Lecture Class Notes 2012

EARLY MODERN MAN LIFESTYLE ART, CULTURE AND ARCHITECTUREBy Prof Mukund. Dayanand Sagar Acadamy of Technology & Management Bangalore 560 082

Civilization ; the stage of human social development and organization which is considered most advanced; the process by which a society or place reaches an advanced stage of social development and organization. The Indian civilization stands as the only civilization to have survived all through history - virtually unchanged. We were there during Babylon, we were there during the time of the Greeks, we were there when Rome was at its height, we were there when Europe was rising... and to day, we are still present... with the same culture, same ethos, worshipping the same Gods as we used to 3500 - 5000 years ago, eating virtually the same kind of food... virtually unchanged

The story of humankind is reaching back another million years with the discovery of “Ardi,” a hominid who lived 4.4 million years ago in what is now Ethiopia. According to genetic studies, divergence of primates from other mammals began 85 million years ago and the earliest fossils appear in the Paleocene, around 55 million years ago. Archaic Homo sapiens, the forerunner of anatomically modern humans, evolved between 400,000 and 250,000 years ago, The human species developed a much larger brain than that of other primates – typically 1,330 cc in modern humans, over twice the size of that of a chimpanzee or gorilla

Social science refers to the academic disciplines concerned with society and human behaviour.[1] "Social science" is commonly used as an umbrella term to refer to anthropology, archaeology, criminology, economics, history, linguistics, communication studies, political science, international relations, sociology, geography, and psychology, and includes elements of other fields as well, such as law and social work. The term social research has also acquired a degree of autonomy as practitioners from various disciplines share in its aims and methods. The history of the social sciences begins in the Age of Enlightenment after 1650, which saw a revolution within natural philosophy, changing the basic framework by which individuals understood what was "scientific". Social sciences came forth from the moral philosophy of the time and was influenced by the Age of Revolutions,

Culture: An integrated system of learned behaviour pattern that are characteristics of members of any given society. It refers to the total way of life of particular groups of people, including how they think, talk, what they do or make with its systems of attitude & feelings. Culture is transmitted from generation to generation.

Map of early human migrations based on the Out of Africa theory.

Anthropology is the holistic "science of man," - a science of the totality of human existence. Archaeology is concerned with the origins and development of early human culture between the first appearance of man as a tool-using mammal, which is believed to have occurred about 600,000 or 700,000 years ago humans were 'modern' only anatomically, while behaviorally and cognitively they remained archaic. Homo Sapiens is a wise, rational man or modern man. This is an ambiguous definition. Early mankind as a culture likely originated 100,000 BC. Burial rituals are wide spread by 80,000 BC suggesting a religious belief. Burial artifacts suggest a belief of life after death by 60,000 BC. It would appear that fundamental religious principles are widespread by 35,000 BC. The word archaic means the characteristics of an earlier period; also means antiquatedStone tools, particularly projectile points and scrapers, are the primary evidence of the earliest human activity Crafted lithic flaked tools are used by archaeologists and anthropologists to classify cultural periods with groups of hunter-gatherers’. Geography as a discipline can be split broadly into two main sub fields: human geography and physical geography. The former focuses largely on the built environment and how space is created, viewed and managed by humans as well as the influence humans have on the space they occupy. The latter examines the natural environment and how the climate, vegetation & life, soil, water and landforms are produced and interact.History is the continuous, systematic narrative and research into past human events as interpreted through historiographical paradigms or theories, Law , in common parlance, means a rule which (unlike a rule of ethics) is capable of enforcement through institutions

• Sexual dimorphism is a phenotypic difference between males and females of the same species, primarily visible in the a reduction of the male canine tooth relative to other ape species (except gibbons), but also reduced brow ridges and general robustness of males humans retain a degree of sexual dimorphism in the distribution of body hair and subcutaneous fat, and in the overall size, males being around 25% larger than females. These changes taken together have been interpreted as a result of an increased emphasis on pair bonding as a possible solution to the requirement for increased parental investment due to the prolonged infancy of offspring.

• The first humans reached America (Alaska)from Siberia some 12,000-15,000 years ago, crossing the newly created ”ice-free corridor” between Asia and North America - the Bering Strait, a vast dry land created during the Late

• Pleistocene Period. This Ice Age caused a worldwide lowering of the sea level by some 70 meters, which exposed nearly 1,600-kilometer- wide land bridge between Asia and North America and allowed on-foot access to the new land. Around 10,000-12,000 BC, the climate changed and ice-caps melted, and sea got filled again.

World’s oldest human-linked skeleton found‘Ardi’ predates Lucy by a million years, changes scientific view of origins artist's rendering shows Ardipithecus ramidus as it might have looked in life

The Stone AgePrehistoric cultural stage, or level of human

development, characterized by the creation and use of stone tools. The Stone Age is usually divided into

three separate periods--Paleolithic Period, Mesolithic Period, and Neolithic Period--based on the degree of sophistication in the fashioning and

use of tools. Neo=new and lithic=stone, which is why the

Neolithic Period is called the New Stone Age.

• early homo sapiens built skin dwellings. had round plans, animal-skin rugs, beds and hearths made with bones and animal dung. Fire was used for heat, light and cooking. Fires and torches were the first forms of light. The first lamps, found in caves and dated to around 30,000 years ago, were hollowed and shaped and filled with animal grease and a natural fibre wick. evidence that textiles was invented between 20,000 and 30,000 years ago include bone needles and other sewing tools and impressions of interlaced fibers woven garments and baskets

• There is an archaeological system that divides the span of mankind into three eras, the Stone Age, Bronze Age, and Iron Age. The Neolithic Period is part of the late Stone Age. It preceded the Bronze Age and followed the Paleolithic period, which was also in the Stone Age. During the Neolithic Period people used stone tools, domesticated plants and animals, and lived in villages.

• The Bronze Age is the period of human time between the stone and iron ages, terms referring to the material with which tools and weapons were made. The Bronze Age followed the Neolithic and the Paleolithic in Europe, Asia, and the Middle East. These early ages were periods when people used stone implements. The Bronze Age was the beginning or the era in which metals were used.The first part of the Bronze Age may be called the Calcolithic referring to the use of pure copper and stone toolsThe Bronze age & the present Iron age has seen plenty of other developments.

Mammoth Bone dwellings

• Darwin ( Great Anthropologist)• The possibility of linking humans with earlier apes by descent only became clear after 1859 with the

publication of Charles Darwin's On the Origin of Species. of human evolution, saying only that "Light will be thrown on the origin of man and his history". Darwin applied the theory of evolution ,he published The Descent of Man in 1871. The Taung Child such fossils were discovered in Africa, An infant which was discovered in a cave. The child's remains were a remarkably well-preserved tiny skull and an endocranial cast of the brain. The main sources of knowledge about the evolutionary process has traditionally been the fossil record, but since the development of genetics beginning in the 1970s DNA analyses has come to occupy a place of comparable importance. Progress in DNA sequencing, advanced the understanding of human origins

• human Primate mammal is the only living species of which is Homo sapiens. When compared with near relatives, the chimpanzee, gorilla and orang-utan, humans have several distinct features. They walk upright, their backbone is more S-shaped than straight, and their forehead is higher than that of any ape. Humans have always actively made great changes to both their immediate environment and to ecosystems.

• A clan culture appears to be universal. Rock painting is universal . Compassion for the unfortunate is wide spread.

• The word clan is derived from 'clann' meaning 'family' in the Irish and Scottish Gaelic languages. A clan is a group of people united by actual or perceived kinship and descent. Rajput clans, Nair Clan or Malayala Kshatriya Clan in India etc,. Members may identify with a coat of arms or other symbol to show they are an independent clan. Clans in indigenous societies are likely to be exogamous, meaning that their members cannot marry one another. In some societies, clans may have an official leader such as a chieftain

• A belief in the after life is wide spread. Circumcision is being practiced for health reasons. A belief in guardian Spirits (angels) emerged . The Sumerian kingship concept emerges

• It is believed that 7,000 languages exist today in the world, • Molecular biology suggests modern man originated about this time from an African tribe (Lucy theory)

with little or no interbreeding with other existing humanoid groups.

• In 176,000 B.C. Stone tools are being used in Australia suggesting seafaring technology is in use much earlier than previously believed. It is believed that humans began wearing cloths about this time especially in northern climates. Evidence of the use of fire is discovered in the Middle East

• The New Cave Man lived 100,000 years ago. Some believe Homo Sapiens experimented with rafts and boats about this time Homo Sapiens has a potential average life span of seventy some years and other perceptions are distorted statistics.

• In Europe, early modern men were highly skilled nomadic hunters. Following seasonal migrations, they used the atlatl, or spear thrower, which greatly enhanced their prowess, and perhaps bow and arrow. Reindeer was favorite prey . They lived in caves and rock shelters, formed groups with perhaps as many as 50 to 75 members, and cooked in stone-lined pits.

• In traditional hunter-gatherer societies the women and young usually gather roots, fruits, berries and plant food while men hunt for meat. Men often come home empty-handed, which means that it falls to the women to provide much of the food. This kind of arrangement seems likely with early modern man. Early modern man probably traveled in bands with 10 to 30 individuals, based on way modern stone age tribes behave.

EARLY MODERN MAN LIFESTYLE AND CULTURE

Early Modern Man SocietyEarly Modern Man as Hunters and Gatherers

Mammoth Huts and Other Early Modern Man Homes

Fire, Lamps, Boats and Early Modern Man Possessions

Early Modern Man ClothesEarly Man Hygiene, Diseases and Health Problems

CAVE PAINTINGS or Paleolithic ART

When humans started living together, characteristic of people or human beings started developping with their Thought Process; they are only human, and therefore mistakes do occur the risk of human error. characteristic of people's better qualities, such as kindness or sensitivity: the human side of politics is getting stronger. human rights universal rights held to belong to individuals by virtue of their being human, encompassing civil, political, economic, social, and cultural rights and freedoms, and based on the notion of personal human dignity and worth. Conceptually derived from the theory of natural law. human rights movement confront the...accused of committing gross human rights abuses during the military regime.Language development The process by which children acquire their first language in early childhood. Human infants are acutely attuned to the human voice, and prefer it above all other sounds. In fact, they prefer the higher pitch ranges characteristic of female voices. They are also attentive.Incarnation incarnation is the assumption of human form by a god, an idea common in religion. In early times the idea was expressed in the belief that certain living men, often kings or priests, were divine incarnations. India and Egypt were especially rich in forms of incarnation in men as well as in beasts.Race; The language of race as a pseudo-biological category of humans emerged first in the 1770s with the German philosopher Immanuel Kant . The concept of race as a categorization system for human beings did not exist formally until the late eighteenth century. Most analysts have linked the inception of the biologically based idea of distinct races of human beings to European colonization of the New World. human beings certainly distinguished between themselves in many ways, these distinctions tended to be based upon tribal, clan, ethnic, or national differences that stemmed from place of residence/territory or shared belief systems rather than on innate, genetic characteristics. There was generally a mix of negative and positive imagery, and prior to the idea of race, no discussion of an altogether inferior or superior species attached to physical differences yet existed. categories were conceptualized in the following order (top to bottom; superior to inferior):

• Caucasians (Europeans) The term Caucasian race (has been used to denote the general physical type of some or all of the populations of Europe, North Africa, Western Asia (parts of Central Asia and South Asia

• Mongolians (Asians) is a landlocked country in East and Central Asia. It is bordered by Russia to the north and China to the south, east and west.• Ethiopians (Africans)• Americans (Native Americans)• Malays (Polynesians) is a subregion of Oceania, applied to all the islands of the Pacific made up of over 1,000 islands scattered over . The indigenous

people who inhabit the islands of Polynesia are termed Polynesians and they share many similar traits including language, culture and beliefs.[ Historically, they were experienced sailors and used stars to navigate during the night.

Basic features of early civilizations in different environments: culture, state, and social structure• From the 1400s to the 1600s, as colonization and enslavement expanded . The Europeans’ negative assessments of Africans at this point were rooted in

cultural and religious differences rather than in any biological, unchanging facts of their physical chemistry. For instance, Europeans described themselves as rational and civilized while they described Africans as uncivilized and uncontrolled.

• Etruscan civilization is the modern English name given to a civilization of ancient Italy in the area corresponding roughly to Tuscany,. Their Roman name is the origin of the terms Tuscany, which refers to their heartland, and Etruria, which can refer to their wider region. Culture that is identifiably Etruscan developed in Italy after about 800 BC approximately over the range of the preceding Iron Age Villanovan culture. Greek traders and Greek neighbours in, the Hellenic civilization of southern Italy. After 500 BC the political destiny of Italy passed out of Etruscan hands.

• The history of ancient Egypt occurred in a series of stable Kingdoms, of the Early Bronze Age,. Egypt reached the pinnacle of its power during the New Kingdom, in the Ramesside period,. Egypt was invaded or conquered by a succession of foreign powers (such as the Assyria, Babylonia, Persian rule and Greece). In the aftermath of Alexander the Great's death, one of his generals, Ptolemaic Dynasty ruled Egypt until 30 BC, when it fell to the Roman Empire and became a Roman province.

• SOME IMPORTANT Historic POINTS IN THE DEVELOPMENT OF CIVILIZATIONS: • Mycenaean Greece (c. 1900 BC – c. 1100 BC) was a cultural period of Bronze Age . Athens, Pylos, are also important Mycenaean sites. it is the

historical setting of much ancient Greek literature . The Mycenaean civilization flourished during the period roughly between 1600 BC, Mycenaean artifacts have been found well outside the limits of the Mycenaean world: namely Mycenaean head gears, body gears & swords. Mycenaean society appears to have been divided into two groups of free men: the king's entourage, who conducted administrative duties at the palace, and the people, who lived at the commune level; these last were watched over by royal agents and were obliged to perform duties for and pay taxes to the palace. The principal Mycenaean towns were well fortified. The town could be situated on an acropolis as in Athens or Tiryns, against a large hill as in Mycenae, or on the coastal plain, like Gla or Pylos. Besides the citadals, there are also isolated forts that undoubtedly served to militarily control territory.

• MESOPOTAMIA: (from the Ancient Greek: (land] between rivers"; is a toponym for the area of the Tigris–Euphrates river system, corresponding to modern-day Iraq and to a lesser extent northeastern Syria, southeastern Turkey and smaller parts of southwestern Iran.

• Widely considered to be the cradle of civilization in the West, Bronze Age Mesopotamia included Sumer and the Akkadian, Babylonian and Assyrian empires, all native to the territory of modern-day Iraq. In the Iron Age, it was controlled by the Neo-Assyrian and Neo-Babylonian empires.. It fell to Alexander the Great in 332 BC and, after his death, it became part of the Greek Seleucid Empire.

• Around 150 BC, Mesopotamia became a battleground between the Romans and Parthians, with parts of Mesopotamia coming under ephemeral Roman control. In AD 226, it fell to the Sassanid Persians, and remained under Persian rule

• The region was one of the four riverine civilizations where writing was invented (it being the first), along with the Nile valley in Egypt, the Indus Valley in the Indian subcontinent, and Yellow River valley in China . Mesopotamia housed historically important cities such as Babylon, as well as major territorial states of the Third Dynasty of Ur, and the various Assyrian empires. Some of the important historical Mesopotamian leaders were Ur-Nammu (king of Ur), Sargon (who established the Akkadian Empire), Hammurabi (who established the Old Babylonian state), Mesopotamian mathematics and science was based on a sexagesimal (base 60) numeral system. This is the source of the 60-minute hour, the 24-hour day, and the 360-degree circle. The Sumerian calendar was based on the seven-day week. This form of mathematics was instrumental in early map-making. The Babylonian astronomers were very adept at mathematics and could predict eclipses and solstices. The origins of astronomy as well as astrology date from this time during the 8th and 7th centuries BC. This new approach to astronomy was adopted and further developed in Greek and Hellenistic astronomy. The oldest Babylonian texts on medicine date back to the Old Babylonian period in the first half of the 2nd millennium BC Along with contemporary Egyptian medicine, the Babylonians introduced the concepts of diagnosis, prognosis, physical examination, and prescriptions. Mesopotamian people invented many technologies including metal and copper-working, glass and lamp making, textile weaving, flood control, water storage, and irrigation. The origins of philosophy can be traced back to early Mesopotamian wisdom, which embodied certain philosophies of life, particularly ethics, in the forms of dialectic, dialogs, epic poetry, folklore, hymns, lyrics, prose works, and proverbs. Babylonian reasoning and rationality developed beyond empirical observation.The earliest form of logic was developed by the Babylonians, notably in the rigorous nonergodic nature of their social systems.

• The study of ancient Mesopotamian architecture is based on available archaeological evidence, pictorial representation of buildings, and texts on building practices. Scholarly literature usually concentrates on temples, palaces, city walls and gates, and other monumental buildings, but occasionally one finds works on residential architecture as well. Brick is the dominant material, as the material was freely available locally, whereas building stone had to be brought a considerable distance to most cities. The ziggurat is the most distinctive form, and cities often had large gateways

1. Mesopotamia (Greek /European culture) 4000 BCE Culture -Independent innovation that passed to Egypt/Indus valley civilizations, Wheels & irrigational canals erected. First writings are

recorded. Number system was introduced. Movement of heavenly bodies observed. Time & navigation introduced. Clay as primary building material was used to construct Ziggurats. Babylonians – spread Sumerian culture . The lack of natural barriers of geography led to invasions and defensive walls were built Assyrians and Persians ruled by a king-like figure – lugal “big man” Ruled by elite, rulers, priests . The Social structure was Patriarchal – men could sell wives/children to pay debts . The lands were Farmed by slaves. The slaves could purchase freedom.

2. Egypt 3000BCE after the Bronze tools of Mesopotomia , independent innovation iron – spread to Egypt . papyrus – paper making was introduced.

Geography protected – could create unique civilization . 365 day calendar, medicine, math, astronomy developed. Nile river irrigation led to organization/government . With the pharaoh – king – power living incarnation of sun god practiced. culturally dynamic . Women managed household finances/education of children they had right to divorce husbands/alimony & could own property

3. Indus valley 2500 BCE blend of Aryans and Indus valley people affected future course of history . Their settlements had Streets laid out in precise grid –

houses had running water/sewage under Harappa and Mohenjo-Daro state. Aryans eventually control politically, but Dravidians would win out culturally Dravidians were relatively egalitarian ( Favouring social equality.) The Rock-cut structures present the most spectacular piece of ancient Indian art specimen.

Dolman tomb; A dolmen, also known as a portal tomb, portal grave, or quoit, is a type of single-chamber megalithic tomb, usually consisting of three or more upright stones is where the dolmen stands – the location of Burren – is a treasure trove of stone age remains, with some 70 tombs and about 500 circular stone structures A grave is a location where a dead body (typically that of a human, although sometimes that of an animal) is buried. an excavation made in the earth in which to bury a dead body. 2. any place of interment; a tomb or sepulcher. Graves are usually located in special areas set aside for the purpose of burial, such as graveyards or cemetary.

Premative man moving on water

Primative man huts & community living

• Passage grave; Passage graves are mysterious barrows from the Stone Age.Passage graves are graves

with usually one big rectangular grave-chamber, from the east a narrow and low passage leads into the chamber itself. A passage grave or passage tomb consists of a narrow passage made of large stones and one or multiple burial chambers covered in. A Neolithic tomb consisting of a passageway and burial chamber made of large upright stones capped with. The passage graves had been used for burials and the orientation of the entrance is concentrated towards the full moon points to a ritual practice that involved the moon. the passage graves are oriented according to the winter sunrise.

Gallary Graves ; A Gallery grave is a form of Megalithic tomb where there is no size difference between the burial chamber itself and the entrance passage. Two parallel walls of stone slabs were erected to form a corridor and covered with a line of capstones. The rectangular tomb was covered with a barrow or a cairn. The court cairn or court tomb is a megalithic type of chamber tomb and gallery grave, Most were built during the fourth millennium BC, though some were still being built in the Bronze Age.

Catal hoyuk; it was inscribed as a UNESCO World Heritage Site. Catal Hüyük is one of the oldest cities on earth. a very large Neolithic and Chalcolithic settlement in southern Anatolia, which existed from approximately 7500 BCE to 5700 BC in the present-day city of Konya (ancient Iconium) in Turkey The prehistoric mound settlements were abandoned before the Bronze Age and the settlement was built on alluvial clay which may have been favourable for early agriculture. An average population of between 5,000 to 8,000 is a reasonable estimate. The inhabitants lived in mud-brick houses that were crammed together in an agglutinative manner. No footpaths or streets were used between the dwellings, which were clustered in a honeycomb-like maze. Most were accessed by holes in the ceiling, with doors reached by ladders and stairs. The rooftops were effectively streets. The ceiling openings also served as the only source of ventilation, allowing smoke from the houses' open hearths and ovens to escape. Houses had plaster interiors characterized by squared-off timber ladders or steep stairs. These were usually on the south wall of the room, as were cooking hearths and ovens. The Neolithic site of Çatalhöyük was first discovered in the late 1950s and excavated by James Mellaart in 4 excavation seasons between 1961 and 1965. Catal Hüyük has been built according to a predestined plan. The larger rooms were plastered with white chalk and used for living; the smaller ones were stores. There were no buildings for governing or other public duties. It is a great mystery why the entrance to the houses were only on the roof of the houses.

• Stonehenge is a prehistoric monument located in the English county north of Salisbury. have been dated to about 3100 BC. One of the most famous sites in the world, Stonehenge is composed of a circular setting of large standing stones set within earthworks. It is at the centre of the most dense complex of Neolithic and Bronze Age monuments in England, It is a place of pilgrimage for those following pagan or neo-pagan beliefs, the area around Stonehenge may have been the burial area for people living around, and would have made up a 'Domain of the dead', whilst the village was in the 'Domain of the living'. Archaeologists define henges as earthworks consisting of a circular banked enclosure with an internal ditch.[

• Was Stonehenge a temple for sun worship, a healing centre, a burial site or perhaps a huge calendar? How did our ancestors manage to carry the mighty stones from so far away and then, using only the most primitive of tools, build this amazing structure?

Ziggurats; Ziggurats were built by the Sumerians, Babylonians, and Assyrians for local religions. Each ziggurat was part of a temple complex which included other buildings. The precursors of the ziggurat were raised platforms. latest Mesopotamian ziggurats date from the 6th century BC. Built in receding tiers upon a rectangular, oval, or square platform, the ziggurat was a pyramidal structure with a flat top. Sun-baked bricks made up the core of the ziggurat with facings of fired bricks on the outside. The facings were often glazed in different colors and may have had astrological significance. Kings sometimes had their names engraved on these glazed bricks. The number of tiers ranged from two to seven. It is assumed that they had shrines at the top, Access to the shrine would have been by a series of ramps on one side of the ziggurat or by a spiral ramp from base to summit. The Mesopotamian ziggurats were not places for public worship or ceremonies. They were believed to be dwelling places for the gods and each city had its own patron god. Only priests were permitted on the ziggurat or in the rooms at its base, and it was their responsibility to care for the gods and attend to their needs. The priests were very powerful members of Sumerian society

U.S. Soldiers climb the steps of the zig gurat in 2010

ZIGGURAT: A rectangular temple tower in the form of a truncated pyramid built in diminishing stages , Eash stage is reached by ramps, erected by the Sumerians & their successors. The best examples are in Babylon. The largest & best preserved one is at choga Zanbil of 1250 BC.

Persapolis palacePersepolis was the ceremonial capital of the Achaemenid Empire (ca. 550–330 BCE). Persepolis is situated 70 km of Shiraz in modern Iran’ UNESCO declared the citadel of Persepolis a World Heritage Site in 1979The English word Persepolis is derived from the Greek meaning ("Persian city").

According to tablets inscribed in Old Persian found at Persepolis, it seems that Darius planned this impressive complex of palaces not only as the seat of government but also, and primarily, as a show place and a spectacular center for the receptions and festivals of the Achaemenian kings and their empire. Work was started about 518 B.C., although the tremendous task was not completed until about 100 years later . Before any of the buildings could be erected, considerable work had to be done. This mainly involved cutting into an irregular and rocky mountainside in order to shape and raise the large platform and to fill the gaps and depressions with rubble. Persepolis captured and partly destroyed by Alexander the Great.Now , Ruins of a number of colossal buildings exist on the terrace. All are constructed of dark-grey marble. Fifteen of their pillars stand intact. Three more pillars have been re-erected since 1970. Several of the buildings were never finished.

• LION GATE Mycenia Babylon In the second millennium BC Mycenae was one of the major centres of Greek civilization, a military stronghold which dominated much of southern Greece. Mycenae (Greek) is an archaeological site in Greece, located about 90 km southwest of Athens.

T-Chogha Zanbil (Persian) is an ancient complex in the province of Iran. Chogha in Bakhtiari means hill. It is one of the few existent ziggurats outside of Mesopotamia. Choga Zambil means 'basket mound.'[1] It was built about 1250 BC.The ziggurat is considered to be the best preserved example in the world. In 1979, Chogha Zanbil became the first Iranian site to be inscribed on the UNESCO World Heritage List. The middle area holds eleven temples for lesser gods. It is believed that twenty-two temples were originally planned, but the king died before they could be finished, and his successors discontinued the building work. Petroleum exploration in the region threatens the foundations of the site

Etruscan Architecture Etruscan Temple of Juno Sospita :This temple to Juno the Savior (“Sospita”) was vowed in 197 B.C. during a war, and dedicated on February 1, 194 B.C.. The senate had it rebuilt in 90 B.C.. Located in the Forum Holitorium, it is identified with the central of the three temples that stood side by side on the site of the present church of S. Nicola in Carcere. The other two are the temples of Spes and Janus. Conjectural reconstruction after a description in Vitruvius the great Roman Architect.

Ancient Egyptian architecture is the architecture of ancient Egypt, one of the most influential Etruscan civilizations throughout history, which developed a vast array of diverse structures and great architectural monuments along the Nile, among the largest and most famous of which are the Great Pyramid of Giza and the Great Sphinx of Giza. Due to the scarcity of wood,[1] the two predominant building materials used in ancient Egypt were sun-baked mud brick and stone, mainly limestone, but also sandstone and granite in considerable quantities.[2] From the Old Kingdom onward, stone was generally reserved for tombs and temples, while bricks were used even for royal palaces, fortresses, the walls of temple precincts and towns,

and for subsidiary buildings in temple complexes. The core of the pyramids came from stone quarried in the area already while the limestone, now eroded away, that was used to face the pyramids came from the other side of the Nile River and had to be quarried, ferried across, and cut during the dry season before they could be pulled into place on the pyramid.[3]

Drawings of the types of the architectural capitals specific for the Ancient Egyptian civilization

our understanding of ancient Egyptian architecture is based mainly on religious monuments,[6] massive structures characterized by thick, sloping walls with few openings, possibly echoing a method of construction used to obtain stability in mud walls. In a similar manner, the incised and flatly modeled surface adornment of the stone buildings may have derived from mud wall ornamentation. Although the use of the arch was developed during the fourth dynasty, all monumental buildings are post and lintel constructions, with flat roofs constructed of huge stone blocks supported by the external walls and the closely spaced columns.

Ancient Egyptian architecture is the architecture of ancient Egypt, one of the most influential civilizations throughout history, which developed a vast array of diverse structures and great architectural monuments along the Nile, among the largest and most famous of which are the Great Pyramid of Giza and the Great Sphinx of Giza

Pyramids; were only used as tombs for great kings. We have now found that pyramids had a much greater function, no one could understand their hieroglyphics, or picture writing. Then in 1799, when Napoleon invaded Egypt, they discovered, among some ruins, a stone with writing on it that they soon realized was very special. That stone is known as the Rosetta Stone, and on it were Greek letters and Egyptian hieroglyphics. The first pyramid was built by Zoser. It is called the ‘Step Pyramid’. In 2613 BC Pharaohs began to build pyramids in earnest. The biggest pyramid is called the Great Pyramid and stands in Giza. According to some the Great Pyramid must have taken 20,000 men and 20 years to build. How did ancient Egyptians build them? They are the biggest buildings in the world today. Some of the stone blocks weigh 5,000 pounds and were brought from very far away. Some were brought by boat and weighed 30 tons. Each block used to build the Great Pyramid was perfectly cut. In the days of the Pharaohs the pyramids had a smooth outside of white marble. There was a band of pink at the bottom and the top block was of gold. The structure of the pyramid has healing powers. If you are sick and you lie in a small pyramid-like building, you will get well. Another mystery is that nothing seems to decay in a pyramid. Bodies of dead animals found in the passages of pyramids become dry but they do not rot. The bases of the pyramids are said to be aligned with the solar system. Pyramids may have been used to find the dates of the Equinoxes. Astronomers find the pyramids very interesting. The more they study the pyramids, the more there is to learn about them.

The Great Sphinx is the world's largest monolithic statue. This widely recognizable monument is only the beginning of Egypt's historical wonders. A number of tombs, palaces and religious structures dot the Egyptian landscape

A tomb relief depicts workers plowing the fields, harvesting the crops, and threshing the grain under the direction of an overseer The Egyptians believed that a balanced relationship between people and animals was an essential element of the cosmic order; thus humans, animals and plants were believed to be members of a single whole.[97] Animals, both domesticated and wild, were therefore a critical source of spirituality, companionship, and sustenance to the ancient Egyptians. Cattle were the most important livestock

Sarcophagus of Tutankhamun

Bodies of many ancient Pharaohs were found inside the tombs. The Egyptians believed that after death the spirit lived on in the body. So they tried to preserve the body and keep all the royal treasure with it. The builders made lots of secret passages so that thieves could not steal the gold and silver buried inside.

Sun Temple of Ramesses I I

The main temple was dedicated to Ramesses II and to the four universal gods Ptah, Re-Harakhte, Amun-Re, and to Ramesses II himself. Of the seven temples he built, Abu Simbel is considered to be the most impressive.

The facade of the main temple is 108 feet high and 125 feet wide with four colossal seated statues about 65 feet high wearing the double crown and having the cartouches of Ramesses II. They are taller than the colossi of Memnon at Thebes and are carved out of solid rock. At the feet of the calossus, beginning on the left are Queen Nofretari, The entrance leads into a Grand Hall which is 57 feet high and 52 feet wide and was cut from the rock. It is supported with eight pillars with statues of Ramesses. The statues on the north side of the hall wear the double crown, while those on the south the white crown of upper Egypt

The Temple of Karnak is not a single temple but a temple complex which developed over a period of 1500 years. It is one of the largest religious complexes in the world and consists of gates, pillars, halls, obelisks, statues and a sacred lake. Each of the Pharaohs would make further additions and then remove those erected by their predecessors; thereby replacing them with their own. In order to make the people believe that they were the builders, they would remove predecessors’ cartouches and replace them with their own. The Temple played a significant part in the Egypt of the Pharaohs, being situated in what was Thebes, the

religious capital of Egypt.

SOME IMP POINTS TO REMEMBER• The land of the Nile, sphinxes, hieroglyphs, pyramids, and famously cursed archaeologists exhuming

mummies from painted and gilded sarcophagi, ancient Egypt fuels the imagination. Spanning thousands, yes, literally, thousands of years, Egypt was a durable society with rulers viewed as the intermediary between the gods and mere mortals. When one of these pharaohs, Amenhotep IV (Akhenaten), devoted himself solely to only one god, Aten, he stirred things up, but also launched the period of the Amarna pharaohs whose most famous representative is King Tut and whose most beautiful queen was Nefertiti. When Alexander the Great died, his successors built a city in Egypt named Alexandria that became the lasting cultural center of the ancient Mediterranean world. probably started the world famous Library of Alexandria. In the city where Alexander, was buried he started a library that his son completed. (His son may also have been responsible for initiating the project. Not only was the Library of Alexandria the repository of all the most important written works

• Hatshepsut is one of the most famous queens of Egypt who also ruled as pharaoh. She was the 5th pharaoh of the 18th Dynasty. Her mummy may have been in KV 60.

• Pharaoh Ramses (Ramesses) II. Ramses was a long-ruling pharaoh during whose reign Egypt was at its peak.• Ramses II built two temples at Abu Simbel, one for himself and one to honor his Great Royal Wife Nefertari.

The statues are of Ramses. • The Egyptian sphinx is a desert statue with a lion body and the head of another creature, especially human. • Cleopatra VII, pharaoh of Egypt, is the legendary femme fatale who charmed Julius Caesar and Mark Antony.• Sarcophagus means flesh-eater and refers to the case in which the mummy was placed. this is the ornate

sarcophagus of King Tut

• Ancient Indian architecture• The India that we know today is a Third World country struggling with its huge population of which a

considerable percentage is still illiterate. However, the history of ancient India (BharathaVarsha) portrays a completely different picture of the country. It was very prosperous and was the home of many ancient scholars. It was the home of a civilization that was far ahead of all other contemporary civilizations across the globe. Unfortunately, the developed Western world has not given as much attention to the oldest and the longest continuing civilization of the World as it had given to the Civilizations of Egypt, Mesapatomia, Rome etc

• Indian architecture is as old as the history of the civilization. The earliest remains of recognizable building activity in the India dates back to the Indus Valley cities. Among India's ancient architectural remains, the most characteristic are the temples, Chaityas, Viharas, Stupas and other religious structures. In ancient India, temple architecture of high standard developed in almost all regions. The distinct architectural style of temple construction in different parts was a result of geographical, climatic, ethnic, racial, historical and linguistic diversities.

The Rock-cut structures present the most spectacular piece of ancient Indian art specimen. Most of the rock-cut structures were related to various religious communities. In the beginning, remarkable Buddhist and Jain monuments were produced in areas such as Bihar in the east and Maharashtra in the west. Chaityas and Viharas are those rock-cut structures that were hewn out for Buddhist and Jain monks. Chaityas were places of worship whereas Viharas were residence of monks. The Rathas at Mahabalipuram are yet another great specimen of rock-cut architecture in ancient India, which becomes the base for Temple Architeciure.

Cave ArchitectureThe cave architecture in India is believed to have begun in the third century BC. These caves were used by Buddhist and Jain monks as places of worship and residence. Initially the caves were excavated in the western India. Some examples of this type of cave structure are Chaityas and Viharas of Buddhists.

Rock CutThe Rock-cut structures present the most spectacular piece of ancient Indian art specimen. Most of the rock-cut structures were related to various religious communities. In the beginning, remarkable Buddhist and Jain monuments were produced in areas such as Bihar in the east and Maharashtra in the west.

Temple ArchitectureIn ancient India, temple architecture of high standard developed in almost all regions. The distinct architectural style of temple construction in different parts was a result of geographical, climatic, ethnic, racial, historical and linguistic diversities. Ancient Indian temples are classified in three broad types. NAGARA, VESARA & DRAVIDA .This classification is based on different architectural styles, employed in the construction of the temples.

Buddhism; The teachings of Buddha teachings

The main spiritual goal of Buddhism is to attain 'Nirvana', which means the spiritual liberation from the cycle of birth and rebirth. Buddhism religion does not believe in the existence of god and questions the Hindu practice of elaborate ceremonies, image worship, suppression of women and the elevation of Brahmins. Its core lies in the philosophy that every one is equal and that nothing lasts forever and nothing happens by chance. Buddhism is divided into 2 major sects - Huinayanas (travellers by a lesser vehicle) & Mahayanas (travellers by a greater vehicle).

BUDDHISM SECTS Buddhism was bifurcated into two schools of thought by the 1st millennium b.c., when a new cult, known as Mahayana emerged as a reaction against the orthodoxy of the existing sect called the Theravadins or Hinayanas. The older version of Buddhism (the Hinayanas) believed that the only way to attain nirvana was by leading a monastic life of austerity, abandoning all worldly pleasures. Prince Siddhartha, who later became the Buddha, was accepted as the sole possessor of the Eternal Truth. Cutting across China, Tibet, Japan and Korea, the Mahayana sect has a much larger following because of their more liberal interpretation of the teachings of the Buddha than the Hinayanas. Synonymous with the Mahayana sect are the values of love and compassion combined with that of knowledge. Equal importance is given to both these key concepts of Mahayana, and that might be one of the reasons this denomination attracts devotees in great numbers.

Mahayana (Mahayanas) introduced the idea of a deity into the religion, Buddha became the supreme deity, much as Krishna was for the average Hindu.. The Hinayana cult worship the Relics of Budda. Hinayana denies any god outside and above man and so logically concerns itself only with self.

Toranas are associated with Buddhist stupas like the Great Stupa in Sanchi, as well as with Jain and Hindu structures, and also with several secular structures. Symbolic toranas can also be made of flowers and even leaves and hung over the doors and at entrances, particularly in Western and Southern India. They are believed to bring good fortune and signify auspicious and festive occasions.

A stupa (from Sanskrit: m., स् तू�प, stūpa, literally meaning "heap") is a mound-like structure containing

Buddhist relics, typically the remains of Buddha, used by Buddhists as a place of worship. Stupas are an

ancient form of mandala. Maṇḍala (मण् डल) is a Sanskrit word meaning "circle." In the Buddhist and Hindu

religious traditions sacred art often takes a mandala form. mandala has become a generic term for any plan, chart or geometric pattern that represents the cosmos metaphysically or symbolically. After the parinirvana of the Buddha, his remains were cremated and the ashes divided and buried under eight stupas with two further stupas encasing the urn and the embers. Little is known about these early stupas, particularly since it has not been possible to identify the original ten monuments. Stupas at Sarnath and Sanchi, seem to be embellishments of earlier mounds. Mandalas have sometimes been used in Pure Land Buddhism to graphically represent Pure Lands. It is 16m in height for the ‘Anda’ (hemispherical dome) and 36m in diameter for the pedestal with pradakshina patha circum-ambulatory space.

Vihara (विहा�र) is the Sanskrit term for a Buddhist monastery. It originally meant "a secluded place in which

to walk", and referred to "dwellings" or "refuges" used by wandering monks during the rainy season.

The northern Indian state of Bihar derives its name from the word "vihara", probably due to the abundance of Buddhist monasteries in that area. The word "vihara" also been borrowed in Malay where it is spelled "biara," "vihara" has a narrower meaning, and designates a shrine hall

Bhaja Caves - rock cut Buddhist temple

Great bath Mehanjadaro & Vedic village plan &section of karli caves

Vedic Age• The Vedic Period or the Vedic Age refers to that time period when the Vedic Sanskrit

texts were composed in India. The society that emerged during that time is known as the Vedic Period, or the Vedic Age, Civilization. The Vedic Civilization flourished between the 1500 BC and 500 BC on the Indo-Gangetic Plains of the Indian subcontinent. This civilization laid down the foundation of Hinduism as well as the associated Indian culture. The Vedic Age was followed by the golden age of Hinduism and classical Sanskrit literature, the Maurya Empire and the Middle Kingdoms of India. The oldest text of the Vedic Period, Rig Veda has many elements that are common with the Indo-Iranian texts, both in language and in content. In the post-Vedic Period, the compilation of Mahabharata and Ramayana epics took place. The Classical Sanskrit described by Panini also emerged after the Vedic Age. The Vedanta and the Pali Prakrit dialect of Buddhist scripture belong to this period.

• The end of the Vedic Period Civilization in India was marked by significant changes in the field of linguistics, culture and politics. With the invasion of the Indus valley by Darius I, in the 6th century, outside influences started creeping in.

• Socity & Economy ; The concept of Varna, along with the rules of marriage, was made quite stiff. Social stratification took place, with the Brahmins and the Kshatriyas being considered higher than the Shudras and the Vaisyas. Cows and bulls were accorded religious significance. The importance of agriculture started growing. The families became patriarchal and people began praying for the birth of a son.

• Kshatriyas started amassing wealth and started utilizing the services of the Brahmins. The other castes were slowly degraded. Around 500 BC, the later Vedic Period started giving rise to the period of the Middle kingdoms of India.

• The Aryan civilization was largely scattered in villages. Our information regarding the organization of the villages is sketchy, we do know however that a Gramani looked after the civil and military affairs of the village. House and arable lands were owned by individuals while the grass lands were probably held by the village as a whole. Land and cattle were important commodities of value. Agriculture was the chief occupation of the people. The use of manure was known and so was irrigation. The main crops were rice and barley. Equally important as agriculture was cattle rearing and the raising of domesticated animals. Cows were considered very important, as their products formed an important part of the diet of the Vedic people. Other important animals were the draught-ox, the horse, the dog, the goat and the sheep The main industrial activity of the period were the metal, leather, weaving and the wood work industries Carpenters were in great demand at that period for they made the chariots, wagons, houses and boats as well as artistic pieces. The metal workers made weapons, tools ,implements and ornaments.

• The Aryans developed the Gurukula form of education. The word Gurukula means the home of the teacher. The system was similar to the boarding school concept that exists today. A pupil would leave his house at a young age, and go and stay with his guru for twelve years. The Gurukulas were usually located in isolated areas, and the twelve years were spent in education and learning the traditions and values of the time. The gurus taught their pupils a variety of subjects, covering all fields, like religion, mathematics, philosophy, astrology, astronomy, grammar and several vocational subjects. Since there was very little written material at that time, most of the education was done orally, and hence the pupil depended greatly on his guru

• The Aryan dwellings were all inclusive structures, which housed not only the large joint families but also the animals that they kept. Houses were initially constructed with wood and reeds but later with a change to a drier climate they were made of mud.

• In later years the caves of Ajanta and Ellora, much of Buddhist architecture, were directly influenced by the simple village structures of the Aryan villages. The remarkable part of the art during the Vedic period is that these masterpieces of world architecture evolved from people of nomadic background.

• the new Indo-Aryan population was largely distributed in small settlements located in the plains and forests. The building materials that they used were the ones most readily obtainable for constructing shelters like wood, bamboo, thatch, and, probably only later, brick. Buildings of this kind were expected from people without any kind of tradition of colossal architecture. But the methods of construction in thatch and bamboo were actually practiced by the Dravidians long before the intrusion of the northern invaders. The Dravidian style of architecture comprised of pyramid shaped temples which are dependent on intricate carved stone in order to generate a step design consisting of several statues of deities, dancers, kings and warriors. The architecture of the Vedic period encompasses huts of round and square shape, and also some tower like structures

VEDIC LIFESTYLE• • Vedic life style; In Agnipurana, Agni said: I will now describe the fruits of making temples for the residence of

Vasudeva. He who attempts to erect temples for Vishnu is freed from the sins of a thousand births. Those who approve of a man's building a temple for Krishna go to the region of Acyuta [Vishnu] freed from sins.

• Having desired to build a temple for Hari, a man immediately takes a million of his generations, past and future, to the region of Vishnu. The departed manes of the person who builds a temple for Krishna live in the region of Vishnu, well adorned and freed from the sufferings of hell. The construction of a temple for a deity dissipates even the sin of Brahmanicide. By building a temple one reaps the fruit which he does not even gain by celebrating a sacrifice. By building a temple one acquires the fruits of bathing at all the sacred shrines

• Fundamental Feature of Vedic Culture - Household Lifestyle• Four Divisions of Life:• Brahmacharyasram (student, celibate life)• Grihasthasram (household life)• Vanaprasthasram (forest recluse life)• Sanyasasram (renunciate life)• Grihasthasram (household lifestyle) is the MOTHER of all divisions of life. In fact, it mothers the other three

divisions.• The Aryans did not settle in the well-planned cities of the Harappan culture..Preferred to clear forests around

the riverbanks of of the Gangetic plain and small villages. Due to the inherent dislike of a pastoral people to settle in one place for very longtime , and thus, their innate suspicion of any hint of permanence They preferred to stick with the tried and tested