History of BirthHistory of Birth

Presented on December 08, Presented on December 08, 20102010

Tamar ChachibaiaTamar Chachibaia

TSMUTSMU

c. - 400c. - 400

In Hippocratic oath abortion is In Hippocratic oath abortion is forbidden.forbidden.

c. 100 Soranus of Ephesus writes on Soranus of Ephesus writes on

gynaecology.gynaecology. These illustrations, from a 14th These illustrations, from a 14th

century version of Soranus' century version of Soranus' Gynaecology, depict a variety of Gynaecology, depict a variety of foetal positions within the foetal positions within the uterus which is shown as an uterus which is shown as an upside-down jar or vessel. In upside-down jar or vessel. In Medieval texts, the word Medieval texts, the word vasvas (vessel) was used as a synonym (vessel) was used as a synonym for woman'. In the top picture, a for woman'. In the top picture, a woman in labour is shown woman in labour is shown hanging onto a rope. Soranus hanging onto a rope. Soranus appreciated that infants did not appreciated that infants did not always present head first, and in always present head first, and in difficult labours, he difficult labours, he recommended podalic version' recommended podalic version' whereby a hand is inserted into whereby a hand is inserted into the uterus and the baby drawn the uterus and the baby drawn out feet first..out feet first..

c. 200 Romans invent ingenious baby's bottle. This bottle, shaped like a female breast, was This bottle, shaped like a female breast, was

constructed so that no flies or dust could reach constructed so that no flies or dust could reach its contents. The milk was introduced by its contents. The milk was introduced by inverting the bottle, and pouring it through an inverting the bottle, and pouring it through an open tube ascending within from the centre of open tube ascending within from the centre of the base almost to the apex (see cross the base almost to the apex (see cross section). This same tube prevented the escape section). This same tube prevented the escape of milk when the bottle was placed on its base. of milk when the bottle was placed on its base. The child sucked through the spout, on the The child sucked through the spout, on the opposite side of which is a small round handle. opposite side of which is a small round handle. Bottles like this from the 1st to 5th centuries Bottles like this from the 1st to 5th centuries CE. CE.

SoranusSoranus taught that breast-feeding should not taught that breast-feeding should not begin until 3 weeks after birth so that the begin until 3 weeks after birth so that the mother might regain her health and produce mother might regain her health and produce wholesome milk. wholesome milk.

Substitutes for human milk included honey Substitutes for human milk included honey diluted with water or goat's milk although diluted with water or goat's milk although neither would have provided the correct neither would have provided the correct balance of nutrients and fat content. If a wet-balance of nutrients and fat content. If a wet-nurse was not available for this important nurse was not available for this important period in a new-born's life, its survival period in a new-born's life, its survival prospects on artificial feeding would have prospects on artificial feeding would have been grim.Votive offering excavated from been grim.Votive offering excavated from Forum of Augustus, Rome.Forum of Augustus, Rome.

In 1513 Rösslin publishes first textbook for midwives

This is an illustration from the first This is an illustration from the first printed textbook for midwives, printed textbook for midwives, written by a German physician, written by a German physician, Eucharius Rösslin. The text was Eucharius Rösslin. The text was largely compiled from the writings largely compiled from the writings of Soranus although Rösslin added of Soranus although Rösslin added his own woodcuts. The book went his own woodcuts. The book went through at least 40 editions and, through at least 40 editions and, in 1540, was translated into in 1540, was translated into English as English as The byrthe of The byrthe of mankyndemankynde. .

It maintained its place as a It maintained its place as a textbook of midwifery until the textbook of midwifery until the 18th century.18th century.

swaddled

  Nicholas Culpeper and his houseNicholas Culpeper and his house

The Culpepers lived at Red Lion House, The Culpepers lived at Red Lion House, Spitalfields, in East London.Spitalfields, in East London.

In his In his Directory for midwivesDirectory for midwives Nicholas Nicholas was generally critical of the care afforded was generally critical of the care afforded to infants, particularly by (wealthy) to infants, particularly by (wealthy) parents who left their tender offspring to parents who left their tender offspring to the sole care of nurses, who are either the sole care of nurses, who are either too negligent to do their duty or too too negligent to do their duty or too ignorant to know it. I venture to affirm ignorant to know it. I venture to affirm that more human lives are lost by the that more human lives are lost by the carelessness and inattention of parents carelessness and inattention of parents and nurses as are saved by physicians ... and nurses as are saved by physicians ... A little medical knowledge about A little medical knowledge about cleanliness and care can do more good cleanliness and care can do more good than many costly potions from the than many costly potions from the apothecary'.apothecary'.

Source: Nicholas Culpeper (1616-Source: Nicholas Culpeper (1616-1654).1654).Culpeper's complete English Culpeper's complete English physicianphysician. A Hogg, London 1802.. A Hogg, London 1802.

Midwife braves a storm to attend a Midwife braves a storm to attend a deliverydelivery

The stereotypical portrait of a 19th The stereotypical portrait of a 19th century English midwife is the obese century English midwife is the obese Sarah Gamp' battling her way Sarah Gamp' battling her way through awful weather to attend a through awful weather to attend a woman in labour. Her assistant, woman in labour. Her assistant, carrying the instruments, runs carrying the instruments, runs alongside. alongside.

Charles Dickens, who created Sarah Charles Dickens, who created Sarah Gamp and Betsy Prig for his novel, Gamp and Betsy Prig for his novel, Martin ChuzzlewitMartin Chuzzlewit (1843), later (1843), later claimed that these portraits were claimed that these portraits were not meant to be caricatures but not meant to be caricatures but were a fair representation of the were a fair representation of the hired attendant of the poor in hired attendant of the poor in sickness'. sickness'.

Florence Nightingale added that, Florence Nightingale added that, prior to her era, ‘It was preferred prior to her era, ‘It was preferred that ... nurses should be women who that ... nurses should be women who had lost their characters, ie. should had lost their characters, ie. should have one child'. have one child'.

Coloured etching by Coloured etching by Thomas Rowlandson Thomas Rowlandson (1756-1827), London (1756-1827), London

1811.1811.

In 1740 Men-midwives challenge

women's right to deliver babies Representation of a man-midwife, or a Representation of a man-midwife, or a

newly discovered animal'. One half of newly discovered animal'. One half of the figure represents a man-midwife the figure represents a man-midwife in his surgery whilst the other half in his surgery whilst the other half depicts a traditional midwife in a depicts a traditional midwife in a domestic setting. This illustration was domestic setting. This illustration was used as a ‘flyer' to advertise a book used as a ‘flyer' to advertise a book entitled entitled Man-midwifery dessectedMan-midwifery dessected, , elucidating this animal's propensities elucidating this animal's propensities to cruelty'. to cruelty'.

Male midwives were perceived, not Male midwives were perceived, not only as capable to handle with only as capable to handle with instruments of destruction but as a instruments of destruction but as a danger to female modesty and virtue'.danger to female modesty and virtue'.

Coloured etching by Coloured etching by Isaac Cruikshank Isaac Cruikshank

(1756/57-(1756/57-1810/11).Published 1810/11).Published

by SW Fores, by SW Fores, London 1793.London 1793.

Man-midwife delivering a woman under a sheetMan-midwife delivering a woman under a sheetand suggestively examines a pregnant womanand suggestively examines a pregnant woman

Men-midwiveswere often obliged to carry out Men-midwiveswere often obliged to carry out manipulations blindly in order to spare not only manipulations blindly in order to spare not only their patients' embarrassment but husbands' their patients' embarrassment but husbands' unease and disapproval of such intimate unease and disapproval of such intimate physical contact, regardless of its context. physical contact, regardless of its context. There was a belief that this amazing prudery' There was a belief that this amazing prudery' was not as common amongst royalty. This was was not as common amongst royalty. This was not necessarily the case. Sir James Reid (1849-not necessarily the case. Sir James Reid (1849-1923), Queen Victoria's physician for the last 20 1923), Queen Victoria's physician for the last 20 years of her life, never examined her or made a years of her life, never examined her or made a bedside diagnosis until the final illness in 1901. bedside diagnosis until the final illness in 1901. He did not know until after her death that years He did not know until after her death that years of childbearing had left his royal patient with an of childbearing had left his royal patient with an abdominal hernia and a prolapsed womb.abdominal hernia and a prolapsed womb.

Wood engraving after a woodcut from the works Wood engraving after a woodcut from the works of a Dutch physician, Samuel Janson, 1681.of a Dutch physician, Samuel Janson, 1681.

1750First Lying-in HospitalLying-in Hospital Founded in City of City of

London London

  Maternal death could destroy a practitioner's Maternal death could destroy a practitioner's reputation more completely than anything reputation more completely than anything else. Richard Smith (1772-1843) who practised else. Richard Smith (1772-1843) who practised in Bristol, bemoaned the fact that a surgeon-in Bristol, bemoaned the fact that a surgeon-apothecary cannot be compensated at all by apothecary cannot be compensated at all by the mere lying-in fee, unless it leads to other the mere lying-in fee, unless it leads to other business. I know of no surgeon who would not business. I know of no surgeon who would not willingly have given up attending midwifery willingly have given up attending midwifery cases provided he could retain the family in cases provided he could retain the family in other respects.'other respects.'

Podalic versionPodalic version In this manouevre, the doctor introduces In this manouevre, the doctor introduces

a hand into the womb to turn a a hand into the womb to turn a malpositioned child so that it can be malpositioned child so that it can be delivered feet first. Although practised delivered feet first. Although practised since antiquity, the technique allowed since antiquity, the technique allowed bacteria on the hand to be transferred to bacteria on the hand to be transferred to the genital tract of the parturient the genital tract of the parturient woman.woman.

Source: Jacques Pierre Maygrier (1771-Source: Jacques Pierre Maygrier (1771-1835).1835).Nouvelles demonstrations Nouvelles demonstrations d'accouchemensd'accouchemens. Bechet, Paris 1822.. Bechet, Paris 1822.

c. 1580 Chamberlen invents obstetrical forceps The Chamberlens moved in the highest The Chamberlens moved in the highest

circles although it is doubtful whether this circles although it is doubtful whether this was due entirely to their forceps. They was due entirely to their forceps. They were clearly accomplished men-midwives. were clearly accomplished men-midwives. In 1628, Hugh Chamberlen's son, Peter, In 1628, Hugh Chamberlen's son, Peter, was called to attend Henrietta Maria, wife was called to attend Henrietta Maria, wife of Charles I (reigned 1625-1649), after the of Charles I (reigned 1625-1649), after the midwife in charge swooned with fear' on midwife in charge swooned with fear' on entering the queen's bedchamber. entering the queen's bedchamber. Whether he used the forceps (always Whether he used the forceps (always carried in a box) is unrecorded. In 1818, carried in a box) is unrecorded. In 1818, several pairs of forceps were found in a several pairs of forceps were found in a secret compartment at Woodham secret compartment at Woodham Mortimer Hall near Maldon, Essex, which Mortimer Hall near Maldon, Essex, which had once been the home of Peter had once been the home of Peter Chamberlen's son, also called Peter Chamberlen's son, also called Peter (1602-1683).(1602-1683).

Delivery of a child with forcepsDelivery of a child with forceps Despite their increasing use among men-Despite their increasing use among men-

midwives, there was a certain antipathy midwives, there was a certain antipathy towards forceps both amongst patients and towards forceps both amongst patients and midwives. midwives.

Smellie at first employed wooden forceps so Smellie at first employed wooden forceps so as to avoid the clinking noise of the metal as to avoid the clinking noise of the metal blades. Later, he modified the shape of blades. Later, he modified the shape of metal forceps by adding the long pelvic' metal forceps by adding the long pelvic' curves and bound the blades with strips of curves and bound the blades with strips of leather (as in this illustration). He did leather (as in this illustration). He did suggest that the leather should be renewed suggest that the leather should be renewed after each case. In 1759, Smellie returned to after each case. In 1759, Smellie returned to his native Lanark in southern Scotland, his native Lanark in southern Scotland, leaving influential successors such as leaving influential successors such as William Hunter, William Osborn and Thomas William Hunter, William Osborn and Thomas Denman. None of these were enthusiastic Denman. None of these were enthusiastic about the use of forceps.about the use of forceps.

Source: William Smellie.Source: William Smellie.A sett of anatomical A sett of anatomical tablestables. London 1754.. London 1754.

Criminal AbortionCriminal Abortion

This illustration, from an early 19th This illustration, from an early 19th century textbook of �operative century textbook of �operative midwifery', shows a procedure for midwifery', shows a procedure for removing a child during obstructed removing a child during obstructed labour. The head of the child has been labour. The head of the child has been broken up (craniotomy) and removed broken up (craniotomy) and removed via an instrument introduced into the via an instrument introduced into the womb, after which the headless body is womb, after which the headless body is delivered with obstetric forceps. This delivered with obstetric forceps. This unfortunate and crude delivery unfortunate and crude delivery technique, practised since antiquity, technique, practised since antiquity, often endangered the life of the mother often endangered the life of the mother by tearing the cervix and womb or by tearing the cervix and womb or introducing potentially lethal germs into introducing potentially lethal germs into the maternal passage. In the hands of the maternal passage. In the hands of poorly trained doctors, craniotomy was poorly trained doctors, craniotomy was a very dangerous procedure.a very dangerous procedure.

Source: D Davis.Source: D Davis.Elements of operative Elements of operative midwiferymidwifery. London 1825. . London 1825.

An anatomical dissection by Dr JohnBland-An anatomical dissection by Dr JohnBland-Sutton at the Middlesex Hospital Medical Sutton at the Middlesex Hospital Medical School in London. The doctors wear School in London. The doctors wear outdoor clothes with no protective outdoor clothes with no protective covering, and dissect with their bare covering, and dissect with their bare hands. In many hospitals and medical hands. In many hospitals and medical schools, dissections and post-mortems schools, dissections and post-mortems were carried out first thing in the morning were carried out first thing in the morning which meant that doctors and medical which meant that doctors and medical students spent the rest of the day carrying students spent the rest of the day carrying germs around the wards. germs around the wards. Hand washing was not practised with great Hand washing was not practised with great enthusiasm because the need for it was not enthusiasm because the need for it was not understood even by understood even by SemmelweissSemmelweiss. He . He made few converts because of his dogmatic made few converts because of his dogmatic views and intolerance of criticism. He was views and intolerance of criticism. He was eventually confined in a lunatic asylum eventually confined in a lunatic asylum where he died, possibly from a septic hand where he died, possibly from a septic hand - rough justice for a man who pioneered the - rough justice for a man who pioneered the use of use of chlorinechlorine disinfectant as a skin disinfectant as a skin cleanser.cleanser.

1861 -Semmelweis washes hands to save life

1610 - First documented Caesarian section in which mother survives.

Caesarian section carried out to rescue an Caesarian section carried out to rescue an unbaptised infant from a dead mother may unbaptised infant from a dead mother may not have been unusual but the time delay not have been unusual but the time delay between verification of death and removal between verification of death and removal of the child meant that very few would of the child meant that very few would have survived the ordeal. In order to have survived the ordeal. In order to determine the mother's death, the 16th determine the mother's death, the 16th century French surgeon, Jacques century French surgeon, Jacques Guillemeau (1550-1613), advised that ... Guillemeau (1550-1613), advised that ... you shall lay upon her lips, and about her you shall lay upon her lips, and about her nose, some light feathers; so if she breath nose, some light feathers; so if she breath never so little, they will fly away. And thus never so little, they will fly away. And thus being assured that she is dead, the being assured that she is dead, the chirurgion, presently without delay, after chirurgion, presently without delay, after he hath laid her belly naked, shall there he hath laid her belly naked, shall there make an incicion, of the length of foure make an incicion, of the length of foure fingers'.fingers'.

18471847 First child born under anaesthesiaFirst child born under anaesthesia

A portrait of Anaesthesia as a young girl. James A portrait of Anaesthesia as a young girl. James Young Simpson discovered the anaesthetic Young Simpson discovered the anaesthetic effects of chloroform by accident when he and effects of chloroform by accident when he and his assistants were experimenting with his assistants were experimenting with chemicals and somebody upset a bottle. When chemicals and somebody upset a bottle. When Simpson's wife brought in dinner she found Simpson's wife brought in dinner she found them all asleep. Simpson was angered by the them all asleep. Simpson was angered by the objection to chloroform in childbirth from those objection to chloroform in childbirth from those who quoted the biblical command, In sorrow who quoted the biblical command, In sorrow thou shalt bring forth children' (Genesis 3, thou shalt bring forth children' (Genesis 3, verse 16). He made the point that the original verse 16). He made the point that the original meaning of sorrow was labour' or work' rather meaning of sorrow was labour' or work' rather than pain, and argued that a loving God would than pain, and argued that a loving God would not oppose pain relief in labour.not oppose pain relief in labour.

Source: The centenary of an inventor of sleep, Source: The centenary of an inventor of sleep, 3 June 1911.3 June 1911.

1933 Robert James Minnit inventsgas and air apparatus   

The distribution of gas and airapparatus The distribution of gas and airapparatus throughout England owed much to the National throughout England owed much to the National Birthday Fund (later the National Birthday Trust Birthday Fund (later the National Birthday Trust Fund), founded in 1928. The organisation's initial Fund), founded in 1928. The organisation's initial aim was to raise money to supplement midwives' aim was to raise money to supplement midwives' fees and improve their training. From the early fees and improve their training. From the early 1930s, however, it became involved in the trial 1930s, however, it became involved in the trial and provision of various analgesia apparatus for and provision of various analgesia apparatus for the relief of labour pains including the ‘Queen the relief of labour pains including the ‘Queen Charlotte's' and Minnitt machines which cost Charlotte's' and Minnitt machines which cost around 14. The Fund supplied such machines free around 14. The Fund supplied such machines free to hospitals and at 5 each to District Nursing to hospitals and at 5 each to District Nursing Associations. In 1940, the Sussex Maternity and Associations. In 1940, the Sussex Maternity and Women's Hospital wrote to thank the Fund for the Women's Hospital wrote to thank the Fund for the safe receipt of its 2 gas and air machines which safe receipt of its 2 gas and air machines which were giving complete satisfaction'. The National were giving complete satisfaction'. The National Birthday Fund benefited from its association with a Birthday Fund benefited from its association with a number of powerful and influential people number of powerful and influential people including the Prime Minister's wife, Mrs Stanley including the Prime Minister's wife, Mrs Stanley Baldwin, who held fund-raising events at 10 Baldwin, who held fund-raising events at 10 Downing Street.Downing Street.

Source: National Birthday Trust Fund Papers,Source: National Birthday Trust Fund Papers,cc. . 1937-1938.1937-1938.

Midwife giving a woman gas and airMidwife giving a woman gas and air

The gas and airmachines used by The gas and airmachines used by midwives were portable and easy to midwives were portable and easy to use. This photograph, showing a use. This photograph, showing a midwife applying the mask, was midwife applying the mask, was produced for promotional purposes produced for promotional purposes by the British Oxygen Company who by the British Oxygen Company who supplied the gases used with the supplied the gases used with the machines. Machines donated by the machines. Machines donated by the National Birthday Fund carried National Birthday Fund carried plaques indicating their provenance.plaques indicating their provenance.

Source: National Birthday Trust Fund Source: National Birthday Trust Fund Papers, c. 1950s.Reproduced with Papers, c. 1950s.Reproduced with kind permission of BOC.kind permission of BOC.

1933 - Grantly Dick Read advocates natural childbirth

Grantly Dick-Read's modern' approach to Grantly Dick-Read's modern' approach to childbirth included education, correct childbirth included education, correct breathing, relaxation and exercises' which breathing, relaxation and exercises' which would help a healthy woman achieve a natural would help a healthy woman achieve a natural birth'. In fact, the techniques were based on his birth'. In fact, the techniques were based on his investigations of childbirth practices amongst investigations of childbirth practices amongst non-westernised African communities. Despite non-westernised African communities. Despite a new wave of practical instructions to young a new wave of practical instructions to young people contemplating ... parenthood', the people contemplating ... parenthood', the delivery room was still no place for fathers. In delivery room was still no place for fathers. In this cartoon, the father-to-be is reassured by a this cartoon, the father-to-be is reassured by a nonplussed general practitioner:nonplussed general practitioner:

Father-to-be: I can'tstand this suspense any Father-to-be: I can'tstand this suspense any longer. It will kill me'.longer. It will kill me'.Doctor: Calm yourself, my dear sir. I've brought Doctor: Calm yourself, my dear sir. I've brought thousands of babies into the world and never thousands of babies into the world and never lost a father yet'.lost a father yet'.

Source:Source:PunchPunch, 1 February 1928, page 129., 1 February 1928, page 129.

Father-to-be Father-to-be reassured by the reassured by the

family doctorfamily doctor

Only in 1936Only in 1936 - Prontosil reduces - Prontosil reduces maternalmaternal

mortality ratemortality rate A woman dying of puerperal sepsis is being shown her A woman dying of puerperal sepsis is being shown her newborn child for the final time before receiving the last newborn child for the final time before receiving the last rites. She is comforted by her husband while other rites. She is comforted by her husband while other members of the household mourn. In Britain, this scene members of the household mourn. In Britain, this scene was no less prevalent in the 20th century than it had been was no less prevalent in the 20th century than it had been in the 19th. in the 19th.

By 1920, the maternal mortality rate in England and Wales By 1920, the maternal mortality rate in England and Wales was 43.3 deaths per 1000 deliveries. In the United States was 43.3 deaths per 1000 deliveries. In the United States it was 68.9 whilst in the Netherlands, where instrumental it was 68.9 whilst in the Netherlands, where instrumental deliveries were rare and most mothers gave birth at home, deliveries were rare and most mothers gave birth at home, it was 24. Dora Russell of the Workers' Birth Control it was 24. Dora Russell of the Workers' Birth Control Group, pointed out to an unresponsive British government Group, pointed out to an unresponsive British government that child-bearing was far more risky than coal-mining, the that child-bearing was far more risky than coal-mining, the most hazardous male occupation. By 1960, however, the most hazardous male occupation. By 1960, however, the maternal mortality rates in all 3 national groups were maternal mortality rates in all 3 national groups were almost identical, being 3.9, 3.7, and 3.7 respectively.almost identical, being 3.9, 3.7, and 3.7 respectively.

Nurses and midwives are Nurses and midwives are needed'needed'

The wartime job that can be your The wartime job that can be your career' was a recruitment drive for career' was a recruitment drive for nurses and midwives after the nurses and midwives after the austerity of the 1930s when low austerity of the 1930s when low pay and unacceptable working pay and unacceptable working conditions had made midwifery an conditions had made midwifery an unpopular career choice for young unpopular career choice for young women. Evelyn Prentis, who women. Evelyn Prentis, who trained in Nottingham during that trained in Nottingham during that period, recalled that the town was period, recalled that the town was packed with beautiful girls, some packed with beautiful girls, some earning as much as 2 a week at earning as much as 2 a week at Player's [the tobacco company]. Player's [the tobacco company]. They could afford to bleach their They could afford to bleach their hair and buy lipstick. None of us hair and buy lipstick. None of us could, and anyway, Matron would could, and anyway, Matron would have frowned on both'.have frowned on both'.

Lithograph Lithograph poster., 1940poster., 1940

Neonatal intensive care - Neonatal intensive care - 19901990   

By the 1990s, a child born at By the 1990s, a child born at 22-23 weeks gestation (the 22-23 weeks gestation (the normal period is 40 weeks) normal period is 40 weeks) had about a 24% chance of had about a 24% chance of survival whilst one born at 25 survival whilst one born at 25 weeks had a 50% chance. weeks had a 50% chance. Most infants born after 32 Most infants born after 32 weeks survived. The viability weeks survived. The viability of foetuses at such early of foetuses at such early stages of development raised stages of development raised issues surrounding the 1967 issues surrounding the 1967 Abortion Act which made Abortion Act which made termination of pregnancy legal termination of pregnancy legal until 28 weeks. Various until 28 weeks. Various campaigns were mounted to campaigns were mounted to limit the time to 20 weeks.limit the time to 20 weeks.

In this hospital labour In this hospital labour ward of the 1990s, ward of the 1990s, the mother is the mother is attended by a attended by a midwife and doctor. midwife and doctor. The father-to-be, no The father-to-be, no longer forced to pace longer forced to pace the floor outside the the floor outside the delivery room, is delivery room, is encouraged to encouraged to participate in the participate in the birth.birth.

In vitro fertilization 1969 In this colour-enhanced In this colour-enhanced

scanning electron scanning electron micrograph (SEM), a human micrograph (SEM), a human sperm attempts to fertilise sperm attempts to fertilise an egg. Once the sperm has an egg. Once the sperm has fused to the egg cell fused to the egg cell membrane, the zona membrane, the zona reaction' takes place which reaction' takes place which prevents other sperm from prevents other sperm from entering the egg.entering the egg.

SEM by Yorgos Nikas.SEM by Yorgos Nikas.

First test-tube baby 1978

8-celled human embryos8-celled human embryos

Light microscope image of two8-Light microscope image of two8-celled human embryos ready to be celled human embryos ready to be implanted into their mother's implanted into their mother's womb. Pre-implantation embryos womb. Pre-implantation embryos withstand freezing for long periods withstand freezing for long periods of time allowing them to be of time allowing them to be implanted at intervals coinciding implanted at intervals coinciding with normal birth spacing.with normal birth spacing.

Dolly cloned 1996

Human cloning in forbidden Human cloning in forbidden