniquesosimpleandeffectiveitdoubledtheamountpeoplegave.

The turn of phrase has not only proven to increase how much bus farepeoplegive,buthasalsobeeneffectiveinboostingcharitabledonationsandparticipationinvoluntarysurveys.Infact,arecentmeta-analysisof42studiesinvolvingover22,000participantsconcludedthatthesefewwords,placedattheendofarequest,areahighly-effectivewaytogaincompliance,doubling

thelikelihoodofpeoplesaying“yes.”[xcii]

Themagicwordstheresearchersdiscovered?Thephrase,“butyouarefreetoacceptorrefuse.”

The“butyouarefree”techniquedemonstrateshowwearemorelikelytobepersuadedwhenourabilitytochooseisreaffirmed.Notonlywastheeffectobservedduring face-to-face interactions,but alsoover email.Although theresearch did not directly look at how products and services might use thetechnique, the study provides an important insight into how companiesmaintainorlosetheuser’sattention.

Whydoesremindingpeopleoftheirfreedomtochoose,asdemonstratedintheFrenchbusfarestudy,provesoeffective?

The researchers believe the phrase “but you are free” disarms ourinstinctive rejectionofbeing toldwhat todo. Ifyouhaveevergrumbledatyourmothertellingyoutoputonacoatorfeltyourbloodpressurerisewhenyourbossmicro-managesyou,youhaveexperiencedwhatpsychologistscall“reactance,”thehair-triggerresponsetothreatstoyourautonomy.

However, when a request is coupled with an affirmation of the right tochoose, reactance is kept at bay. But can the principles of autonomy andreactancecarryoverintothewayproductschangeuserbehavioranddrivetheformationofnewuserhabits?Hereare twoexamples tomake thecase thattheydo,butofcourse,youarefreetomakeupyourmindforyourself.

Take,forexample,establishingthehabitofbetternutrition,acommongoalformanyAmericans.Searching in theAppleAppStore for theword“diet”returns 3,235 apps, all promising to helpusers shed extra pounds.The firstappinthelonglistisMyFitnessPal,whoseiOSappisratedbyover350,000people.

Ayear agowhen I decided to lose a fewpounds, I installed the app andgaveitatry.MyFitnessPalissimpleenoughtouse.Theappaskedmetologwhat I ate and presentedmewith a calorie score based onmyweight lossgoal.

Forafewdays,Istuckwith theprogramanddiligently input informationabouteverythingIate.HadIbeenapersonwhologsfoodwithpenandpaper,MyFitnessPalwouldhavebeenawelcomeimprovement.

However, I was not a calorie tracker prior to using MyFitnessPal andalthoughusing theappwasnovelat first, itsoonbecameadrag.KeepingafooddiarywasnotpartofmydailyroutineandwasnotsomethingIcametothe appwanting to do. Iwanted to loseweight and the appwas tellingmehow to do itwith its strictmethod of tracking calories in and calories out.Unfortunately,Isoonfoundthatforgettingtoenteramealmadeitimpossibletogetbackontheprogram–therestofmydaywasanutritionalwash.

Soon, I began to feel obligated to confessmymealtime transgressions tomyphone.MyFitnessPalbecameMyFitnessPain.Yes,Ihadchosentoinstalltheappatfirst,butdespitemybestintentions,mymotivationfadedandusingtheappbecameachore.Adoptingaweirdnewbehavior—calorietracking,inmycase—feltlikesomethingIhadtodo,notsomethingIwantedtodo.Myonlyoptionsweretocomplyorquit.SoIquit.

On the other hand Fitocracy, another health app, approaches behaviorchangeverydifferently.Thegoaloftheappissimilartoitscompetitors—tohelppeopleestablishbetterdietandexerciseroutines.However,itleveragesfamiliarbehaviorsuserswanttodo,insteadofhavetodo.

At first, the Fitocracy experience is similar to other health apps,encouragingnewmemberstotracktheirfoodconsumptionandexercise.ButwhereFitocracydifferentiates itself is in its recognition thatmostuserswillquickly fall off thewagon, just as I hadwithMyFitnessPal, unless the apptapsintoexistingautonomousbehavior.

Beforemyreactancealarmwentoff, I started receivingkudos fromothermembers of the site after enteringmy very first run.Curious to knowwhowassendingthevirtualencouragement,Iloggedin.There,Iimmediatelysawa question from “mrosplock5,” awoman looking for advice onwhat to doabout knee pain from running. Having experienced similar trouble severalyearsback,Ileftaquickreply:“Runningbarefoot(orwithminimalistshoes)eliminatedmykneepains.Strangebuttrue!”

IhavenotusedFitocracyforlong,butitiseasytoseehowsomeonecouldget hooked. Fitocracy is first and foremost an online community. The appropedmeinbycloselymimickingreal-worldgymjabberamongfriends.Theritual of connectingwith like-minded people existed long before Fitocracy,and the company leverages this behavior by making it easier and more

rewarding to share encouragement, exchange advice, and receive praise. Infact, a recent study found social factors were the most important reasons

peopleusedtheserviceandrecommendedittoothers.[xciii]

Social acceptance is somethingwe all crave, andFitocracy leverages theuniversalneedforconnectionasanon-ramptofitness,makingnewtoolsandfeatures available to users as they develop new habits. The choice for theFitocracyuseristhereforebetweentheoldwayofdoinganexistingbehaviorand the company’s tailored solution for easing the user into healthy newhabits.

Tobefair,MyFitnessPalalsohassocialfeaturesintendedtokeepmembersengaged.However, asopposed toFitocracy, thebenefitsof interactingwiththecommunitycomemuchlaterintheuserexperience,ifever.

Clearly,itistooearlytotellwhichamongthemultitudesofnewwellnessappsandproductswillemergevictorious,butthefactremainsthat themostsuccessful consumer technologies — those that have altered the dailybehaviors of hundreds of millions of people — are the ones that nobodymakes us use. Perhaps part of the appeal of sneaking in a fewminutes onFacebookorcheckingscoresonESPN.comisouraccesstoamomentofpureautonomy–anescapefrombeingtoldwhattodobybossesandco-workers.

Unfortunately, toomanycompaniesbuild theirproductsbettinguserswilldowhattheymakethemdoinsteadoflettingthemdowhattheywanttodo.Companies fail to change user behaviors because they do not make theirservices enjoyable for its own sake, often asking users to learn new,unfamiliaractionsinsteadofmakingoldroutineseasier.

Companies that successfully change behaviors present users with animplicit choice between their old way of doing things and a new, moreconvenientwaytofulfillexistingneeds.Bymaintainingtheusers’freedomtochoose, products can facilitate the adoption of new habits and changebehaviorforgood.

Whethercoercedintodoingsomethingwedidnotintend,aswasthecasewhen Quora opted-in all users to its “views” feature, or feeling forced toadoptastrangenewcaloriecountingbehavioronMyFitnessPal,peopleoftenfeelconstrainedbythreatstotheirautonomyandrebel.Tochangebehavior,productsmust ensure theusers feel incontrol.Peoplemustwant touse theservice,notfeeltheyhaveto.

BewareofFiniteVariability

In 2008, a television series called Breaking Bad began receivingunprecedented critical and popular acclaim. The show followed the life ofWalterWhite,ahighschoolchemistryteacherwhotransformshimselfintoacrystal meth-cooking drug lord. As the body count on the show piled up

seasonafterseason,sodiditsviewership.[xciv]

Thefirstepisodeofthefinalseason in 2013 attracted 5.9 million viewers and by the end of the seriesGuinnessWorld Records dubbed it the highest-rated TV series of all time.[xcv]

AlthoughBreakingBadowesagreatdealof itssuccess to its talentedcastandcrew, fundamentally theprogramutilizedasimple formula tokeeppeopletuningin.

Attheheartofeveryepisode—andalsoacrosseachseason’snarrativearc—isaproblemthecharactersmustresolve.Forexample,duringanepisodeinthefirstseason,WalterWhitemustfindawaytodisposeofthebodiesoftwo rival drug dealers. Challenges prevent resolution of the conflict andsuspenseiscreatedastheaudiencewaitstofindouthowthestorylineends.Inthisparticularepisode,Whitediscoversoneof thedrugdealers is stillaliveand is faced with the dilemma of having to kill someone he thought wasalreadydead. Invariably, eachepisode’s central conflict is resolvednear theendoftheshow,atwhichtimeanewchallengearisestopiquetheviewer’scuriosity.Bydesign,theonlywaytoknowhowWaltergetsoutofthemessheisinattheendofthelatestepisodeistowatchthenextepisode.

Thecycleofconflict,mysteryandresolutionisasoldasstorytellingitself,andattheheartofeverygoodtaleisvariability.Theunknownisfascinatingandstrongstoriesholdourattentionbywaitingtorevealwhathappensnext.In a phenomenon called “experience-taking,” researchers have shown thatpeoplewhoreadastoryaboutacharacteractuallyfeelwhattheprotagonistis

feeling.[xcvi]

Aswestepintothecharacter’sshoesweexperiencehisorhermotivations—includingthesearchforrewardsofthetribe,huntandself.Weempathizewith characters because they are driven by the same things thatdriveus.

But if the search to resolve uncertainty is such a powerful tool ofengagement,whydoweeventuallyloseinterestinthethingsthatoncerivetedus?ManypeoplehaveexperiencedtheintensefocusofbeinghookedonaTVseries,agreatbook,anewvideogameoreventhelatestgadget.Yet,mostofusloseinterestinafewdaysorweek’stime.Whydoesthepowerofvariablerewardsseemtofadeaway?

Perhapsnocompanyinrecentmemoryepitomizesthemercurialnatureofvariable rewards quite like Zynga, makers of the hit Facebook gameFarmVille. In 2009, FarmVille became an unmissable part of the globalzeitgeist. The game smashed records as it quickly reached 83.8 millionmonthly active users by leveraging the Facebook platform to acquire new

players.[xcvii]

In 2010, as “farmers” tended their digital crops — whilepaying real money for virtual goods and levels— the company generated

morethan$36millioninrevenue.[xcviii]

ThecompanyseemedinvincibleandsetacourseforgrowthbycloningitsFarmVillesuccessintoafranchise.ZyngasoonreleasedCityVille,ChefVille,FrontierVille,andseveralmore“-Ville”titlesusingfamiliargamemechanicsin the hope that people would enjoy them as voraciously as they hadFarmVille.ByMarch2012,Zynga’sstockwasflyinghighandthecompanywasvaluedatover$10billion.

ButbyNovemberofthatsameyear,thestockwasdownover80percent.ItturnedoutthatZynga’snewgameswerenotreallynewatall.Thecompanyhad simply re-skinned FarmVille, and soon players had lost interest andinvestorsfollowedsuit.Whatwasoncenovelandintriguingbecameroteandboring.The“Villes”hadlosttheirvariability,andwithit,theirviability.

As theZynga story demonstrates, an element ofmystery is an importantcomponent of continued user interest. Online games like FarmVille sufferfromwhatIcall“finitevariability”—anexperiencethatbecomespredictableafter use. While Breaking Bad built suspense over time as the audiencewondered how the serieswould end, eventually interest in the showwouldwanewhenitfinallyconcluded.Theseriesenthralledviewerswitheachnewepisode,butnow that it is allover,howmanypeoplewhosaw itoncewillwatchitagain?Withtheplotlinesknownandthecentralmysteriesrevealed,theshowjustwon’tseemasinterestingthesecondtimearound.Perhapstheshowmightresurrectinterestwithanewepisodeinthefuture,butviewershipforoldepisodespeoplehavealreadyseenwillneverpeakasitdidwhentheywerenew.Experienceswith finitevariabilitybecome lessengagingbecausetheyeventuallybecomepredictable.

Businesseswith finitevariabilityarenot inferiorperse, they just operateunderdifferentconstraints.Theymustconstantlychurnoutnewcontentandexperiencestocatertotheirconsumers’insatiabledesirefornovelty.Itisnocoincidence that both Hollywood and the video gaming industry operateunderwhatiscalledthe“studiomodel,”wherebyadeep-pocketedcompany

providesbackinganddistributiontoaportfolioofmoviesorgames,uncertainwhichonewillbecomethenextmega-hit.

This is in contrast with companies making products exhibiting “infinitevariability”—experiencesthatmaintainuserinterestbysustainingvariabilitywith use. For example, games played to completion offer finite variabilitywhile those played with others people have higher degrees of infinitevariability because the players themselves alter the game-play throughout.World of Warcraft, the world’s most popular massively multiplayer onlinerole-playinggame,stillcapturestheattentionofmorethan10millionactive

userseightyearsafteritsfirstrelease.[xcix]

WhileFarmVilleisplayedmostlyin solitude, World of Warcraft is played with teams and it is the hard-to-predictbehaviorofotherpeoplethatkeepsthegameinteresting.

While content consumption, like watching a TV show, is an example offinitevariability,contentcreationisinfinitelyvariable.SiteslikeDribbble,aplatform for designers and artists to showcase their work, exemplify thelonger-lasting engagement that comes from infinite variability. On the site,contributors share theirdesigns in searchof feedback fromother artists.Asnewtrendsanddesignpatternschange,sodoDribbble’spages.ThevarietyofwhatDribbbleuserscancreate is limitless,and theconstantlychangingsitealwaysoffersnewsurprises.

PlatformslikeYouTube,Facebook,PinterestandTwitterallleverageuser-generatedcontenttoprovidevisitorswithanever-endingstreamofnewness.Ofcourse, even sitesutilizing infinitevariabilityarenotguaranteed toholdontousersforever.Eventually—toborrowfromMichaelLewis’stitle—the“new, new thing” comes along and consumersmigrate to it for the reasonsdiscussed in earlier chapters.However, productsutilizing infinitevariabilitystandabetterchanceofholdingontousers’attention,whilethosewithfinitevariabilitymustconstantlyreinventthemselvesjusttokeeppace.

WhichRewardsShouldYouOffer?

Fundamentally, variable reward systems must satisfy users’ needs, whileleaving them wanting to re-engage. The most habit-forming products andservicesutilizeoneormoreofthethreevariablerewardstypesoftribe,huntandself.Infact,manyhabit-formingproductsoffermultiplevariablerewards.

Email, for example, utilizes all three variable reward types. Whatsubconsciously compels us to check our email? First, there is uncertaintysurroundingwhomightbesendingusamessage.Wehaveasocialobligation

to respond to emails and a desire to be seen as agreeable (rewards of thetribe). We may also be curious about what information is in the email.Perhaps something related to our career or business awaits us? Checkingemail informsusofopportunitiesor threats toourmaterialpossessionsandlivelihood(rewardsofthehunt).Lastly,emailisinitselfatask—challengingustosort,categorizeandacttoeliminateunreadmessages.Wearemotivatedbytheuncertainnatureofourfluctuatingemailcountandfeelcompelledtogaincontrolofourinbox(rewardsoftheself).

As B.F. Skinner discovered over 50 years ago, variable rewards are apowerful inducement to repeat actions.Understandingwhatmoves users toreturn to habit-forming products gives designers an opportunity to buildproductsthatalignwiththeirinterests.

However, simply giving users what they want is not enough to create ahabit-formingproduct.Thefeedbackloopofthefirstthreestepsofthehook—trigger,actionandvariablereward—stillmissesafinalcriticalphase.Inthenextchapter,wewilllearnhowgettingpeopletoinvesttheirtime,effort,orsocialequityinyourproductisarequirementforrepeatuse.

***

RememberandShare

-VariableRewardisthethirdphaseoftheHookModel,andtherearethreetypesofvariablerewards:tribe,huntandself.

- Rewards of the tribe is the search for social rewards fueled byconnectednesswithotherpeople.

-Rewardsofthehuntisthesearchformaterialresourcesandinformation.

- Rewards of the self is the search for intrinsic rewards of mastery,competence,andcompletion.

- When our autonomy is threatened, we feel constrained by our lack ofchoicesandoftenrebelagainstdoinganewbehavior.Psychologistscallthis“reactance.” Maintaining a sense of user autonomy is a requirement forrepeatengagement.

-Experienceswith finite variability become increasingly predictablewithuseand lose theirappealover time.Experiences thatmaintainuser interestbysustainingvariabilitywithuseexhibitinfinitevariability.

-Variablerewardsmustsatisfyusers’needs,whileleavingthemwantingto

re-engagewiththeproduct.

***

DoThisNow

Refertotheanswersyoucameupwithinthelast“DoThisNow”sectiontocompletethefollowingexercises:

-Speakwithfiveofyourcustomersinanopen-endedinterviewtoidentifywhattheyfindenjoyableorencouragingaboutusingyourproduct.Arethereanymomentsofdelightorsurprise? Is thereanything they findparticularlysatisfyingaboutusingtheproduct?

- Review the steps your customer takes to use your product or servicehabitually.Whatoutcome (reward)alleviates theuser’spain? Is the rewardfulfilling,yetleavestheuserwantingmore?

- Brainstorm three ways your product might heighten users’ search forvariablerewardsusing:

-RewardsoftheTribe-gratificationfromothers

-RewardsoftheHunt-things,moneyorinformation

-RewardsoftheSelf-mastery,completion,competencyorconsistency

5.INVESTMENT

In the Trigger phase of the Hook Model, we discussed the importance ofaligningwith the right internal triggers.Then,byutilizingexternal triggers,designerscanpromptuserswithinformationforthenextintendedaction.

Next,intheActionphase,welearnedabouttheroleofthesmallestactionstaken in anticipationof immediate rewards.And in theprevious chapter onRewards,welookedathowvariableoutcomesinfluencerepeatengagement.There is one last step in theHookModel that is critical for building habit-formingtechnologies.Beforeuserscreatethementalassociationsthatactivatetheirautomaticbehaviors,theymustfirstinvestintheproduct.

ChangingAttitude

In chapter one, we learned about the tooth flossing study conducted atUniversityCollegeLondon,whereresearchersdeterminedthatthefrequencyofanewbehaviorisaleadingfactorinforminganewhabit.Thestudyalsofoundthatthesecondmostimportantfactorinhabitformationisachangeintheparticipant’sattitudeaboutthebehavior.ThefindingisconsistentwiththeHabit Zone graph explained in chapter one, which illustrates that for abehavior to become routine it must occur with significant frequency andperceived utility. Attitude change is themovement up the perceived utilityaxisuntilthebehaviorenterstheHabitZone.

But in order for a change in attitude to occur, theremust be a change inhowusersperceivethebehavior.Inthischapter,wewillstartbyexploringthemystery surrounding how small investments change our perception, turningunfamiliaractionsintoeverydayhabits.

Apsychologicalphenomenonknownastheescalationofcommitmenthasbeen shown tomake our brains do all sorts of funny things. The power ofcommitmentmakes somepeopleplayvideogamesuntil theykeeloverand

die.[c] It isused to influencepeople togivemore tocharity.

[ci] Ithaseven

been used to coerce prisoners of war into switching allegiances.[cii]

Thecommitmentswemakehave apowerful effect onus andplay an important

roleinthethingswedo,theproductswebuy,andthehabitsweform.

Themoreusers invest timeandeffort intoaproductor service, themoretheyvalueit.Infact,thereisampleevidencetosuggestthatourlaborleadstolove.

WeIrrationallyValueOurEfforts

Ina2011study,DanAriely,MichaelNortonandDanielMochonmeasured

theeffectoflaboronhowpeoplevaluethings.[ciii]

University students in America were given instructions to assemble anorigami crane or frog. After the exercise, students were asked to purchasetheircreation,biddinguptoonedollar.Builderswereinformedthatarandomnumberbetween0and100wouldbedrawn.If itexceededtheirreservationprice,thebuilderswouldreturnemptyhanded—butifitwasequaltoorlessthan the builder’s bid, they would pay their bid and keep the origami.Meanwhile,aseparategroupofstudentslocatedinanotherroom,unawareoftheidentityofthebuilders,wereaskedtobidontheirorigamiusingthesameprocedure.Similarly,a third independentgroupwasasked tobidonexpert-madeorigamiunderthesamecriteria.

Theresultsshowedthatthosewhomadetheirownorigamianimalsvaluedtheircreationfivetimeshigherthanthesecondgroup’svaluation,andnearlyashighastheexpert-madeorigamivalues(figure29).Inotherwords,thosewhoinvestedlaborassociatedgreatervaluewiththeirpapercreationssimplybecausetheyhadworkedonthem.Arielycallsthisthe“IKEAeffect.”

Figure29

IKEA, the world’s largest furniture retailer, sells affordable, ready-to-assemble household furnishings. The Swedish company’s key innovation isits packaging process, which allows the company to decrease labor costs,increasedistributionefficiency,andbetterutilizetherealestateinitsstores.

Unlikeitscompetitorswhosellpre-assembledmerchandise,IKEAputsitscustomerstowork.Itturnsoutthere’sahiddenbenefittomakingusersinvestphysicaleffortinassemblingtheproduct—byaskingcustomerstoassembletheir own furniture, Ariely believes they adopt an irrational love of thefurnituretheybuilt,justlikethetestsubjectsdidintheorigamiexperiments.Businesses that leverage user effort confer higher value to their productssimplybecausetheirusershaveputworkintothem.Theusershaveinvestedintheproductsthroughtheirlabor.

WeSeektobeConsistentwithOurPastBehaviors

Howmuchdopastbehaviorsalterourfutureactions?We’dliketothinkweare free to choose to act in anywaywe’d like— that our judgment is notclouded by our past actions. But in fact, studies reveal that our past is anexcellentpredictorofourfuture.

A teamof researchersaskedagroupofsuburbanresidents toplace large,

unsightly signs in front of their homes which read “Drive Carefully.”[civ]

Two groupswere tested. In the first group, only 17 percent of the subjectsagreedtotherequest,while76percentofthoseinthesecondgroupagreedtopost theuglyyardsigns.Whatwasthecauseof thishugediscrepancy?Thegroupswereidentical,withtheexceptionofonefactor.

Those in the secondgroupwere approached twoweeks prior to the yardsign request and asked to place a much smaller, three-inch sign with thewords,“Beasafedriver,”intheirwindow.Nearlyeveryonewhowasaskedtoplacethesmallermessageagreed.Whentheresearchersreturnedtwoweekslater,awhoppingmajorityoftheseresidentswillinglyreplacedthesmallsignwiththelargeoneontheirfrontlawns.

Thehomeowner’sgreaterwillingnesstoplacethelarge,obtrusivesignontheirlawnsafteragreeingtothesmalleronesdemonstratestheimpactofourpredilectionforconsistencywithourpastbehaviors.Littleinvestments,suchas placing a tiny sign in a window, can lead to big changes in futurebehaviors.

WeAvoidCognitiveDissonance

In a classicAesop’sFable, a hungry fox encounters grapes hanging fromavine.Thefoxdesperatelywantsthegrapes.Butashardashemaytry,hecannotreachthem.Frustrated, thefoxdecidesthegrapesmustbesourandthathethereforewouldnotwantthemanyway.

In the story, the fox comforts himself by changing his perception of thegrapesbecauseitistoouncomfortabletoreconcilethethoughtthatthegrapesare sweet and ready for the taking, and yet, he can not have them. Toreconcile these two conflicting ideas, the fox changes his perception of thegrapes and in the process relieves the pain of what psychologists call“cognitivedissonance.”

Theirrationalmanipulationofthewayoneseestheworldisnotlimitedtofictionalanimalsinchildren’sstories.Wehumansdothisaswell.

Consideryourreactionthefirsttimeyousippedabeerortriedspicyfood.Was it tasty? Unlikely. Our bodies are designed to reject alcohol andcapsaicin,thecompoundthatcreatesthesensationofheatinspicyfood.Ourinnatereactiontotheseacquiredtastesistorejectthem,andyet,welearntolikethemthroughrepeatedexposure.Weseeothersenjoyingthem,tryalittlemore,andovertimeconditionourselves.Toavoidthecognitivedissonanceofnot liking something in which others seem to take so much pleasure, weslowlychangeourperceptionofthethingweoncedidnotenjoy.

***

Together, the three tendencies described above influenceour future actions.Themoreeffortweputintosomething,themorelikelywearetovalueit.Weare more likely to be consistent with our past behaviors. And finally, wechangeourpreferencestoavoidcognitivedissonance.

In sum, our tendencies lead to amental process known as rationalizationwhereby we change our attitudes and beliefs to psychologically adapt.Rationalization helps us give reasons for our behaviors, even when thosereasonsmighthavebeendesignedbyothers.

Ata2010industryconference,JesseSchell,arenownedgamedesignerandprofessor at Carnegie Mellon University, articulated the peculiar train of

thoughtsomeplayersexhibitonline.[cv]

SchellexaminedMafiaWars,oneofZynga’s first breakout hits, which like FarmVille, attracted millions ofplayers.

“There’sdefinitelya lotofpsychologyhere,because ifsomeonehadsaid‘Hey,we’regoingtomakeatext-basedmafiagamethat’sgoingtomakeover$100million,’you’d say, ‘Idon’t thinkyou’lldo that.’Right?”Schell said,channelingthecriticsofthedaywhooriginallydismissedthefree,primarilytext-based online game. But Zynga used its understanding of humanpsychologytobuildanirresistibleproductatthetime.

MafiaWarswasamongthefirstgamestoutilizeinformationaboutplayers’Facebook friends. “It’s not just a virtual world anymore. It’s your realfriends.”Schellsaid.“And,you’replayingandit’skindofcool…but thenhey,heymyrealfriendisbetterthanme.HowcanIremedythat?Well,IcanplayalongtimeorIcouldjustput$20in—AHA!It’sevenbetterifthat$20IputinvalidatessomethingIknowistrue,thatIamgreaterthanmycollegeroommate,Steve.”

Schell went on, “Combine that with the psychological idea … ofrationalization, that anything you spend time on, you start to believe, ‘thismustbeworthwhile.Why?Because I’ve spent timeon it!’And therefore itmustbeworthmekicking in$20because, lookat the timeI’vespenton it.Andnow that I’vekicked in$20, itmustbevaluablebecauseonlyan idiotwouldkickin$20ifitwasn’t.”

Schell’s description of the quirky process of Mafia Wars rationalizationhelpsdemonstratethestrangelogicofhowwechangeourpreferences.Whenplayers contemplate making a purchase, they acknowledge it is unwise tospendmoneyon something that is not good.Andyet, just like the fox thatperceivesthegrapesassourtoreducehisfrustrationatnotbeingabletoreachthem, players justify their purchases to help convince themselves ofsomethingtheywanttobetrue—namely,thattheyarenotfoolish.Theonlysolutionistokeeppayingtokeepplaying.

Thecognitivechangesthatleadtobehaviorchangehelppowertheshiftinhowweview theproducts and servicesweuse.But howare habit-formingproducts designed for user investment? How can a product keep userscommittedtoaserviceuntilitbecomesahabit?

BitsofWork

Inastandardfeedbackloop,thecue,action,andrewardcyclecanchangeourimmediatebehavior.Forexample,a radar-equippedsign isaneffectivewaytomakedrivers immediately slowdownby showing them their car’s speedrelativetothepostedspeedlimit.

Butthispatterndifferswhenitcomestohowweformhabitswithproducts.TheHookModelisnotjustaframeworkforchangingone-timebehaviors,itisadesignpatterntocreateunpromptedengagementinordertoconnecttheuser’sproblemtothedesigner’ssolution.Toformtheassociationsneededtocreate unprompted user engagement, something more than the three-stepfeedbackloopisrequired.

ThelaststepoftheHookModelistheInvestmentPhase,thepointatwhichusersareaskedtodoabitofwork.Here,usersarepromptedtoputsomethingof value into the system, which increases the likelihood of them using theproductandofsuccessivepassesthroughthehookcycle.

Unlike in the Action Phase of the Hook discussed in chapter three,investmentsareabouttheanticipationoflonger-termrewards,notimmediategratification.

In Twitter for example, the investment comes in the form of followinganotheruser.There isno immediaterewardforfollowingsomeone,nostarsor badges to affirm the action. Following is an investment in the service,whichincreasesthelikelihoodoftheusercheckingTwitterinthefuture.

Also in contrast to the Action Phase, the Investment Phase increasesfriction. This certainly breaks conventional thinking in the product designcommunity that all user experiences should be as “easy” (and effortless) aspossible.This approach still generally holds true, as doesmy advice in theAction Phase to make the intended actions as simple as possible. In theInvestmentPhase,however,askinguserstodoabitofworkcomesafterusershave received variable rewards, not before. The timing of asking for userinvestment is critically important. By asking for the investment after thereward,thecompanyhasanopportunitytoleverageacentraltraitofhumanbehavior.

InanexperimentconductedbyStanfordresearchers,twogroupsofpeople

were asked to complete a task with the help of computers.[cvi]

The studyparticipantswereinitiallyaskedtousetheirassignedcomputers toansweraseries of questions.The computers provided to the first groupwere helpfulwhen answering participants’ questions,while those provided to the secondgroup were programmed to be unhelpful, offering unclear answers. Aftercompletingthetask,participantsthenswitchedrolesandthemachinesbeganaskingthepeopleforassistancewiththeirquestions.

Thestudyfoundthatthegroupgivenhelpfulcomputersperformedalmosttwiceasmuchworkfortheirmachines.Theresultsshowedthatreciprocation

isnotjustacharacteristicexpressedbetweenpeople,butalsoatraitobservedwhenhumans interactwithmachines.Conceivably,wehumans evolved thetendency to reciprocatekindnessbecause it improvedour species’ ability tosurvive. As it turns out, we invest in products and services for the samereasonsweputeffortintoourrelationships.

The big idea behind the Investment Phase is to leverage the user’sunderstanding that the service will get better with use (and personalinvestment).Likeagoodfriendship, themoreeffortpeopleputin, themorebothpartiesbenefit.

StoringValue

Unlikephysicalgoodsintherealworld,thesoftwarethatrunsourtechnologyproducts can adapt itself to our needs. To become better with use, habit-formingtechnologyutilizesinvestmentsusersmakeintheproducttoenhancethe experience. The stored value users put into the product increases thelikelihoodtheywilluseitagaininthefutureandcomesinavarietyofforms.

Content

Every timeusers ofApple’s iTunes add a song to their collection, they arestrengthening ties to the service.The songsonaplaylist are an exampleofhowcontentincreasesthevalueofaservice.NeitherAppleiTunesnortheirusers created the songs, and yet, the more content users add, the morevaluablethemusiclibrarybecomes(figure30).

By aggregating content with one service, users can do more with theirmusic and iTunes gets better with use by learning their preferences. Withusers’continuedinvestment,moresongsalsobecomeaccessibleonmultipleApple devices. In 2013, Apple revealed that its new iTunes Radio servicewould provide personalized music recommendations based on the kind ofmusic in users’ iTunes collections. The new feature provides yet anotherexampleofhowtechnologyadaptsandimprovesbasedonusers’investment.

Figure30

Contentcanalsobecreatedbyusersofaservice.Forexample,everystatusupdate, “Like”, photo or video shared on Facebook adds to the user’stimeline, retelling the story of one’s past experiences and relationships. Asusers continue to share and interact with information on the service, theirdigital life is recorded and archived. The collection of memories andexperiences, inaggregate,becomesmorevaluableover timeandtheservicebecomeshardertoleaveasusers’personalinvestmentinthesitegrows.

Data

Informationgenerated,collectedorcreatedbyusers—suchassongs,photos,ornewsclippings—areexamplesofstoredvalueintheformofcontent.Butsometimesusersinvestinaservicebyeitheractivelyorpassivelyaddingdataaboutthemselvesortheirbehaviors.

On LinkedIn, the user’s online resume embodies the concept of data asstoredvalue.Everytimejob-seekersusetheservice,theyarepromptedtoaddmore information. The company found that the more information usersinvestedinthesite,themorecommittedtheybecametoit.AsJoshElman,anearlySeniorProductManageratthecompanytoldme,“Ifwecouldgetuserstoenterjustalittleinformation,theyweremuchmorelikelytoreturn.”Thetinybitofeffortassociatedwithprovidingmoreuserdatacreatedapowerfulhooktobringpeoplebacktotheservice.

Mint.comisanonlinepersonalfinancetoolusedbymillionsofAmericans.

The service aggregates all of the user’s accounts in one place, providing acompletepictureoftheirfinanciallife—butonlyiftheyinvesttheirtimeanddata in the service. Mint provides multiple opportunities for users tocustomizethesiteandmakeitmorevaluablewithuse.Forexample,theactof linking accounts, categorizing transactions, or creating a budget are allformsof investment.Themoredatacollected, themore the service’s storedvalueincreases(figure31).

Figure31

Followers

OnthemorningofTwitter’sIPOonNovember7,2013,anewscommentatoronBloomberg’s televisionchannel said“the technologyneeded tobuild the

company could be built in a day.”[cvii]

In fact, he was right. Twitter is asimpleapplication.Withabitofbasicprogrammingknow-how,anyonecanbuildtheirveryowncloneofthemulti-billiondollarsocialmediabehemoth.

In fact, several companies have tried to supplant the popular socialnetwork.OneofthemostnotableattemptscamefromadisgruntleddeveloperwhodecidedtobuildApp.net,anad-freealternativethatmanytechindustrywatchersargueisactuallyabetterproduct.Butlikeotherattemptstocopythe

service,App.nethasnottakenoff.Whynot?

Collecting people to follow on Twitter, as well as collecting followers,provides tremendous value and is a key driver ofwhat keepsTwitter usershooked(figure32).

Figure32

From the follower sideof theequation, themoreTwitterusers curate thelist of people they follow, the better the service will be at deliveringinterestingcontent.Investinginfollowingtherightpeopleincreasesthevalueof the product by displayingmore relevant and interesting content in eachuser’s Twitter feed. It also tells Twitter a lot about its users,which in turnimprovestheserviceoverall.

For the tweeter seeking followers, themore followers one has, themorevaluable the service becomes as well. Content creators on Twitter seek toreachaslargeanaudienceaspossible.Theonlywaytolegitimatelyacquirenewfollowersistosendtweetsothersthinkareinterestingenoughtowarrantfollowing the sender.Therefore, to acquiremore followers, content creatorsmust invest inproducingmore—andbetter—tweets.Thecycle increasesthevalueoftheserviceforbothsidesthemoretheserviceisused.Formanyusers,switchingservicesmeansabandoningyearsofinvestmentandstartingover. Noonewants to rebuild a loyal following theyhaveworkedhard to

acquireandnurture.

Reputation

Reputationisaformofstoredvalueuserscanliterally taketo thebank.OnonlinemarketplacessuchaseBay,TaskRabbit,Yelp,andAirbnb,peoplewithnegativescoresaretreatedverydifferentlyfromthosewithgoodreputations.Itcanoftenbe thedecidingfactor inwhatpriceasellergetsforan itemoneBay,who is selected for aTaskRabbit job,which restaurants appear at thetopofYelpsearchresults,andthepriceofaroomrentalonAirbnb.

OneBay,bothbuyersandsellerstaketheirreputationsveryseriously.Thee-commercegiantsurfacesuser-generatedqualityscoresforeverybuyerandseller, and awards its most active users with badges to symbolize theirtrustworthiness. Businesses with bad reputations find it difficult, if notimpossible, to compete against highly-rated sellers.Reputation is a formofstoredvaluethatincreasesthelikelihoodofusingaservice.Whetherabuyerorseller,reputationmakesusersmorelikelytostickwithwhicheverservicetheyhaveinvestedtheireffortsintomaintainahighqualityscore(figure33).

Figure33

Skill

Investing time and effort into learning to use a product is a form ofinvestment and stored value. Once a user has acquired a skill, using theservicebecomeseasierandmovesthemtotherightontheAbilityaxisoftheFoggBehaviorModelwe discussed in chapter three.As Fogg describes it,non-routineisafactorofsimplicity,andthemorefamiliarabehavioris,themorelikelytheuseristodoit.

For example, Adobe Photoshop is the most widely-used professionalgraphics editing program in the world. The software provides hundreds ofadvancedfeaturesforcreatingandmanipulatingimages.Atfirst,learningtheprogram isdifficult,butasusersbecomemore familiarwith theproduct—often investinghourswatching tutorials and readinghow-toguides— theirexpertise and efficiency using the product improves. They also achieve asense of mastery (rewards of the self). Unfortunately for the designprofessional, most of these learnings do not translate to competingapplications.Onceusershave invested theeffort toacquirea skill, theyarelesslikelytoswitchtoacompetingproduct.

***

Likeeveryphase in theHookModel, the InvestmentPhase requirescarefuluse.Itisnotacarteblanchetoolforaskinguserstodooneroustasks.Infact,quite theopposite.Justas in theActionPhasedescribedinchapter three, toachieve the intendedbehavior in theInvestmentPhase, theproductdesignermustconsiderwhetherusershavesufficientmotivationandabilitytoengageintheintendedbehavior.Ifusersarenotdoingwhatthedesignerintendedinthe Investment Phase, the designermay be asking them to do toomuch. Irecommendthatyouprogressivelystagetheinvestmentyouwantfromusersintosmallchunksofwork,startingwithsmall,easytasksandbuildinguptohardertasksduringsuccessivecyclesthroughtheHookModel.

Aswehavejustseen,usersstorevalueintheserviceduringtheInvestmentPhase.Butoneotherkeyopportunityfoundin theInvestmentPhasegreatlyincreasesthelikelihoodofusersreturning.

LoadingtheNextTrigger

As described in chapter two, triggers bring users back to the product.Ultimately, habit-forming products create a mental association with aninternal trigger. But to create the habit, users must first use the productthroughmultiplecyclesoftheHookModel.Therefore,externaltriggersmustbeusedtobringusersbackaroundagaintostartanothercycle.

Habit-formingtechnologiesleveragetheuser’spastbehaviortoinitiateanexternaltriggerinthefuture.UserssetfuturetriggersduringtheInvestmentPhase,providingcompanieswithanopportunitytore-engagetheuser.Next,wewillexploreafewexamplesofhowcompanieshavehelpedloadthenexttriggerduringtheInvestmentPhase.

Any.do

User retention is a challenge for any business, but especially for consumermobile applications. According to a study by a mobile analytics firm, 26

percentofmobileappsin2010weredownloadedandusedonlyonce.[cviii]

Furtherdata suggestspeople areusingmore applicationsbut engagingwith

themlessfrequently.[cix]

Any.doisasimplemobiletaskmanagementappusedtorecordto-doitemssuch as picking up dry cleaning, restocking the fridgewithmilk or callingMom.Recognizing the challenge of retaining ficklemobile consumers, theappisdesignedtodirectusers toinvestearlyon.Duringthefirstuseof theapp,Any.doelegantlyteacheshowtousetheproduct(figure34).Thetriggercomesintheformoftheapp’sclear,easy-to-followinstructions.Thefollow-on action is doing what the app tells the user to do. The variable rewardscome in the formofacongratulatorymessageandsatisfactionofmasteringtheapp.

Thencomestheinvestment.Newcomersareinstructedtoconnect theappto their calendar service, grantingAny.do access to the user’s schedule. Indoingso,usersgive theapppermission to sendanotificationafter thenextscheduledmeetingends.Thisexternal triggerpromptsusers to return to theapp to record a follow-up task from themeeting they just attended. In theAny.do scenario, the app sends an external trigger to users at the momentwhentheyaremostlikelytoexperiencetheinternaltriggerofanxietyaboutforgettingtodoataskafterameeting.TheAny.doapphasanticipatedaneedandsetsusersupforsuccess.

Figure34

Tinder

Inmid-2013,ahotnewcompanyenteredthehyper-competitiveonlinedatingmarket. Tinder quickly captured the attention ofmillions of people lookingfor love with a simple interface, generating 3.5 million matches from 350

millionswipeseachday.[cx]

After launching themobileappand logging-inwithFacebook,usersbrowseprofilesofothersingles.Eachpotentialmatchispresented as a card. Swipe left if you are not interested and right if thatspecial someone catches your fancy (figure 35). If both parties expressinterest, a match is made and a private chat connects the two potentiallovebirds.

By simplifying the investment of sorting through potentialmates, Tindermakesloadingthenexttriggermorelikelywitheachswipe.Themoreswipes,the more potential matches are made and of course, each match sendsnotificationstobothinterestedparties.

Figure35

Snapchat

AsofJune2013,apopularphotosharingappcalledSnapchatboastedoffivemillion daily active users collectively sending over 200million photos and

videosdaily.[cxi]

This tremendous engagementmeans an average Snapchatusersends40picseveryday!

ButwhyareuserssoinlovewithSnapchat?Inlargepart,itssuccesscanbeattributed to thefact thatusers load thenext triggerevery timetheyuse theservice. Snapchat is more than a way to share images. It is a means ofcommunicationakintosendinganSMSmessage—withtheaddedbonusofa built-in timer that can cause the message to self-destruct after viewing,basedon thesender’s instructions.Userspass through theInvestmentPhaseoftheHookModeleachtimetheysendaselfie,doodle,orgoofyphoto.EachphotoorvideosentcontainsanimplicitprompttorespondandtheSnapchatinterfacemakesreturningapicincrediblyeasybydoubletappingtheoriginalmessage to reply. The self-destruct feature encourages timely responses,leadingtoaback-and-forthrelaythatkeepspeoplehookedintotheservicebyloadingthenexttriggerwitheachmessagesent.

Pinterest

Like many social networks, Pinterest loads the next trigger during theInvestment Phase of the hook. For many of the site’s 50 million monthlyusers, the online pinboard replaced the habit of browsing fashion-focusedwebsites—andbefore theweb, flipping throughmagazinesanddog-earing

favoritepages.[cxii]

Theinternal triggerforusersisoftenboredom,forwhichthesiteoffersaquick cure. Once registered, the only action required of users is to startscrollingasPinterestshowcasesawealthofvariablerewards.First,becausePinterestisasocially-curatedcollectionofinterestingitems,thesitedisplaysa powerful intermittent reward surrounding the hunt for objects of desire,even if they are only images. The site also provides a means ofcommunicating with friends and people who share similar tastes. TheRewards of the Tribe come from the variability of posting images as acommunicationmedium.Ausermightbecurioustoknowwhatafriendhaspinnednotonlybecauseof the image itself,butbecauseofher relationshipwiththepinner.

Finally,Pinterest users invest in the site every time theypin an imageoftheir own, re-pin someone else’s image, comment on, or like a piece ofcontentonthesite(figure36).EachofthesetinyinvestmentsgivesPinterestdataitcanusetotailorthesitetoeachuser’sindividualtaste,italsoloadsthenext trigger. Each pin, re-pin, like, or comment gives Pinterest tacitpermission to reach back out to the userwith a notificationwhen someoneelse contributes to the thread, triggering the desire to visit the site again tolearnmore.

Figure36

***

Pinterest clearly demonstrates the four stages of the Hook Model. It is aseamless flow, from the itch of the internal trigger thatmoves users to theintended action, through the variable reward, and finally to the investment,whichalso loads thenext external trigger.Pinterestusersmove through theHook cycle from beginning to end, and then happily return to the startingpointforanothergo‘round.

Inthischapter,wehavelearnedhowaninvestmentintheproductservesasthe string thatpulls theuserback.Todo this, thehabit-forming technologyincreasesthevalueoftheproductwitheachpassthroughtheHook.Throughsuccessive cycles of the Hook Model, users increase their affinity for theexperience.Theyincreasinglycometorelyontheproductasthesolutiontotheirproblemsuntilfinally,thenewhabit—androutine—isformed.

The more users invest in a product through tiny bits of work, the morevaluabletheproductbecomesintheirlivesandthelesstheyquestionitsuse.Ofcourse,usersdonotstayhookedforever.Invariably,thenextbigthingwillcome along and provide a better, more compelling hook. However, bycreatinghabitsfueledbyinvestmentsinaproductorservice,companiesmakeswitchingtoacompetitordifficult.Userhabitsarehard tobreakandconferpowerful competitive advantages to any company fortunate enough tosuccessfullycreatethem.

***

RememberandShare

-TheInvestmentPhaseisthefourthstepintheHookModel.

- Unlike the Action Phase, which delivers immediate gratification, theInvestmentPhaseisabouttheanticipationofrewardsinthefuture.

- Investments in a product create preference because of our tendency toovervalue ourwork, be consistentwith past behaviors, and avoid cognitivedissonance.

-Investmentcomesafterthevariablerewardphasewhenusersareprimedtoreciprocate.

- Investments increase the likelihood of users returning by improving theservicethemoreitisused.Theyenabletheaccrualofstoredvalueintheformofcontent,data,followers,reputationorskill.

- Investments increase the likelihood of users passing through the Hookagainbyloadingthenexttriggertostartthecyclealloveragain.

***

DoThisNow

Refertotheanswersyoucameupwithinthelast“DoThisNow”sectiontocompletethefollowingexercises:

-Reviewyour flow.What“bitofwork”areyourusersdoing to increasetheirlikelihoodofreturning?

-Brainstormthreewaystoaddsmallinvestmentsintoyourproductto:

-Loadthenexttrigger

-Storevalueasdata,content,followers,reputationandskill

-Identifyhowlongittakesfora“loadedtrigger”tore-engageyourusers.Howcanyoureducethedelaytoshortencycle-timethroughtheHook?

6.WHATAREYOUGOINGTODOWITHTHIS?

The Hook Model is designed to connect the user’s problem with thedesigner’s solution frequentlyenough to formahabit. It isa framework forbuildingproductsthatsolveuserneedsthroughlong-termengagement.

AsuserspassthroughcyclesofTheHookModel,theylearntomeettheirneedswith the habit-formingproduct.Effective hooks transition users fromrelying upon external triggers to cueing mental associations with internaltriggers.Usersmovefromstatesoflowengagementtohighengagementandfromlowpreferencetohighpreference.

You are now equipped to use theHookModel to ask yourself these fivefundamentalquestionsforbuildingeffectivehooks:

1. What do users reallywant?What pain is your product relieving?(InternalTrigger)

2.Whatbringsuserstoyourservice?(ExternalTrigger)

3.Whatisthesimplestactionuserstakeinanticipationofreward,andhow can you simplify your product to make this action easier?(Action)

4. Areusers fulfilledby the reward,yet leftwantingmore? (VariableReward)

5.What“bitofwork”dousersinvestinyourproduct?Doesitloadthenext trigger and store value to improve the product with use?(Investment)

***

TheMoralityofManipulation

So now what? Now that you’re aware of the pattern for building habit-formingtechnology,howwillyouusethisknowledge?

PerhapswhilereadingthisbookyouaskedyourselfiftheHookModelisarecipeformanipulation.Maybeyoufeltabitunsettledreadingwhatseemed

likeacookbookformindcontrol.Ifso,thatisaverygoodthing.

TheHookModelisfundamentallyaboutchangingpeople’sbehaviors;butthepowertobuildpersuasiveproductsshouldbeusedwithcaution.Creatinghabitscanbeaforceforgood,butitcanalsobeusedfornefariouspurposes.Whatresponsibilitydoproductmakershavewhencreatinguserhabits?

Let’s admit it, we are all in the persuasion business.[cxiii]

Technologistsbuildproductsmeanttopersuadepeopletodowhatwewantthemtodo.Wecallthesepeople“users”andevenifwedon’tsayitaloud,wesecretlywishevery one of them would become fiendishly hooked to whatever we’remaking.I’mguessingthat’slikelywhyyoustartedreadingthisbook.

Userstaketheirtechnologieswiththemtobed.[cxiv]

Whentheywakeup,they check for notifications, tweets, and updates, sometimes even beforesaying “Good morning” to their loved ones. Ian Bogost, the famed gamecreator and professor, calls the wave of habit-forming technologies the“cigaretteofthiscentury”andwarnsoftheirequallyaddictiveandpotentially

destructiveside-effects.[cxv]

Youmaybeasking,“Whenisitwrongtomanipulateusers?”

Manipulation isanexperiencecrafted tochangebehavior—weallknowwhatitfeelslike.We’reuncomfortablewhenwesensesomeoneis tryingtomakeusdosomethingwewouldn’tdootherwise,likewhensittingthroughacarsalesman’sspielorhearingatimesharepresentation.

Yet, manipulation doesn’t always have a negative connotation. If it did,how couldwe explain the numerousmulti-billion-dollar industries that relyheavilyonusersbeingwillinglymanipulated?

Ifmanipulation is an experience crafted to change behavior, thenWeightWatchers,oneof themostsuccessfulmass-manipulationproducts inhistory,

fits the definition.[cxvi]

Weight Watchers customers’ decisions areprogrammedbythedesignerofthesystem.Yet,fewquestionthemoralityofthebusiness.

But what is the difference? Why is manipulating users through flashyadvertisingor addictivevideogames thought tobedistastefulwhile a strictsystem of food rationing is considered laudable? While many people seeWeight Watchers as an acceptable form of user manipulation, our moralcompass has not caught up with what the latest technology now makes

possible.

Ubiquitousaccesstotheweb,transferringgreateramountsofpersonaldataat faster speeds than ever before, has created a more potentially addictiveworld.AccordingtofamedSiliconValleyinvestorPaulGraham,wehaven’t

had time to develop societal “antibodies to addictive new things.”[cxvii]

Grahamplacesresponsibilityontheuser:“Unlesswewanttobecanariesinthe coal mine of each new addiction — the people whose sad examplebecomes a lesson to future generations — we’ll have to figure out forourselveswhattoavoidandhow.”

Butwhat of the peoplewhomake thesemanipulative experiences?Afterall,thecorporationsthatunleashthesehabit-forming,andattimesaddictive,technologies aremadeupof humanbeingswith amoral senseof right andwrong.Theytoohavefamiliesandkidswhoaresusceptibletomanipulation.What shared responsibilities do we growth-hackers and behavior-designershavetoourusers,tofuturegenerations,andtoourselves?

With the increasing pervasiveness and persuasiveness of personaltechnology,someindustryinsidershaveproposedcreatinganethicalcodeof

conduct.[cxviii]

Othersbelievedifferently:ChrisNodder,authorofthebookEvil by Design, writes “… it’s OK to deceive people if it’s in their bestinterests, or if they’ve given implicit consent to be deceived as part of a

persuasivestrategy.”[cxix]

I offer a simple decision support tool entrepreneurs, employees, andinvestors can use long before product is shipped or code is written. TheManipulationMatrix does not try to answerwhich businesses aremoral orwhichwillsucceed,nordoesitdescribewhatcanandcannotbecomeahabit-forming technology.Thematrix seeks tohelpyouanswernot, “Can Ihookmyusers?”butinstead,“ShouldIattemptto?”

To use theManipulationMatrix (figure 36), themaker needs to ask twoquestions. First, “Would I use the product myself?” and second, “Will theproducthelpusersmateriallyimprovetheirlives?”

Figure36

Remember,thisframeworkisforcreatinghabit-formingproducts,notone-time use goods.Now, let’s explore the types of creatorswho represent thefourquadrantsoftheManipulationMatrix.

TheFacilitator

Whenyoucreatesomething thatyouwoulduseand thatyoubelievemakestheuser’slifebetter,youarefacilitatingahealthyhabit.Itisimportanttonotethatonlyyoucandecideifyouwouldactuallyusetheproductorservice,andwhat“materiallyimprovingthelifeoftheuser”reallymeansinlightofwhatyouarecreating.

If you find yourself squirming as you ask yourself these questions orneeding to qualify or justify your answers, STOP!You failed.You have toactuallywanttousetheproductandbelieveitmateriallybenefitsyourlifeaswellasthelivesofyourusers.

Oneexceptionisifyouwouldhavebeenauserinyouryoungeryears.Forexample, inthecaseofaneducationcompany,youmaynotneedtousetheservice right now, but are certain you would have used it in your not-so-distantpast.Notehoweverthatthefurtheryouarefromyourformerself,theloweryouroddsofsuccess.

In building a habit for a user other than yourself, you can not consideryourselfafacilitatorunlessyouhaveexperiencedtheproblemfirst-hand.

JakeHarrimangrewuponasmallfarminWestVirginia.Aftergraduatingfrom theU.S.NavalAcademy,Harriman served as an Infantry andSpecial

OperationsPlatoonCommanderintheMarineCorps.HewasinIraqduringthe2003invasionandledmenintofiercegunbattleswithenemycombatants.Later, he assisted with disaster relief in Indonesia and Sri Lanka after the2004Asiantsunami.

Harrimansayshisencounterwithextremepovertyabroadchangedhislife.Aftersevenandahalfyearsofactiveduty,Harrimanrealizedthatgunsalonecould not stop terrorists intent on harming Americans. “Desperate peoplecommitdesperateacts,”Harrimansays.Afterhisservice,HarrimanfoundedNuru International, a social venture targeting extreme poverty by changingthehabitsofpeoplelivinginruralareas.

However, exactly how Harriman would change the lives of the poorestpeopleintheworldwasnotcleartohimuntilhedecidedtoliveamongthem.In Kenya, he discovered that basic practices ofmodern agriculture— likeproper seed spacing—were still notused.ButHarrimanknew that simplyteachingfarmersnewbehaviorswouldnotbeenough.

Instead,bydrawinguponhisown rural upbringingandexperience livingwith the farmers, Harriman uncovered the obstacles in their way. He soonlearnedthatthelackofaccesstofinancingforhighqualityseedsandfertilizerkeptfarmersfromutilizingyield-boostingtechniques.

Today,NuruisequippingfarmersinKenyaandEthiopia,helpingthemriseout of grinding poverty. It was only by becoming one of his users that

Harrimancoulddesignsolutionstomeettheirneeds.[cxx]

Although it is a long way from Africa to Silicon Valley, the well-documented stories of the founders of Facebook and Twitter reveal theywould likely see themselves asmaking products in the facilitator quadrant.Today, a new breed of companies is creating products to improve lives bycreating healthy habits.Whether getting users to exercise more, creating ahabit of journaling, or improving back posture, these companies are run byauthenticentrepreneurswhodesperatelywanttheirproductstoexist,firstlytosatisfytheirownneeds.

Butwhat if the usage of awell-intended product becomes extreme, evenharmful?Whatabouttheuserswhogobeyondforminghabits,becomingfull-fledgedaddicts?

First, it is important torecognize that thepercentageofuserswhoformadetrimental dependency is very small. Industry estimates for pathologicalusers of even the most habit-forming technologies, such as slot machines

gambling, are just onepercent.[cxxi]

Addiction tends tomanifest in peoplewith a particular psychological profile. However, simply brushing off theissue as too small to matter dismisses the very real problems caused bytechnologyaddiction.

For the first time, however, companies have access to data that could beused to flag which users are using their products too much. Whethercompanies choose to act on that data in a way that aids their users is, ofcourse, a question of corporate responsibility. Companies building habit-formingtechnologieshaveamoralobligation—andperhapssomedayalegalmandate — to inform and protect users who are forming unhealthyattachments to their products. It would behoove entrepreneurs buildingpotentially addictive products to set guidelines for identifying and helpingaddictedusers.

However, for the overwhelmingmajority of users, addiction to a productwill never be a problem. Even though theworld is becoming a potentiallymore addictive place, most people have the ability to self-regulate theirbehaviors.

The role of facilitator fulfills the moral obligation for entrepreneursbuildingaproducttheywilluse,andwhichtheybelievemateriallyimprovesthe livesofothers.As longas theyhaveprocedures inplace toassist thosewhoformunhealthyaddictions,thedesignercanactwithacleanconscience.TotakelibertieswithMahatmaGandhi’sfamousquote,facilitators“buildthechangetheywanttoseeintheworld.”

ThePeddler

Headyaltruisticambitionscanat timesoutpace reality.Toooften,designersofmanipulativetechnologyhaveastrongmotivationtoimprovethelivesoftheir users, butwhen pressed, they admit theywould not actually use theirown creations. Their holier-than-thou products often try to “gamify” sometasknooneactuallywantstodobyinsertingrun-of-the-millincentivessuchasbadgesorpointsthatdon’tactuallyholdvaluefortheirusers.

Fitness apps, charity websites, and products that claim to suddenly turnhardworkintofunoftenfallinthisquadrant.Butpossiblythemostcommonexampleofpeddlersisinadvertising.

Countless companies convince themselves they’re making ad campaignsuserswilllove.Theyexpecttheirvideostogoviralandtheirbrandedappsto

be used daily. Their so-called “reality distortion fields” keep them from

asking the critical question, “Would I actually find this useful?”[cxxii]

Theanswer to this uncomfortable question is nearly always “No,” so they twisttheir thinking until they can imagine a user they believemight find the advaluable.

Materiallyimprovingusers’livesisatallorder,andattemptingtocreateapersuasivetechnologythatyoudonotuseyourselfisincrediblydifficult.Thisputsdesignersataheavydisadvantagebecauseoftheirdisconnectwiththeirproducts and users. There’s nothing immoral about peddling; in fact,manycompanies working on solutions for others do so out of purely altruisticreasons. It’s just that the odds of successfully designing products for acustomeryoudon’tknowextremelywellaredepressinglylow.Peddlerstendto lack the empathy and insights needed to create something users actuallywant.Oftenthepeddler’sprojectresultsinatime-wastingfailurebecausethedesigners did not fully understand their users.As a result, no one finds theproductuseful.

TheEntertainer

Sometimesproduct-makersjustwanttohavefun.Ifcreatorsofapotentiallyaddictive technology make something that they use but can’t in goodconscienceclaimimprovesusers’lives,they’remakingentertainment.

Entertainment is art and is important for its own sake. Art provides joy,helpsusseetheworlddifferently,andconnectsuswiththehumancondition.These are all important and age-old pursuits. Entertainment, however, hasparticularattributesofwhichtheentrepreneur,employee,andinvestorshouldbeawarewhenusingtheManipulationMatrix.

Artisoftenfleeting;productsthatformhabitsaroundentertainmenttendtofadequicklyfromusers’lives.Ahitsong,repeatedoverandoveragaininthemind,becomesnostalgiaafteritisreplacedbythenextchart-topper.Abooklike thisone is readand thoughtabout forawhileuntil thenext interestingpieceofbraincandycomesalong.Aswe learned in thechapteronvariablerewards,games likeFarmVille andAngryBirds engrossusers, but thenarerelegated to the gaming dustbin alongwith other hyper-addictive has-beenssuchasPacManandMarioBros.

Entertainmentisahits-drivenbusinessbecausethebrainreactstostimulusbywantingmoreandmoreofit,everhungryforcontinuousnovelty.Buildinganenterpriseonephemeraldesiresisakintorunningonanincessantlyrolling

treadmill:Youhavetokeepupwiththeconstantlychangingdemandsofyourusers. In this quadrant, the sustainable business is not purely the game, thesong,or thebook—profit comes fromaneffectivedistribution system forgetting those goods tomarketwhile they’re still hot, and at the same timekeepingthepipelinefulloffreshreleasestofeedaneageraudience.

TheDealer

Creating a product that the designer does not believe improves users’ livesand that he himselfwould not use is called exploitation. In the absence ofthesetwocriteria,presumablytheonlyreasonthedesignerishookingusersisto make a buck. Certainly there is money to be made addicting users tobehaviorsthatdolittlemorethanextractcash;andwherethereiscash,therewillbesomeonewillingtotakeit.

Thequestionis:Isthatsomeoneyou?Casinosanddrugdealersofferusersagoodtime,butwhentheaddictiontakeshold,thefunstops.

InasatiricaltakeonZynga’sFarmVillefranchise,IanBogostcreatedCowClicker, a Facebook app where users did nothing but incessantly click on

virtualcowstohearasatisfying“moo.”[cxxiii]

Bogost intended to lampoonFarmVille by blatantly implementing the same game mechanics and viralhacks he thoughtwould be laughably obvious to users. But after the app’susage exploded and some people became frighteningly obsessed with thegame, Bogost shut it down, bringing on what he called “The

Cowpocalypse.”[cxxiv]

Bogost rightfully compared addictive technology to cigarettes. Certainly,theincessantneedforasmokeinwhatwasonceamajorityoftheadultU.S.population has been replaced by a nearly equal compulsion to constantlycheck our devices. But unlike the addiction to nicotine, new technologiesoffer an opportunity to dramatically improve users’ lives. Like alltechnologies, recent advances in the habit-forming potential of digitalinnovationhavebothpositiveandnegativeeffects.

But if the innovator has a clear conscience that the product materiallyimprovespeople’slives—firstamongthem,thedesigner’s—thentheonlypathistopushforward.Withtheexceptionoftheaddictedonepercent,usersbearultimateresponsibilityfortheiractions.

However,as themarchof technologymakes theworldapotentiallymoreaddictive place, innovators need to consider their role. It will be years,

perhapsgenerations,beforesocietydevelopsthementalantibodiestocontrolnewhabits; in themeantime,manyof thesebehaviorsmaydevelopharmfulside-effects. For now, users must learn to assess these yet-unknownconsequencesforthemselves,whilecreatorswillhavetolivewiththemoralrepercussionsofhowtheyspendtheirprofessionallives.

My hope is that the Manipulation Matrix helps innovators consider theimplications of the products they create. Perhaps after reading this book,you’ll start a new business.Maybe you’ll join an existing companywith amissiontowhichyouarecommitted.Or,perhapsyouwilldecideitistimetoquityourjobbecauseyou’vecometorealizeitnolongerpointsinthesamedirectionasyourmoralcompass.

***

RememberandShare

-Tohelpdesignersofhabit-formingtechnologyassessthemoralitybehindhow they manipulate users, it is helpful to determine which of the fourcategories theirwork fits into.Are youa facilitator, peddler, entertainer, ordealer?

-Facilitatorsusetheirownproductandbelieveitcanmateriallyimprovepeople’s lives. They have the highest chance of success because they mostcloselyunderstandtheneedsoftheirusers.

-Peddlersbelievetheirproductcanmateriallyimprovepeople’slives,butdonotuse it themselves.Theymustbewareof thehubrisand inauthenticitythatcomesfrombuildingsolutionsforpeopletheydonotunderstand.

-Entertainersusetheirproduct,butdonotbelieveitcanimprovepeople’slives.Theycanbesuccessful,butwithoutmakingthelivesofothersbetterinsomeway,theentertainer’sproductsoftenlackstayingpower.

-Dealersneitherusetheproductnorbelieveitcanimprovepeople’slives.They have the lowest chance of finding long-term success and often findthemselvesinmorallyprecariouspositions.

***

DoThisNow

-TakeaminutetoconsiderwhereyoufallontheManipulationMatrix.Doyouuseyourownproductorservice?Doesit influencepositiveornegative

behaviors?Howdoes itmakeyoufeel?Askyourself ifyouareproudof thewayyouareinfluencingthebehaviorofothers.

7.CASESTUDY:THEBIBLEAPP

Inthepreviouschapter,Iurgedyoutobeafacilitatorandtousethetoolsinthisbooktoimprovethelivesofothers.Iencouragedyoutoalignyourworkwithapurpose thatprovidesyouwithmeaningandhelpscultivatemeaningforothers.Thisisnotonlyamoralimperative,it’sgoodbusinesspractice.

Themosthighlyregardedentrepreneursaredrivenbymeaning,avisionforgreatergoodthatdrivesthemforward.Startupsaregruelingandonlythemostfortunate persevere before finding success. If you only build for fame orfortune,youwilllikelyfindneither.Butbuildformeaningandyoucan’tgowrong.

TheHookModelisaframeworkbasedonhumanpsychologyandacloseexaminationoftoday’smostsuccessfulhabit-formingproducts.Nowthatyouhaveanunderstandingof themodel and thepsychologybehindwhywedothethingswedo,let’sstudyhowitallcomestogetherinoneoftheworld’smostpopularapps.Whetheryouagreewiththemissionoftheappdescribedbelowisnotimportant.Thelessonhereishowatechnologycompanycreatedauserhabitwhilestayingtruetothefounder’smoralcalling.

It’snotoftenanapphasthepowertokeepsomeoneoutofastripclub.ButaccordingtoBobbyGruenewald,CEOofYouVersion,that’sexactlywhathistechnologydid.GruenewaldsaysauserofhisBibleverseappwalkedintoabusiness of ill repute when suddenly, seemingly out of the heavens, hereceived a notification on his phone. “God’s trying to tellme something!,”Gruenewaldrecalled theusersaying.“I justwalked intoastripclub—andman—theBiblejusttextedme!”

InJuly2013,YouVersionannouncedamonumentalmilestonefortheapp,placing it in a rare strata of technology companies. The app, simply called“Bible,”hasbeendownloadedtomorethan100milliondevicesandgrowing.[cxxv]

Gruenewaldsaysanewinstalloccursevery1.3seconds.

Onaverage,66,000peopleopen the appevery second—and sometimesthe open rate is much higher. Every Sunday, Gruenewald says, preachersaroundtheworldtellcongregantsto“takeoutyourBiblesorYouVersionapp.And,weseeahugespike.”

Themarketforreligiousappsisfiercelycompetitive.Searchingfor“Bible”in the Apple App Store returns 5,185 results. But among all the choices,YouVersion’sBibleseemstobethechosenone,rankingatthetopofthelistandboastingover641,000reviews.

HowdidYouVersioncometodominatethedigital,“wordofGod?”Itturnsoutthereismuchmorebehindtheapp’ssuccessthanmissionaryzeal.It’sacasestudyinhowtechnologycanchangebehaviorbymarryingtheprinciplesofconsumerpsychologywiththelatestinbigdataanalytics.

According to industry insiders, the YouVersion Bible could be worth abundle.JulesMaltz,GeneralPartneratInstitutionalVenturePartners,toldme,“Asa ruleof thumb, a company this size couldbeworth$200million andup.”

Maltz should know. His firm announced an investment in another pre-

revenue app, Snapchat, at an $800 million valuation in July 2013.[cxxvi]

Maltz justifies thepricebypointing to theper-uservaluationsofother techcompanies such as Facebook, Instagram and Twitter, each of whichcommandedastronomicalinvestmentsumswellbeforeturningaprofit.Maltzwas quick to add, “Of course, this assumes the company can monetizethroughadvertising.”

IntheBeginning

Gruenewald is a quick-thinking, fast-talkingman.During our conversation,hepulledupstatistics in real-time,stoppinghimselfmid-sentencewheneverrelevantdataflashedonhisscreen.AsGruenewaldpreachesonaboutmobileapp development best practices, I need to occasionally interrupt him to askclarifying questions. My words stumble over his enthusiasm as he bearswitnesstowhathe’slearnedbuildinghisapp.HespoutsuserretentionfigureswiththesamegustoI’dimaginehemightproclaimscripture.

“Unlikeother companies,whenwe started,wewerenotbuildingaBiblereader for seminary students. YouVersion was designed to be used byeveryone,everyday,”Gruenewaldsays,attributingmuchoftheapp’ssuccessto a relentless focus on creating habitual Bible readers. The Bible app’ssuccessisbrokendownintothelanguageofhabitformationmorecommonlyseen in psychology textbooks. The “cues,” “behaviors” and “rewards” ofcommuningwiththeLordarebullet-pointedandreadyforourdiscussion.

“Biblestudyguidesarenothingnew,”Gruenewaldsays.“Peoplehavebeen

usingthemwithpenandpaperlongbeforewecamealong.”ButIsoonfindout,theBibleappismuchmorethanamobilestudyguide.

Infact,thefirstversionofYouVersionwasnotmobileatall.“Weoriginallystartedasadesktopwebsite,butthatreallydidn’tengagepeopleintheBible.It wasn’t until we tried a mobile version that we noticed a difference inpeople, including ourselves, turning to theBiblemore because it was on adevicetheyalwayshadwiththem.”

Thisisnotsurprising.TheFoggBehaviorModel(chapterthree)notesthatfor an action to occur, users must receive a trigger and have sufficientmotivationandabilitytocompleteit.Ifanyoftheseelementsaremissingorinadequateatthemomentthetriggerarises,theactionwillnotoccur.

The omnipresence of theBible appmakes it farmore accessible than itswebsite predecessor, giving users the ability to open the mobile app whentriggered by the pastor’s instructions or when feeling inspired at othermoments throughout their day. Its users take it everywhere, reading thescriptureineventhemostunsanctifiedplaces.Thecompanyrevealedthat18

percentofreadersreportusingtheBibleappinthebathroom.[cxxvii]

HowtoFormaGodHabit

Gruenewald acknowledgeshisBible appenjoyed thegood fortuneofbeingamong the firstof itskindat thegenesisof theAppStore in2008.To takeadvantageofthenewlyestablishedAppStore,Gruenewaldquicklyconvertedhiswebsiteintoamobileappoptimizedforreading.Theappcaughttherisingtide, but soon a wave of competition followed. If his app was to reignsupreme,Gruenewaldneededtogetusershookedquickly.

That’s when Gruenewald says he implemented a plan— actually, manyplans.AsignatureoftheBibleappisitsselectionofover400readingplans—adevotional iTunesof sorts, catering to anaudiencewithdiverse tastes,troubles, and tongues. Given my personal interest and research into habit-formingtechnology,IdecidedtostartaBiblereadingplanofmyown.Aplantitled“Addictions”seemedappropriate.

For thosewho have yet to form a routine aroundBiblical study, readingplans provide structure and guidance. “Certain sections of theBible can bedifficultforpeopletogetthrough,”Gruenewaldadmits.“Byofferingreadingplans with different small sections of the Bible each day, it helps keep[readers]fromgivingup.”

Theappchunksoutandsequencesthetextbyseparatingitintobite-sizedpieces.Byparsingreadingsintodigestiblecommunionwafer-sizedportions,theappfocusesthereader’sbrainonthesmalltaskathandwhileavoidingtheintimidationofreadingtheentirebook.

HolyTriggers

Fiveyearsof testingandtinkeringhavehelpedGruenewald’s teamdiscoverwhat works best. Today, the Bible app’s reading plans are tuned toimmaculateperfection andGruenewaldhas learned that frequencyofuse isparamount.“We’vealwaysfocusedondailyreading.Ourentirestructureforplansfocusesondailyengagement.”

Togetusers toopen theappeveryday,Gruenewaldmakessurehesendseffectivecues—likethenotificationsenttothesinnerinthestripclub.ButGruenewaldadmitshestumbleduponthepowerofgoodtriggers.“Atfirstwewere very worried about sending people notifications. We didn’t want tobotherthemtoomuch.”

To test how much of a cross users were willing to bear, Gruenewalddecidedtorunanexperiment.“ForChristmas,wesentpeopleamessagefromthe app. Just a ‘Merry Christmas’ in various languages.” The team wasprepared tohear fromdisgruntledusersannoyedby themessage.“Wewereafraid people would uninstall the app,” Gruenewald says. “But just theopposite happened. People took pictures of the notification on their phonesandstartedsharingthemonInstagram,TwitterandFacebook.TheyfeltGodwas reaching out to them.” Today, Gruenewald says, triggers play animportantroleineveryreadingplan.

Onmyownplan,Ireceiveadailynotification—anownedexternaltrigger— on my phone. It simply says, “Don’t forget to read your Addictionsreadingplan.” Ironically, theaddictionI’mtrying tocure ismydependencyondigitalgadgetry,butwhatthehell,I’llfalloffthewagonjustthisonce.

Incase I somehowavoid the firstmessage, a redbadgeovera tinyHolyBible icononmyphonecuesmeagain. If I forget tostart thefirstdayofaplan, I’ll receiveamessagesuggesting thatperhaps I should tryadifferent,less-challengingplan.Ialsohavetheoptionofreceivingversethroughemail.AndifIslipupandmissafewdays,anotheremailremindsmetogetbackontrack.

TheBibleappalsocomeswithavirtualcongregationofsorts.Membersofthesitetendtosendencouragingwordstooneanother,deliveringevenmore

triggers.Accordingtothecompany’spublicist,“Communityemailscanserveas a nudge to open the app.” These relationship-based external triggers areeverywhereintheBibleappandareoneofthekeystokeepingusersengaged.

GloryBeintheData

Gruenewald’s team sifts through behavioral data collected frommillions ofreaderstobetterunderstandwhatuserswantfromtheapp.“Wejusthavesomuchdata flowing throughoursystem,”Gruenewaldsays.Thedata revealsimportantinsightsonwhatdrivesuserretention.Highonthelistoflearningsis the importance of “ease of use,” which came up throughout ourconversation.

InlinewiththeworkofpsychologistsfromearlyGestaltpsychologistKurtLewintomodern-dayresearchers, theappusestheprinciple thatbymakinganintendedactioneasiertodo,peoplewilldoitmoreoften.

TheBible app is designed tomake absorbing theWord as frictionless aspossible.Forexample,tomaketheBibleapphabiteasiertoadopt,userswhoprefer listening over reading can simply tap a small icon to play an audiotrackreadwiththedramaticbravadoofCharltonHestonhimself.

GruenewaldsayshisdataalsorevealedthatchangingtheorderoftheBiblebyplacing themore interesting sectionsup-front and saving theboringbitsforlaterincreasedcompletionrates.Furthermore,dailyreadingplansarekepttoasimpleinspirationalthoughtandafewshortversesfornewcomers.Theidea is togetneophytes into the ritual for a fewminuteseachdayuntil theroutinebecomesafacetoftheireverydaylives.

RewardsfromtheLord

Gruenewald says the connection people have with scripture taps into deepemotions that “we need to use responsibly.” Readers who form a habit ofusingtheappturntoitnotonlywhentheyseeanotificationontheirphone,butalsowhenevertheyfeellowandneedawaytolifttheirspirits.

“Webelievethat theBible isawayGodspeakstous,”Gruenewaldsays.“Whenpeopleseeaverse, theyseewisdomor truth theycanapply to theirlives or a situation they’re going through.” Skeptics might call this“subjectivevalidation,”andpsychologistscallitthe“ForerEffect,”buttothefaithful,itamountstopersonallycommunicatingwithGod.

Uponopening theBible app, I finda specially selectedversewaiting forme on the topic of “Addictions.” With just two taps I’m reading 1Thessalonians5:11—encouragementforthe“childrenoftheday,”imploringthemwiththewords,“letusbesober.”It’seasytoseehowthesecomfortingwordscouldserveasasortofprizewrappedinsidetheapp,helpingreadersfeelbetter.

Gruenewald says his Bible app also offers an element of mystery andvariability.“Onewomanwouldstayupuntiljustpastmidnighttoknowwhatverseshehadreceivedforhernextday,”Gruenewaldsays.Theunknown—in thiscase,whichversewillbechosen for the readerandhowit relates totheirpersonalstruggle—becomesanimportantdriverofthereadinghabit.

As for my own reward, after finishing my verse, I received affirmationfromasatisfying”DayComplete!”screen.Acheckmarkappearednear thescriptureIhadreadandanotheronewasplacedonmyreadingplancalendar.Skippingadaywouldmeanbreaking thechainofcheckeddays,employingwhatpsychologistscallthe“endowedprogresseffect”—atacticalsousedbyvideogamedesignerstoencourageprogression.

Ashabit-formingastheBibleapp’sreadingplanscanbe,theyarenotforeveryone. In fact, Gruenewald reports most users downloaded the app butneverregisterforanaccountwithYouVersion.Millionschoosetonotfollowanyplan,optinginsteadtousetheappasasubstitutefortheirpaperBibles.But to Gruenewald, using the app in this way suits him fine. Unregisteredreadersarestillhelping togrowtheapp. Infact,socialmedia isabuzzwiththe200,000piecesofcontentsharedfromtheappevery24-hours.

To help the app spread, a new verse greets the reader on the first page.Below the verse, a large blue button reads, “ShareVerse of theDay.”OneclickandthedailyscriptureisblastedtoFacebookorTwitter.

The drivers behind recently read scripture have not beenwidely studied.However,onereasonmaybetherewardportrayingoneselfinapositivelight,

also known as the “humblebrag.”[cxxviii]

AHarvardmeta-analysis entitled“Disclosing information about the self is intrinsically rewarding” found theact, “engages neural and cognitive mechanisms associated with

reward.”[cxxix]

In fact, sharing feels so good that one study found“individualswerewillingtoforgomoneytodiscloseabouttheself.”

TherearemanyopportunitiestoshareversefromwithintheBibleapp,butoneofGruenewald’smosteffectivedistributionchannelsisnotonlinebutin-

row—thatis,inthepewswherechurch-goerssitsidebysideeveryweek.

“People tell each other about the app because they use it surrounded bypeoplewhoaskabout it,”Gruenewaldsays.Theappalwaysseesaspike innewdownloadsonSundayswhenpeoplearemost likelytoshareit throughwordofmouth.

However, nothing signals the reign ofGruenewald’sBible app quite likethe way some preachers have come to depend upon it. YouVersion letsreligious leaders input their sermons into the app so their congregants canfollowalonginreal-time—book,verse,andpassage—allwithoutflippingapage. Once the head of the church is hooked, the congregation is sure tofollow.

UsingtheBibleappatchurchnotonlyhasthebenefitofdrivinggrowth,italsobuildscommitment.Everytimeusershighlightaverse,addacomment,createabookmarkorsharefromtheapp,theyinvestinit.

As described in an earlier chapter,DanAriely andMichaelNorton haveshowntheeffectsmallamountsofworkhaveonthewaypeoplevaluevariousproducts. This “IKEA effect” illustrates the connection between labor andperceivedworth.

ItisreasonabletothinkthatthemorereadersputintotheBibleappintheformofsmallinvestments,themoreitbecomesarepositoryoftheirhistoryofworship.Like a dog-eared book, full of scribbled insights andwisdom, theapp becomes a treasured asset that won’t easily be discarded. The morereadersusetheBibleapp,themorevaluableitbecomestothem.SwitchingtoadifferentdigitalBible—Godforbid—becomeslesslikelywitheachnewrevelation users type into (or extract from) the app, further securingYouVersion’sdominion.

Gruenewald claimshe is not in competitionwith anyone,but hedoesonoccasion rattle off the App Store categories where his app holds a highranking.Hisapp’splaceat thetopofthechartsappearssecurenowthattheBiblehascrossedits100millionthinstall.ButGruenewaldplanstocontinuesifting through the terabytes of data in search of newways to increase thereachofhisappandmakehisversionoftheBibleevenmorehabit-forming.Toitstensofmillionsofregularusers,Gruenewald’sappisaGodsend.

***

RememberandShare

- TheBible appwas far less engaging as a desktopwebsite. Themobileinterfaceincreasedaccessibilityandusagebyprovidingfrequenttriggers.

- The Bible app increases users’ ability to take action by front-loadinginterestingcontentandprovidinganalternativeaudioversion.

-Byseparatingtheversesintosmallchunks,usersfindtheBibleeasiertoreadonadailybasis.Notknowingwhatthenextversewillbeaddsavariablereward.

-Everyannotation,bookmarkandhighlightstoresdata(andvalue)intheapp,furthercommittingusers.

8.HABITTESTINGANDWHERETOLOOKFORHABIT-FORMINGOPPORTUNITIES

Nowthatyouhaveanunderstandingof theHookModelandhavereflectedon the morality of influencing user behavior, it is time to get to work.Running your idea through the four phases of the model will help youdiscoverpotentialweaknessesinyourproduct’shabit-formingpotential.

Doesyourusers’internaltriggerfrequentlypromptthemtoaction?Isyourexternaltriggercueingthemwhentheyaremostlikelytoact?Isyourdesignsimpleenoughtomaketakingtheactioneasy?Doestherewardsatisfyyourusers’needwhileleavingthemwantingmore?Doyourusersinvestabitofwork in the product, storing value to improve the experiencewith use andloadingthenexttrigger?

By identifying where your technology is lacking, you can focus ondevelopingimprovementstoyourproductwhereitmattersmost.

HabitTesting

By following the “DoThisNow” sections inprevious chapters, you shouldhave enough knowledge to prototype your product. But simply coming upwith ideas is not enough, and creating user habits is often easier said thandone. The process of developing successful habit-forming technologiesrequirespatienceandpersistence.TheHookModelcanbeahelpfultoolforfiltering out bad ideaswith low habit potential aswell as a framework foridentifying room for improvement in existing products. However, after thedesignerhasformulatednewhypotheses,thereisnowaytoknowwhichideaswillworkwithouttestingthemwithactualusers.

Buildingahabit-formingproduct isan iterativeprocessand requiresuserbehavior analysis andcontinuous experimentation.Howcanyou implementthe concepts in this book to measure your product’s effectiveness buildinguserhabits?

Through my studies and discussions with entrepreneurs at today’s mostsuccessfulhabit-formingcompanies,I’vedistilledthisprocessintowhatIcall“Habit Testing.” It is a process inspired by the build-measure-learn

methodologychampionedbytheleanstartupmovement.HabitTestingoffersinsightsandactionabledatatoinformthedesignofhabit-formingproducts.Ithelps clarify who your devotees are, what parts of your product are habit-forming (if any), andwhy those aspects of your product are changing userbehavior.

Habit Testing does not always require a live product; however, it can bedifficult to draw clear conclusions without a comprehensive view of howpeople are using your system. The following steps assume you have aproduct,users,andmeaningfuldatatoexplore.

Step1:Identify

The initial question for Habit Testing is “Who are the product’s habitualusers?”Remember,themorefrequentlyyourproductisused,themorelikelyitistoformauserhabit.

First,definewhat itmeans tobeadevoteduser.Howoften“should”oneuse your product? The answer to this question is very important and canwidelychangeyourperspective.Publiclyavailabledatafromsimilarproductsorsolutionscanhelpdefineyourusersandengagementtargets.Ifdataisnotavailable,educatedassumptionsmustbemade—butberealisticandhonest.

IfyouarebuildingasocialnetworkingapplikeTwitterorInstagram,youshouldexpecthabitualuserstovisittheservicemultipletimesperday.Ontheotherhand,youshouldnotexpectusersofamovierecommendationsitelikeRottenTomatoes tovisitmore thanonceor twiceaweek (since theirvisitswillcomeontheheelsofseeingamovieorresearchingonetowatch).Don’tcome up with an overly aggressive prediction that only accounts for uber-users;youarelookingforarealisticguesstocalibratehowoftentypicaluserswillinteractwithyourproduct.

Once you know how often users should use your product, dig into thenumbersandidentifyhowmanyandwhichtypeofusersmeetthisthreshold.Asabestpractice,usecohort analysis tomeasurechanges inuserbehaviorthroughfutureproductiterations.

Step2:Codify

Hopefully you’ve identified a few users who meet the criteria of habitualusers. But howmany users are enough?My rule of thumb is five percent.Thoughyourrateofactiveuserswillneedtobemuchhighertosustainyour

business,thisisagoodinitialbenchmark.

However, if at least five percent of your users don’t find your productvaluableenoughtouseasmuchasyoupredictedtheywould,youmayhaveaproblem.Eitheryou identified thewrongusersoryourproductneeds togobackto thedrawingboard.But ifyouhaveexceededthatbarandidentifiedyourhabitualusers, thenextstepistocodifythestepstheytookusingyourproducttounderstandwhathookedthem.

Userswillinteractwithyourproductinslightlydifferentways.Evenifyouhaveastandarduserflow,thewayusersengagewithyourproductcreatesaunique fingerprint. Where users are coming from, decisions made whenregistering,andthenumberoffriendsusingtheservice,arejustafewofthebehaviors that help create a recognizable pattern. Sift through the data todetermine if similarities emerge. You’re looking for a “Habit Path,” — aseriesofsimilaractionssharedbyyourmostloyalusers.

For example, in its early days, Twitter discovered that once new usersfollowed 30 other members, they hit a tipping point which dramatically

increasedtheoddstheywouldkeepusingthesite.[cxxx]

Everyproducthasadifferentsetofactionsthatdevoteduserstake;thegoalof finding theHabitPath is todeterminewhichof thesesteps iscritical forcreating devoted users so that you canmodify the experience to encouragethisbehavior.

Step3:Modify

Armedwithnewinsights,itistimetorevisityourproductandidentifywaystonudgenewusersdownthesameHabitPath takenbydevotees.Thismayincludeanupdatetotheregistrationfunnel,contentchanges,featureremoval,orincreasedemphasisonanexistingfeature.Twitterusedtheinsightsgainedfrom theprevious step tomodify its on-boardingprocess, encouragingnewuserstoimmediatelybeginfollowingothers.

Habit Testing is a continual process you can implement with every newfeature andproduct iteration.Trackingusers by cohort and comparing theiractivitytohabitualusersshouldguidehowproductsevolveandimprove.

DiscoveringHabit-formingOpportunities

TheHabitTestingprocess requires theproductdesigner tohaveanexisting

product to test.Butwheremight you look to findpotentially habit-formingexperiencesripefornewtechnologicalsolutions?

Whenitcomestodevelopingnewproducts,therearenoguarantees.Alongwith creating an engaging product as described in this book, startupsmustalso find a way tomonetize and grow.Although this book does not coverbusiness models for delivering customer value or methods for profitablecustomer acquisition, both are necessary components of any successfulbusiness. Several thingsmust go right for a new company to succeed, andforminguserhabitsisjustoneofthem.

As we saw in chapter six, being a “facilitator” is not only a moralimperative, it alsomakes forbetterbusinessespractices.Creating aproductthe designer uses and believesmaterially improves people’s lives increasestheoddsofdelivering somethingpeoplewant.Therefore, the firstplace forthe entrepreneur or designer to look for new opportunities is in themirror.PaulGrahamadvisesentrepreneurstoleavethesexy-soundingbusinessideasbehind and instead build for their own needs: “Instead of asking ‘whatproblemshould I solve?’ ask ‘whatproblemdo Iwish someoneelsewould

solveforme?’”[cxxxi]

Studyingyourownneedscanleadtoremarkablediscoveriesandnewideasbecausethedesigneralwayshasadirectlinetoatleastoneuser—himselforherself.Forexample,Buffer,aserviceforpostingupdatestosocialnetworks,wasinspiredbyitsfounder’sinsightfulobservationsofhisownbehavior.

Bufferwas founded in2010and isnowusedbyover1.1millionpeople.[cxxxii]

Itsfounder,JoelGascoigne,describedthecompany’sinceptioninan

interview.[cxxxiii]

“The idea for Buffer came tome after I had been usingTwitter for about 1.5 years. I had started to share links to blog posts andquotesIfoundinspiring,andIfoundthatmyfollowersseemedtoreallylikethese types of tweets. I would often get retweets or end up having a greatconversationaroundtheblogpostorquote.That’swhenIdecidedIwantedtoshare this kindof contentmore frequently, because the conversationsbeingtriggered were allowing me to be in touch with some super smart andinterestingpeople.”

Gascoigne continues, “So, withmy goal of sharingmore blog posts andquotes,Istartedtodoitmanually.Iquicklyrealizedthatitwouldbefarmoreefficient to schedule these tweets for the future, so I started to use a fewavailableTwitter clients to do this. The key pain I ran into herewas that I

wouldhavetochoosetheexactdateandtimeforthetweet,andinrealityallIwantedtodowastotweet‘fivetimesperday.’Ijustwantedthetweetstobespreadout so Ididn’t share themall at the same timewhen Ididmydailyreading.Forawhile,IusedanotepadandkepttrackofwhenIhadscheduledtweets, so that I could try and tweet five times per day.This became quitecumbersome,andsomyideawasborn:Iwantedtomakeschedulingtweets‘xtimesaday’aseasyastweetingregularly.”

Gascoigne’sstoryisaclassicexampleofafounderscratchinghisownitch.As he used existing solutions, he recognized a discrepancy in what theyoffered and the solution he needed. He identified where steps could beremovedfromotherproductsheusedandbuiltasimplerwaytogethis jobdone.

Carefulintrospectioncanuncoveropportunitiesforbuildinghabit-formingproducts.Asyougoaboutyourday,askyourselfwhyyoudo,ordonotdo,certainthingsandhowthosetaskscouldbemadeeasierormorerewarding.

Observingyourownbehaviorcaninspirethenexthabit-formingproductorinform a breakthrough improvement to an existing solution. Below, you’llfindotherhotbedsforinnovationopportunities—thinkofthemasshortcutsfor uncovering existing behaviors that are ripe for successful businessdevelopmentbasedonformingnewuserhabits.

NascentBehaviors

Sometimes technologies that appear to cater to a niche will cross into themainstream.Behaviorsthatstartwithasmallgroupofuserscanexpandtoawider population, but only if they cater to a broad need.However, the factthatthetechnologyisatfirstusedonlybyasmallpopulationoftendeceivesobserversintodismissingtheproduct’struepotential.

Astrikingnumberofworld-changinginnovationswerewrittenoffasmerenovelties with limited commercial appeal. George Eastman’s Browniecamera, preloaded with a film roll and selling for just $1, was originally

marketedasachild’s toy.[cxxxiv]

Establishedstudiophotographers saw thedeviceaslittlemorethanacheapplaything.

The invention of the telephone was also dismissed at first. Sir WilliamPreece,thechiefengineeroftheBritishPostOfficefamouslydeclared,“TheAmericans have need of the telephone, but we do not.We have plenty of

messengerboys.”[cxxxv]

In 1911, Ferdinand Foch the future Commander-in-Chief of the AlliedArmies in WWI said, “Airplanes are interesting toys but of no military

value.”[cxxxvi]

In1957,theeditorofbusinessbooksforPrenticeHalltoldhispublisher,“Ihavetraveledthelengthandbreadthofthiscountryandtalkedwiththebestpeople,andIcanassureyouthatdataprocessingisafadthatwon’tlastouttheyear.”

TheInternetitself,andeachsuccessivewaveofinnovation,hascontinuallyreceivedcriticismforitsinabilitytogainmassappeal.In1995,CliffordStollwrote aNewsweek article titled, “The Internet? Bah!” where he declared,“The truth isnoonlinedatabasewill replaceyourdailynewspaper…”Stollcontinued, “…we’ll soon buy books and newspapers straight over the

Internet.Uh,sure.”[cxxxvii]

But of course, nowwe do read books and newspapers over the Internet.When technologies are new, people are often skeptical.Old habits die hardandfewpeoplehavetheforesighttoseehownewinnovationswilleventuallychange their routines. However, by looking to early adopters who havealreadydevelopednascentbehaviors,entrepreneursanddesignerscanidentifynicheusecases,whichcanbetakenmainstream.

For example, in its early days, Facebook was only used by Harvardstudents. The service mimicked an offline behavior familiar to all collegestudents at the time: Perusing a printed book of student faces and profiles.AfterfindingpopularityatHarvard,FacebookrolledouttootherIvyLeagueschools,andthen,tocollegestudentsnationwide.Nextcamehighschoolkidsand later, employees at select companies. Finally, in September of 2006,Facebookwasopenedtotheworld.Today,Facebookisusedbyoverabillionpeople.Whatfirstbeganasanascentbehavioratonecampusbecameaglobalphenomenon catering to the fundamental human need for connection toothers.

Asdiscussedearlyinthebook,manyhabit-formingtechnologiesbeginas“vitamins” — nice-to-have products that, over time, become must-have“painkillers” by relieving an itch or pain. It is revealing that so manybreakthroughtechnologiesandcompanies,fromairplanestoAirbnb,wereatfirst dismissed by critics as toys or niche markets. Looking for nascentbehaviors among early adopters can often uncover valuable new businessopportunities.

EnablingTechnologies

MikeMaples,Jr.,aSiliconValley“superangel”investor,likenstechnologytobig-wavesurfing.In2012,Maplesblogged,“Inmyexperience,everydecadeorso,weseeamajornewtechwave.WhenIwasinhighschool,itwasthePC revolution. I made my career as an entrepreneur at the end of theclient/serverwaveandintheearlyphasesoftheInternetwave.Today,weareatthemassadoptionphaseofthesocialnetworkingwave.Iamobsessedwiththese technology waves and have spent a lot of time studying how theydevelopandwhatpatternscanbeobserved.”

Maplesbelievestechnologywavesfollowathree-phasepattern,“Theystartwithinfrastructure.Advancesininfrastructurearethepreliminaryforcesthatenable a large wave to gather. As the wave begins to gather, enablingtechnologiesandplatformscreatethebasisfornewtypesofapplicationsthatcause a gathering wave to achieve massive penetration and customeradoption.Eventually,thesewavescrestandsubside,makingwayforthenext

gatheringwavetotakeshape.”[cxxxviii]

Entrepreneurs looking for windows of opportunity would be wise toconsider Maples’ metaphor. Wherever new technologies suddenly make abehavioreasier,newpossibilitiesareborn.Oftentimes,thecreationofanewinfrastructure opens up unforeseen ways to make other actions simpler ormorerewarding.Forexample,theInternetwasfirstmadepossiblebecauseoftheinfrastructurecommissionedbytheUnitedStatesgovernmentduringtheColdWar. Then, enabling technologies such as dial-upmodems, and later,high-speed Internet connections, provided access to the web. And finally,HTML,webbrowsers and search engines— the application layer—madebrowsing possible on the World Wide Web. At each successive stage,previous enabling technologies allowed new behaviors and businesses toflourish.

IdentifyingareaswhereanewtechnologymakescyclingthroughtheHookModel faster,more frequent, ormore rewarding provides fertile ground fordevelopingnewhabit-formingproducts.

InterfaceChange

Technological changes often create opportunities to build new hooks.However, sometimes no technology change is required. Many companies

have found success in driving new habit formation by identifying howchanginguserinteractionscancreatenewroutines.

Whenever a massive change occurs in the way people interact withtechnology,expecttofindplentyofopportunitiesripeforharvesting.Changesininterfacesuddenlymakeallsortsofbehaviorseasier.Subsequently,whentheeffortrequiredtoaccomplishanactiondecreases,usagetendstoexplode.

A long history of technology businessesmade their fortunes discoveringbehavioral secretsmadevisiblebecauseof a change in the interface.Appleand Microsoft succeeded by turning clunky terminals into graphical userinterfacesaccessiblebymainstreamconsumers.Googlesimplifiedthesearchinterface as compared to those of ad-heavy and difficult-to-use competitorssuch as Yahoo! and Lycos. Facebook and Twitter turned new behavioralinsightsintointerfacesthatsimplifiedsocialinteractionsonline.Ineachcase,anewinterfacemadeanactioneasieranduncoveredsurprisingtruthsaboutuserbehaviors.

More recently, Instagram and Pinterest have capitalized on behavioralinsightsbroughtaboutbyinterfacechanges.Pinterest’sabilitytocreatearichcanvasofimages—utilizingwhatwerethencutting-edgeinterfacechanges—revealednewinsightsabouttheaddictivenatureofanonlinecatalog.ForInstagram, the interface change was cameras integrated into smartphones.Instagram discovered that its low-tech filters made relatively poor-qualitysmartphonephotoslookgreat.Suddenlytakinggoodpictureswithyourphonewas easier and Instagram used its newly discovered insights to recruit anarmyofrabidlysnappingusers.WithbothPinterestandInstagram,tinyteamsgenerated huge value— not by cracking hard technical challenges, but bysolving common interaction problems. Likewise, the fast ascent of mobiledevices,includingtablets,hasspawnedanewrevolutionininterfacechanges— and a new generation of startup products and services designed aroundmobileuserneedsandbehaviors.

To uncover where interfaces are changing, Paul Buchheit, Partner at Y-

Combinator, encourages entrepreneurs to “live in the future.”[cxxxix]

Aprofusion of interface changes are just a few years away. Wearabletechnologies likeGoogleGlass, theOculusRift virtual reality goggles, andthe Pebble watch promise to change how users interact with the real anddigitalworlds.Bylookingforwardtoanticipatewhereinterfaceswillchange,theenterprisingdesignercanuncovernewwaystoformuserhabits.

***

RememberandShare

-TheHookModelhelpstheproductdesignergenerateaninitialprototypeforahabit-formingtechnology.Italsohelpsuncoverpotentialweaknessesinanexistingproduct’shabit-formingpotential.

-Once a product is built, Habit Testing helps uncover product devotees,discoverwhich product elements are habit forming (if any), andwhy thoseaspects of your product change user behavior.Habit Testing includes threesteps:identify,codify,andmodify.

-First,digintothedatatoidentifyhowpeoplearebehavingandusingtheproduct.

-Next, codify these findings in searchofhabitualusers.Togeneratenewhypotheses,studytheactionsandpathstakenbydevotedusers.

-Lastly,modifytheproducttoinfluencemoreuserstofollowthesamepathasyourhabitualusers,and thenevaluate resultsandcontinue tomodifyasneeded.

- Keen observation of one’s own behavior can lead to new insights andhabit-formingproductopportunities.

- Identifying areas where a new technology makes cycling through theHookModelfaster,morefrequentormorerewardingprovidesfertilegroundfordevelopingnewhabit-formingproducts.

-Nascentbehaviors—newbehaviors that fewpeople seeordo,andyetultimatelyfulfillamass-marketneed—caninformfuturebreakthroughhabit-formingopportunities.

- New interfaces lead to transformative behavior change and businessopportunities.

***

DoThisNow

Refer to the answers you came up with in the “Do This Now” section inchapterfivetocompletethefollowingexercises:

-PerformHabitTesting,asdescribed in thischapter, to identify thestepsuserstaketowardlong-termengagement.

-Beawareof yourbehaviorsandemotions for thenextweekas youuseeverydayproducts.Askyourself:

-What triggeredme touse theseproducts?Was Ipromptedexternallyorthroughinternalmeans?

-AmIusingtheseproductsasintended?

-Howmight theseproducts improve theiron-boardingfunnels,re-engageusers through additional external triggers, or encourage users to invest intheirservices?

-Speakwiththreepeopleoutsideyoursocialcircletodiscoverwhichappsoccupythefirstscreenontheirmobiledevices.Askthemtousetheseappsasthey normally would and see if you uncover any unnecessary or nascentbehaviors.

- Brainstorm five new interfaces that could introduce opportunities orthreatstoyourbusiness.

APPENDIX

NOWWHAT?

Thankyouforinvestinginthisbook.Nowthatyouhavereadit,letmehearfromyou!

Please take a moment to review the book on Amazon(http://www.amazon.com/dp/B00HJ4A43S) and Goodreads(http://goo.gl/UBHeLY).

Also,besuretovisitmyblog(NirAndFar.com)tolearnmoreabouthabit-formingproductsandreceivemylatestessays.

Finally, please send questions, comments, edits, or feedback to:nir@nirandfar.com.

ABOUTTHEAUTHORS

NirEyalwrites, consults, and teachesabout the intersectionofpsychology,technology, and business. He is an advisor to several Bay Area startups,venture capital firms, and incubators. Since 2003, Nir has founded twotechnologycompanies.HismostrecentstartupreceivedventurefundingfromKleinerPerkinsCaufield&Byers.NirhaslecturedattheStanfordGraduateSchoolofBusinessandtheHassoPlattnerInstituteofDesignatStanford.Hiswriting appears in The Atlantic, Harvard Business Review, Forbes,PsychologyToday,TechCrunch, and his blog,NirAndFar.com.Nir attendedtheStanfordGraduateSchoolofBusinessandEmoryUniversity.

Ryan Hoover is a writer and observer of product trends, growth, andbehavior design with essays featured in Forbes,Fast Company, The NextWeb, and PandoDaily. Ryan was the Director of Product at PlayHaven, abusinessengineformobilegamedevelopers.Heistheco-creatorofProductHunt,adailyleaderboardfornewproducts,andisanInstructoratTradecraft,a12-weekprogramtrainingstartuptalent.

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

If I amever asked, “Whatwas themost surprising thingyou learnedwhilewriting this book?,” I won’t respond with any of the research studies orcompany examples you’ve read. Although the topic has captivated me forover two and a half years, there canonly be one answer to this question: Ineverknewhowgenerouspeoplecouldbe.

Ioweaparticulardebtofgratitudetothefollowingpeople.Thisbooktrulywouldnothavebeenpossiblewithoutthem.

Michelle Ahronovitz, Stephen Anderson, Dan Ariely, Jess Bachman, GilBen-Artzy, Laura Bergheim, Michal Bortnik, Vlada Bortnik, JonathanBolden, Ramsay Brown, TimChang, James Cham, AndrewChen, SangeetPaulChoudary, SteveCorcoran,AlexCowan, JohnDailey, TannaDrapkin,KarenDulski,ScottDunlap,EricEldon,JoshElman,JasmineEyal,MoniqueEyal,OfirEyal,OmerEyal,RonitEyal,VictorEyal,AndrewFeiler,ChristyFletcher, BJ Fogg, Janice Fraser, Jason Fraser, Shuly Galili, Ben Gardner,Kelly Greenwood, Bobby Greunwald, Jonathan Guerrera, Austin Gunter,Steph Habif, Leslie Harlson, Stephen Houghton, Jason Hreha, GabrielaHromis,PeterJackson,NoahKagan,DaveKashen,AmyJoKim,JohnKim,MichaelKim,DavidKing,ThomasKjemperud,TristanKromer,RokKrulec,MichalLevin, JonathanLibov,ChuckLonganecker and the team atDigitalTelepathy, Jennifer Lu, Wayne Lue, Jules Maltz, Zack Marom, DaveMcClure,KellyMcGonigal,SarahMelnyk,OreonMounterand the teamatMomentCo.com, Matt Mullenweg, Yash Nelapati, David Ngo, ThomasO’Duffy, Max Ogles, Amy O’Leary, Line Oma, Alex Osterwalder, TrevorOwens,BrettRedinger,SharbaniRoy,GretchenRubin,LisaRutherford,KateRutter, PaulSas,ToddSattersten,TravisSentell,BhavinShah,HitenShah,JasonShen,BabaShiv, Paul Singh,KatjaSpreckelmeyer, JonStone,NishaSudarsanam,LydiaSugarman,TimSullivan,TraceySullivan,GuyVincent,JeffWaldstreicher,CharlesWang,AnneMarieWard,StephenWendell,MarkWilliamson,DavidWolfe,ColinZhu,GabeZichermann

There are two more people who deserve extra recognition: First, RyanHoover, the Contributing Author, was instrumental in helping me turn a

jumbleofblogpostsandwritingscrapsintoacohesivebook.Hisdedicationto this project,writing talent, and doggedpersistencemade the idea of thisbookareality.IamsuretheworldwillbehearingmuchmorefromRyanintheyears tocomeandI feel fortunate tohaveworkedwithhimearly inhiscareer.

Next, this book isdedicated tomywife JulieLi-Eyal. Julie assistedwitheverything, from practical tasks (such as designing the book cover andpresentationslides)toservingasasoundingboardduringtheupsanddownsof thewritingprocess.However,ofallhercontributions, thegreatest isherunwaveringsupport.HerendlessaffectionleavesmeforeverinherdebtandalwayswonderinghowIgotsolucky.

CONTRIBUTORS

Thank you to the loyal blog subscriberswho provided insightful feedback,carefuledits,moralsupport,andgentleprodding.

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Introduction

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[xxxi]Duhigg,Charles.ThePowerofHabit:WhyWeDoWhatWeDoinLifeandBusiness.NewYork:RandomHouse,2012.p20.

[xxxii]Judah,G.,B.Gardner,andR.Aunger.“FormingaFlossingHabit:AnExploratoryStudyofthePsychologicalDeterminantsofHabitFormation.”BritishJournalofHealthPsychology18(2013):338–353.

[xxxiii]“BingYourBrain:Test,ThenTestAgain.”AccessedDecember16,2013.http://www.bing.com/blogs/site_blogs/b/search/archive/2013/02/06/bing-your-brain-test-then-test-again.aspx

[xxxiv]“comScoreReleasesSeptember2013U.S.SearchEngineRankings.”comScore,Inc.AccessedNovember12,2013.http://www.comscore.com/Insights/Press_Releases/2013/10/comScore_Releases_September_2013_US_Search_Engine_Rankings.

[xxxv]“AmazonProductAds”Amazon.AccessedNovember12,2013.http://services.amazon.com/content/product-ads-on-amazon.htm/ref=as_left_pads_apa1#!how-it-works

[xxxvi]Trifts,Valerie,andGeraldHäubl.“InformationAvailabilityandConsumerPreference:CanOnlineRetailersBenefitfrom…”InJournalofConsumerPsychology,149–159,2003.

[xxxvii]“MoreRetailersatRiskofAmazon‘Showrooming’.”BitsBlog.AccessedDecember16,2013.http://bits.blogs.nytimes.com/2013/02/27/more-retailers-at-risk-of-amazon-showrooming/.

[xxxviii]Stone,Brad.TheEverythingStore:JeffBezosandtheAgeofAmazon.Little,BrownandCompany,2013.

[xxxix]Lally,Phillippa,CorneliaH.M.vanJaarsveld,HenryW.W.Potts,andJaneWardle.“HowAreHabitsFormed:ModellingHabitFormationintheRealWorld.”EuropeanJournalofSocialPsychology40,no.6(2010):998–1009.doi:10.1002/ejsp.674.

[xl]Offit,PaulA.“Don’tTakeYourVitamins.”TheNewYorkTimes,June8,2013,sec.Opinion/SundayReview.http://www.nytimes.com/2013/06/09/opinion/sunday/dont-take-your-vitamins.html.

Chapter2:Trigger

[xli]AccessedNovember12,2013.http://instagram.com/press/

[xlii]Perlroth,SominiSengupta,Nicole,andJennaWortham.“InstagramFoundersWereHelpedbyBayAreaConnections.”TheNewYorkTimes,April13,2012,sec.Technology.http://www.nytimes.com/2012/04/14/technology/instagram-founders-were-helped-by-bay-area-connections.html.

[xliii]“Twitter‘TriedtoBuyInstagrambeforeFacebook’.”Telegraph.co.uk,April16,2012,sec.twitter.http://www.telegraph.co.uk/technology/twitter/9206312/Twitter-tried-to-buy-Instagram-before-Facebook.html.

[xliv]Schwartz,Barry.TheParadoxofChoice.NewYork:ECCO,2004.

[xlv]Masters,Blake.“Blakemasters.com.”PeterThiel’sCS183:Startup-Class2NotesEssay,April6,2012.http://blakemasters.com/post/20582845717/peter-thiels-cs183-startup-class-2-notes-essay.

[xlvi]Katikalapudi,R.,S.Chellappan,F.Montgomery,D.Wunsch,andK.Lutzen.“AssociatingInternetUsagewithDepressiveBehaviorAmongCollegeStudents.”IEEETechnologyandSocietyMagazine31,no.4(2012):73–80.doi:10.1109/MTS.2012.2225462.

[xlvii]Chellappan,Sriram,andRaghavendraKotikalapudi.“HowDepressedPeopleUsetheInternet.”

TheNewYorkTimes,June15,2012,sec.Opinion/SundayReview.http://www.nytimes.com/2012/06/17/opinion/sunday/how-depressed-people-use-the-internet.html.

[xlviii]“TwitterFounderRevealsSecretFormulaforGettingRichOnline|WiredBusiness|Wired.com.”WiredBusiness.AccessedNovember12,2013.http://www.wired.com/business/2013/09/ev-williams-xoxo/.

[xlix]“Howthe‘Failure’CultureofStartupsIsKillingInnovation|WiredOpinion|Wired.com.”WiredOpinion.AccessedNovember12,2013.http://www.wired.com/opinion/2013/09/why-do-research-when-you-can-fail-fast-pivot-and-act-out-other-popular-startup-cliches/.

[l]“ThePowerofUserNarratives:JackDorsey(Square).”Video.EntrepreneurialThoughtLeadersLecture.StanfordUniversity,2011.http://ecorner.stanford.edu/authorMaterialInfo.html?mid=2644.

[li]“WhatisCustomerDevelopment.”StartupLessonsLearnedbyEricReis.AccessedNovember12,2013.http://www.startuplessonslearned.com/2008/11/what-is-customer-development.html

[lii]“EmpathyMap.”Thek12LabWiki.AccessedNovember12,2013.https://dschool.stanford.edu/groups/k12/wiki/3d994/Empathy_Map.html

[liii]“5Whys.”Wikipedia,theFreeEncyclopedia,November12,2013.http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=5_Whys&oldid=581315459.

[liv]Formoreontheneedforsocialbelonging,see:Fiske,SusanT.SocialBeings:aCoreMotivesApproachtoSocialPsychology.Hoboken,NJ:J.Wiley,2010.

Chapter3:Action

[lv]“WhatCausesBehaviorChange?.”BJFogg’sBehaviorModel.AccessedNovember12,2013.http://www.behaviormodel.org/

[lvi]Deci,EdwardL.,andRichardM.Ryan.“Self-determinationTheory:AMacrotheoryofHumanMotivation,Development,andHealth.”CanadianPsychology/PsychologieCanadienne49,no.3(2008):182–185.doi:10.1037/a0012801.

[lvii]“BarackObama‘Hope’Poster.”Wikipedia,theFreeEncyclopedia,November5,2013.http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Barack_Obama_%22Hope%22_poster&oldid=579742540.

[lviii]Hauptly,DenisJ.SomethingReallyNew:ThreeSimpleStepstoCreatingTrulyInnovativeProducts.NewYork,NYu.a.:AMACOM,2007.

[lix]“TwitterFounderRevealsSecretFormulaforGettingRichOnline|WiredBusiness|Wired.com.”WiredBusiness.AccessedNovember12,2013.http://www.wired.com/business/2013/09/ev-williams-xoxo/.

[lx]Lunden,Ingrid.“Analyst:TwitterPassed500MUsersInJune2012,140MOfThemInUS;Jakarta‘BiggestTweeting’City.”TechCrunch.AccessedNovember12,2013.http://techcrunch.com/2012/07/30/analyst-twitter-passed-500m-users-in-june-2012-140m-of-them-in-us-jakarta-biggest-tweeting-city/.

[lxi]“WhatCausesBehaviorChange?.”BJFogg’sBehaviorModel.AccessedNovember12,2013.http://www.behaviormodel.org/

[lxii]Rao,Leena.“TwitterSeeing90MillionTweetsPerDay,25PercentContainLinks.”TechCrunch.AccessedNovember12,2013.http://techcrunch.com/2010/09/14/twitter-seeing-90-million-tweets-per-day/.

[lxiii]Worchel,Stephen,JerryLee,andAkanbiAdewole.“EffectsofSupplyandDemandonRatingsof

ObjectValue.”JournalofPersonalityandSocialPsychology32,no.5(1975):906–914.doi:10.1037/0022-3514.32.5.906.

[lxiv]Weingarten,Gene.“PearlsBeforeBreakfast.”TheWashingtonPost,April8,2007.http://www.washingtonpost.com/wp-dyn/content/article/2007/04/04/AR2007040401721.html.

[lxv]Plassmann,Hilke,JohnO’Doherty,BabaShiv,andAntonioRangel.“MarketingActionsCanModulateNeuralRepresentationsofExperiencedPleasantness.”ProceedingsoftheNationalAcademyofSciences105,no.3(January22,2008):1050–1054.doi:10.1073/pnas.0706929105.

[lxvi]Nunes,Joseph,andXavierDreze.TheEndowedProgressEffect:HowArtificialAdvancementIncreasesEffort.SSRNScholarlyPaper.Rochester,NY:SocialScienceResearchNetwork.AccessedNovember12,2013.http://papers.ssrn.com/abstract=991962.

[lxvii]“ListofCognitiveBiases.”Wikipedia,theFreeEncyclopedia,November12,2013.http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=List_of_cognitive_biases&oldid=581363450.

[lxviii]Anderson,StephenP.SeductiveInteractionDesign:CreatingPlayful,Fun,andEffectiveUserExperiences.Berkeley,CA:NewRiders,2011.

Chapter4:VariableReward

[lxix]Olds,J.,&Milner,P.(1954).Positivereinforcementproducedbyelectricalstimulationoftheseptalareaandotherregionsofratbrain.JournalofComparativeandPhysiologicalPsychology,47,419–427.

[lxx]Knutson,Brian,GElliottWimmer,CameliaMKuhnen,andPiotrWinkielman.“NucleusAccumbensActivationMediatestheInfluenceofRewardCuesonFinancialRiskTaking.”Neuroreport19,no.5(March26,2008):509–513.doi:10.1097/WNR.0b013e3282f85c01.

[lxxi]Ramachandran,V.S.ABriefTourofHumanConsciousness:FromImpostorPoodlestoPurpleNumbers.NewYork:PiPress,2004.

[lxxii]Pessiglione,Mathias,BenSeymour,GuillaumeFlandin,RaymondJ.Dolan,andChrisD.Frith.“Dopamine-dependentPredictionErrorsUnderpinReward-seekingBehaviourinHumans.”Nature442,no.7106(August31,2006):1042–1045.doi:10.1038/nature05051.

[lxxiii]Ferster,CharlesB,andSkinner.SchedulesofReinforcement.NewYork:Appleton-Century-Crofts,1957.

[lxxiv]BernsGS,McClureSM,PagnoniG,MontaguePR..Predictabilitymodulateshumanbrainresponsetoreward”JournalofNeuroscience.2001Apr15;21(8):2793-8.

[lxxv]Aharon,L.,Etcoff,N.,Ariely,D.,CHabris,C.F.,etal.Beautifulfaceshavevariablerewardvalue:fMRIandbehavioralevidence.Neuron2001,32,357-551.

[lxxvi]A.Bandura,SocialFoundationsofThoughtandAction:ASocialCognitiveTheory.EnglewoodCliffs,NJ:PrenticeHall,1986.

[lxxvii]A.Bandura,Self-Efficacy:TheExerciseofSelf-Control.NewYork:W.H.Freeman,1997.

[lxxviii]“WhyHumanizingPlayersAndDevelopersIsCrucialForLeagueofLegends.”AccessedNovember12,2013.http://www.gamasutra.com/view/news/36847/Why_Humanizing_Players_And_Developers_Is_Crucial_For_League_of_Legends.php.

[lxxix]“LeagueofLegends:ChangingBadPlayerBehaviorwithNeuroscience.”AccessedNovember12,2013.http://www.gamasutra.com/view/news/178650/League_of_Legends_Changing_bad_player_behavior_with_neuroscience.php#.URj5SVpdccs.

[lxxx]Milton,Katharine.“AHypothesistoExplaintheRoleofMeat-eatinginHumanEvolution.”EvolutionaryAnthropology:Issues,News,andReviews8,no.1(1999):11–21.doi:10.1002/(SICI)1520-6505(1999)8:1<11::AID-EVAN6>3.0.CO;2-M.

[lxxxi]Jha,Alok,andsciencecorrespondent.“StoneMe!SpearsShowEarlyHumanSpeciesWasSharperThanWeThought.”TheGuardian,November15,2012,sec.Science.http://www.theguardian.com/science/2012/nov/15/stone-spear-early-human-species.

[lxxxii]McKie,Robin,andscienceeditor.“HumansHuntedforMeat2MillionYearsAgo.”TheGuardian,September22,2012,sec.Science.http://www.theguardian.com/science/2012/sep/23/human-hunting-evolution-2million-years?INTCMP=ILCNETTXT3487.

[lxxxiii]TheBarefootProfessor:ByNatureVideo,2010.http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=7jrnj-7YKZE&feature=youtube_gdata_player.

[lxxxiv]Rivlin,Gary.“SlotMachinesfortheYoungandActive.”TheNewYorkTimes,December10,2007,sec.Business.http://www.nytimes.com/2007/12/10/business/10slots.html.

[lxxxv]“PinterestDoesAnotherMassiveFunding—$225Millionat$3.8BillionValuation(Confirmed).”AllThingsD.AccessedNovember12,2013.http://allthingsd.com/20131023/pinterest-does-another-massive-funding-225-million-at-3-8-billion-valuation/.

[lxxxvi]Zeigarnik,B.(1927).UberdasBehaltenyonerledigtenundunderledigtenHandlungen.PsychologischeForschung,9,1-85.

[lxxxvii]Deci,EdwardL.,andRichardM.Ryan.“Self-determinationTheory:AMacrotheoryofHumanMotivation,Development,andHealth.”CanadianPsychology/PsychologieCanadienne49,no.3(2008):182–185.doi:10.1037/a0012801.

[lxxxviii]Tsotsis,Alexia,andLeenaRao.“MailboxCostDropboxAround$100Million.”TechCrunch.AccessedNovember29,2013.http://techcrunch.com/2013/03/15/mailbox-cost-dropbox-around-100-million/.

[lxxxix]“QuantcastAudienceProfileformahalo.com”.Quantcast.com.AccessedJune19,2010(accordingtoJasonCalacanis.”Wikipedia,theFreeEncyclopedia,October31,2013.http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Jason_Calacanis&oldid=579577057).https://www.quantcast.com/mahalo.com

[xc]Cluley,Graham.“CreepyQuoraErodesUsers’Privacy,RevealsWhatYouHaveRead.”NakedSecurity.AccessedDecember1,2013.http://nakedsecurity.sophos.com/2012/08/09/creepy-quora-erodes-users-privacy-reveals-what-you-have-read/.

[xci]“RemovingFeedStoriesAboutViews.”Quora.AccessedNovember12,2013.http://www.quora.com/permalink/gG922bywy.

[xcii]Carpenter,ChristopherJ.“AMeta-AnalysisoftheEffectivenessofthe‘ButYouAreFree’Compliance-GainingTechnique.”CommunicationStudies64,no.1(2013):6–17.doi:10.1080/10510974.2012.727941.

[xciii]Hamari,Juho.“SocialAspectsPlayanImportantRoleinGamification.”GamificationResearchNetwork.AccessedNovember13,2013.http://gamification-research.org/2013/07/social-aspects/.

[xciv]Adalian,Josef.“BreakingBadReturnstoItsBiggestRatingsEver.”Vulture.AccessedNovember13,2013.http://www.vulture.com/2013/08/breaking-bad-returns-to-its-biggest-ratings-ever.html.

[xcv]“BreakingBadCooksupRecord-breakingFormulaforGUINNESSWORLDRECORDS2014Edition.”AccessedNovember13,2013.http://www.guinnessworldrecords.com/news/2013/9/breaking-bad-cooks-up-record-breaking-formula-for-guinness-world-records-2014-edition-51000/.

[xcvi]Kaufman,GeoffF,andLisaKLibby.“ChangingBeliefsandBehaviorthroughExperience-taking.”JournalofPersonalityandSocialPsychology103,no.1(July2012):1–19.doi:10.1037/a0027525.

[xcvii]“CityVilleTopsFarmVille’sHighestPeakOfMonthlyUsers.”SocialTimes.AccessedNovember13,2013.http://socialtimes.com/cityville-tops-farmvilles-highest-peak-of-monthly-users_b33272.

[xcviii]Zynga,Inc.2011AnnualReport.SanFrancisco,CA.FiledFebruary28,2012

[xcviii]http://investor.zynga.com/secfiling.cfm?filingID=1193125-12-85761&CIK=1439404

[xcix]Karmali,Luke.“MistsofPandariaPushesWarcraftSubsOver10Million.”IGN,October4,2012.http://www.ign.com/articles/2012/10/04/mists-of-pandaria-pushes-warcraft-subs-over-10-million.

Chapter5:Investment

[c]“TaiwanTeenDiesafterGamingfor40Hours.”TheAustralian.AccessedNovember13,2013.http://www.theaustralian.com.au/news/latest-news/taiwan-teen-dies-after-gaming-for-40-hours/story-fn3dxix6-1226428437223.

[ci]Lord,JamesGregory.TheRaisingofMoney:35EssentialsTrusteesAreUsingtoMakeaDifference.Seattle,Wash.:NewFuturesPress,2010.

[cii]Cialdini,RobertB.Influence:ThePsychologyofPersuasion.NewYork:HarperCollins,2007.

[ciii]Norton,MichaelI.,DanielMochon,andDanAriely.The“IKEAEffect”:WhenLaborLeadstoLove.SSRNScholarlyPaper.Rochester,NY:SocialScienceResearchNetwork,March4,2011.http://papers.ssrn.com/abstract=1777100.

[civ]Freedman,J.L.,&Fraser,S.C.,ComplianceWithoutPressure:Thefoot-in-the-doortechnique,JPSP,1966,4,196-202

[cv]JesseSchell@DICE2010(Part2),2010.http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=pPfaSxU6jyY&feature=youtube_gdata_player.

[cvi]Fogg,BJ,&Nass,C.(1997)Howusersreciprocatetocomputers:anexperimentthatdemonstratesbehaviorchange.InProceedingsofCHI1997,ACMPress,331-332.

[cvii]Libov,Jonathan.“OnBloomberg:‘YouCouldCodeTwitterinaDay.ThenYou’dJustNeedtoBuildtheNetworkandInfrastructure.’Didn’tKnowItWassoEasy!”Microblog.@libovness,November7,2013.https://twitter.com/libovness/status/398451464907259904.

[cviii]“MobileAppAnalyticsShow26%ofAppDownloadsUsedOne-time.”Localytics.AccessedNovember13,2013.http://www.localytics.com/blog/2011/first-impressions-matter-26-percent-of-apps-downloaded-used-just-once

[cix]Mon,PeterFaragoon,Oct22,and2012.“AppEngagement:TheMatrixReloaded.”AccessedNovember13,2013.http://blog.flurry.com/bid/90743/App-Engagement-The-Matrix-Reloaded.

[cx]Dating,FacebookTwitterLinkedInTinder’sSeanRadHintsAtA.FutureBeyond,andSaysTheAppSees350MSwipesA.Day.“Tinder’sSeanRadHintsAtAFutureBeyondDating,SaysTheAppSees350MSwipesADay.”TechCrunch.AccessedNovember13,2013.http://techcrunch.com/2013/10/29/sean-rad-disrupt/.

[cxi]“Snapchat:Self-destructingMessagingAppRaises$60minFunding.”TheGuardian,June25,2013.http://www.theguardian.com/technology/appsblog/2013/jun/25/snapchat-app-self-destructing-messaging.

[cxii]“PinterestDoesAnotherMassiveFunding—$225Millionat$3.8BillionValuation(Confirmed).”AllThingsD.AccessedNovember13,2013.http://allthingsd.com/20131023/pinterest-does-another-massive-funding-225-million-at-3-8-billion-valuation/.

Chapter6:WhatAreYouGoingtoDowithThis?

[cxiii]Forfurtherthoughtsonthemoralityofdesigningbehavior,see:Thaler,RichardH.,CassR.Sunstein,andJohnP.Balz.ChoiceArchitecture.SSRNScholarlyPaper.Rochester,NY:SocialScienceResearchNetwork,April2,2010.http://papers.ssrn.com/abstract=1583509.

[cxiv]White,Charlie.“Survey:CellphonesVs.Sex–WhichWins?[INFOGRAPHIC].”Mashable,August3,2011.http://mashable.com/2011/08/03/telenav-cellphone-infographic/.

[cxv]Bogost,Ian.“TheCigaretteofThisCentury.”TheAtlantic,June6,2012.http://www.theatlantic.com/technology/archive/2012/06/the-cigarette-of-this-century/258092/.

[cxvi]Freedman,DavidH.“ThePerfectedSelf.”TheAtlantic,June2012.http://www.theatlantic.com/magazine/archive/2012/06/the-perfected-self/308970/.

[cxvii]Graham,Paul.“TheAccelerationofAddictiveness,”July2010.AccessedNovember12,2013http://www.paulgraham.com/addiction.html.

[cxviii]“TheEthicalLineinUserExperienceResearch.”mUmBRELLA.AccessedNovember13,2013.http://mumbrella.com.au/the-ethical-line-in-user-experience-research-163114.

[cxix]“HowDeceptiveIsYourPersuasiveDesign?”AccessedNovember13,2013.https://uxmag.com/articles/how-deceptive-is-your-persuasive-design.

[cxx]“GSBInBrief.”AccessedDecember1,2013.http://www.gsb.stanford.edu/news/bmag/sbsm0911/ss-kenyan.html.

[cxxi]Stewart,David.DemystifyingSlotMachinesandTheirImpactintheUnitedStates.AmericanGamingAssociation,May26,2010.http://www.americangaming.org/sites/default/files/uploads/docs/whitepapers/demystifying_slot_machines_and_their_impact.pdf.

[cxxii]Shermer,Michael.“HowWeOptOutofOveroptimism:OurHabitofIgnoringWhatIsRealIsaDouble-EdgedSword:ScientificAmerican.”AccessedNovember13,2013.http://www.scientificamerican.com/article.cfm?id=opting-out-of-overoptimism.

[cxxiii]“TheCurseofCowClicker:HowaCheekySatireBecameaVideogameHit|WiredMagazine|Wired.com.”WiredMagazine.AccessedNovember13,2013.http://www.wired.com/magazine/2011/12/ff_cowclicker/.

[cxxiv]“CowpocalypseNow.”IanBogost.AccessedNovember13,2013.http://www.bogost.com/blog/cowpocalypse_now.shtml

Chapter7:CaseStudy:TheBibleApp

[cxxv]“OnFifthAnniversaryofAppleiTunesStore,YouVersionBibleAppReaches100MillionDownloads:First-EverSurveyShowsHowAppIsTrulyChangingBibleEngagement.”PRWeb,July8,2013.http://www.prweb.com/releases/2013/7/prweb10905595.htm.

[cxxvi]Tsotsis,Alexia.“SnapchatSnapsUpA$80MSeriesBLedByIVPAtAn$800MValuation.”TechCrunch.AccessedNovember13,2013.http://techcrunch.com/2013/06/22/source-snapchat-snaps-up-80m-from-ivp-at-a-800m-valuation/.

[cxxvii]“YouVersionInfographics.”AccessedNovember13,2013.http://blog.youversion.com/wp-content/uploads/2013/07/themobilebible1.jpg.

[cxxviii]Alford,Henry.“IfIDoHumblebragSoMyself.”TheNewYorkTimes,November30,2012,sec.Fashion&Style.http://www.nytimes.com/2012/12/02/fashion/bah-humblebrag-the-unfortunate-rise-of-false-humility.html.

[cxxix]Tamir,DianaI.,andJasonP.Mitchell.“DisclosingInformationAbouttheSelfIsIntrinsicallyRewarding.”ProceedingsoftheNationalAcademyofSciences(May7,2012):201202129.doi:10.1073/pnas.1202129109.

Chapter8:HabitTestingandWheretoLookforHabit-FormingOpportunities

[cxxx]Griffel,Mattan.“DiscoveringYourAha!Moment.”GrowHack,December4,2012.http://www.growhack.com/2012/12/04/discovering-your-aha-moment/.

[cxxxi]Graham,Paul.“SchlepBlindness,”January2012.http://paulgraham.com/schlep.html

[cxxxii]Gascoigne,Joel.“BufferOctoberUpdate:$2,388,000AnnualRevenueRunRate,1,123,000Users,”November7,2013.http://open.bufferapp.com/buffer-october-update-2388000-run-rate-1123000-users/.

[cxxxiii]“I’mJoelGascoigne,andThisIstheStoryBehindBuffer.”LifeHacker.AccessedNovember13,2013.http://www.lifehacker.co.in/technology/Im-Joel-Gascoigne-and-This-Is-the-Story-Behind-Buffer/articleshow/24271474.cms.

[cxxxiv]West,NancyMartha,“KodakandTheLensofNostalgia”TheUniversityPressofVirginia.2000.p.95

[cxxxv]Cosier,G.,&Hughes,P.M.(2001).TheProblemwithDisruption.BTTechnology,19(4),9.

[cxxxvi]Pickover,CliffordA.Time:ATraveler’sGuide.OxfordUniversityPress,USA,1998.

[cxxxvii]Stoll,Clifford.“TheInternet?Bah!”Newsweek,February27,1995.http://www.english.illinois.edu/-people-/faculty/debaron/582/582%20readings/stoll.pdf.

[cxxxviii]Maples,Jr,Mike.“TechnologyWavesandtheHypernet.”RogerandMike’sHypernetBlog.AccessedNovember13,2013.http://rogerandmike.com/post/14629058018/technology-waves-and-the-hypernet.

[cxxxix]“HowtoGetStartupIdeas,”November2012.http://paulgraham.com/startupideas.html.