holt, rinehart and winston p sychology principles in practice 1 chapter 2 psychological methods...

HOLT, RINEHART AND WINSTON

PPSYCHOLOGYSYCHOLOGY PRINCIPLES IN PRACTICE

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Chapter 2PSYCHOLOGICAL METHODS

Section 1: Conducting Research

Section 2: Surveys, Samples, and Populations

Section 3: Methods of Observation

Section 4: The Experimental Method

Section 5: Ethical Issues



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Chapter 2: Section 1

Conducting Research



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STEPS IN SCIENTIFIC RESEARCH

1. Form a question (posing a question based on experience, psychological theory or common knowledge)

* Construct: Cannot be seen or measured (EX: anxiety)…Therefore, research questions directed toward behavior.




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2. Form a hypothesis (making an educated guess). Worded in an “If” / “Then” statement.EX: If I brush my teeth, then I can prevent cavities.

3. Test the hypothesis (examining the evidence through any of a variety of means)



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4. Analyze Results (looking for patterns or relationships in the evidence)…you ask what findings mean.

5. Draw a conclusion (determining whether the findings support the hypothesis and adjusting it if they do not)




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Replication:

For the findings of a study to be confirmed, the study must be replicated the study must be repeated– and it must produce the same results as before.



The Sound of Crying- short clip Introduction: The sound of a baby crying is

among the MOST INTERESTING noises in the world. In this segment from 1981, researchers perform an experiment to find out whether the parents of a crying baby experience more stressful reaction to the noise than other people do.

Describe the method and the outcome of the experiment performed in the video.

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Surveys, Samples, and Populations



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The Survey Method

Survey:People are asked to respond to a series of

questions about a particular subject.

EX: Interviews; questionnairesCan lead to inaccurate answers.



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Populations and Samples:

Target population: The whole group you want to study or

describe.

Researchers study a sample, which is only part of the target population.



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Selecting Samples: Sample should be as similar as possible to the

target population.

Researchers use a random sample: Individuals are selected by chance from the target

population. (EX: pulling names out of a hat)GOAL: represent the whole population if large

enough.



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Samples (continued):

Stratified Sample: Subgroups in the population are represented

proportionally in the sample.

EX: Including specific ethnic groups/races within a sample.

Surveying 2 groups Boys & Girls



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Generalizing Results: If impossible to obtain random or stratified sample, then must

be cautious about generalizing findings to groups other than those from which samples were drawn.

EX: If researchers found that men prefer certain types of cars, the researchers could NOT conclude that women prefer those same types of cars if the study did not include women.



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Volunteer Bias:

Bias: Predisposition to a certain point of view.

Volunteer bias: The concept that people who volunteer to participate in research studies often differ from those who do not volunteer. EX: May be more willing to disclose personal

information; more interested in research



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Methods of Observation



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Several Observational Methods:

1. Testing Method

2. Case-Study Method

3. Longitudinal

4. Cross-Sectional Methods

5. Naturalistic-Observation Method

6. Laboratory-Observation Method



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1. The Testing Method:

Psychological tests to learn about human behavior.Intelligence testsPersonality tests



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2. The Case-Study Method:

An in-depth investigation of an individual or a small group.EX: Sigmund Freud interviewed patients

for many years.



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Problems with Case Studies:

Not remembering details.Distort past to impress researcherResearchers may encourage client to

answer in certain way.



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3. Longitudinal Methods

LONGitudinal method: Researchers select a group of participants and then

observe those participates over a period of time, often years or even decades.EX: studying improvement of language over time.

Researchers must be VERY PATIENT!!



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4. Cross-Sectional Method:A method of research that looks at

different age groups at the same time in order to understand changes that occur during the life span. (less reliable than long. study)

EX: If studying languages, then will study the following age groups at the SAME time:

12-months old; 14 months-old; 16 months-old



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5. Naturalistic-Observation Method:

Also called field study The study of behavior in naturally occurring

situations without manipulation or control on the part of the observer.

EX: Observing differences in eating habits in restaurant between obese and slender people.



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6. Laboratory-Observation Method:

The study of behavior in a controlled situation. Animals usually studies in this setting!



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Analyzing Observations:

Correlation: A measure of how closely one thing is related to

another.

EX: The taller you are, the more

likely you can reach items on

the top shelf.



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Positive and Negative Correlation:

Positive Correlation: A relationship between variables in which one

variable increases as the other variable also increases.EX: People who have a higher need for achievement

achieve higher salaries.



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Negative Correlation: An unpleasant stimulus between two variables in

which one variable increases as the other variable decreases.EX: The greater the stress, the poorer the

health.



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Limits of Correlation:

Correlation DESCRIBES relationships…it does NOT reveal CAUSE and EFFECT.



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The Experimental Method



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The Experimental Method:

Experiment: A controlled scientific procedure to determine

whether certain variables manipulated by the researcher have an effect on other variables.



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Independent and Dependent Variables:

Variables: Factors that are measured or controlled in a scientific study.

Independent Variable: Factor that researchers manipulate/change so that they can

determine its effect. Dependent Variable:

Factor that is being measured and that may change in response to manipulations of the independent variable.



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EXAMPLES:

Can warm temperatures cause aggression in humans? Independent variable: Temperature Dependent variable: Level of aggression



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Experimental and Control Groups:

Experimental groups: The participants who receive the treatment.

Control group: The group that does not receive the treatment.

Controlled Experiment: Includes both experimental AND control groups.



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Examples:

Do extracurricular activities make a difference in grades??? All factors—such as educational background—

would be the same for all members.Experimental group: Be involved in activities.Controlled group: NOT involved in activities



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Would it be possible to conduct a controlled experiment??

Do people who undergo therapy feel better, or feel better faster, than people who do not?



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The Placebo Effect:

Placebo: A substance or treatment that has NO effect apart

from a person’s belief in it.EX: “Sugar pill”



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Single-Blind Studies:

Participants do not know whether they are in the experimental group or the control group.



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Double-Blind Studies:

An experiment in which neither the participant nor the researcher knows whether the participant has received the treatment or the placebo. EX: Food and Drug Administration



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Ethical Issues



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What is Ethics???

Ethics: Standards for proper and responsible behavior.

Specific guidelines by APAAmerican Psychological Association



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Research with People:

Confidentiality: Records kept private!

Informed Consent: People agree, or consent, to participate in a

research study only after they have been given a general overview of the research and have been given the choice of whether or not to participate.



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Deception:

When is it OK to deceive the subject???

1. When they believe that the benefits of the research outweigh its potential harm.

2. When they believe that the individuals would have been willing to participate if they had understood the benefits of the research.

3. When participants receive an explanation of the study after it has occurred.



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Research with Animals:

Psychologists use animals only when there is no alternative and when they believe that the potential benefits outweigh the harm.

Most animals are NOTNOT harmed!



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Is Harming Animals Ethical???

Rely on animals to avoid harming humans.

EX: Brain research; separation

of children (monkeys);

mental disorders; visual and

memory defects; high blood

pressure; etc….



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Is it Ethical to Harm Animals for the Purpose of Helping Humans???



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Ethics in Using Data:

Must present ALL evidence Even if it contradicts the hypothesis.

EX: Side effects of medicine!



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OVERVIEW OF ETHICAL ISSUES AND RESEARCH

Protect study participants from harm Maintain the scientific integrity of the study Promote the dignity of the individual Foster human welfare Confidentiality Informed Consent

Section 5: Ethical Issues



Philip Zimbardo’s Prison Experiment:

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Zimbardo’s Overall Experiment:

In 1971, psychologist Philip Zimbardo and his colleagues set out to create an experiment that looked at the impact of becoming a prisoner or prison guard. Zimbardo, a former classmate of Stanley Milgram (who is best-known for his famous obedience experiment, was interested in expanding upon Milgram's research. He wanted to further investigate the impact of situational variables on human behavior.

The question the researchers asked was how would the participants react when placed in a simulated prison environment. "Suppose you had only kids who were normally healthy, psychologically and physically, and they knew they would be going into a prison-like environment and that some of their civil rights would be sacrificed. Would those good people, put in that bad, evil place—would their goodness triumph?" Zimbardo explained in one interview.

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holt, rinehart and winston p sychology principles in practice 1 chapter 2 psychological methods...

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