History of Air Pollution PolicyHistory of Air Pollution Policy

Air policy became a state issueAir policy became a state issue– Oregon 1952 has statewide ordinanceOregon 1952 has statewide ordinance– California takes this a step furtherCalifornia takes this a step further

Targets mobile sources of pollutionTargets mobile sources of pollution

– 1955 APCA (plus 1955 APCA (plus ’’59 & 59 & ’’62 extensions)62 extensions)– 1965 Motor Vehicle Air Pollution Control 1965 Motor Vehicle Air Pollution Control

ActAct– 1967 AQA1967 AQA

History of Air Pollution PolicyHistory of Air Pollution Policy

Early versions of control acts had Early versions of control acts had limited effectlimited effect– Relied on states for standardsRelied on states for standards– Provided funds to statesProvided funds to states– Required delineation of AQCRRequired delineation of AQCR

Air Quality Control RegionsAir Quality Control Regions ““AirshedsAirsheds”” similar to Watersheds similar to Watersheds

History of Air Pollution PolicyHistory of Air Pollution Policy

State role was inadequateState role was inadequate– Largely voluntary (in effect if not in fact)Largely voluntary (in effect if not in fact)– The focus was on research, technical The focus was on research, technical

assistance and trainingassistance and training– The need for federal focus was realizedThe need for federal focus was realized

CAA of 1970CAA of 1970– Technically, amendments to original air Technically, amendments to original air

quality legislationquality legislation

The Clean Air Act of 1970The Clean Air Act of 1970

Established a strong federal control Established a strong federal control over air pollutionover air pollution– Power vested in EPA (newly created)Power vested in EPA (newly created)– Focus on two aspectsFocus on two aspects

StandardsStandards Methods / Technology for meeting standardsMethods / Technology for meeting standards

The Clean Air Act of 1970The Clean Air Act of 1970

NAAQS (National Ambient Air Quality NAAQS (National Ambient Air Quality Standards)Standards)– PrimaryPrimary

Human health-basedHuman health-based

– SecondarySecondary Welfare-basedWelfare-based Used if primary standards were insufficient to Used if primary standards were insufficient to

protect non-human health (ag, forests, social protect non-human health (ag, forests, social values)values)

The Clean Air Act of 1970The Clean Air Act of 1970

NAAQS determined by EPANAAQS determined by EPA– States must determine quality in AQCRsStates must determine quality in AQCRs

Attainment or non-AttainmentAttainment or non-Attainment Implement a plan to maintain or increase air Implement a plan to maintain or increase air

quality in AQCRsquality in AQCRs

– NAAQS based on NAAQS based on ““dose-responsedose-response”” curve curve for criteria pollutantsfor criteria pollutants Toxic concentration vs. theoretical threshold Toxic concentration vs. theoretical threshold

based on sick-daysbased on sick-days

NAAQS and Criteria PollutantsNAAQS and Criteria Pollutants– Carbon MonoxideCarbon Monoxide– Nitrogen DioxideNitrogen Dioxide

– Ozone (NOOzone (NOxx + VOCs + sunlight) + VOCs + sunlight)

– LeadLead– PMPM– Sulfur DioxideSulfur Dioxide

The Clean Air Act of 1970The Clean Air Act of 1970

The Clean Air Act of 1970The Clean Air Act of 1970

Sources of PollutionSources of Pollution– MobileMobile

DirectDirect IndirectIndirect

– StationaryStationary SpecificSpecific Area sourcesArea sources

CombustionCombustion

Most fuels are Most fuels are ““hydrocarbonshydrocarbons””– Hydrogen + CarbonHydrogen + Carbon

Perfect Combustion:Perfect Combustion:– Ignition and airIgnition and air– Hydrogen > waterHydrogen > water– Carbon > carbon dioxideCarbon > carbon dioxide

Combustion is inherently inefficientCombustion is inherently inefficient

Types of PollutionTypes of Pollution

Comes from two types of emissionsComes from two types of emissions– EvaporativeEvaporative– ExhaustExhaust

EvaporativeEvaporative– Evaporation of uncombusted fuelsEvaporation of uncombusted fuels

ExhaustExhaust– Tailpipe emissionsTailpipe emissions

Types of PollutionTypes of Pollution

HydrocarbonsHydrocarbons– Unburned fuelUnburned fuel– Partially burned fuelPartially burned fuel– Reacts with nitrogen oxides to produce Reacts with nitrogen oxides to produce

ozoneozone– Most prevalent pollutantMost prevalent pollutant– CancerousCancerous– Irritant to eyes and lungsIrritant to eyes and lungs

Types of PollutionTypes of Pollution

Nitrogen oxidesNitrogen oxides– Results from high pressure and Results from high pressure and

temperature in enginestemperature in engines– Nitrogen reacts with oxygenNitrogen reacts with oxygen

– NONOx x signifies many types of oxidessignifies many types of oxides

– Precursor of ozone (with hydrocarbons)Precursor of ozone (with hydrocarbons)– Contributes to acid rainContributes to acid rain

Types of PollutionTypes of Pollution

Carbon Monoxide (CO)Carbon Monoxide (CO)– Incomplete combustion (low air-to-fuel Incomplete combustion (low air-to-fuel

ratios)ratios) ““ChokedChoked”” engines engines Cold startsCold starts

– Fuel is partially oxidized (unlike COFuel is partially oxidized (unlike CO22))– Reduces flow of oxygen to blood streamReduces flow of oxygen to blood stream– 2/3 of CO emissions come from mobile 2/3 of CO emissions come from mobile

sourcessources

Types of PollutionTypes of Pollution

Carbon Dioxide (COCarbon Dioxide (CO22))– A product (with water) of A product (with water) of ““perfectperfect””

combustioncombustion– It is nevertheless a Greenhouse GasIt is nevertheless a Greenhouse Gas

Types of PollutionTypes of Pollution

OzoneOzone– Formed from a chemical reaction outside Formed from a chemical reaction outside

of engineof engine

– Hydrocarbons + NOHydrocarbons + NOxx + sunlight + sunlight

– Severe irritant of mucous liningsSevere irritant of mucous linings

Types of PollutionTypes of Pollution

Evaporative EmissionsEvaporative Emissions– DiurnalDiurnal– Running LossesRunning Losses– Hot SoakHot Soak– RefuelingRefueling

Types of PollutionTypes of Pollution

Particulate Matter (PM)Particulate Matter (PM)– Solid or liquid particlesSolid or liquid particles– Big Particles: 2.5>=x<=10 micronsBig Particles: 2.5>=x<=10 microns

25-100 times thinner than a hair25-100 times thinner than a hair

– Small ParticlesSmall Particles <2.5 microns<2.5 microns

Types of PollutionTypes of Pollution

PM10PM10– Smoke, dirt, dustSmoke, dirt, dust– Mold, spores, pollenMold, spores, pollen– Mobile sources:Mobile sources:

Roadway erosionRoadway erosion Tire erosionTire erosion

Types of PollutionTypes of Pollution

PM2.5PM2.5– Toxic organic compoundsToxic organic compounds– Heavy metalsHeavy metals– Mobile sources:Mobile sources:

Diesel combustionDiesel combustion Asphalt manufacture (indirectly)Asphalt manufacture (indirectly)

Pollution ControlsPollution Controls

Mandated through CAAMandated through CAA– Catalytic convertersCatalytic converters– CAFE standardsCAFE standards– Tailpipe standardsTailpipe standards

Catalytic ConvertersCatalytic Converters

Two-wayTwo-way– Oxydizing Carbon Monoxide into Carbon Oxydizing Carbon Monoxide into Carbon

DioxideDioxide– Oxydation of unburned hydrocarbonsOxydation of unburned hydrocarbons

Catalytic ConvertersCatalytic Converters

Three-wayThree-way– Reduction of nitrogen oxides into nitrogen Reduction of nitrogen oxides into nitrogen

and oxygenand oxygen– Oxydizing Carbon Monoxide into Carbon Oxydizing Carbon Monoxide into Carbon

DioxideDioxide– Oxydation of unburned hydrocarbonsOxydation of unburned hydrocarbons

How do they work?k?

Catalytic ConvertersCatalytic Converters

Adverse ImpactsAdverse Impacts– Decreases fuel efficiency in some Decreases fuel efficiency in some

situationssituations– Increases emissions of carbon dioxideIncreases emissions of carbon dioxide– Input requirements of production include Input requirements of production include

palladium or platinum – a very toxic palladium or platinum – a very toxic processprocess

CAFE StandardsCAFE Standards

Corporate Average Fuel EconomyCorporate Average Fuel Economy Varying Standards over time and among Varying Standards over time and among

class of autosclass of autos– Getting more strict over timeGetting more strict over time– Applies to passenger vehicles and light trucksApplies to passenger vehicles and light trucks

2010 – 27.5 (autos) 23.5 (trucks)2010 – 27.5 (autos) 23.5 (trucks) 2011 – 30.2 (autos) 24.1 (trucks)2011 – 30.2 (autos) 24.1 (trucks) HOPE: 35 mpg by 2016HOPE: 35 mpg by 2016

Tailpipe Emissions StandardsTailpipe Emissions Standards

““Smog ChecksSmog Checks”” Primarily in urban areasPrimarily in urban areas Always in non-attainment areasAlways in non-attainment areas Hydrocarbons, CO, NoxHydrocarbons, CO, Nox Testing to be clean for a dayTesting to be clean for a day Most test at idleMost test at idle Some Some ““treadm ill”” tests tests

Alternative FuelsAlternative Fuels

Alternative Fuel TypesAlternative Fuel Types

EthanolEthanol BiodieselBiodiesel ElectricityElectricity HydrogenHydrogen MethanolMethanol Natural GasNatural Gas

EthanolEthanol

Ethyl Alcohol (grain alcohol)Ethyl Alcohol (grain alcohol) Currently used as an oxygenate in fuelsCurrently used as an oxygenate in fuels

– Reduces CO levelsReduces CO levels

85% blends are currently used (E85)85% blends are currently used (E85)– FFVs (Flexible Fuel Vehicles)FFVs (Flexible Fuel Vehicles)

10% blend (E10) used as an additive10% blend (E10) used as an additive

Ethanol ProductionEthanol Production

High-sugar or convertible starch sourcesHigh-sugar or convertible starch sources– Beet and cane sugar; cornBeet and cane sugar; corn

Think moonshineThink moonshine Relatively low EROEI (for corn)Relatively low EROEI (for corn)

– Energy Returned on Energy InvestedEnergy Returned on Energy Invested Better EROEI for switchgrassBetter EROEI for switchgrass Tradeoff for corn ethanol is trickyTradeoff for corn ethanol is tricky

– Food or fuel?Food or fuel?

Ethanol MarketEthanol Market

E85 and E10 blendsE85 and E10 blends E10 is an additive in CO noncompliance E10 is an additive in CO noncompliance

areasareas E85 used as an alternative fuel (defined by E85 used as an alternative fuel (defined by

Energy Policy Act of 1992)Energy Policy Act of 1992) 3 million FFVs sold3 million FFVs sold

– Oddly, not many realize they can fuel with E85Oddly, not many realize they can fuel with E85 Used as an offset in CAFE standardsUsed as an offset in CAFE standards

Ethanol InfrastructureEthanol Infrastructure

EPA Fuel FInder

BiodieselBiodiesel

Made from new and used vegetable oils and Made from new and used vegetable oils and fatsfats

20% mixtures (B20) can be used in all diesel 20% mixtures (B20) can be used in all diesel enginesengines

100% biodiesel can be used in most 100% biodiesel can be used in most engines built since 1994engines built since 1994

Benefits of biodieselBenefits of biodiesel

Reduces amounts of unburned hydrocarbons, CO, Reduces amounts of unburned hydrocarbons, CO, sulfates, particulate mattersulfates, particulate matter

Negative relationship between fuel mix and these Negative relationship between fuel mix and these emissionsemissions

BUT…BUT… Levels of Nitrogen Oxides Levels of Nitrogen Oxides increaseincrease with higher with higher

fractions of biodiesel in fuel mixturefractions of biodiesel in fuel mixture

Production of BiodieselProduction of Biodiesel

Made from new and used vegetable oils and Made from new and used vegetable oils and animal fatsanimal fats

New or recycled oilsNew or recycled oils Chemically reacted with alcohols to Chemically reacted with alcohols to

produce:produce:– Fatty acid methyl esters (i.e., biodiesel)Fatty acid methyl esters (i.e., biodiesel)

Market for BiodieselMarket for Biodiesel

Authorized as an alternative fuel in the Authorized as an alternative fuel in the Energy Conservation Reauthorization Act of Energy Conservation Reauthorization Act of 1998 (the reauthorization of the Energy 1998 (the reauthorization of the Energy Policy Act of 1992)Policy Act of 1992)

Relatively large presence in public fleetsRelatively large presence in public fleets Projected to 2 billion gallons per yearProjected to 2 billion gallons per year

– Assuming same levels of subsidy given to Assuming same levels of subsidy given to ethanol and methanol producersethanol and methanol producers

Market for BiodieselMarket for Biodiesel

Bus FleetsBus Fleets Heavy Duty TrucksHeavy Duty Trucks Marine VesselsMarine Vessels Home HeatingHome Heating Energy Generating FacilitiesEnergy Generating Facilities

Biodiesel AvailabilityBiodiesel Availability

EPA Fuel FInder

Hydrogen FuelsHydrogen Fuels

Combustion and Electric Fuel CellsCombustion and Electric Fuel Cells Very low energy densityVery low energy density

– Efficient storage is problematicEfficient storage is problematic

Production of Hydrogen FuelsProduction of Hydrogen Fuels

Splitting and recombining Hydrogen Splitting and recombining Hydrogen moleculesmolecules

Demonstration

Market for HydrogenMarket for Hydrogen

Currently, noneCurrently, none Prototype modelsPrototype models Production and distribution problems for Production and distribution problems for

hydrogen sourceshydrogen sources 10 – 20 year horizon for market penetration10 – 20 year horizon for market penetration

Hydrogen AvailabilityHydrogen Availability

EPA Fuel FInder

ElectricityElectricity

Neighborhood Electric VehiclesNeighborhood Electric Vehicles Hybrid Electric VehiclesHybrid Electric Vehicles

Electricity BenefitsElectricity Benefits

No tailpipe emissionsNo tailpipe emissions Lower fuel and maintenance costsLower fuel and maintenance costs

Electric AvailabilityElectric Availability

EPA Fuel FInder

MethanolMethanol

Commonly called Commonly called ““wood alcoholwood alcohol”” Derived primarily from natural gasDerived primarily from natural gas Alternatively, biomass and coal (non-Alternatively, biomass and coal (non-

petroleum sources)petroleum sources) Currently out of favorCurrently out of favor

– MTBEMTBE

Seen as a likely source of hydrogenSeen as a likely source of hydrogen

Natural GasNatural Gas

Produced from gas wells or as part of Produced from gas wells or as part of petroleum production processpetroleum production process

Primarily methane (CHPrimarily methane (CH44))

LNG (Liquefied Natural Gas)LNG (Liquefied Natural Gas) CNG (Compressed Natural Gas)CNG (Compressed Natural Gas)

Natural Gas BenefitsNatural Gas Benefits

One of the cleanest burning alternativesOne of the cleanest burning alternatives CO reduced 90%CO reduced 90% Nitrogen Oxides reduced 60%Nitrogen Oxides reduced 60% COCO22 reduced 30% – 40% reduced 30% – 40%

Natural Gas MarketNatural Gas Market

Pre-existing distribution systemPre-existing distribution system Public filling stationsPublic filling stations Slow-fill system for at-home overnight fillingSlow-fill system for at-home overnight filling

LNG AvailabilityLNG Availability

EPA Fuel FInder

PropanePropane

PropanePropane

LPG (Liquefied Petroleum Gas)LPG (Liquefied Petroleum Gas) A byproduct of natural gas and petroleum A byproduct of natural gas and petroleum

processingprocessing Most used in US is produced domesticallyMost used in US is produced domestically

Propane BenefitsPropane Benefits

Fewer ozone-forming emissionsFewer ozone-forming emissions 98% reduction in benzene and 98% reduction in benzene and

formaldehydeformaldehyde Costs less than gasolineCosts less than gasoline 85% of domestic use comes from domestic 85% of domestic use comes from domestic

supplysupply

Propane MarketPropane Market

200,000 vehicles in fleets currently on road200,000 vehicles in fleets currently on road Can purchase dedicated new vehicleCan purchase dedicated new vehicle Can purchase aftermarket conversion kitsCan purchase aftermarket conversion kits

Propane MarketPropane Market

EPA Fuel FInder

Environmental PoliciesEnvironmental Policies

Station CarsStation Cars TDMTDM

– Ride-sharingRide-sharing– Workweek reductionsWorkweek reductions– Flexible hoursFlexible hours– TelecommutingTelecommuting

Environmental PoliciesEnvironmental Policies

CAFE StandardsCAFE Standards Voluntary effortsVoluntary efforts

– Terra PassTerra Pass– Zip CarsZip Cars– Drive on Demand (U-Haul)Drive on Demand (U-Haul)