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History of the Philippines (1521–1898)

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History of the Philippines

Prehistory (pre­900)Callao and Tabon MenArrival of the Negritos

Austronesian expansionAngono PetroglyphsSociety of the Igorot

Classical Period (900–1521)State of Ma­i

Tondo DynastyConfederation of Madja­as

Kingdom of MaynilaKingdom of NamayanRajahnate of ButuanRajahnate of Cebu

Sultanate of MaguindanaoSultanate of SuluSultanate of Lanao

Spanish Period (1521–1898)Viceroyalty of New SpainSpanish East IndiesChristianizationDutch InvasionsBritish Invasion

Revolts and uprisingsKatipunan

Philippine Revolution

American Period (1898–1946)First Republic

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This article covers the history ofthePhilippines during the time of theSpanishEmpire, from the arrival ofEuropean explorerFerdinand Magellan in 1521, until the Spanish­American War that ended Spanish rule in 1898.

Contents [hide]

1 Spanish expeditions and colonization2 Spanish rule

2.1 Political system2.1.1 National government2.1.2 Provincial government2.1.3 Municipal government2.1.4 Barrio government2.1.5 The Residencia and the Visita2.1.6 Maura law

2.2 Economy2.2.1 Manila­Acapulco galleon trade2.2.2 Royal Society of Friends of theCountry2.2.3 Royal Company of thePhilippines2.2.4 Taxation

3 Dutch attacks4 British invasion5 Resistance against Spanish rule

5.1 Early resistance5.2 The opening of the Philippines to worldtrade5.3 Rise of Filipino nationalism5.4 Rise of Spanish liberalism5.5 Freemasonry5.6 Illustrados, Rizal and Katipunan

6 The Philippine Revolution7 The Spanish­American War8 References9 Citations

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Philippine–American WarTagalog RepublicNegros Republic

Zamboanga RepublicInsular GovernmentCommonwealth

Japanese OccupationSecond Republic

Post­Colonial (1946–present)Third RepublicMarcos era

Fourth RepublicFifth Republic

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Ferdinand Magellan arrived inthe Philippines on March 17, 1521.

10 External links

Spanish expeditions andcolonization [edit]

Althoughthe

archipelago may have been visited before by the Portuguese(see First Europeans in the Philippines), the earliest documentedEuropean expedition to the Philippine was that led by Ferdinand

Magellan, in the service of the king of Spain. The expedition first sighted the mountains ofSamar atdawn on the 16th March 1521, making landfall the following day at the small, uninhabited islandof Homonhon at the mouth of the Leyte Gulf.[1] On Easter Sunday, 31 March 1521, at Limasawa Island,Southern Leyte (as what is stated in Pigafetta's Primo Viaggio Intorno El Mondo (First Voyage Aroundthe World), Magellan solemnly planted a cross on the summit of a hill overlooking the sea and claimedpossession of the islands he had seen for the king of Spain, naming them Archipelago of SaintLazarus.[2]

Magellan sought alliances among the natives beginning with Datu Zula, the chieftain of Sugbu(now Cebu), and took special pride in converting them to Catholicism. Magellan's expedition gotinvolved in the political rivalries between the Cebuano natives and took part in a battle against Lapu­Lapu, chieftain of Mactan island and a mortal enemy of Datu Zula. At dawn on 27 April 1521, Magellaninvaded Mactan Island with 60 armed men and 1,000 Cebuano warriors, but had great difficulty landinghis men on the rocky shore. Lapu­Lapu had an army of 1,500 on land. Magellan waded ashore with hissoldiers and attacked the Mactan defenders, ordering Datu Zula and his warriors to remain aboard theships and watch. Magellan seriously underestimated the Lapu­Lapu and his men, and grosslyoutnumbered, Magellan and 14 of his soldiers were killed. The rest managed to reboard the ships.(See Battle of Mactan)

The battle left the expedition with too few crewmen to man three ships, so they abandoned the"Concepción". The remaining ships ­ "Trinidad" and "Victoria" ­ sailed to the Spice Islands in present­day Indonesia. From there, the expedition split into two groups. The Trinidad, commanded by GonzaloGómez de Espinoza tried to sail eastward across the Pacific Ocean to the Isthmus of Panama. Diseaseand shipwreck disrupted Espinoza's voyage and most of the crew died. Survivors ofthe Trinidad returned to the Spice Islands, where the Portuguese imprisoned them.

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The Victoria continued sailing westward, commanded by Juan Sebastián Elcano, and managed toreturn to Sanlúcar de Barrameda, Spain in 1522. In 1529, Charles I of Spain relinquished all claims tothe Spice Islands to Portugal in the treaty of Zaragoza. However, the treaty did not stop the colonizationof the Philippine archipelago from New Spain.[3]

After Magellan's voyage, subsequent expeditions were dispatched to the islands. Four expeditions weresent: that of Loaisa (1525), Cabot (1526), Saavedra(1527), Villalobos (1542),and Legazpi (1564).[4] The Legazpi expedition was the most successful as it resulted in the discovery ofthe tornaviaje or return trip to Mexico across the Pacific by Andrés de Urdaneta.[5] This discoverystarted theManila galleon trade, which lasted two and a half centuries.

In 1543, Ruy López de Villalobos named the islands of Leyte and Samar Las Islas Filipinas after Philip IIof Spain.[6] Philip II became King of Spain on January 16, 1556, when his father, Charles I of Spain,abdicated the Spanish throne. Philip was in Brussels at the time and his return to Spain was delayeduntil 1559 because of European politics and wars in northern Europe. Shortly after his return to Spain,Philip ordered an expedition mounted to the Spice Islands, stating that its purpose was "to discover theislands to the west". In reality its task was to conquer the Philippines for Spain.[7]

On November 19 or 20, 1564 a Spanish expedition of a mere 500 men led byMiguel López deLegazpi departed Barra de Navidad, New Spain, arriving offCebu on February 13, 1565, not landingthere due to Cebuano opposition.[8]:77

In 1569, Legazpi transferred to Panay and founded a second settlement on the bank of the PanayRiver. In 1570, Legazpi sent his grandson, Juan de Salcedo, who had arrived from Mexico in 1567,to Mindoro to punish Moro pirates who had been plundering Panay villages. Salcedo also destroyedforts on the islands of Ilinand Lubang, respectively South and Northwest of Mindoro.[8]:79

In 1570, Martín de Goiti, having been dispatched by Legazpi to Luzon, conquered the Kingdom ofMaynila (now Manila).[8]:79 Legazpi then made Maynila the capital of the Philippines and simplified itsspelling to Manila. His expedition also renamed Luzon Nueva Castilla. Legazpi became the country'sfirst governor­general. With time, Cebu's importance fell as power shifted north to Luzon. Thearchipelago was Spain's outpost in the orient and Manila became the capital of the entire Spanish EastIndies. The colony was administered through the Viceroyalty of New Spain (now Mexico) until 1821when Mexico achieved independence from Spain. After 1821, the colony was governed directly fromSpain.

During most of the colonial period, the Philippine economy depended on theGalleon Trade which wasinaugurated in 1565 between Manila and Acapulco,Mexico. Trade between Spain and the Philippineswas via the Pacific Ocean to Mexico (Manila to Acapulco), and then across the CaribbeanSea and Atlantic Ocean to Spain (Veracruz to Cádiz). Manila became the most important center of tradein Asia between the 17th and 18th centuries. All sorts of products from China, Japan, Brunei, theMoluccas and even India were sent to Manila to be sold for silver 8­Real coins which came aboard thegalleons from Acapulco. These goods, including silk, porcelain, spices, lacquerware and textile productswere then sent to Acapulco and from there to other parts of New Spain, Peru and Europe.

The European population in the archipelago steadily grew although natives remained the majority. Theydepended on the Galleon Trade for a living. In the later years of the 18th century, Governor­GeneralBasco introduced economic reforms that gave the colony its first significant internal source income fromthe production of tobacco and other agricultural exports. In this later period, agriculture was finally

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Part of a series on the

History of New Spain

Spanish conquest of the Aztec EmpireSpanish conquest of GuatemalaSpanish conquest of Yucatán

Columbian exchangeHistory of the Philippines (1521–1898)

Piracy in the CaribbeanSpanish missions in the Americas

Queen Anne's WarBourbon Reforms

Spanish–Moro conflictSpanish American wars of independence

Casta

opened to the European population, which before was reserved only for the natives.

During Spain’s 333 year rule in the Philippines, the colonists had to fight off the Chinese pirates (who laysiege to Manila, the most famous of which wasLimahong in 1574), Dutch forces, Portuguese forces,and indigenous revolts.Moros from western Mindanao and the Sulu Archipelago also raided the coastalChristian areas of Luzon and the Visayas and occasionally captured men and women to be sold asslaves.

Some Japanese ships visited the Philippines in the 1570s in order to export Japanese silver and importPhilippine gold. Later, increasing imports of silver from New World sources resulted in Japanese exportsto the Philippines shifting from silver to consumer goods. In the 1580s, the Spanish traders weretroubled to some extent by Japanese pirates, but peaceful trading relations were established betweenthe Philippines and Japan by 1590.[9] Japan's kampaku (regent),Toyotomi Hideyoshi, demandedunsuccessfully on several occasions that the Philippines submit to Japan's suzerainty.[10]

On February 8, 1597, King Philip II, near the end of his 42­year reign, issued aRoyalCedula instructing Francisco de Tello de Guzmán, then Governor­General of the Philippines to fulfill thelaws of tributes and to provide for restitution of ill­gotten taxes taken from the natives. The decree waspublished in Manila on August 5, 1598. King Philip died on 13 September, just forty days after thepublication of the decree, but his death was not known in the Philippines until middle of 1599, by whichtime a referendum by which the natives would acknowledge Spanish rule was underway. With thecompletion of the Philippine referendum of 1599, Spain could be said to have established legitimatesovereignty over the Philippines.[11]

Spanish rule [edit]

See also: Captaincy General of the Philippines and Spanish East Indies

Political system [edit]

The Spanish quickly organized their new colony accordingto their model. The first task was the reduction, orrelocation of native inhabitants into settlements. Theearliest political system used during the conquistaperiodwas the encomienda system, which resembled the feudalsystem in medieval Europe. The conquistadores, friars andnative nobles were granted estates, in exchange for theirservices to the King, and was given the privilege to collecttribute from its inhabitants. In return, the person grantedtheencomienda, known as anencomendero, was tasked toprovide military protection to the inhabitants, justice andgovernance. In times of war, the encomendero was dutybound to provide soldiers for the King, in particular, for thecomplete defense of the colony from invaders such as theDutch, British and Chinese. The encomienda system wasabused byencomenderos and by 1700 was largelyreplaced by administrative provinces, each headed by

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New Spain portal

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an alcalde mayor (provincial governor)[12] The mostprominent feature of Spanish cities was the plaza, acentral area for town activities such as the fiesta, andwhere government buildings, the church, a market area and other infrastructures were located.Residential areas lay around the plaza. During theconquista, the first task of colonization was thereduction, or relocation of the indigenous population into settlements surrounding the plaza.

As in Europe, the church always had control over the state affairs of the colony. The friars controlled thesentiments of the native population and was more powerful than the governor­general himself. Amongthe issues that resulted to the Philippine revolution of 1898 that ended Spanish rule was the abuse ofpower by the religious orders.[citation needed]

National government [edit]

On the national level, the King of Spain, via his Council of the Indies (Consejo de las Indias), governedthrough his representative in the Philippines, the Governor­General of the Philippines (Gobernador yCapitán General). With the seat of power in Intramuros, Manila, the Governor­General was givenseveral duties: head of the supreme court, the Royal Audiencia of Manila; Commander­in­chief of thearmy and navy, and the economic planner of the country.[citation needed] All executive power of the localgovernment stemmed from him and as vice­regal patron, he had the right to supervise mission workand oversee ecclesiasticalappointments. His yearly salary was 40,000 pesos. The Governor­Generalwas usually a Peninsulars, a Spaniard born in Spain, to ensure loyalty of the colony to the crown.

Provincial government [edit]

Main article: Provinces of the Philippines

On the provincial level, heading the pacified provinces (alcaldia), was the provincial governor (alcaldemayor). The unpacified military zones (corregimiento), such as Mariveles and Mindoro, were headed bythecorregidores. City governments (ayuntamientos), were also headed by an alcalde mayor. Alcaldemayors and corregidores exercised multiple prerogatives as judge, inspector of encomiendas, chief ofpolice, tribute collector, capitan­general of the province and even vice­regal patron. His annual salaryranged from P300 to P2000 before 1847 and P1500 to P1600 after it. But this can be augmentedthrough the special privilege of "indulto de commercio" where all people were forced to do business withhim. The alcalde mayor was usually an Insulares(Spaniard born in the Philippines). In the 19th century,the Peninsulares began to displace the Insulares which resulted in the political unrests of 1872, notablythe execution of GOMBURZA, Novales Revolt and mutiny of the Cavite fort under La Madrid.

Municipal government [edit]

Main articles: Municipalities of the Philippines and Cities of the Philippines

The pueblo or town is headed by the Gobernadorcillo or little governor. Among his administrative dutieswere the preparation of the tribute list (padron), recruitment and distribution of men for draft labor,communal public work and military conscription (quinto), postal clerk and judge in minor civil suits. Heintervened in all administrative cases pertaining to his town: lands, justice, finance and the municipalpolice. His annual salary, however, was only P24 but he was exempted from taxation. Any native orChinese mestizo, 25 years old, literate in oral or written Spanish and has been a Cabeza deBarangay of 4 years can be aGobernadorcillo. Among those prominent is Emilio Aguinaldo, a ChineseMestizo and who was the Gobernadorcillo of Cavite El Viejo (now Kawit). The officials of the pueblo

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Plaza Mexico, Intramuros ­ The

were taken from the Principalía, the noble class of pre­colonial origin. Their names are survived byprominent families in contemporary Philippine society such as Duremdes, Lindo, Tupas, Gatmaitan,Liwanag, Pangilinan, Panganiban, Balderas, and Agbayani, Apalisok, Aguinaldo to name afew.[citation needed]and also the nation wide[citation needed]

Barrio government [edit]

Main article: Barangay

Every pueblo was further divided into "barrios", and the barrio government (village or district) rested onthe barrio administrator (cabeza de barangay). He was responsible for peace and order and recruitedmen for communal public works.Cabezas should be literate in Spanish and have good moral characterand property. Cabezas who served for 25 years were exempted from forced labor. In addition, this iswhere the sentiment heard as, "Mi Barrio", first came from.

The Residencia and the Visita [edit]

To check the abuse of power of royal officials, two ancient castilian institutions were brought to thePhilippines. The Residencia, dating back to the 5th century and the Visita differed from the residencia inthat it was conducted clandestinely by a visitador­general sent from Spain and might occur anytimewithin the official’s term, without any previous notice. Visitas may be specific or general.

Maura law [edit]

The legal foundation for municipal governments in the country was laid with the promulgation ofthe Maura Law on May 19, 1893. Named after its author, Don Antonio Maura, the Spanish Minister ofColonies at the time, the law reorganized town governments in the Philippines with the aim of makingthem more effective and autonomous. This law created the municipal organization that was lateradopted, revised, and further strengthened by the American and Filipino governments that succeededSpanish.

Economy [edit]

Manila­Acapulco galleon trade [edit]

The Manila­Acapulco Galleon Trade was the main source ofincome for the colony during its early years. Service wasinaugurated in 1565 and continued into the early 19th century.The Galleon trade brought silver from New Spain, which wasused to purchase Asian goods such as silk from China, spicesfrom the Moluccas, lacquerware from Japan and Philippinecotton textiles.[13] These goods were then exported to NewSpain and ultimately Europe by way of Manila. Thus, thePhilippines earned its income through the trade of the Manila­Acapulco Galleon. The trade was very prosperous and attractedmany merchants to Manila, especially the Chinese. However,initially it neglected the development of the colony's localindustries which affected the Indios since agriculture was theirmain source of income. In addition, the building and operation ofgalleons put too much burden on the colonists' annual polo y

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Manila­Acapulco Galleonservicio. However, it resulted in cultural and commercialexchanges between Asia and the Americas that led to theintroduction of new crops and animals to the Philippines such as corn, potato, tomato, cotton andtobacco among others, that gave the colony its first real income. The trade lasted for over two hundredyears, and ceased in 1815 just before the secession of American colonies from Spain.

Royal Society of Friends of the Country [edit]

José de Basco y Vargas, following a royal order to form a society of intellectuals who can produce new,useful ideas, formally established the Spanish Royal Economic Society of Friends of the Country, afterthe model of the Royal Basque Society. Composed of leading men in business, industry and profession,the society was tasked to explore and exploit the island's natural bounties. The society led to thecreation of Plan General Economico of Basco which implemented the monopolies on the areca nut,tobacco, spirited liquors and explosives. It offered local and foreign scholarships and training grants inagriculture and established an academy of design. It was also credited to the carabao ban of 1782, theformation of the silversmiths and gold beaters guild and the construction of the first papermill in thePhilippines in 1825. It was introduced on 1780, vanished temporarily on 1787­1819, 1820–1822 and1875­1822 and ceased to exist in the middle of the 1890s.

Royal Company of the Philippines [edit]

See also: Guipuzcoan Company of Caracas

On March 10, 1785, King Charles III of Spain confirmed the establishment of the Royal PhilippineCompany with a 25 year charter.[14] The Basque­based company was granted a monopoly on theimportation of Chinese and Indian goods into the Philippines, as well as the shipping of the goodsdirectly to Spain via the Cape of Good Hope. The Dutch and British bitterly opposed them because theysaw the company as a direct attack on their Asian trade. It also faced the hostility of the traders of theGalleon trade (see above) who saw it as competition. This gradually resulted into the death of bothinstitutions: The Royal Philippine Company in 1814 and the Galleon trade in 1815.[15]

The first vessel of the Royal Philippine Company to set sail was the "Nuestra Señora de los Placeres"commanded by the captain Juan Antonio Zabaleta.[16]

Taxation [edit]

To support the colony, several taxes and monopolies were established. The buwis(tribute), which couldbe paid in cash or kind, with tobacco, chickens, produce, gold, blankets, cotton, rice, or other productsdepending on the region of the country, was initially fixed at 8 reales, later increased to 15 reales,apportioned as follows: ten reales buwis, one real diezmos prediales (tithe), one real to the towncommunity chest, one real sanctorum tax, and three reales for church support.[17]

Also there was the bandalâ (from the Tagalog word mandalâ, a round stack of rice stalks to bethreshed), an annual forced sale and requisitioning of goods such as rice. Custom duties and incometax were also collected. By 1884, the tribute was replaced by the cedula personal, wherein everyoneover 18 were required to pay for personal identification.[18] The local gobernadorcillos were responsiblefor collection of the tribute. Under the cedula system taxpayers were individually responsible to Spanishauthorities for payment of the tax, and were subject to summary arrest for failure to show a cedulareceipt.[19]

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Aside from paying a tribute, all male Filipinos from 16 to 60 years old were obliged to render forcedlabor called “polo”. This labor lasted for 40 days a year, later it was reduced to 15 days. It took variousforms such as the building and repairing of roads and bridges, construction of Public buildings andchurches, cutting timber in the forest, working in shipyards and serving as soldiers in militaryexpeditions. People who rendered the forced labor was called “polistas”. He could be exempted bypaying the “falla” which is a sum of money. The polista were according to law, to be given a daily riceration during their working days which they often did not receive.[citation needed]

Dutch attacks [edit]

In 1646, a series of five naval actions known as the Battles of La Naval de Manilawas fought betweenthe forces of Spain and the Dutch Republic, as part of theEighty Years' War. Although the Spanishforces consisted of just two Manila galleons and a galley with crews composed mainly of Filipinovolunteers, against three separate Dutch squadrons, totaling eighteen ships, the Dutch squadrons wereseverely defeated in all fronts by the Spanish­Filipino forces, forcing the Dutch to abandon their plansfor an invasion of the Philippines.

On June 6, 1647, Dutch vessels were sighted near Mariveles Island. In spite of the preparations, theSpanish had only one galleon (the San Diego) and two galleys ready to engage the enemy. The Dutchhad twelve major vessels.

On June 12, the armada attacked the Spanish port of Cavite. The battle lasted eight hours, and theSpanish believed they had done much damage to the enemy flagship and the other vessels. TheSpanish ships were not badly damaged and casualties were low. However, nearly every roof in theSpanish settlement was damaged by cannon fire, which particularly concentrated on the cathedral. OnJune 19, the armada was split, with six ships sailing for the shipyard of Mindoroand the other sixremaining in Manila Bay. The Dutch next attacked Pampanga, where they captured the fortifiedmonastery, taking prisoners and executing almost 200 Filipino defenders. The governor orderedsolemn funeral rites for the dead and payments to their widows and orphans.[20][21][22]

There was an expedition the following year that arrived in Jolo in July. The Dutch had formed analliance with an anti­Spanish king, Salicala. The Spanish garrison on the island was small, but surviveda Dutch bombardment. The Dutch finally withdrew, and the Spanish made peace with the Joloans, andthen also withdrew.[20][21][22]

There was also an unsuccessful attack on Zamboanga[disambiguation needed] in 1648. That year the Dutchpromised the natives of Mindanao that they would return in 1649 with aid in support of a revolt againstthe Spanish. Several revolts did break out, the most serious being in the village of Lindáo. There mostof the Spaniards were killed, and the survivors were forced to flee in a small river boat to Butuán.However, Dutch aid did not materialize. The authorities from Manila issued a general pardon, and manyof the Filipinos in the mountains surrendered. However, some of those were hanged and most of therest were enslaved.[20][21][22]

British invasion [edit]

Main article: British occupation of Manila

In August 1759, Charles III ascended the Spanish throne. At the time, Britain andFrance were at war, in

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what was later called the Seven Years' War. France, suffering a series of setbacks, successfullynegotiated a treaty with Spain known as the Family Compact which was signed on 15 August 1761. Byan ancillary secret convention, Spain was committed to making preparations for war against Britain.[23]

The early success at Manila did not enable the British to control the Philippines. Spanish­Filipino forces(made up mostly of Filipinos) kept the British confined to Manila. Nevertheless, the British wereconfident of eventual success after receiving the written surrender of captured Catholic Archbishop Rojoon 30 October 1762.[24]

The surrender was rejected as illegal by Don Simón de Anda y Salazar, who claimed the title ofGovernor­General under the statutes of the Council of Indies. He led Spanish­Filipino forces that keptthe British confined to Manila and sabotaged or crushed British fomented revolts. Anda intercepted andredirected the Manila galleon trade to prevent further captures by the British. The failure of the British toconsolidate their position led to troop desertions and a breakdown of command unity which left theBritish forces paralysed and in an increasingly precarious position.[25]

The Seven Years' War was ended by the Peace of Paris signed on 10 February 1763. At the time ofsigning the treaty, the signatories were not aware that the Manila was under British occupation and wasbeing administered as a British colony. Consequently no specific provision was made for the Philippines.Instead they fell under the general provision that all other lands not otherwise provided for be returnedto the Spanish Crown.[26]

Resistance against Spanish rule [edit]

Spanish rule of the Philippines was constantly threatened by indigenous rebellions and invasions fromthe Dutch, Chinese, Japanese and British.

The previously dominant groups resisted Spanish rule, refusing to pay Spanish taxes and rejectingSpanish excesses. All were defeated by the Spanish and their Filipino allies. In many areas, the Spanishleft indigenous groups to administer their own affairs but under Spanish overlordship.

Early resistance [edit]

Main articles: Philippine revolts against Spain and Spanish­Moro Conflict

Resistance against Spain did not immediately cease upon the conquest of the Austronesian cities.After Rajah patis of Cebu, random native nobles resisted Spanish rule. The longest recorded nativerebellion was that of Francisco Dagohoy which lasted a century.[27]

During the British occupation of Manila (1762–1764), Diego Silang was appointed by them as governorof Ilocos and after his assassination by fellow natives, his wife Gabriela continued to lead the Ilocanos inthe fight against Spanish rule. Resistance against Spanish rule was regional in character, based onethnolinguistic groups.[28]

Hispanization did not spread to the mountainous center of northern Luzon, nor to the inlandcommunities of Mindanao. The highlanders were more able to resist the Spanish invaders than thelowlanders.

The Moros, most notably the sultanates, had a more advanced political system than their counterpartsin the Visayas and Luzon. Spanish cities in Mindanao were limited to the coastal areasof Zamboanga and Cagayan de Oro.

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Map of Manila, 1898.

The opening of the Philippines to world trade [edit]

In Europe, the Industrial Revolution spread from Great Britain during the period known as the VictorianAge. The industrialization of Europe created great demands for raw materials from the colonies,bringing with it investment and wealth, although this was very unevenly distributed. Governor­General Basco had opened the Philippines to this trade. Previously, the Philippines was seen as atrading post for international trade but in the nineteenth century it was developed both as a source ofraw materials and as a market for manufactured goods. The economy of the Philippines rose rapidlyand its local industries developed to satisfy the rising demands of an industrializing Europe. A small flowof European immigrants came with the opening of the Suez Canal, which cut the travel time betweenEurope and the Philippines by half. New ideas about government and society, which the friars andcolonial authorities found dangerous, quickly found their way into the Philippines, notably throughthe Freemasons, who along with others, spread the ideals of the American, French and otherrevolutions, includingSpanish liberalism.

Rise of Filipino nationalism [edit]

Main article: Filipino nationalism

The development of the Philippines as a source of raw materialsand as a market for European manufactures created much localwealth. Many Filipinos prospered. Everyday Filipinos alsobenefited from the new economy with the rapid increase indemand for labor and availability of business opportunities.Some Europeans immigrated to the Philippines to join thewealth wagon, among them Jacobo Zobel, patriarch oftoday's Zobel de Ayala familyand prominent figure in the rise ofFilipino nationalism. Their scions studied in the best universitiesof Europe where they learned the ideals of liberty from theFrench and American Revolutions. The new economy gave riseto a new middle class in the Philippines, usually not ethnic Filipinos.

In the early 19th century, the Suez Canal was opened which made the Philippines easier to reach fromSpain. The small increase of Peninsulares from the Iberian Peninsula threatened the secularization ofthe Philippine churches. In state affairs, the Criollos, known locally as Insulares (lit. "islanders"). weredisplaced from government positions by the Peninsulares, whom the native Insulares regarded asforeigners. The Insulares had become increasingly Filipino and called themselvesLos hijos del país (lit."sons of the country"). Among the early proponents of Filipino nationalism werethe Insulares Padre Pedro Peláez, archbishop of Manila, who fought for the secularization of Philippinechurches and expulsion of the friars; Padre José Burgos whose execution influenced the nationalhero José Rizal; andJoaquín Pardo de Tavera who fought for retention of government positions bynatives, regardless of race. In retaliation to the rise of Filipino nationalism, the friars calledthe Indios (possibly referring to Insulares and mestizos as well) indolent and unfit for government andchurch positions. In response, the Insularescame out with Indios agraviados, a manifesto defending theFilipino against discriminatory remarks. The tension between the Insulares and Peninsulareseruptedinto the failed revolts of Novales and the Cavite Mutiny of 1872 which resulted to the deportation ofprominent Filipino nationalists to the Marianas and Europe who would continue the fight for liberty

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through the Propaganda Movement. The Cavite Mutiny implicated the priests Mariano Gómez, JoséBurgos, and Jacinto Zamora (see Gomburza) whose executions would influence the subversiveactivities of the next generation of Filipino nationalists, José Rizal, who then dedicated his novel, Elfilibusterismo to the these priests.

Rise of Spanish liberalism [edit]

See also: Liberalism and radicalism in Spain

After the Liberals won the Spanish Revolution of 1868, Carlos María de la Torrewas sent to thePhilippines to serve as governor­general (1869–1871). He was one of the most loved governors­general in the Philippines because of the reforms he implemented.[citation needed] At one time, hissupporters, including Padre Burgos and Joaquín Pardo de Tavera, serenaded him in front ofthe Malacañan Palace.[citation needed] Following the Bourbon Restoration in Spain and the removal of theLiberals from power, de la Torre was recalled and replaced by Governor­General Izquierdo who vowedto rule with an iron fist.[citation needed]

Freemasonry [edit]

Freemasonry had gained a generous following in Europe and the Americas during the 19th century andfound its way to the Philippines. The Western World was quickly changing and sought less politicalcontrol from the Roman Catholic Church.

The first Filipino Masonic lodge was Revoluccion. It was established by Graciano Lopez Jaena inBarcelona and was recognized in April 1889. It did not last long after he resigned from being itsworshipful master on November 29, 1889.

In December 1889, Marcelo H. del Pilar established, with the help of Julio Llorente, the Solidaridad inMadrid. Its first worshipful master was Llorente. A short time later, the Solidaridad grew. Some itsmembers included José Rizal,Pedro Serrano Laktaw, Baldomero Roxas, and Galicano Apacible.

In 1891, Del Pilar sent Laktaw to the Philippines to establish a Masonic lodge. Laktaw established onJanuary 6, 1892, the Nilad, the first Masonic lodge in the Philippines. It is estimated that there were 35masonic lodges in the Philippines in 1893 of which nine were in Manila. The first Filipina freemasonwas Rosario Villaruel. Trinidad and Josefa Rizal, Marina Dizon, Romualda Lanuza, Purificacion Leyva,and many others join the masonic lodge.

Freemasonry was important during the time of the Philippine Revolution. It pushed the reformmovement and carried out the propaganda work. In the Philippines, many of those who pushed for arevolution were member of freemasonry likeAndrés Bonifacio. In fact, the organization used byBonifacio in establishing theKatipunan was derived from the Masonic society. It may be said that joiningmasonry was one activity that both the reformists and the Katipuneros shared.

Illustrados, Rizal and Katipunan [edit]

The mass deportation of nationalists to the Marianas and Europe in 1872 led to a Filipino expatriatecommunity of reformers in Europe. The community grew with the next generation of Ilustrados studyingin European universities. They allied themselves with Spanish liberals, notably Spanish senator MiguelMorayta Sagrario, and founded the newspaper La Solidaridad.

Among the reformers was José Rizal, who wrote two novels while in Europe. His novels were

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Filipino Ilustrados in Spain.

considered[by whom?] the most influential of the Illustrados'writings causing further unrest in the islands, particularlythe founding of the Katipunan. A rivalry developed betweenhimself and Marcelo H. del Pilar for the leadership ofLaSolidaridad and the reform movement in Europe. Majorityof the expatriates supported the leadership of delPilar.[citation needed]

Rizal then returned to the Philippines to organize La LigaFilipina and bring the reform movement to Philippine soil.He was arrested just a few days after founding the league.In 1892, Radical members of the La Liga Filipina, which included Bonifacio and Deodato Arellano,founded the Kataastaasan Kagalanggalang Katipunan ng mga Anak ng Bayan (KKK), called simplythe Katipunan, which had the objective of the Philippines seceding from the Spanish Empire.

The Philippine Revolution [edit]

Main article: Philippine Revolution

By 1896 the Katipunan had a membership by the thousands. That same year, the existence of theKatipunan was discovered by the colonial authorities. In late August Katipuneros gathered in Caloocanand declared the start of the revolution. The event is now known as the Cry of Balintawak or Cry ofPugad Lawin, due to conflicting historical traditions and official government positions.[29]

Andrés Bonifacio called for a general offensive on Manila[30] and was defeated in battle at the town ofSan Juan del Monte. He regrouped his forces and was able to briefly capture the towns of Marikina,San Mateo and Montalban. Spanish counterattacks drove him back and he retreated to the mountainsof Balara and Morong and from there engaged in guerrilla warfare.[31] By August 30, the revolt hadspread to eight provinces. On that date, Governor­General Ramon Blanco declared a state of war inthese provinces and placed them under martial law. Thesewere Manila, Bulacan, Cavite, Pampanga, Tarlac, Laguna, Batangas, andNueva Ecija. They would laterbe represented in the eight rays of the sun in theFilipino flag.[32][not in citation given] Emilio Aguinaldo andthe Katipuneros of Cavite were the most successful of the rebels[33] and they controlled most of theirprovince by September–October. They defended their territories with trenchesdesigned by EdilbertoEvangelista.[31]

Many of the educated ilustrado class such as Antonio Luna and Apolinario Mabinidid not initially favoran armed revolution. Rizal himself, whom the rebels took inspiration from and had consultedbeforehand, disapproved of a premature revolution. He was arrested, tried and executed for treason,sedition and conspiracy on December 30, 1896. Before his arrest he had issued a statementdisavowing the revolution, but in his swan song poem Mi último adiós he wrote that dying in battle forthe sake of one's country was just as patriotic as his own impending death.[34][page needed]

While the revolution spread throughout the provinces, Aguinaldo's Katipuneros declared the existenceof an insurgent government in October regardless of Bonifacio's Katipunan,[35] which he had alreadyconverted into an insurgent government with him as president in August.[36][37] Bonifacio was invited toCavite to mediate between Aguinaldo's rebels, the Magdalo, and their rivals theMagdiwang, bothchapters of the Katipunan. There he became embroiled in discussions whether to replace the Katipunan

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The Battle of Manila Bay

with an insurgent government of the Cavite rebels' design. To this end, the Tejeros Convention wasconvened, where Aguinaldo was elected president of the new insurgent government. Bonifacio refusedto recognize this and he was executed for treason in May 1897.[38][39]

By December 1897, the revolution had resulted to a stalemate between the colonial government andrebels. Pedro Paterno mediated between the two sides for the signing of the Pact of Biak­na­Bato. Theconditions of the armistice included the self­exile of Aguinaldo and his officers in exchange for $800,000to be paid by the colonial government. Aguinaldo then sailed to Hong Kong for self exile.

The Spanish­American War [edit]

See also: Spanish­American War and Philippine–American War

On April 25, 1898, the Spanish­American War beganwithdeclarations of war. On May 1, 1898, the Spanish navywas decisively defeated in the Battle of Manila Baybythe Asiatic Squadron of the U.S. Navy led byCommodore George Dewey aboard the USSOlympiaThereafter Spain lost the ability to defend Manilaand therefore the Philippines.

On May 19, Emilio Aguinaldo returned to the Philippinesaboard an American naval ship and on May 24 tookcommand of Filipino forces. Filipino forces had liberatedmuch of the country from the Spanish.[citation needed] OnJune 12, 1898 Aguinaldo issued the Philippine Declarationof Independence declaring independence from Spain and later established the First Philippine Republic.Filipino forces then laid siege to Manila, as had American forces. Aguinaldo however failed to take thecity.

The Americans entered into a pact with the Spanish governor­general in which they agreed to fight amock battle before surrendering Manila to the Americans. The Battle of Manila took place on August 13and Americans took control of the city. In the Treaty of Paris (1898) ending the Spanish­American War,the Spanish agreed to sell the Philippines to the United States for $20 million which was subsequentlynarrowly ratified. With this action, Spanish rule in the Philippines formally ended.

On February 4, 1899, the Philippine–American War began with the Battle of Manila (1899) betweenAmericans forces and the nascent Philippine Republic.

References [edit]

1. ^ Zaide 2006, p. 782. ^ Zaide 2006, pp. 80–813. ^ Agoncillo 1990, p. 734. ^ Zaide 2006, pp. 86–87.

5. ^ Zaide 1939, p. 1136. ^ Scott 1985, p. 51.7. ^ Williams 2009, pp. 13–33 .

8. ^ a b c M.c. Halili (2004). Philippine History' 2004 Ed.­halili . Rex Bookstore, Inc.ISBN 978­971­23­3934­9.

9. ^ Schottenhammer 2008, p. 151 .

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9. ^ Schottenhammer 2008, p. 151 .

10. ^ Yu­Jose 1999, p. http://books.google.com/books?id=kbWv­pZy5H0C&pg=PA1 1.

11. ^ Villarroel 2009, pp. 93–133 .

12. ^ .Abinales & Amoroso 2005, p. 55 .

13. ^ South East Asia Pottery ­ Philippines14. ^ Solidarity 2 (8­10), Solidaridad Publishing House, p. 8, "The charter of the Royal Philippine Company was

promulgated on March 10, 1785 to last for 25 years."

15. ^ De Borja & Douglass 2005, pp. 71–79 .

16. ^ "Rostros de piedra; biografías de un mundo perdido" . Miaka1 Cuadernos de investigación. San TelmoMuseoa. Retrieved 2014­10­06. p. 68

17. ^ Agoncillo 1990, pp. 81–8218. ^ Agoncillo 1990, pp. 82–8319. ^ McCoy & de Jesus 2001, p. 233 .

20. ^ a b c De Jesus, Luis & De Santa Theresa, Diego. "Recollect Missions, 1646–1660", in BLAIR, EmmaHelen & ROBERTSON, James Alexander, eds. (1905). The Philippine Islands, 1493–1898 (Project Gutenberg). Volume 36 of 55 (1649–1666). Historical introduction and additional notesby Edward Gaylord BOURNE; additional translations by Henry B. Lathrop. Cleveland, Ohio: Arthur H. ClarkCompany.ASIN B004TRONB2 .(pp126 ff.)

21. ^ a b c Fayol, Joseph. "Affairs in Filipinas, 1644–47", in BLAIR, Emma Helen &ROBERTSON, JamesAlexander, eds. (1905). The Philippine Islands, 1493–1898.Volume 35 of 55. Historical introduction andadditional notes by Edward Gaylord BOURNE;. Cleveland, Ohio: Arthur H. Clark Company.(p267)

22. ^ a b c Maarten Gerritszoon Vries; Cornelis Janszoon Coen, Pieter Arend Leupe, Philipp Franz von Siebold,K. (1858). Reize van Maarten Gerritsz: Vries in 1643 naar het noorden en oosten van Japan . Instituut voorde taal­, land­ en volkenkunde van Nederlandsch­Indië, The Hague.

23. ^ Tracy 1995, p. 924. ^ Tracy 1995, p. 54

25. ^ Fish 2003, p. 15826. ^ Tracy 1995, p. 10927. ^ Cummins 2006, pp. 132–13828. ^ Sagmit 2007, p. 127 .

29. ^ Agoncillo 1990, p. 16630. ^ Salazar 1994, p. 107[citation not found].31. ^ a b Guerrero & Schumacher 1998, pp. 175–176.[citation needed]

32. ^ Agoncillo 1990, p. 173.

33. ^ Constantino 1975, p. 17934. ^ Quibuyen 200835. ^ Constantino 1975, pp. 178–18136. ^ Guerrero & Schumacher 1998, pp. 166–167Guerrero & Schumacher 1998, pp. 175–176.[citation needed]

37. ^ Agoncillo 1990, p. 15238. ^ Constantino 1975, p. 19139. ^ Agoncillo 1990, pp. 180–181.

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Citations [edit]

Agoncillo, Teodoro A. (1990), History of the Filipino People (Eighth ed.), University of thePhilippines, ISBN 971­8711­06­6

Abinales, P. N.; Amoroso, Donna J. (2005), State and society in the Philippines , Rowman &Littlefield, ISBN 978­0­7425­1024­1

Constantino, Renato (1975), The Philippines: A Past Revisited , Quezon City: Tala PublishingServices, ISBN 971­8958­00­2.

Cummins, Joseph (2006), "11. A Legend of Freedom: Francisco Dagohoy and the Rebels ofBohol" , Histor