history. first term units-1

7/31/2019 History. First Term Units-1

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THE HISTORY OF BRITAIN AND IRELAND Pgina 1

Unit 1. British Earliest Times

From the Palaeolithic to the Neolithic Age

The Palaeolithic (400,000-10,000 B.C.)o The Neanderthals (-40,000 B.C.)o Britains First Modern Humans (31,000-13,000 B.C.)

The Mesolithic (10,000-5,500 B.C.) The Neolithic (4,000-2,500 B.C.)

o Monuments to the Dead in Britain and Irelando Neolithic Architectureo Ceremonial, Ritual Centres and Landscapes

Stonehenge and Whiltshire Chambered Tombs in Ockney Boyne Ritual Landscape

The Bronze and Iron Ages

The Bronze Age (2,400-700 B.C.)o New Materials and Toolso Settlements and Industry

The Iron Age (700-55 B.C.)o Celtic Migrationso

Cultural Zoneso Trade and Arto Hill-Fort Defences: their Function

What to study and what to read

Read the introduction by Barry Cunliffe, pp. 12-3 Read attentively pp. 22-5 and 34-7 Analyse the content of the maps on pp. 15, 19 and 27 Study pp. 14-21 and 26-33

Preguntas de exmenes anteriores

Hasta el momento no ha salido ninguna pregunta sobre este tema


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Unit 2. Roman Period

The Roman Conquest and the Northern Frontier

The Invasion and Conquest of the North The Romanisation The Northern Frontier

o The Two Walls: Antonines and Hadrians Wall

Roman Economy and Society

Cities and Townso Roman London: Londinium

The Countryside The Economy of Roman Britain

o Resources and Industries

Late Roman Britain

A Divided Empire The Conspirancy of the Barbarians The End of the Roman Britain


Read the introduction by Barry Cunliffe, pp. 12-3 Read attentively pp. 50-1 Analyse comparatively the maps on pp. 39, 45 and 47 Study pp. 38-49


The Roman Conquest (2) The Romans in Britain

Romes Northern Frontier. Roman Britain


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UNIT 2: ROMAN PERIOD

1. THE ROMAN CONQUEST AND THE NORTHERN FRONTIER

The first phase

Before 55 BCJulius Caesar conquered Gaul (modern France and Belgium), and then crossed theChannel with 10,000 men to make a reconnaissance of the British terrain. They returned tothe continent for the winter due to bad weather.

23 to 43Imports (to Britain): wine, pottery, metalworkExports (from Braitain): Slaves, grain, hunting dogs, precious metals Some of the tribes developed diplomatic links with Augustus and his successors.

39 to 42

Caratacus and Togodumnus were in control of the tribal territories of East Anglia and thesoutheast of England. They expanded into the territory of their tribal neighbours, theAtrebates. Verica (king of the Atrebates) asked for the support of the emperor Claudius toregain his throne. This was the pretext for the Roman invasion that was going to follow.

The second phase

43Claudius ordered the invasion of Britain. Four legions and 20,000 auxiliaries commanded bysenator Plautius landed in Kent and fought Caratacus and Togodumnus army. The Britonswere defeated. Todogumnus died. Caratacus withdrew to the west.

Three lines of Roman advance stand out: North (from London to Lincoln), Northwestward(to Wroxeter and North Wales), and Southwestward (to Exeter).Caratacus had to escape into Wales, but at last was brought to battle in 50. He escapedagain and asked the Brigantes kingdom for sanctuary. Cartimandua (their queen) had atreaty with the Roman emperor and did not help him.

This year, the British capital of the Catuvellauni tribe, Camulodunum (Colchester) fell to theRomans. Claudius arrived to the Islands to symbolically lead his army to victory. AulusPlautius, after the submission of several British kings, was appointed first Roman governorof Britain.

44The Roman general Vespasian captured the Dorset hill forts (including Maiden Castle andHood Hill).

47Aulus Platius, the man who led the invasion of Britain, was received as a hero in Rome. Hewas replaced as governor of Britain by Ostorius Scapula.

49The Romans founded a colony at Camulodonum (Colchester), which became the capital ofthe province. Public buildings were erected and the project for a temple for cult was

established. Local land was confiscated and parcelled up to make farms for the veterans.By 47, the whole south, the centre and the south east of Britain was under the control of theRomans.


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The third phase

51Caratacus is defeated and captured. He was allowed to spend the last days of his life inItaly.The treason of the Brigantes queen would flare a rebellion that had to be pacified by thRomans.

52 to 58The Silures tribe (in south Wales and Gloucestershire), after the capture of Caratacus,started to fight. Publius Ostorius scapula died, and his successor (Aulus Didius Gallus) hadto suffocate their attacks. In 58, the new Roman governor Quintus Veranius Nepos stoppedthe Silures and pacified the region )he constructed a network of roads and forts).

61The druids were the priest-scholars of ancient Britain. The Romans wanted to suppress the

druids of the far west of Britain, but their campaign against them had to be abandoned toput down the revolt of the Iceni (commanded by Boudicca) in the south east of Britain.

The Romans had annexed the territory of the Iceni (East Anglia) after the death of thetribes king, Prasutargus. It led to a rebellion commanded by Boudicca (his widow). TheRoman towns of Camulodunum (Colchester), Londinium (London) and Verulamium (StAlbans) were burned and thousands killed. But at least Boudicca was defeated by theRoman army and died soon afterwards.

The conquest of the NorthAfter the suppression of Boudicca, several new Roman governors continued the

conquest to the north. Cartimandua was forced to ask for Roman aid following a rebellionby her husband Venutius. Quintus Petillius Cerialis defeated Venutius near Stanwick in theyear 70.

In 77, a new governor appeared: Gnaeus Julius Agricola. He defeated the Ordovices inWales and then took his troops north along the Pennines, building roads as he went.Agricola built a fortress at Chester. By 80 he reached the river Tay, and begun theconstruction of a fortress at Inchtuthil. Then he fought successfully against the Caledoniansand the Orcadians (Scotland). The period of conquest was complete.Agricola introduced Romanising measures (building towns on the roman model, educatingthe sons of native nobility in the Roman way). He fortified the coast facing Ireland.

He had to come back to Rome and was replaced by several successors unable to continuethe conquest of the North. The fortress of Inchtuhil was dismantled before it was completed.Other fortifications were erected to consolidate the Roman presence in Scotland.

The RomanisationIt took several decades. It began with the military conquest. After the conquest, manywarriors of the defeated tribes would be dead or sold as slaves. The tribal leaders who werefriendly with Rome were reaffirmed in their positions, but their descendants had to receiveRoman education and culture.

Fortified garrisons, forts, and watchtowers were built at strategic positions. Roads were also

built. The roads facilitated the movement of Roman legions, communication and trade.


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Roman veterans were rewarded by confiscated lands in Britain. Local warriors could joinroman military service to be rewarded with roman citizenship (they would also learn Latinand adopt some aspects of the Roman culture).

Different developments derived of Romanisation: the building of Roman temples and publicbaths, the assimilation of roman gods, the use of Roman names, Roman laws and Latin (asthe most important language)

The Northern FrontierIn 119, the Romans started to work on a turf wall from Ituna to Maia. Then Hadrian orderedthe construction of a stone wall that went from Newcastle to the turf wall. The main purposeof this wall was to separate Romans from barbarians (and to ask for taxes to those whowanted to cross the wall). The wall was reinforced by forts, garrisons, observation towers, awide ditch (in the South)

Antoninus Pius was appointed emperor in 138, and planned to regain part of the north.After recuperating it, he ordered the construction of a new turf wall (in Falkirk andInverclyde). But in 168, the new emperor Marcus Aurelius abandoned Antoninuss wall andreoccupied that of Hadrian.

In the third century, Septimus Severuss military campaign brought stability to the Northernfrontier. It lasted for a century. But new enemies appeared to break this peace: the Pictsand the Scots.

Failure to conquer ScotlandRoman troops advanced several times far into the North of Scotland. In 209, for example,Septimus Severus campaigned against the Caledonians, making genocide in the natives,but after the battle, they had to withdraw to the Hadrians Wall, that then was repaired and

reinforced. Later excursions to Scotland were exploratory ones, or trading contacts

2. ROMAN ECONOMY AND SOCIETY

AdministrationThe Romans set up administrative centres according to traditional tribal territories. Friendlylocal leaders were involved in the decision making process (in order to establish good termswith them and make easier the Romanisation).

TownsTowns (which were centres of commercial activity) were constructed near the Roman armybases. They contained a regular network of streets, and most of them were walled. Townswere joined by Roman roads (which made communication and trade easier).

Every town contained a central forum (a civic centre), that gave access to the basilica (ortown hall, where the courts of justice were held). Towns also had public baths, a theatre, anamphitheatre (for public entertainment)

The countrysideDifferent rural nucleus were established: in the lowland zone the most common were thevillas; in the north zone, just huts.

Villas: They were the country states of the Romanised British elite. They were usually builtclose to major urban centres. They were centres of rural industry (pottery and metalworking)and agriculture. They were used during the second and third centuries.


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The economy of Roman BritainThe Romans imported wine, jewellery and pottery. They exported cattle, grain, lead, iron, tin

and hunting dogs. Trade and communication were improved thanks to roman roads. Britainwas an agricultural province dependent on small farms.

3. LATE ROMAN BRITAIN

Invasions and the end of Roman ruleIn the third century Britain suffered the attack of Saxon pirates, so the Romans had toprotect their territory. The Scots (from Ireland) and the Picts (from Scotland) allied to fightthe Romans. Roman troops had to abandon Britain to deal with military emergencieselsewhere. Romans abandoned the territory, and in 450, England ceased to be part of theEmpire.

A divided Empire

Third centuryAfter the death of Commodus, several rivals for the throne emerged (including SeptimiusSeverus and Clodius Albinus, but Severus won). During the absence of Albinus due to thecivil war, Romans found more difficult to control the northern tribes.

Severus had put the limits again at the Hadrians Wall. Severus tried to solve the problem of

powerful and rebellious governors in Britain dividing the province into Upper Britain and

Lower Britain (the peace lasted almost a century, but it was not a regular period of peace,sometimes interrupted by minor rebellions).

The Roman Empire was into trouble due to barbarian invasions, rebellions and new imperialpretenders, Caurausiuss self-appointment as emperor in Britain and northern Gaul, theattack of Constantinus Chlorus The province was divided into four parts: Maxima

Caesariensis and Britannia Prima (both from Upper Britannia), and Flavia Caesariensis andBritannia Secunda (both from Lower Britannia).

Fourth centuryAlthough Constantine reunified control over the whole country, fragmentation of the imperial

rule dominated the politics of this century. Increasing attacks from the Saxons in the east,and Irish attacks in the west made more difficult the continuity of Romans in Britain. Militaryproblems led to economic decline, diminishing number of troops, and problems with thepayment of soldiers and officials.

The conspiracy of the barbriansThe Great Conspiracy is the term used for the war (that lasted for a year), near the end ofthe Roman occupation. In 367, the roman garrison on Hadrians Wall rebelled, allowing

Picts from Caledonia to enter Britannia. At the same time, Attaconti from Hibernia, andSaxons from Germania landed in.

The entire western and northern areas of Britannia were overwhelmed, the cities sackedand the civilian romano-British murdered, raped or enslaved. The privince was in chaos.


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In 368, the barbarians were driven back to their homelands. Hadrians Wall was retaken,and some order returned to the province.


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Unit 3. Medieval Times

The Celts, the Anglo-Saxons and the Vikings

The Migration Period The Celts and Saxons

o

Expansionist Kingdomso Royal Centres and Locations of Powero The Church

The Viking Ageo Settlemento Assimilationo The Age of Unification

The Making of England The Celtic Areas The Political Legacy

Normans, Angevins and Plantagenets (1066-1399)

The Norman Conquest of England The Transformation of England The Disputed Succession The Angevin Empire

o The Magna Carta, 1215 The Plantagenet Hegemony

The Medieval Church

The Secular Church The Friars The Monastic Orders

Medieval Economy and Society

Markets and Trade Agriculture and Wealth The Black Death


Read the introduction by Robert Bartlett pp. 52-3 Read attentively pp. 106-9 Analyse comparatively the maps on pp. 55, 58 and 63 Study pp. 54-65; 68-83; 88-91 y 100-5


The Anglo-Saxons, the Celts and the Vikings (4) The Normans / The Norman Conquest (5) Main Consequences of the Norman Conquest Normans, Angevins and Plantagenets The Angevins and the Magna Carta (2) Medieval Church (3)


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UNIT 3: MEDIEVAL TIMES

1. THE CELTS, THE ANGLO-SAXONS AND THE VIKINGS

The Migration PeriodAfter the fall of the Roman Empire, German migrations became more frequent. Themigration movements affected the lives of the British, initiating a period of struggle anddecline. The new settlers established several small kingdoms that owed little to the Romanprovincial structures (London was probably the only place where urban life continued.Towns were abandoned, and small kingdoms were settled). Due to the migrationalmovements, four cultural zones appeared:

English speaking Anglo-Saxon east and south Celtic west (British) Gaelic language (a different Celtic language): Ireland and west part of Scotland Gaelic north (Pictish)

Two dominant religious beliefs were in conflict: the British were mostly Christian, and thenewcomers, pagan. The Anglo-Saxons remained pagan till the 7 th Century.

Communities of belief

According to burial rites, there were several differences:

The British and Irish erected inscribed memorial stones (but the corpses were notclothed or furnished).

The Anglo-Saxons had no inscribed memorials, but cemeteries contained objects suchas weapons, jewellery, clothes The dead bodies were put on the pyre, and the ashes

taken into urns to be buried.

The Celts and Saxons

Expansionist kingdomsIn England, the kingdom that was in the upper part of England (Fortriu) grew to absorb partof the southern Pictish territory. During the 7 th Century, Northumbria came to dominate itsBritish neighbours. Northumbria became bigger, and so did Mercia.

In Wales, the post-Roman political landscape survived more intact. Mountainous borders

deterred potential enemies, and territories such as Powys and Gwynedd became durablekingdoms that would last till the Norman conquest (in the 12 th Century).

The control over London generated conflict between Mercia and Wessex (a conflict thatended with the beginning of the Viking wars).

In Ireland, the dynasties of U Nill (that dominated Northern and Southern U Nill) andEoganacht (that dominated Munster) constructed and maintained large polities.

Royal centresIn Celtic-speaking Britain royal settlements were hill-forts constructed on craggy knolls.These hill forts served for domestic, administrative and ceremonial functions.

The Anglo-Saxons, on the other hand, tended to reoccupy Roman centres (such as thoseof Winchester and York). Their main ceremonial and administrative functions were held in


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royal halls (such as Northampton). These places were not used for commercial ormanufacturing purposes.

Location of powerEarly medieval kings used to associate themselves with sites of ancient authority in order tolegitimise their power.

The ChurchIn this period, the Church grew in influence, wealth and organisation, due to theinvolvement of aristocrats in church matters. The same aristocratic families dominated theChurch and the Crown. Frequently, a specific saint became identified with a specifickingdom.

Iona (founded by Columba in 563) became one of the greatest ecclesiastical centres in theBritish Isles, establishing a network of associated monasteries that were wealthy places ofscholarship and religious devotion. In the 8 th Century iona was raided by the Vikings.

About the year 700, the Anglo-Saxons conversion to Christianity was completed. The

church became increasingly political. But religious activity was not centralised. Religiousbuildings were constructed with artistic care and style.

The Viking Age

IntroductionThe Viking age in Britain started in 789. Danish and Norwegian Vikings raided the coastlineof Britain and Ireland, being monasteries their main target as they were defenceless andrich.

In 836 Vikings began to build fortified bases (they were temporary settlements, but some ofthem became permanent settings, such as the one in Dublin).

The Norwegians concentrated on Scotland, Ireland and Northwest England. The Danes(who were the most numerous) concentrated on eastern and southern England.

SettlementThe earliest Viking settlements in Britain were in Shetland (Orkney) about 850. The isleswere convenient bases for raiding the mainland.

Kenneth MacAlpin (king of the Scots of Dl Riata), took advantage of the Viking attack onthe Picts, establishing what is nowadays Scotland. The Picts disappeared. The Britishkingdom of Strathclyde was also weakened by the Viking attacks, so in the 10 th century fellunder the expansion of the Scots.

Anglo-Saxon Britain also suffered the consequences of the Vikings attacks. Danish Vikingslanded in East Anglia in 865, and Northumbria fell to their power, followed by Wessex in870.

In 874, the Vikings conquered the kingdom of Mercia. In 878 Wessex was under the controlof the Vikings and King Alfred of Wessex had to hide, but time later he regained theterritory, creating a settlement that divided England.

AssimilationThe Scandinavian settlers found it easy to assimilate with the native population (throughintermarriage and conversion to Christianity). In England the process was easier than in


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other parts of Britain and Ireland as the difference in language was not big. Englishvocabulary was enriched by loan words from Danish (egg, sister, skin). The Danish -settled areas of England became known as the Danelaw (they adopted Danish legalcustoms).

In some places the Vikings did not adopt the native ways. The Picts adopted theScandinavian customs and speech. In the Northern isles Norm was spoken till the 18 thCentury (when it was replaced by English).

The Age of Unification

The Making of England (10th

and 11th

Centuries)The Vikings conquered the kingdoms of East Anglia, Northumbria and Mercia. Only theWest Saxons stood firm. King Alfred fought against the Vikings and regained the previouslylost kingdom of Wessex. His son Edward the Elder (with the help of Aethelflaed, Edwardssister) extended West Saxon control over the Danes of Eastern England and the Mercians.

Alfreds grandson Aethelstan extended West Saxon control over those who lived in theNorth. After extending rule over the Northumbrians, he became the first ruler of all theEnglish.

But it was not till the reign of King Edgar (959 975) that the unified kingdom of Englandwas completely real, as the Northumbrians completely submited to the southern Englishking.

The Celtic AreasIn Ireland, Scotland and Wales it was different. The Irish found in the person on Brian Borutheir saviour against the Norse. Wales submitted to Edward the Elder, and then to

Aethelstan. In Scotland, Kenneth II and Malcom II managed agreement with Edward to landextension. The kingdom od strathclyde was absorbed by the Scots (but those of Orkneyand Morley retained some degree of independence).

The Political LegacyIn the 10th Century there was a tendency towards the centralisation of political power in allparts of the British Isles. The English succumbed to the Danish conquer in the 11 th Century.Cnut, king of Denmark, expanded conquered Norway, part of Sweden, and then England(in 1016).

Cnuts empire broke up after his death in 1035. In 1042 the native dynasty was restored topower in England (in the person of Edward the Confessor).

2. NORMANS, ANGEVINS AND PLANTAGENETS (1066 1399)

The Normans

The Norman Conquest of EnglandEdward the Confessor did not have children. William, duke of Normandy (his mother great-nephew) and Earl Harold Godwinson (from the House of Wessex) wanted to inherit thethrone. Edward, on his deathbed in 1066, acknowledged Harold as his successor. HaraldHardrada of Norway also claimed the English throne.

The new king Harold and his kingdom faced invasion on two fronts: Duke William in theSouth, and Hardrada (Norway) on the North. He and his army defeated the Northern


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invaders, but William could advance till Hastings. King Harold fought against the Normancavalry in Hastings, but he died, leaving the English leaderless. William was reluctantlyaccepted as king.

Although there were sporadic outbreaks of saxon resistance to Norman rule after the Battleof Hastings (a battle that took place the 14 th October 1066), notably in East Anglia and inthe North of England, England was effectively ruled by the Normans.

The Transformation of EnglandIn 1068 the harsh Norman regime led to native uprisings and revolts in the North. Williamwent North, and finally managed to put an end to the resistance in 1070.William found supporters on his northern French followers, as he knew he could not counton the support of native aristocracy.

By the time of Williams death in 1087, England has changed a lot. Castles for defencewere constructed, confiscated estates were given to those who assisted him, leading tohuge changes in land ownership in England (the country was in the hands of fewer than200 new barons). With the Papal support, William reorganised the English Church, being

Anglo-Saxon churchmen replaced by Normans appointed by William. New monasterieswere founded.

The Disputed SuccessionBefore his death, William decided to divide his property amongst his three sons. William IIgot England, Robert got Normandy and Henry got money. But William II was reallyunpopular and a poor administrator. He died in an accident, so technically the throne wasleft for Robert (who was in Normandy). But Henry was in England and proclaimed himselfking of England. He later defeated Robert (in 1106) and added Normandy to his rule aswell.

Henry I was a better king than his brother William II. The Royal administration wasexpanded and the rule of law solidified. A new wave of monastic settlements began in1128. Norman French became the official language of the court, the law and the aristocracy(and it remained like that till 1024, with the loss of Normandy, when the Normans began tolearn English).

Henry I had a son, also called Henry, who was his heir. But he died, so Henry settled hisinheritance on Matilda, his daughter. Many barons did not like the idea of being ruled by awoman, so they gave their support to Henrys nephew Stephen. Stephen and Matildastarted a civil war that lasted for 19 years. It ended with an agreement: Stephen became theleader, but the throne after his death would go to Matildas son, Henry.

The Angevin Empire

Henry IIHenry II (the son of matilda and Geoffrey of Anjou) succeeded the English throne in 1154.He consolidated the kingdom of Britain. He added Ireland and Northern England to thekingdom (but Wales remained autonomous).

Henry chose Thomas Becket as Archbishop of Canterbury. At the time, criminal clerks couldonly be courted in church courts, and Henry wanted them to be tried in royal courts, butBecket opposed Henry. More disagreements between the two led to Beckets death ordered

by the king. But Henry was full of remorse and did penance imposed by the pope.


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Henry reformed trials by imposing the system of a jury of 12 men. He also introduced thefirst personal property tax. He forced Wales to acknowledge the sovereignty of the Englishcrown.

Henrys sonsHenry II had four sons: Henry, Richard, Geoffrey and John. His ambitious sons desiredpower, so it led to a family rebellion in 1173. Geoffrey and his brother Henry died. Richarddefeated his father (who was favouring John). The king died, and Richard the Lionheartinherited the throne.

The End of the Angevin EmpireWhen Richard died he had no son to succeed him. His dead brother Geoffrey had a soncalled Arthur of Brittany (who had the support in Anjou and elsewhere to become the king).But it was John Lackland who became king of England Normandy and the full Angevinempire, with the support of Philip of France. But time later Philip abandoned his position assupporter of Johns cause.

John captured Arthur and killed him, and it led to the loss of the few allies that he had.

Barons throughout the Angevin lands rebelled, and Philip conquered Normandy.John wanted to extent his authority over King William of Scotland and over the Welshprinces. This situation soon led to a rebellion and his opponents formulated a programme ofreform which at last produced Magna Carta, sealed by John in Birkshire in 1215.

John died in 1216, and his son Henry III was proclaimed king of England. John had lost allof the Angevins continental lands except for Gascony, and England itself ha d been invadedby the French. In the 13 th Century, the English crown declared its sovereignty over thewhole of Britain.

The Plantagenet Hegemony

WalesLlewelyn (prince of Wales) had invaded rival Welsh princes. Edward I campaigned againsthim, and as a result, the Welsh prince lost part of his land (that was used by king Edward Ito create powerful lordships) and he was imposed a war indemnity that he could not haveever payed (it proved the control of Edward over the prince of Wales).

In 1282 Daffydd (Llewelyns brother) launched a revolt against the English, so Edwardlaunched a war of conquest. Llewelyn and Daffydd were killed.

During the conquest of Wales many castles were built as a symbol of the Plantagenet rule.In 1284 Edward I imposed the Statute of Wales, by which the former principality was placedunder the direct jurisdiction of the English crown and law. Further revolts were suppressed,and the days of the native princes were over.

ScotlandAlexander III of Scotland died in 1286. According the treaty of Birgham of 1290, princessMargaret of Scotland would marry Edward I of England, establishong then one ruler overtwo independent kingdoms. But Margaret died, originating a succession crisis.

Edward entered the kingdom with force in 1296. Scotland was reduced to the status of adependent land.

A Scottish army under William Wallace defeated an English force. The socts followed thisvictory breaching the border and launching raids into Northern England.


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Edward moved his administration to York in 1298 and began a series of annual militarycampaigns lasting for the rest of his reign. In 1305 William Wallace was captured andexecuted. Edward I subordinated Scotland to his own sovereignty. But continuous raids onthe North of England went on.

In 1307 Edward I died. His son Edward II succeeded him. The situation in the North ofEngland became desperate. Robert Bruces forces raided far into the English territory, into

York and Lancashire. Edward II was too weak, and the English position in Scotlandcollapsed after Robert Bruces victory at Bannockburn in 1314, and a Scottish invasion ofIreland in 1315 threatened English control there.

In 1328, by the treaty of Edinburgh, the English crown named Bruce king of the Scots, andat last Scotland obtained again its sovereignty from England.

3. THE MEDIEVAL CHURCH

Introduction

In Medieval Britain, every aspect of life was guided by the church. Regular attendance atmass and confession were obligatory. Official marriage became an ecclesiastical affair fromthe 12th Century onwards. Burial in consecrated ground was granted to all except suicidesand excommunicates. The administrative systems of government and commerce followedcalendar divisions marked by saints days.Saints were regarded as mediators between humans and gods. Relics of saints were usedas powerful claims for pilgrimages and soon became places of devotion. In England, themost popular place of pilgrimage was Canterbury. Other places visited were York,Chichester

The Secular Church

Britain and Ireland were divided into Bishoprics. Each bishopric had at its centre a cathedralchurch that functioned as the bishops seat and which might also be the governmentalcentre of a region. Bishops were valued by kings as local agents of government.

The parish was the basic unit of religious life. Every parish had a resident priest that had toprovide baptism, eucharist, confession, marriage, extreme unction and to instruct theirparishioners as mass was in Latin. Priests should marry and have families, but from the 11 thcentury onwards, celibacy became standard.

Priest could also act as mediators in quarrels, as confidents, as bankers Stone churches

were also places of refuge during times of violence.

Every cathedral was supposed to maintain a school, but the level of education variedwidely. The level of Oxford, for example, was great.

The FriarsThe friars provided public preaching and teaching in Christian doctrine. In contrast with thewealthy Church, they were poor (their poverty was considered a sign of spirituality). Thefriars concentrated their ministry in urban areas where population had grown and where theconstruction of a church had not been possible.

The Monastic OrdersEarly British monasteries could be of two types: of the Celtic region or of the continental

pattern. Monasteries in Ireland were inspired by the early ascetic tradition of Egypt andPalestine. Monasteries were in locations that emphasised solitude and remoteness. Thefirst monasteries built in Scotland were inspired by the Irish models such as Iona.


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During the seventh century in England, monasteries of the Benedictines started to be built.These monasteries were related to saints.

A huge number of new foundations were established in the 12 th Century, many of them forwomen. The most enduring of the new orders were the Cistercians, founded in 1128 inWaverley. They spread through Britain (thy were popular as they favoured remote anduncultivated sites, so they used large areas of land that were considered of no use). Someof the most important Cistercian abbeys were Rievaulx, Fountains, Byland and Tintern.

The main purpose of monasteries was contemplation and worship of God within the abbeywalls. Most abbeys were poor, but some (as Wastminster) were so rich that they gave a badimage of the Church in the later Middle Ages.

4. MEDIEVAL ECONOMY AND SOCIETY

Introduction

The British isles were predominantly agrarian in the 12 th and 13th Centuries. The port ofLondon handled a third of the whole English trade by 1300. Important foreign companiessettled in London. Eastern England and Scotland established a fluid commerce with thecontinent, but Wales, Ireland and Highland Scotland had more problems for trade due totheir distant location to the continent.Exports: raw materials (wool, grain, coal)Imports: manufactured good, wine and luxury commodities

Markets and TradeA network of trading places (markets, fairs) was successfully created by kings and lords, inorder to facilitate economy and trade. Peasants could sell their surpluses, obtaining cash to

buy what they needed; specialised workers could sell their products easily.

Roads established good communication among trading centres (but they were poorlyconstructed and dangerous, so trade by water was preferred), rivers were bridgedInformation and instruction travelled fast. Products travelled by boat, as travelling by waterwas cheaper. The compass was indispensable for navigators. Boats were improved.

Medieval Britain and Ireland supported over 13 million sheep. As well as producing wool forthe export trade, they also manured the arable and supplied milk for making cheese.

Merchant guilds controlled the trade in a town. Merchant guilds regulated prices, quality,weights, measures and business practices. Craft guilds controlled the quality, working hoursand conditions of the members of a guild. There were three levels of craftsmen: masters,journeymen and apprentices.

Agriculture and WealthAgriculture was the largest sector of the economy. Grain production and processingprovided more employment than any other activity. Other important activities to gain wealthand to survive were: the production of crops, animals, wood and minerals. By 1300, theBritish isles supported a population of 7 or 8 million (about 4 to 5 million lived in England).England was the wealthiest of the four, being Ireland the poorest one. London was therichest town.

The Black Death in England (1348 1350)The Black Death spread from Asia along trade routes, and arrived to Italy in 1347. It arrivedin the South coast of England in 1348, and some weeks later on the east coast of Ireland.


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In 1349 it arrived to almost all parts of England. The plague, caused by the bacillus YersiniaPestis, came to the human population from mice due to fleas. Due to the Black Death, halfthe population in England died. This severely affected the economy. After this first plague,the Black Death came again in 1361 and in 1369, 1379 and 1289, and during the first halfof the 15th Century.

During the plague, there were not enough workers to work the land. Then wages and pricesrose. Landowners offered extras such as food, drink to lure labourers. With the fall in

population most landowners did not get the rental income they needed, and were forced toleave their land.

Almost half the priests in England died in the epidemic. Their gap was filled withunderqualified applicants, a point which accelerated the decline in church power thatculminated in the English Reformation.


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Unit 4. The Tudor Age (1485-1602)

The Tudors and the Church

The Age of the Reformation The Counter-Reformation: Queen Mary (1553-1558) The Dissolution of the Monasteries The Elizabeths Golden Age: A fortress of Protestantism

o The Spanish Armada, 1588

The Tudor Court

The Royal Palaces The Decline of Court and Palace

Parliament and Politics

Institutional Variations Corruption and Reform Representation in Practice

The Absorption of Wales into the English Kingdom

The Act of Union of 1536 Literacy and Culture


Read the introduction by John Morrill, pp. 112-3 Read attentively pp. 120-1 and 126-7 See the maps on pp. 115 and 123 Study pp. 114-9; 122-5 and 128-9


The Tudors: Court, Parliament and the Church (5) The Relevance of the Tudors General Aspects of the Tudor Age (2) The Tudors and the Church (2)


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UNIT 4: THE TUDOR AGE

1. THE TUDORS AND THE CHURCH

The Age of ReformationHenry VII was the first Tudor king. He moved towards royal absolutism. He was an able andactive administrator. When he came to the throne, the crown was heavily in debt, but whenhe died, Henry VIII inherited a bulging treasury, that the new king transformed in anenormous debt.

Henrys eldest son was Arthur, Prince of Wales, who married Catherine of Aragon. Arthur

died, so the throne was left to his younger brother Henry.

Henry VIII, king since 1509, married his brothers widow, Catherine of Aragon. They had sixchildren, but just one of them, Mary, survived. He wanted the divorce in order to marry AnneBoleyn (one of the Queens ladies), buy the Pope Clement VII did not allow him to do so.

The situation became desperate when Anne Boleyn got pregnant. Henry VIII wanted thechild (who at last was another girl) to be legitimate, so they should marry. One of the WhiteHorse Group, Thomas Cranmer argued that the king of England enjoyed Imperial Powersimilar to that of the first Christian Roman Emperors: that the Popes jurisdiction was illegal.

It was said that if Henry wanted a divorce to marry his mistress, Anne Boleyn, he could haveit as long as the Archbishop of Canterbury, William Warham, agreed. But Warham did not.

In 1532 a new Act asserted Englands judicial independence. Warham died, and Henry

replaced him with Cranmer, and the divorce came through within months. He married Anne,and had a daughter called Elizabeth. Later he accused Anne of adultery and she wascondemned. Then Henry married Jane Seymour, and they had a son (who was going to bethe future Edward VI, king from 1547 to 1553). After Janes death, Henry had three otherwives.

The Counter-Reformation: Queen Mary (15531558)Mary became queen in 1553. She was Edwards devoutly Catholic sister. She had to undothe work of 20 years. But she martyred 300 ordinary Protestants and some other biggernames as Cranmer. The burnings were unpopular, and she was named Bloody Mary.

A Religious Civil War seemed to be inevitable: unpopular burnings of martyrs, her marriageto Philip II of Spain (son of Charles V), the loss of Calais (Englands last territory in France),the rebellion of Thomas Wyatt in Kent

Mary died childless in 1558. The only heir was Anne Boleyns daughter, Elizabeth, whobecame Queen (1558 to 1603). She was a moderate Protestant, and she inherited akingdom where Catholicism dominated everywhere but in the major cities, the South Eastand East Anglia. Her religious settlement of 1559 restored Royal Supremacy and the Act ofUniformity. Altars were allowed, and clergy had permission to marry.

The Dissolution of the MonasteriesThe Act of Supremacy (1534) confirmed the break from Rome, declaring Henry VIII to bethe supreme Head of the Church of England.

Henry took his most decisive step against the power of the Church in 1538, when he began

the dissolution of monasteries. Two thirds of the land was sold to the laity, and the moneythat came to the Royal Treasury wasted in vanity wars against France. Many monasticlibraries full of priceless manuscripts were destroyed.


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With Edward VI, priests were allowed to marry, and more lands were confiscated. Altarsand shrines were removed from churches and stained glass was smashed.

The Elizabeths Golden Age: A Fortress of ProtestantismAll but one of Marys Bishops were removed form office after refusing to take the Oath ofSupremacy. They were replaced by men hand-picked by Elizabeths chief minister, RobertCecil. Although altars were theoretically allowed, in practice they were removed.

In 1563, an Act of Uniformity made refusal to take the oath, or the defence of papalauthority, a treasonable offence. But England was in severe threat (the revolt of 1569, thepapal invasion of Ireland, Elizabeths excommunication, the arrival of priests fromFrance). These events underlined the insecurity of the Anglican Church. But Elizabeths

reign made it possible the unification as Patriotism and Protestantism, and the wholecountry became Protestant.

The Spanish Armada (1588)King Philip II of Spain was the most powerful and wealthy man in Europe in the latter half of

the 16th Century. His territories in the New World brought him enormous wealth. In hisyouth, Philip was married to his fellow Catholic, Mary (Queen of England). He was not kingof England, but just Marys consort. Philip never cared for Mary, but their marriage wassupposed to keep England within the Roman Catholic sphere.

When Mary died in 1558, her Protestant sister Elizabeth came to the throne. Philip wantedto marry her. Elizabeth made him think they were in friendly terms, but at the same time sheencouraged English pirates to seize Spanish ships and goods in the West Indies. Elizabethalso supported Protestants in the Netherlands in their revolt against Spanish occupation inthe 1560s.

As under Catholic principles, Elizabeth was not legitimate, Philip thought that she had noright to the throne. He also thought that it was his duty to lead Protestant England back tothe Catholic Faith. He managed to get papal approval for his invasion, so he prepared hisArmada (130 ships that sailed in 1588). Philip insisted on controlling the Armadas missionfrom his palace of the Escorial (his commanders were never given the possibility of showingtheir experience or creating their own tactics). The problem is that Philip had little militarytraining and almost no idea of naval matters.

During the battle, the Armada seemed to be greatly less efficient than it was supposed tobe. The Armada was commanded to return to Spain, but as the English blocked thechannel, the only route open was north, around the tip of Scotland, and then down thecoast of Ireland. Spanish ships were scattered due to a succession of storms. When the

Armada regained Spain, it had lost half its ships and three-quarters of its men.

The victory was greeted in England as a sign of divine approval for the Protestant cause.The term Invincible Armada was a sarcastic term employed by later Englishcommentators.

2. THE TUDOR COURT

The Royal PalacesDuring the 16th century, many palaces were built, due to several reasons: Ancient fortified palaces from middle ages were unnecessary, so new spots weresought for the building of new palaces.


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The dissolution of monasteries provided building materials and land for new upcomingfamilies.

The palaces were built in cities and in rich rural areas. Lack of efficient communication (roads) made that palaces (which were political sites)

were built at frequent intervals. The building of roads, however, led to the cease inbuiding so many palaces.

The Decline of Court and PalaceThe development of better communications (such as the construction of better roads) madeit unnecessary the use of so many palaces. The tendency for the court to become settledresulted in a reduction of the number of royal houses (those no longer needed were soldoff). Another factor for the abandonment of so many palaces was the union of the Crownsof England and Scotland in 1603. During the Civil War several royal houses weredemolished, and some palaces were reused as hospitals for the war-wounded.

3. PARLIAMENT AND POLITICS

Institutional VariationsFrom the 15th to the 19th centuries, the parliament was a political forum where grievance ofthe nation was discussed and remedies (laws) were promoted. It also contributed to the risefunds for the crown spending in daily routine, to the administration of the realm and to thedefence of the nation. The right to vote was restricted to independent and prosperous men.

The English Parliament consisted of two chambers: the house of Lords (made up of thenobility) and the house of Commons (made up of elected representatives from the shiresand main towns).

In England and Ireland, the Court was closely similar, but in Scotland the Parliament had a

single chamber for representatives of the Four Estates (the Lords, the Church, the Lairds minor landowners- and the boroughs).

Until the protestant reformation, the different Houses of Lords included the abbots of theleading monasteries (in England they continued to sit even after the reformation, but inScotland they were excluded after 1638).

London was established as a permanent venue for the parliament. Previously, meeting hadbeen hold wherever the monarch had chosen. But then regional parliaments disappearedgiving way to centralised power in London.

Previously, rules on procedure had always been passed by word of mouth, but in the 16thcentury they were written down in books.

The House of Commons underwent considerable variations: in 1542 members from Walesentered on permanent bases, then it was the time for Scotland (in 1707) and then forIreland (1801).

Corruption and reformElectoral corruption was rife, particularly in the Scottish constituencies. A single greatlandowner could dominate a borough in such a way that he virtually owned the seats inparliament. Bribery of electors was standard practice (supplying alcohol, offering generoussubsidies to the local poor). It also allowed certain families to put their sons into

parliament, not only to perpetuate their social and political status, but also to advance theircareers.


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The Triennial Act of 1694 and the Septenial Act of 1716 were two laws that aimed toprevent situations of abuse happening within the spears of the Parliament, as certainHouses of Lords were reluctant to re-elections, resulting in a body of populationrepresentatives that virtually did not represent the opinion of the changing public.

Another change was that it was expected that the elected member of parliament had theduty of preserving and promoting the common good.

Representation in practiceIn the beginning of the 16 th century, Cornwalls parliamentary representation consisted oftwo knights and 12 burgesses. Members of the Cornish boroughs were often moredemocratically elected than those of the rest of the country. Cornwall was extremelyvulnerable to invasion, so a series of fortifications was constructed to defend its coastline.

4. THE ABSORPTION OF WALES INTO THE ENGLISH KINGDOM

The Act of Union of 1536

The Act of Union completed a long process of absorption of Wales. Marcher lordships wereconsidered unnecessary and passed to form part of the same realm, divided into shires,subject to the same laws, and enjoying parliamentary representation.

Though the ruling classes in Wales were mainly English speaking, it was granted thatWales would not be regarded simply as part of England. English became the officiallanguage of administration.

Wales also suffered the upheavals of the religious reformation. At fist the Reformationsubstituted Latin text for vernacular, but prayers, the Creed, and the Ten Commandmentswere translated to Welsh (a fact that made the Welsh enthusiastically embrace

Protestantism).

Literacy and CultureGrammar school education was in English, but basic literacy in Welsh became widespreadin the eighteen century. A growing market for Welsh language books led to theestablishment of of the first presses in Wales in the early 18 th century.

In the 18th century, identification with the Celtic past became an important way for theWelsh to assert their different identity from the English. Interest in the bardic tradition wasreawakened and druidism was revived through colourful and invented ceremonies.

Wales remained predominantly agrarian (cattle production, dairy products, cloth-manufacture). The countryside underwent gradual deforestation.

THE TUDORS

IntroductionHENRY VIII was married to a Spanish princess called Catherine of Aragon, but only hadone daughter (Mary) in 18 years of marriage. Henry wanted to divorce Catherine so that hecould have a son, but the Pope refused to allow this. He therefore created a separateChurch which did not regard the Pope as its leader, although Henry still supported Catholicbeliefs. He married Anne Boleyn, but she produced another daughter (Elizabeth). Heaccused her of having a love affair and she was killed (beheaded). He married Jane


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Seymour and had a son (Edward), but she died. He married a German princess calledAnne of Cleaves, but didn't like her and had the marriage cancelled. Next he marriedCatherine Howard, but she had a love affair and was killed (beheaded). His sixth wife,Catherine Parr, managed to live longer than Henry. English schoolchildren remember whathappened to the six wives by remembering the sentence: "Divorced, beheaded, died;divorced, beheaded, survived". WALES WAS UNITED WITH ENGLAND AT THIS TIME.

Henry the Eighth spent a lot of money on creating a palace near London at HamptonCourt. Tudor houses can still be seen in several parts of the country, including in Chester.

The REFORMATION took place in Europe at this time. Starting in Germany under MartinLuther, the Protestant Church grew quickly and became established in half of Europe.AFTER HENRY VIII DIED, EDWARD VI BECAME KING AND THE PROTESTANT FAITHBEGAN TO BECOME ESTABLISHED IN ENGLAND. A Book of Common Prayer (writtenin English) was introduced in churches in about 1550, and priests were allowed to marry.However, WHEN EDWARD DIED, MARYI BECAME THE QUEEN and tried to convert thecountry back to the CATHOLIC CHURCH, killing many people who refused: for this reasonshe is often known as Bloody Mary. She was married to the Spanish King Philip II.

ELISABETH I became queen after Mary died. She restored the PROTESTANT religionand the CHURCH OF ENGLAND became established. Philip II of Spain sent a fleet ofships, known as the SPANISH ARMADA, to be used for an invasion of England, but thiswas defeated.

William Shakespeare wrote plays and poetry at this time. The Globe Theatre in London, acopy of which has recently been built, was a popular place to watch plays (see:http://www.shakespeares-globe.org). Sir Francis Drake travelled around the world in a shipcalled the Golden Hinde, as well as helping to defeat the Spanish Armada. Sir WalterRaleigh went to America and established a new colony there called Virginia (named afterElizabeth, who was called the Virgin Queen because she never married): he also broughtpotatoes and tobacco to England for the first time.

Marriage to Catherine. Henry VIII received a special dispensation from the pope in orderto marry his brother's widow, Catherine. The only child of that marriage was a daughter,Mary. Henry desperately wanted a male heir, and as time went on it became obvious thatCatherine would have no more children. Henry began to cast around for a solution.Anne Boleyn. For by now Henry had enough of his marriage, and was eyeing one of theQueen's ladies in waiting, Anne Boleyn. Anne refused Henry's advances without the benefitof a wedding, so Henry sent his chancellor, Cardinal Wolsey, to ask the pope for anannulment of his marriage to Catherine. Unfortunately for the powerful Wolsey, he failed,and was deposed from office. He died shortly after his deposition. In Wolsey's placeThomas More was brought in to be Chancellor.

The Act of Supremacy. Henry's situation was now desperate, for Anne was pregnant, andat all costs the child, which Henry was sure must be a son, had to be legitimate. Henry gotParliament to declare that his first marriage was void, and he secretly married Anne.Unfortunately for Henry, the child proved to be female once again, the future Elizabeth I.Over the next several years Henry's wrangle with the pope grew ever deeper, until in 1534the Act of Supremacy was passed, making Henry, not the pope, head of the church inEngland. This was not at first a doctrinal split in any way, but a personal and political move.

Anne's Boleyn's Fall. For all the trouble that Henry had undergone to marry Anne Boleyn,

their marriage did not last long. First was the disappointment of a female child. Then camerumors that Anne had been unfaithful to Henry, which neatly coincided with Henry's newinfatuation for Jane Seymour.
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Eventually Anne was tried for adultery, which, since Henry was the king, was treason ifHenry chose to look at it that way. He did so choose, and Anne was beheaded on thegreen in theTower of London.

Wives Three through Six. Henry married Jane, and between them they produced the longawaited male heir to the throne, the futureEdward VI. Unfortunately, Jane died in childbirth.

Henry then went through the last of his three wives in quick succession. Anne of Cleves,Catherine Howard and Catherine Parr, who was more nursemaid than wife to the ailingHenry, managed to outlive the king.

The feeble Edward VI (1537-53) was only ten years old when he came to the throne. TheDuke of Somerset (The Lord Protector) acted as regent. Somerset introduced Protestantreforms to the English church. Uniformity of service was ensured by an act of Parliament. In1551 Archbishop Cranmer's Forty Two Articles of religion laid the foundation forAnglicanism. Edward died at the age of sixteen.The reign of Queen Mary, her eldest sister successor (1553-58) was marked by religiousupheaval and dissension. She had been raised as a Catholic, and she sought to undothe Protestant changes of the past several years. Protestants were suppressed andburned in the hundreds, an act which earned Mary the charming nickname "Bloody Mary".

Mary entered into an extremely unpopular marriage with Philip, heir to the throne ofSpain. Parliament refused to accept Philip as co-ruler, and after much wrangling he took hisplace as Mary's consort only, with no right to inherit the throne. Mary seems to have dotedon Philip, but he regarded the marriage as an affair of political convenience.

When Mary died was succeeded by Elizabeth I, (1558-1603) who was raised as aProtestant, but she was shrewd enough to play the game of politics; she was a master ofprocrastination and of playing one side against the other.

Under Elizabeth the Church of England was officially established (1563) withProtestant dogma, but a liturgy, rites, and church organization which were essentiallyCatholic in form. There were many non-conforming Protestant sects at this time, most ofwhich were tolerated under Elizabeth's policies. Life was not easy for Catholics, though.There were as many executions of Catholics under Elizabeth as there were Protestantsunder Mary, though over a reign nine times as long.

One of the main thorn's in Elizabeth's side was Mary, Queen of Scots. Mary, a Catholic,fled from Scotland after managing to offend nearly everyone there, and took refuge inEngland. The trouble was that Mary became the centre of numerous Catholic plots to regainpower in England. Elizabeth might have been able to overlook that, but Mary had the gift of

indiscretion, and was discovered once too often corresponding with Elizabeth's enemies.Reluctantly, Elizabeth had Mary executed for treason.

Tension with Spain was constant during Elizabeth's reign. Philip, who had once beentouted as a possible husband for Elizabeth, was now king of Spain. Spain had tremendouswealth pouring into its treasury from its territories in the New World, and English sailorshad a habit of capturing Spanish ships on the high seas . This "piracy" was officiallyreprimanded by Elizabeth and unofficially praised. Sir Francis Drake and Sir John Hawkinswere two captains who made their reputations and fortunes playing at piracy.

The Spanish Armada

Background.King Philip II of Spain was the most powerful and (seemingly) wealthy manin Europe in the latter half of the 16th century. His territories in the New World brought him
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enormous wealth, though the expense of administering that far-flung empire meant thatSpain was heavily in debt to foreign bankers.

England, by comparison, was a relatively small nation, and not a particularly powerful orwealthy one. Why then would Philip spend the money to assemble the largest - and mostexpensive - naval force ever seen against his island foe?

For the fervently Catholic Philip, he believed that it was his duty to lead Protestant Englandback to the Catholic faith - by force of necessary. He managed to get papal approval for hisinvasion, and a promise of money to be delivered after the Spanish had landed in England.

He also got papal permission to name the next ruler of England (by surreptitiously slipping aclause to that effect into the middle of the document of agreement with the pope). Philipplanned to name his daughter Isabella as Queen of England, under his control.

The Armada sets sail. By May of 1588, however, the Armada was finally ready to sail. Thefleet numbered over 130 ships, making it by far the greatest naval fleet of its age.

The Battle. The Spanish sailed up the Channel in a crescent formation, with the trooptransports in the centre. When the Spanish finally reached Calais, they were met by acollection of English vessels under the command of Howard.

In England the victory was greeted as a sign of divine approval for the Protestantcause. The storms that scattered the Armada were seen as intervention by God. Servicesof thanks were held throughout the country, and a commemorative medal struck, with thewords, "God blew

The Dissolution of the MonasteriesHenry VIII took his most decisive step against the power of the church in 1538, when he

began the Dissolution of the Monasteries. He did it piecemeal, perhaps to avoid too muchoutcry at the start. First the small, less powerful houses had their property confiscated andtheir buildings blighted (made unsuitable for use). They were followed the next year by thelarge houses.

Some of the monastery buildings were sold to wealthy gentry for use as country estates.Many others became sources of cheap building materials for local inhabitants. One of theresults of the Dissolution of the Monasteries is that those who bought the oldmonastic lands were inclined to support Henry in his break with Rome, purely fromself interest.

Henry wanted money, Parliament wanted to raise money without having to imposeunpopular taxes, the gentry saw a chance to increase their own estates, and the merchantmiddle class saw a chance to become landed gentry themselves.

Winners and losers. Henry sold the monastic lands for bargain basement prices, such washis need for ready cash. The real beneficiary of the Dissolution was not the king, butthe new class of gentry who bought the lands. The suppression of the monasteries andplaces of pilgrimages was devastating for those pilgrimage centres that had no othereconomic base. Income for people on the pilgrim routes dropped, with no way to recover it.The other great loser of the Dissolution was culture; many monastic libraries full ofpriceless illuminated manuscripts were destroyed, with little or no regard for their

value.
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The fate of the monks and nuns. The monks and nuns were treated quite well as a rule.Only a few who resisted were summarily executed. The others, including 5000 monks, 1600friars, and 2000 nuns, were given reasonable pensions.

The English Reformation was slow to gather steam. Catholics were not mistreated (atleast not at first), and in many parts of the country religious life went on unchanged.

Catholic rites and symbols remained in use for many years.


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Unit 5. The Civil War, Republic, Restoration and Union

The Civil War (1639-1649)

The Union of the Scottish and the English Crowns, 1603o James VI of Scotland Becomes King of Englando The Anglo-Scottish Border

Charles I and his Prerogative Powerso The Civil Warso The Parliament Against the King

The British Republic (1649-1660)

The Commonwealth, 1649 The Protectorate (1653-1660) From War to Peace

The Restoration of Monarchy (1660)

The Succession Crisis Charles II: The Return of Liberties

The Glorious Revolution of 1688 The Glorious Revolution The Bill of Rights, 1689

The Act of Union of England and Scotland of 1707


Read the introduction by John Morrill, pp. 112-3 Read attentively pp. 120-1

Analyse comparatively the maps on pp. 131, 135 and 139 Study pp. 130-41


The First Civil War, 1639-1647 Causes and Consequences of the Glorious Revolution of 1688


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UNIT 5: THE CIVIL WAR, REPUBLIC, RESTORATION AND UNION

1. THE CIVIL WAR (16391649)

The Union of the Scottish and the English Crowns (1603)

James VI of Scotland Becomes King of England

James V of Scotland died in 1542 leaving a six days old daughter, Mary. Mary was sent toFrance and later married the future king, Francis II, to whom she became widow at the ageof eighteen.

In 1561 Mary Stuart (Mary I of Scotland) returned to Scotland after his husbands death.She was a Catholic, and the country was Protestant.

After his following husbands death under suspicious circumstances, the Scottish nobility

rebelled. She was imprisoned and forced to abdicate in favour of her infant son James VI.

In 1603 Elizabeth I died childless, and James VI of Scotland (her cousin) acceded to theEnglish throne, becoming James I of England as well. The three separate kingdoms ofEngland, Scotland and Ireland were now united under a single monarch. James was thefirst Stuart ruler of England.

The Anglo-Scottish Border

The border, in the 16 th century, was quite similar to the one established during 1237 (Treatyof York). By 1580 there were only six disputed areas. The largest was divided between thetwo kingdoms in 1552.

In the 1560s, the Protestant Reformation established certain solidarity and co-operationbetween London and Edinburgh. The frontiers were gradually transformed into the MiddleShires in 1603, with the Union of the Crowns.

Charles I and his Prerogative Powers

Charles I Access to the Throne

In 1625 James I died, and his son Charles I acceded to the throne. Problems arose almostimmediately after his coronation, as he was a Catholic that underestimated the power of theParliament (he was even determined to rule without parliament if necessary). He managedto arise rebellions between Catholics and Protestants.

In Scotland, Charles offended the Scottish subjects trying to renegotiate the terms on whichCrown and Church lands had been handed over to them in the 16 th century, and by givingthe bishops a prominent role in government.

In Ireland, many catholics had been dispossessed of their lands and replaced by Scots andEnglish Protestant settlers. Charles promised the Catholic old English families limitedreligious freedom in return for a payment of 120,000, but he never confirmed theirprivileges.

The New Prayer Book and the beginning of the WarThe king tried to impose a version of the English prayer book in Scotland in 1638, leadingthe Scottish Presbyterians to form the National Covenant and call for an end to English-style bishops. The king responded by raising an army in England, but when he wasconfronted by a large Scots force at Berwick in 1639, he backed down.


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The following year Charles raised another army to invade Scotland, but the Scots acted firstmarching into England, and winning and easy victory and occupying Newcastle. Thesehumiliating little bishop wars strained the kings finances and forced him to call a parliament

to pay off the Scots and confirm his concessions to them. The price parliament demandedfor its co-operation (reforms that would limit the kings power) was unacceptable to Charles.

Charles position became critical late in 1641, when a Catholic rebellion broke out aroundDublin and Ulster. 10% of the Protestant settlers there were massacred, and around 30%fled form their homes. Many died due to the privations, but many reached England to testifyto their sufferings. Desperate, Charles attempted to break the deadlock with the Englishparliament by a coup in 1642, but the attempt failed and he was forced to leave the capitalof York, and both king and parliament began to gather military forces.

Fighting between parliamentary and royalist supporters broke out in Manchester in 1642.Support for Parliament was strong in London, the Southeast, East Anglia and the porttowns that traded with London. Royalist support was strongest in the poorer, moreperipheral west and north. The Scots initially remained neutral.

The Widening WarCharles attempted to gain London, but his attempt to capture the city became useless.Nevertheless, the war generally progressed in the kings favour. By late 1643, royalist

control had been extended from the west country over much of Wiltshire, Hampshire andBerkshire.

In 1643 Scotland supported the Parliament, as if Charles won, it would be problematic fortheir Presbyterian revolution. The Royalist position in the North collapsed.

When Charles lost Oxford, he lost all hope on the victory. He surrendered to the Scots in1646, ending the war.

Civil warThe civil war which broke out in 1642 saw a broadly Royalist north and west rangedagainst a broadly Parliamentarian south and east.

Charles derived particular advantage from the support of the Welsh and the Cornish, whosupplied him with many of his foot soldiers, while parliament derived still more advantagefrom its possession of London.

In mid-1643, it looked as if the king might be about to defeat his opponents, but later thatyear the Parliamentarians concluded a military alliance with the Scots.Following the intervention of a powerful Scottish army and the defeat of the king'sforces at Marston Moor in 1644, Charles lost control of the north of Britain.

The following year, Charles was defeated by parliament's New Model Army at Nasebyand it became clear that the Royalist causewas lost.Unwilling to surrender to the Parliamentarians, the king gave himself up to the Scotsinstead, but when they finally left England, the Scots handed Charles over to theirparliamentary allies.

Still determined not to compromise with his enemies, the captive king managed to stir upa new bout of violence known as the Second Civil War.

Realising that the kingdom could never be settled in peace while Charles I remained alive, anumber of radical MPs and officers in the New Model Army eventually decided that the king


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had to be charged with high treason. Charles was accordingly tried, found guilty, andbeheaded in January 1649.

In the wake of the king's execution, a REPUBLICAN REGIME WAS ESTABLISHED INENGLAND, a regime which was chiefly underpinned by the stark military power of the NewModel Army.

Fall of the republicEngland's new rulers were determined to re-establish England's traditional dominanceover Ireland, and in 1649 they sent a force under Oliver Cromwell to undertake thereconquest of Ireland, a task that was effectively completed by 1652.

Meanwhile, Charles I's eldest son had come to an agreement with the Scots and inJanuary 1651 had been crowned as Charles II of Scotland. Later that year, Charlesinvaded England with a Scottish army, but was defeated by Cromwell at Worcester.

The young king just managed to avoid capture, and later escaped to France. His Scottishsubjects were left in a sorry plight, and soon the Parliamentarians had conquered thewhole of Scotland.

In 1653, Cromwell was installed as 'lord protector' of the new COMMONWEALTH ofEngland, Scotland and Ireland. Over the next five years, he strove to establish broad-based support for godly republican government with scant success.

Cromwell died in 1658 and was succeeded as protector by his son, Richard, but Richardhad little aptitude for the part he was now called upon to play and abdicated eight monthslater.

After Richard Cromwell's resignation, the republic slowly fell apart and Charles II waseventually invited to resume his father's throne. In May 1660, Charles II entered Londonin triumph. The monarchy had been restored.

Charles II was an intelligent but deeply cynical man, more interested in his own pleasuresthan in points of political or religious principle. His lifelong preoccupation with his manymistresses did nothing to improve his public image.

The early years of the new king's reign were scarcely glorious ones. In 1665 London wasdevastated by the plague, while a year later much of the capital was destroyed in theGreat Fire of London.

The Dutch raid on Chatham in 1667 was one the most humiliating military reverses Englandhad ever suffered.

Nevertheless, the king was a cunning political operator and when he died in 1685 theposition of the Stuart monarchy seemed secure. But things swiftly changed following theaccession of his brother, James II, who was openly Catholic.

Catholic successionJames II at once made it plain that he was determined to improve the lot of his Catholicsubjects, and many began to suspect that his ultimate aim was to restore England to theCatholic fold.

The birth of James's son in 1688 made matters even worse since it forced anxiousProtestants to confront the fact that their Catholic king now had a male heir.


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Soon afterwards, a group of English Protestants begged the Dutch Stadholder William ofOrange - who had married James II's eldest daughter, Mary, in 1677 - to come to theiraid. William, who had long been anticipating such a call, accordingly set sail with an armyfor England. James II fled to France a few weeks later and William and Mary werecrowned as joint monarchs the following year.

James II still had many supporters in Ireland, and in March 1689 he landed there with aFrench army.

William now assembled an army of his own to meet this challenge, and in 1690 hedecisively defeated James at the Battle of the Boyne . James promptly returned toFrance, leaving William free to consolidate his hold on power.

The death of Mary in 1694 left William as sole rulerof the three kingdoms, and by 1700all eyes were turning to the problem of the succession.

Because neither William nor James II's surviving daughter, Anne, had any children,Protestants were terrified that the throne would eventually revert to James II, to his son, orto one of the many other Catholic claimants.

To avert this danger, the Act of Settlement was passed in 1701, directing that after thedeaths of William and Anne the throne would return to the descendants of James I'sdaughter, Elizabeth. Sophia, electress of Hanover, and her heirs thus became next in line tothe English throne.

In 1702, William died and was succeeded by Anne. Five years after this, a formal union ofthe kingdoms of England and Scotland was contrived, in order to ensure that there wouldbe a Protestant succession in Scotland too.

Henceforth England and Scotland officially became one country, and when Queen Anne,the last of the Stuart monarchs, died in 1714 , it was to the throne of the United Kingdomof Great Britain that George I, the first of the Hanoverians, succeeded.

THE GLORIOUS REVOLUTION

The Glorious Revolution ultimately established the supremacy of parliament over theBritish monarchy, but how did the deep-seated fear of 'popery' precipitate the eventsleading up to it?

Fear of Catholic tyranny

The Glorious Revolution of 1688-1689 replaced the reigning king, James II, with thejoint monarchy of his protestant daughter Mary and her Dutch husband, William ofOrange. It was the keystone of the Whig (those opposed to a Catholic succession) historyof Britain.

According to the Whig account, the events of the revolution were bloodless and therevolution settlement established the SUPREMACY OF PARLIAMENT OVER THECROWN, setting Britain on the path towards constitutional monarchy and parliamentary

democracy.


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But it ignores the extent to which the events of 1688 constituted a foreign invasion ofEngland by another European power, the Dutch Republic.

Although bloodshed in England was limited, the revolution was only secured in Ireland andScotland by force and with much loss of life.

Moreover, the British causes of the revolution were as much religious as political .Indeed, the immediate constitutional impact of the revolution settlement was minimal.Nonetheless, over the course of the reign of William III (1689-1702) society underwentsignificant and long-lasting changes.

To understand why James IIs most powerful subjects eventually rose up in revoltagainst him we need to understand the deep-seated fear of 'popery' in Stuart England.

'Popery' meant more than just a fear or hatred of Catholics and the Catholic church. Itreflected a widely-held belief in an elaborate conspiracy theory, that Catholics wereactively plotting the overthrow of church and state.

In their place would be established a Catholic tyranny, with England becoming merely asatellite state, under the control of an all-powerful Catholic monarch, (in the era of theGlorious Revolution, identified with Louis XIV of France). This conspiracy theory was givencredibility by the existence of some genuine catholic subterfuge, most notably theGunpowder Plot of 1605.

A new crisis of popery and arbitrary government' erupted in the late 1670s. Public anxieties

were raised by the issue of the royal succession. Charles II fathered no legitimate offspring.This meant that the crown would pass to his brother, James, Duke of York, whoseconversion to Catholicism had become public knowledge in 1673.

Public concern about the succession reached fever pitch in the years 1678-1681. The so-called exclusion crisis was provoked by allegations made by Titus Oates, a former Jesuitnovice, of a popish plot to assassinate Charles II and place his brother on the throne. Thefantastical plot was given credibility by the mysterious death of Sir Edmund Bury Godfrey,the magistrate who first investigated Oates claims.

Whig politicians within parliament, led by the earl of Shaftesbury, promoted exclusion billswhich would have prevented James from succeeding to the throne. But the radical tacticsdeployed by the kings opponents, including mass petitions and demonstrations, graduallyalienated some initial supporters of exclusion.

Charless hand was strengthened further by an agreement with France reached in March

1681, by which the king received 385,000 over three years. With this financial support,and with public opinion turning against his critics, Charles was able to dissolve parliamenton 28 March 1681.

Rebellion and revoltJames II James IIs authority appeared to be secure when he succeeded to the throne inFebruary 1685.

The kings initial promises to defend the existing government in church and state reassured

many of those worried by his personal faith.

James was well-off financially, with a tax revenue over 1,200,000. The manipulation ofborough charters in the last years of Charles IIs reign ensured that James first parliamentwas dominated by loyal Tories.


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Parliament also voted James considerable emergency sums to suppress the rebellionraised by Charles IIs eldest illegitimate son, the duke of Monmouth in June 1685. James

army of professional soldiers easily crushed the 3,000 to 4,000 rebels who joinedMonmouths cause.

Initial support for the king ebbed away as it became clear that he wished to secure not onlyfreedom of worship for Catholics, but also the removal of the Test and Corporation Acts sothat they could occupy public office.

Unease at the kings appointment of Catholic officers to the army forced him to prorogue

parliament on 20 November 1685.

James then attempted to secure his religious objectives through the use of his prerogativepowers. The test case of Godden vs Hales (1686) established James right to suspend the

provisions of the Test Acts, thereby allowing the king to appoint a number of Catholic peersto his Privy Council.

In April 1687, James issued a declaration of indulgence, suspending penal laws againstCatholics and granting toleration to some Protestant dissenters. In the summer of 1687,James formally dissolved his parliament and began canvassing officials across the countryregarding their support for the formal repeal of the Test Acts. The information was used tobegin a purge of corporations, aimed at producing a pliable parliament which would agreeto the kings wishes.

These measures met with increasing opposition from the Anglican-Tory establishment.

In July, members of Magdalen College, Oxford were stripped of their fellowships for refusingto appoint the kings choice, Samuel Parker, a bishop who supported the repeal of the Test

Acts, as their college president.

In May of 1688, seven leading bishops, including William Sancroft, Archbishop ofCanterbury, refused to follow the order to read the kings second declaration of indulgence

from their pulpits. James responded by having them arrested for seditious libel and taken tothe Tower of London. Their acquittal at trial was met with widespread public rejoicing.

The Second Civil War of 1648The surrender of Charles I in 1646 brought no solution to the problems of the threekingdoms. The English Parliament agreed to introduce Presbyterianism in England andIreland in return for Scottish support during the Civil War. But the war was over and the

Parliament seemed to have lost its enthusiasm on Presbyterianism. Charles refused tomake any concession at all to Parliament (it would have reduced his prerogative powers).

The English Parliament tried to offer their own peace terms (known as The Head ofProposals. Charles seemed to be interested in it, but at the same time he started

communication with the duke of Hamilton (in order to raise Scottish support for a Royalist-Presbyterian rebellion). In 1648 the Second Civil War started. The Parliament won. CharlesI was tried, accused of treason, and executed in 1649.

Then the Commons proclaimed themselves the sovereign power. The monarchy and theHouse of Lords were abolished and England was declared a Commonwealth, making its

government a republic.


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2. THE BRITISH REPUBLIC (16491660)

The Commonwealth (1649)The immediate response of the Scots to the execution of Charles I, was to proclaim his son,Charles II, king of all Britain. Ireland had to be pacified. Cromwell was sent with his troops toIreland in 1649, and after his success there, to Scotland in 1650. He managed to occupy

Edinburgh, but resistance continued north of the Forth, where Charles II was raising forces.In 1651 Charles II invaded England, buy he was defeated by Cromwell (it was the end ofroyalism as a military threat).

In 1652, the Act of Settlement was established in Ireland. It meant that the Catholic Irishwere forced to live in Connacht.

For the first time in history, all of the British Isles were under the control of a singlegovernment.

The Protectorate (16531660)

Oliver Cromwell was established as the First Lord Protector in 1653. Cromwell removed themembers of parliament and established a body of 144 men chosen by the army council. Itlasted for 5 months, disrupted by more radical dissenters. In 1654 he called for his firstParliament (iy contained 400 members from England and Wales, and 30 from Scotland andIreland). It ended in dissolution.

In 1655 Cromwell reacted against feeble royalist uprisings by setting up 11 militarygovernors (the Major Generals) of 11 districts in England and Scotland. He raised taxationfor former royalists. The Parliament wanted to confirm Cromwell as king of Britain, but herefused.

When Cromwell died in 1658, he was succeeded as Protector by his son Richard. Helacked the authority that his father had, and a political radicalism in the army put an end tothe Protectorate.

He was hardly able of containing a revival of political radicalism in the army, which wantedto put an end to the Protectorate.

In 1660, the army of occupation in Scotland began to march towards London. On the way,they received petitions calling for free elections to parliament. These elections produced themoderate Convention parliament that proclaimed Charles II king in 1660.

From War to Peace

The transition from Civil War to peace was not easy. The land of the Crown, the Church etcwas confiscated and sold off. Some places which had been central points during the warhad to be rebuilt. At the Restoration, confiscated lands reverted to their previous owners.The landowners privileged during the Protectorate (that were against the King) lost theirlands.

3. THE RESTORATION OF MONARCHY (1660)

IntroductionThe King Charles II restored the Stuart Monarchy in 1660. Government were revived and

separate legislature restored in Westminster, Edinburgh and Dublin. In England, theMonarchy returned to its previous 1641 status, while in Scotland legislation from 1633 onwas revoked. Anglicanism was imposed in England by the Clarendon Code (it ended the


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diversity of religious practice which had flourished under Cromwell. Religious nonconformitywas now sought as a synonym of political disloyality).

In Scotland bishops ruling a Presbyterian majority rose rebellions. It ended in a series ofmeasures to enforce religious conformity (preaching at unlicensed Presbyterian serviceswas considered a capital offence).

The Succession CrisisCharles II was succeeded by his brother James II (16851688). James was a Catholic, andhe wanted to re-establish the rights of Catholics.

In 1685, Charles illegitimate son, the Duke of Monmouth, launched a rebellion. TheMonmouths Rebellion ended with a series of trials for those who had supported him

(hundreds of men were condemned to death).

Popular opinion grew against James II after his son was born, raising a prospect of a

Catholic dynasty.

4. THE GLORIOUS REVOLUTION OF 1688

IntroductionDuring his short reign, King James II became involved in two political problems: The political problem between Catholicism and Protestantism The political problem between the divine right of the Crown and the political rights of

Parliament

His greatest problem was his Catholicism, which left him alienated from both parties inparliaments (Tories and Whigs). Jamess attempt to relax the penal laws related to Religionalienated his natural initial supporters (Tories), as this was seen as a disestablishment ofthe Church of England.

James ordered the removal of Henry Compton, the anti-Catholic Bishop of London,replacing at the same time the Protestant fellows of Magdalene College (Oxford) withCatholics. James also created a large standing army and employed Catholics in positionsof power in it.

In 1688, James re-issued the Declaration of Indulgence, and ordered all clergymen to readit in their churches. The Archbishop of Canterbury and six more wrote to James asking himto reconsider his policies, but then they were arrested on charges of libel (but they weresupported by the London crowd at trial).

In 1688, James had a son. Till then, the throne would have passed to his daughter Mary (aProtestant). The prospect of a Catholic dynasty in the British isles was now likely butundesired.

The Glorious RevolutionThe birth of James son was undesired, as it was seem as the continuation of the CatholicMonarchy. Five Whig and two Tory politicians (known as The Immortal Seven), invitedJames son-in-law, the Protestant William of Orange (from Holland), to intervene and

restore Englands laws and liberties. William saw this intervention as the possibility tosecure his wife Mary as the future Queen of Britain.

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