history microelectronics

History of Microelectronics

Kaushik NayakKaushik NayakResearch Scholar

Center of Excellence in NanoelectronicsDepartment of Electrical Engineering

IIT Bombay

History of Microelectronics

Kaushik NayakKaushik NayakResearch Scholar

Center of Excellence in NanoelectronicsDepartment of Electrical Engineering

IIT Bombay

S.M. Sze, and Y. Nishi, EE 319 Lectures, http://nanodevice.stanford.edu2

S.M. Sze, and Y. Nishi, EE 319 Lectures, http://nanodevice.stanford.edu

Semiconductor History: Faraday to ShockleySemiconductor History: Faraday to Shockley(Exhibit 1: Conductivity of Metal Sulfides)

1833 – Michael Faraday (He discovered a compound with poor room temperature conductivity, which atelevated temperatures is comparable tometallic conductors)

1851 – Johan Hittorf (Temperature effects on conductivity of silver sulfide and cupric sulfide

References:[1] M. Faraday, “On a New Law of Electric Conduction,” Phil Trans R Soc,vol.23 , pp. 507[2] G. Busch, “ Early History of the Physics and Chemistry of Semiconductors

Doubts to Fact in a Hundred Years,” Eur J Phys ,vol.10, pp. 254

Semiconductor History: Faraday to ShockleySemiconductor History: Faraday to Shockley(Exhibit 1: Conductivity of Metal Sulfides)

(He discovered a compound with poor room temperature conductivity, which atelevated temperatures is comparable tometallic conductors)

3

Temperature effects on conductivity of silver sulfide and cupric sulfide)

[1] M. Faraday, “On a New Law of Electric Conduction,” Phil Trans R Soc,vol.23 , pp. 507-15, 1833.[2] G. Busch, “ Early History of the Physics and Chemistry of Semiconductors- From

Doubts to Fact in a Hundred Years,” Eur J Phys ,vol.10, pp. 254-64, 1989.

Semiconductor History: Faraday to Shockley Contd...Semiconductor History: Faraday to Shockley Contd...(Exhibit 2: Photoconductivity)

1873 – Willoughby Smith (Photoconductivity of Selenium)

1885 – Shelford Bidwell (Photoconductivity of Silver Sulfide)

References:[1] W. Smith, “Effect of Light on Selenium during the passage of an Electric Current,”Nature, 303, 20 February 1873.[2] S. Bidwell, “On the Sensitiveness of Selenium to Light and the Developmentof a Similar Property in Sulphur,” Proc. Phys. Soc. London, vol. 7 , pp.129

Semiconductor History: Faraday to Shockley Contd...Semiconductor History: Faraday to Shockley Contd...(Exhibit 2: Photoconductivity)

(Photoconductivity of Selenium)

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(Photoconductivity of Silver Sulfide)

[1] W. Smith, “Effect of Light on Selenium during the passage of an Electric Current,”

[2] S. Bidwell, “On the Sensitiveness of Selenium to Light and the Developmentof a Similar Property in Sulphur,” Proc. Phys. Soc. London, vol. 7 , pp.129-145, 1885.

Semiconductor History: Faraday to Shockley Contd...Semiconductor History: Faraday to Shockley Contd...(Exhibit 3: Photovoltaic Effects)(Exhibit 3: Photovoltaic Effects)

1839 – A. E. Becquerel (First observed potential difference betweenelectrodes in a chemical cell, when one is illuminated and one is not)

Reference:[1] A.E. Becquerel, “Recherches sur les effets de la radiation chimique de la lumiere solaire au moyen des courants electriques,” Comptes Rendus de L

1876 – William Adams and Richard Day

electriques,” Comptes Rendus de LSciences, vol. 9, pp. 145

Reference:[1] W. Adams, and R. Day, “The Action of Light on Selenium,” Proc R Soc, vol. 25, pp. 113

Semiconductor History: Faraday to Shockley Contd...Semiconductor History: Faraday to Shockley Contd...(Exhibit 3: Photovoltaic Effects)(Exhibit 3: Photovoltaic Effects)

First observed potential difference betweenelectrodes in a chemical cell, when one is illuminated and one is not)

Reference:[1] A.E. Becquerel, “Recherches sur les effets de la radiation chimique de la lumiere solaire au moyen des courants electriques,” Comptes Rendus de L´Academie des

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William Adams and Richard Day (They noted that exposing selenium conducting cell to light either increased or decreased the current)

electriques,” Comptes Rendus de L´Academie des Sciences, vol. 9, pp. 145-149,1839.

[1] W. Adams, and R. Day, “The Action of Light on Selenium,” Proc R Soc, vol. 25, pp. 113-7, 1876.

Semiconductor History: Faraday to Shockley Contd...(Exhibit 4: Rectification)(Exhibit 4: Rectification)

1874 – Ferdinand Braun (Rectification by metal sulfides)

1874 – Arthur Schuster (Copper

1899 – Jagadish Chandra Bose

References:[1] F. Braun, “Über die Stromleitung durch Schwefelmetalle,” Ann Phys Chem,vol.153, no.4, pp.5561874. [2] A. Schuster, “On Unilateral Conductivity,” Phil Mag, vol. 48, pp. 556


(Rectification by metal sulfides)

(Copper – Copper oxide rectification)

Jagadish Chandra Bose (Experimented with new detectorsfor radio waves and was the firstinvestigator to use crystal detectors

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investigator to use crystal detectorsfor radio)

[1] F. Braun, “Über die Stromleitung durch Schwefelmetalle,” Ann Phys Chem,vol.153, no.4, pp.556-63,

[2] A. Schuster, “On Unilateral Conductivity,” Phil Mag, vol. 48, pp. 556-563, 1874.

Reference:[1] J. C. Bose, “On a self-recovering coherer and the study of the cohering action of different metals,” Proc. Royal Society, Vol. LXV, No. 416, pp. 166–172, Apr. 1899.


1901 – Jagadish Chandra Bose

(Bose’s apparatus: Complete setup showingtransmitting antenna at the left and the receivingantenna at the right)

http://www.indianscience.org/essays/t_es_emers_bose.shtml


Jagadish Chandra Bose (His 1901 patent 755840, a design basedon a pair of galena crystals is the firstpatent for a semiconductor device.

Bose’s crystal detector also known as thepoint contact rectifier detects both radioand light waves.)

7transmitting antenna at the left and the receiving

(Two of Bose’s point contact detectors,removed from the receiving antennas)

http://www.indianscience.org/essays/t_es_emers_bose.shtml

Semiconductor History: Faraday to Shockley Contd...(Exhibit 5: Electroluminescence)(Exhibit 5: Electroluminescence)

1907 – Henry Round (Marcony Company)

1923 – Oleg Losev (Worked on oscillating pointdetectors & repeated emission of green lightfrom a reversed biased Steel

References:[1] H. Round, “ A Note on Carborundum,” Electrical World, vol. 9, p. 309, 19 February 1907.[2] E. Loebner, “Subhistories of the Light Emitting Diode,” IEEE Trans Electron Dev, vol. 23,pp. 675-99, 1976.

Semiconductor History: Faraday to Shockley Contd...(Exhibit 5: Electroluminescence)(Exhibit 5: Electroluminescence)

Henry Round (Marcony Company) (Observed orange, yellow and green light emission fromCarborundum detectors onapplying 10 to 110 V of biasvoltage)

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(Worked on oscillating point-contact crystal detectors & repeated emission of green lightfrom a reversed biased Steel-Carborundum diode)

[1] H. Round, “ A Note on Carborundum,” Electrical World, vol. 9, p. 309, 19 February 1907.[2] E. Loebner, “Subhistories of the Light Emitting Diode,” IEEE Trans Electron Dev, vol. 23,

Semiconductor History: Faraday to Shockley Contd...(Early Commercialization Era)

1907 – Greenleaf Picard (AT & T)

1922 – Lars Grondahl (Union Switch and Signal) (First patent on the copper copper

1924 – Oleg Losev (Crystadyne negative resistance diode)

1930s – Discovery of the P-N junction in Silicon and development of Radar detectors (Bell Labs)

http://sites.google.com/site/transistorhistory/faraday

Semiconductor History: Faraday to Shockley Contd...(Early Commercialization Era)

Greenleaf Picard (AT & T) (In his Silicon patent 836531 proposed that the crystal detectors can use non-metallic natural element such as silicon)

Lars Grondahl (Union Switch and Signal) (First patent on the copper copper-oxide rectifier)

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rectifier)

(Crystadyne negative resistance diode)

N junction in Silicon and development of Radar detectors (Bell Labs)

http://sites.google.com/site/transistorhistory/faraday-to-shockley

Development of Quantum Mechanics

1900 – Max Planck (Showed that light is emitted or absorbed in “quanta”or discrete amounts in Blackbody radiation)

1905 - Albert Einstein (Explanation of Photoelectric Effect using light quanta)

1913 – Neils Bohr (Bohr’s Theory of atom)

Development of Quantum Mechanics

(Showed that light is emitted or absorbed in “quanta”or discrete amounts in Blackbody radiation)

(Explanation of Photoelectric Effect using light quanta)

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(Bohr’s Theory of atom)

Development of Quantum Mechanics Contd...

1924 – Louis Victor De Broglie

1925 – Werner Karl Heisenberg

1926 – Erwin Schrödinger


Louis Victor De Broglie (Matter Wave Hypothesis)

Werner Karl Heisenberg (Uncertainty Principle & Matrix Mechanics)

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& Matrix Mechanics)

ödinger (Wave Mechanics)


1928 – P. A. M. Dirac (Complete theoretical formulation of QuantumMechanics and development of operator algebrain Quantum Mechanics)

1932 – John Von Neumann (Built a solid mathematical framework for quantum mechanics using operator algebra)

http://www.gapThe_Quantum_age_begins.html


(Complete theoretical formulation of QuantumMechanics and development of operator algebrain Quantum Mechanics)

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(Built a solid mathematical framework for quantum mechanics using operator algebra)

http://www.gap-system.org/~history/HistTopics/The_Quantum_age_begins.html

Brief History of the development of Vacuum TubeElectronics

1901 – John A. Fleming (Univ. College London)

1907 – Lee De Forest (Invention of Audion and the Triode Valve)

http://www.radio-electronics.com/info/radio_history/valve/hov.php

Brief History of the development of Vacuum TubeElectronics

John A. Fleming (Univ. College London) (Invention of Vacuum Tube Diode)

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(Invention of Audion and the Triode Valve)

electronics.com/info/radio_history/valve/hov.php

Vacuum Tube Electronics (Further Development)(1910 -

1916 – H. J. Round (Development of low anode capacitance valve Type V24)

1930s – Introduction of the tetrode and pentode brought revolutionary improvements in the performance ofthe vacuum tube electronic circuitsthe vacuum tube electronic circuits

Vacuum tubes today: The reignforever. Developmentthat resultedmeant thatdevices could

Vacuum Tube Electronics (Further Development)- 1940)

(Development of low anode capacitance valve Type V24)

Introduction of the tetrode and pentode brought revolutionary improvements in the performance ofthe vacuum tube electronic circuits

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the vacuum tube electronic circuits

reign of the thermoionic valve did not lastDevelopment in Semiconductor research

resulted in the invention of the transistor in 1948that smaller, reliable and less power hungry

could be made.

Development of Theoretical Understanding of Semiconductors

1879 – Edwin Hall (Hall Effect)

1886 – Clemens Winkler (Announcement and entry of Germanium)

1897 – Joseph J. Thomson (Discovery of Electron)

1907 – Karl Baedker (Hall effect in Semiconductors)

1916 – Tolman and Steward (Confirmation of electron as the primarycurrent carrier in metals)

Development of Theoretical Understanding of Semiconductors

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Announcement and entry of Germanium)

(Discovery of Electron)

(Hall effect in Semiconductors)

(Confirmation of electron as the primarycurrent carrier in metals)

Development of Theoretical Understanding of Semiconductors Contd ...

1928 – Felix Bloch (Quantum theory of solids using Bloch wavesto describe the electrons)

1924 – B. Gudden (Impurity hypothesis on the electrical conductionof semiconductors)

1931 – Alan Wilson (Band theory of Semiconductors & explanation ofnegative temperature coefficient of resistance)

Georg Busch, Eur. J. Phys., vol. 10, pp. 254


Quantum theory of solids using Bloch wavesto describe the electrons)

(Impurity hypothesis on the electrical conductionof semiconductors)

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(Band theory of Semiconductors & explanation ofnegative temperature coefficient of resistance)

Georg Busch, Eur. J. Phys., vol. 10, pp. 254-264, 1989.


1938 – Devydov (Role of Minority Carriers in Semiconductors)

Early 1940s – Karl Lark-Horovitz (Purdue)

1949 – G. L. Pearson and J. Bardeen (Bell Labs)


(Role of Minority Carriers in Semiconductors)

Horovitz (Purdue) (Role of dopants in Germanium conductivity)

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G. L. Pearson and J. Bardeen (Bell Labs) (Theory of dopants)


1949 – William Shockley (Bell Labs)

http://sites.google.com/site/transistorhistory/faraday


William Shockley (Bell Labs) (Theory of P-N junctions insemiconductors and P-Njunction Transistor)

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Invention of Germanium Point ContactTransistor

1947 – William Shockley, John Bardeen and Walter Brattain (Bell Labs)

[Picture on left shows the first point contact transistor; on right WilliamShockley (seated), John Bardeen (left) and Walter Brattain (right)]

http://www.cedmagic.com/history/transistor

Invention of Germanium Point ContactTransistor

William Shockley, John Bardeen and Walter Brattain (Bell Labs) -- Nobel prize in Physics (1956)

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[Picture on left shows the first point contact transistor; on right WilliamShockley (seated), John Bardeen (left) and Walter Brattain (right)]

http://www.cedmagic.com/history/transistor-1947.html

Introduction of Junction Transistor

1949 – William Shockley (Bell Labs)

1951 – Gordon Teal and Morgan Sparks (Bell Labs)

http://www.computerhistory.org/semiconductor/timeline/

Introduction of Junction Transistor

William Shockley (Bell Labs) (Conceives an improvedtransistor structure based ona theoretical understandingof the p-n junction)

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Gordon Teal and Morgan Sparks (Bell Labs)(Gordon Teal grows large single

crystals of germanium and worksMorgan Sparks to fabricate an n-p-n junction transistor)


Development of Zone Refining

1951 – William Pfann and Henry Theurer (Bell Labs)

(William Pfann and Jack Scaff withearly zone refining equipment)


Development of Zone Refining

William Pfann and Henry Theurer (Bell Labs)(Developed Zone refining techniques

for production of ultra-pure semiconductor materials)

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(Illustration of the process of Zone refining)


1952 – Transistorized Consumer Products Appear

Transistors appear in battery – poweredradios, where consumers are willingand low power.

1952 – Sonotone Hearing Aid

1953 – First Transistor Radio

1954 – First Transistor radio in US between Texas Instruments & the Regency divisionof Industrial Development Engg Associates)

1954 – Germanium Clocks, hearing aids and Transistor Radio(Tokyo Telecommunication Company; later named SONY)

Transistorized Consumer Products Appear

powered hearing aids and pocketwilling to pay a premium for portability

Sonotone Hearing Aid (First transistorized consumer productin the US made by Germanium ProductsCorporation)

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First Transistor Radio (Internetall Corp., Dusseldorf, WestGermany)

First Transistor radio in US – Regency TR -1 (Joint venturebetween Texas Instruments & the Regency divisionof Industrial Development Engg Associates)

Germanium Clocks, hearing aids and Transistor Radio(Tokyo Telecommunication Company; later named SONY)

1953 – Emergence of Transistorized Computer

1953 – Richard Grimsdale and Tom Kilburn (Manchester University)(Demonstration of a 48

1954 – Jean H. Felker and James R. Harris (Bell Labs)(Built a fully transistorized computer TRADIC for theUS Air Force)

1956 – MIT Lincoln Labs (Built 5 MHz general TX-0)

1956 – Hiroshi Wada (Electrochemical Laboratory, Tokyo)(Japan's first transistorized computer ETL Mark III)


Emergence of Transistorized Computer

Richard Grimsdale and Tom Kilburn (Manchester University)(Demonstration of a 48-bit transistorized Computer)

Jean H. Felker and James R. Harris (Bell Labs)(Built a fully transistorized computer TRADIC for theUS Air Force)

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(Built 5 MHz general – purpose digital computer

Hiroshi Wada (Electrochemical Laboratory, Tokyo)(Japan's first transistorized computer ETL Mark III)


Emergence of Silicon Transistors1954 – Morris Tanenbaum (Bell Labs)

But Texas Instruments' engineersbuilt and marketed the firstcommercial Si devices.

(Morris Tanenbaum and Charls Leeat Bell Labs)

(TI's 1954 Si transistor team)http://www.computerhistory.org/semiconductor/timeline/

Emergence of Silicon TransistorsMorris Tanenbaum (Bell Labs) (Fabricated the first silicon

transistor)

But Texas Instruments' engineersbuilt and marketed the firstcommercial Si devices.

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(Morris Tanenbaum and Charls Lee

(Design sketch of TI's first Si Transistor)


Development of Silicon Process Technology

1954 – Charls Lee and Morris Tanenbaum (Bell Labs)(Diffusion process developed for Transistors)

1955 – Carl Frosch and Lincoln Derick (Bell Labs)(Development of Oxide Masking)

1955 – Jules Andrus and Walter Bond (Bell Labs) 1955 – Jules Andrus and Walter Bond (Bell Labs)(Adapted photolithography techniques fromprinting technology to enable precise etchingof diffusion “windows” in silicon)

1957 – Jay Lathrop and James Nall (US Army's Diamond Ordnance Fuse Laboratories)

(Patented photolithography techniques usedto deposit thin

Development of Silicon Process Technology

Charls Lee and Morris Tanenbaum (Bell Labs)(Diffusion process developed for Transistors)

Carl Frosch and Lincoln Derick (Bell Labs)(Development of Oxide Masking)

Jules Andrus and Walter Bond (Bell Labs)

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Jules Andrus and Walter Bond (Bell Labs)(Adapted photolithography techniques fromprinting technology to enable precise etchingof diffusion “windows” in silicon)

Jay Lathrop and James Nall (US Army's Diamond Ordnance Fuse Laboratories)

(Patented photolithography techniques usedto deposit thin-film metal strips on a ceramic substrate)

Tunnel Diode Promises High Speed Semiconductor Switch

1958 – Leo Esaki (Sony) (Reported a new diode, which exhibitednegative resistance and exploited QMtunneling effect)

(Leo Esaki in Sony Laboratory) (A General Electrictunnel diode, circa 1960)

Tunnel Diode Promises High Speed Semiconductor Switch

(Reported a new diode, which exhibitednegative resistance and exploited QMtunneling effect)

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(A General Electrictunnel diode, circa 1960)

(Robert Noyce's 1956notes on the tunnel diode)

Commercial Production of Silicon Mesa Transistors

1958 – Fairchild Semiconductor

(Fairchild Founders, circa 1960)

(Fairchild Semiconductor waferdiffusion area) http://www.computerhistory.org/semiconductor/timeline/

Commercial Production of Silicon Mesa Transistors

Fairchild Semiconductor (Produced double – diffused siliconmesa transistors to meet demandingaerospace applications)

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(Double – diffused Si mesa transistor)


Demonstration of all semiconductor “Solid State Circuit”

1958 – Jack Kilby (Texas Instruments)

(Jack Kilby with his lab notebook)

(Kilby’s original Ge “Solid Circuit” Oscillator)

Demonstration of all semiconductor “Solid State Circuit”

Jack Kilby (Texas Instruments) - Built a microcircuit using Ge mesa

p-n-p transistor slices, he had etched to form transistor, capacitor and resistor elements

- Required external wiring to connectthe elements

- Awarded Nobel Prize in Physics (2000)

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- Awarded Nobel Prize in Physics (2000)

(Kilby’s original Ge “Solid Circuit” Oscillator)(TI’s Type 502 flip-flop built using Kilby’stechniques)

Practical Monolithic Integrated Circuit Concept Patented

1959 – Robert Noyce (Fairchild) - Builds on Jean Hoerni’s planar process to

patent a monolithic integrated circuit structurethat can be manufactured in high volume

- Interconnection of diodes, transistors, resistorsand capacitors diffused into the Si with Almetal lines

(Hoerni’s patent on the planar manufacturing process)

Practical Monolithic Integrated Circuit Concept Patented

Robert Noyce (Fairchild) Builds on Jean Hoerni’s planar process topatent a monolithic integrated circuit structurethat can be manufactured in high volumeInterconnection of diodes, transistors, resistorsand capacitors diffused into the Si with Almetal lines

29(Robert Noyce’s basic IC patent)

Demonstration of MOS Transistor

1959 – John Atalla and Dawon Kahng (Bell Labs)

(Figure from Dawon Kahng’sMOS patent)

Demonstration of MOS Transistor

John Atalla and Dawon Kahng (Bell Labs)- Achieved the first successful insulated

gate field – effect transistor (FET), which has been long anticipated byLilienfeld, Heil, Shockley and others

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(RCA’s 16 – MOS transistor Integrateddevice, circa 1962)

1965 – Moore’s Law

- Fairchild director of R & D predicts the rate of increase of transistor density onan IC and establishes a yardstick for technology progress.

- “Cramming more components ontointegrated circuits” 1965.

Moore’s Law

Fairchild director of R & D predicts the rate of increase of transistor density onan IC and establishes a yardstick for technology progress.

“Cramming more components ontointegrated circuits” ---- Electronics, April 19,1965.

1974 – Scaling of IC process Design RulesQuantified

-IBM researcher Robert Dennard’s

Scaling of IC process Design RulesQuantified

IBM researcher Robert Dennard’spaper on process scaling on MOSmemories accelerates a global raceto shrink physical dimensions andmanufacture ever more complex Ics.

Classical MOSFET Scaling

H.S.P. Wong et al., Proc. of IEEE, vo. 87, no. 4, 1999

Classical MOSFET Scaling

H.S.P. Wong et al., Proc. of IEEE, vo. 87, no. 4, 1999

Past and Future Downscaling Trend

R. Chau et al., Physica E, vol.19,pp. 1-5, 2003

Past and Future Downscaling Trend

Hiroshi Iwai, IEEE VLSID, 2004

References

[1] http://www.porticus.org/bell/belllabs_transistor.html

[2] http://www.computerhistory.org/semiconductor/timeline/1958

[3] http://sites.google.com/site/transistorhistory/faraday

[4] http://images.businessweek.com/ss/09/07/0702_retelling_computer_history/9.htm

[5] http://www.smh.com.au/news/technology/the1196036813732.html

[6] http://mooni.fccj.org/~ethall/quantum/quant.htm

[7] http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ENIAC

[8] http://www.icknowledge.com/history/1960s.html

[9] http://nobelprize.org/educational_games/physics/transistor/history/

References

http://www.porticus.org/bell/belllabs_transistor.html]

http://www.computerhistory.org/semiconductor/timeline/1958-Mesa.html


http://images.businessweek.com/ss/09/07/0702_retelling_computer_history/9.htm

http://www.smh.com.au/news/technology/the-transistor-at-60/2007/11/26/

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[6] http://mooni.fccj.org/~ethall/quantum/quant.htm

[8] http://www.icknowledge.com/history/1960s.html

[9] http://nobelprize.org/educational_games/physics/transistor/history/

References Contd ...

[10] http://www.radio-electronics.com/info/radio_history/valve/hov.php

[12] http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bell_Labs

[13] http://www.intel.com/intel/museum

[14] George Busch, “Early history of the physics and chemistry of semiconductorsfrom doubts to facts in a hundred years,” Eur. J. Phys., vol.10, pp. 254

References Contd ...

electronics.com/info/radio_history/valve/hov.php

[12] http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bell_Labs

[14] George Busch, “Early history of the physics and chemistry of semiconductors-from doubts to facts in a hundred years,” Eur. J. Phys., vol.10, pp. 254-264, 1989.

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