Commerce, Conquest, Colonization: 1300-1600

Ended on the Eurasian continent by 1300◦ Spain could not oust Muslims until 1492 ◦ German drive into Eastern Europe slowed by rise

of Poland-Lithuania◦ Western Europe had reached the ecological limits

of its resources◦ Dramatic population losses of plague, famine and

war Europeans turned to the sea in an era of

unintended consequences

European Expansion

Mongols Ottoman Turks Europeans

◦ Portugal◦ Spain

Expansionist Powers of the 1300-1600’s

Trade between Europe and India and China existed since Greece & Rome

13th century established direct trade between India, China and Europe

Mongol invasions made European travel on the Silk Road possible

The Mongols

Pastoral-nomadic◦ Sheep ◦ Goats◦ Yaks and Oxen◦ Camels◦ Horses

Climate◦ Gobi desert◦ High steppes◦ Subject to temperature extremes

Mongol Society

Mongol Invasions

Why? 1180-1220: annual temperature drop in Mongolia

◦ the growing season for grass was shortened◦ Increasing danger to the Mongols' animals◦ the animals were the basis of the Mongols' pastoral-nomadic life

China attempted to reduce trade with the Mongols. ◦ Mongols depended on trade for goods like grain, craft, and

manufactured articles◦ Mongols responded to reduction in trade by increased raiding on

Chinese kingdoms Chinggis Khan

◦ Tenggeri (Sky god) told Chinggis to bring all the world under one sword

◦ Anda blood brothers◦ Mongol vs. tribal identity

Chinggis Khan Principle of ten

◦ 10, 100, 1,000, 10,000 Leader of the 10,000 would be anda Chinggis

Military tactics◦ Feigned withdrawal◦ Horse cavalry

3 campaigns◦ 1209 against the Xia over trade dispute, demanded tribute and

left◦ 1215 against the Jin over trade dispute, demanded tribute and left◦ 1219 against central Asia

Revenge Trade Occupation

Chinggis Khan died in 1227 returning from campaign

Two views of Chinggis Khan

Westerners: Chinggis is a barbaric plunderer intent on maiming, slaughtering, and destroying other peoples and civilizations.

Mongols: Chinggis Khan is a great national hero who united all the Mongol tribes and carved out the largest contiguous land empire in world history.

Chinggis and his descendants promoted frequent and extended contacts among the civilizations of Europe and Asia

Era of extraordinary interaction of goods, ideas, religions, and technology.

Religious tolerance◦ provided tax relief to Buddhist monasteries and

other religious institutions The creation of the first Mongol written

language ◦ 1204 Uyghur scribe created written language at his

direction Support for both trade and crafts A Law Code (Jasagh) a series of general

moral injunctions and laws, punishments for transgressions in a pastoral-nomadic society.

Legacy of Chinggis Khan

Completed conquest of China 1237-1240 invasion of Southern Russia April 1241

◦ Battle of Leignitz against Germans & Poles◦ Defeated Hungarians at River Sajo◦ December 1241 Ogedei Khan died◦ Never resumed attacks on Europe

Mongol expansion came to end in 1300

Ogedei Khan (1227-1241)

Sought to rule rather than conquer◦ Supported agriculture, trade and crafts◦ Continued religious toleration

Buddhist monasteries Nestorian Christian churches Islamic Mosques

◦ Patronized arts Opened trade routes to China for Europeans Open trade routes ended in 1368 when Mongol

dynasty was overthrown Direct trade increased European appetite for spices

and luxury items and was one basis for European naval exploration

Kublai Khan (1215-1294)

Venetian merchant traveled to China from 1275-1291 when Kublai Khan was the emperor.

The Book of Ser Marco Polo: The Venetian Concerning Kingdoms and Marvels of the East

http://afe.easia.columbia.edu/mongols/figures/figu_polo.htm for excerpts◦ Polo’s book engaged the imagination of

Europeans

Marco Polo (1254-1324)

Ottoman people were nomadic pastoralists like the Mongols

Established in Northwest Anatolia (Turkey) Mongols destroyed the Seljuk Sultanate and

Abbasid Caliphate Ottoman Turks free to raid Byzantine

frontiers

Rise of the Ottoman Empire

1345 Ottoman contingent hired as mercenaries by Byzantine Emperor

1370 extended control to Danube River 1389 Battle of Kosovo: Ottomans defeated Serbs

◦ Enabled Ottoman Turks to control Greece, Bulgaria & Balkans

◦ Ideological basis of Serbian claims to Kosovo province during Kosovo War of the 1990’s

1396, 1402, 1420-1430’s attacks on Constantinople◦ Resulting influx of people from Byzantium included Greek

manuscripts—particularly by Aristotle 1453 Constantinople falls to Ottoman Turks

Ottoman Expansion

New wealth from conquest and trade in Eastern Mediterranean

Constant war readiness until end of 16th century Ottoman army and state administration

comprised of slaves◦ Captives◦ Recruits◦ Child tax and Balkans◦ Majority of slaves were Christians◦ Paradox: reliance on slaves excluded Muslims from

social and political advancement Jewish immigration from Spain after 1492

Early Ottoman Empire

Ottomans captured Mecca and Medina in 1516 1517 Ottomans captured Jerusalem and Cairo 1538 Ottoman ruler claimed title of Caliph

(successor to Mohammed) Religious toleration

◦ Major religious groups organized into millets with religious self-government

◦ Protected the Orthodox Patriarch of Constantinople Gained support from Eastern Orthodox Christians in wars

against the west during the 16th century Wars and conflicts with Shia Muslims of Persia kept

Ottomans from further land conquest of Europe◦ Piracy and naval battles in Eastern Mediterranean

Religious Attitudes & Conflicts

Charles V of Spain (1519-1556)◦ Counter Reformation◦ Heir to Spanish holdings in Americas◦ Principal rival of Suleiman the Magnificent◦ Mediterranean Colonialism

African gold trade Colonial empires in western Mediterranean as

staging areas for expeditions to Africa and New World

Naval Power and Exploration

Niger River gold trade in caravans to Algiers and Tunis◦ European woolen cloths for North African grain

and gold Fall of silver production in Europe

◦ Black Plague◦ No technology for deep mining of silver

Balance of payments◦ More silver leaving Europe than was brought into

Europe◦ Europe had few natural gold reserves

European Silver Shortage & African Gold

1270 Italian merchants passage through Strait of Gibraltar

Discovery/rediscovery of Canary and Azores island chains during the 14th century

Conquest of Canary and Azores Islands begun by Portugal and completed by Spain

Canary Islands were jumping off point for Portuguese exploration of Africa and Spanish conquests of the Americas

North Atlantic Gateway

Emergence of Spain from Muslim Rule

Ferdinand of Aragon and Isabella of Castile

A Spanish love story Isabella was betrothed to her 2nd cousin Ferdinand

of Aragon Henry IV attempted to marry her to 5 other suitors,

several of whom were French princes Isabella refused all suitors and re-confirmed her

betrothal to Ferdinand secretly The Pope authorized the marriage, unbeknownst to

Henry Isabella escaped the court in Segovia claiming to

visit Alfonso’s grave in Avila Ferdinand disguised himself as a merchant They were married on 19 October 1469

Isabella was a Queen in her own right: Heir to the throne of Castile The daughter of Henry III of Castile (Spain) and

Catherine of Lancaster (England) Isabella was taught reading, writing, math,

literature, grammar, art, chess, embroidery and catechism

Isabella’s older brother was King Henry IV of Castile Isabella’s younger brother was Alphonso Spanish nobility wished to replace Henry

◦ Alphonse died of the plague◦ Isabella refused to fight her older brother◦ Compromise of Toros de Guisando made Isabella heir to

the throne of Castille

Internal Peace and Prosperity

Marriage of Ferdinand and Isabella ended the ongoing warfare between the nobility in Spain

Created most powerful military in Europe by 1500

1492◦ Grenada: last remaining Muslim principality in Spain

fell to Ferdinand ◦ Spanish Inquisition to expel secret Muslims and Jews

or to convert them◦ Expulsion of entire Jewish community◦ Granted Columbus three ships to find a western

passage to India

Technological Advances Caravel Quadrant Astrolabes Rutters

◦ Detailed route instructions & descriptions of coastal landmarks aided in dead-reckoning longitude

Portuguese Capture of Ceuta 1415

Portuguese Caravel

Portuguese Explorations of Africa

Colonization of Madeira and Canary Islands 1420’s

Dias rounds Cape of Good Hope 1488 Portuguese reach Malacca in Southeast Asia

1511 Portuguese reach Spice Islands and Chinese

coast 1515

Chronology of Portuguese Explorations of Africa

Atlantic Colonization & Growth of Slavery

Minimal profits from African gold trade Slavery in Western Europe had almost

disappeared by early 12th century Major Mediterranean slave markets in Muslim

controlled territories, especially Ottoman Empire◦ Most slaves in these markets where European

Chirstians: Poles, Ukranians, Greeks, Bulgarians Mid 15th century Lisbon emerged as African

slave market◦ 1440-1460: 15,000 to 20,000 slaves◦ By 1505: 150,000 African slaves in Europe

Until 1460’s slaves were regarded as status symbols◦ Most were household servants

1460’s slave-based sugar plantations emerge in Cape Verde Islands and Gulf of Guinea◦ This model was exported to the Caribbean

African slaves

Decision to fund Columbus’s voyage to New World based on realization that Portugal would monopolize spice trade

Only alternative was to find Western route Sphericity of Earth was widely known by 12

century◦ Europeans thought that there was series of

islands between Europe and far east◦ Columbus vastly miscalculated the size of the

earth

New World Encounters

1519-1521 Hernando Cortes conquered Aztecs

1533 Pizarro conquered the Inkas Both men obtained vast deposits of gold

that had been acquired over many centuries

Wealth

Surface mines for gold Disease Enslavement

◦ Hispaniola = 1 million in 1492; 100,000 in 1498; 500 in 1538

◦ 1543-1548 Silver deposits discovered north of Mexico City and at Potosi in Bolivia

◦ By 1590’s 10 million ounces of silver per year exported from these mines

Devastation

Runaway inflation Between 1500 and 1560 prices in Spain doubled Between 1560-1600 prices in Spain doubled again When silver mines in New World slowed production

in 1620-1630, Spanish economy collapsed By 1650 price of grain was 5 to 6 times 1500 levels Standards of living in England in 1600 were very low

◦ Increased English immigration to North America◦ Outlet for excess English population –particularly poor

people

Price Revolution

Russia

By 1500 Russia was becoming the largest multi-ethnic empire in the Eurasian world

1240 Mongol Invasion◦ “no eye remained open to weep for the dead.”◦ Khanate of the Golden Horde along Volga River◦ 150 year rule◦ Duchy of Muscovy

Local rulers who obeyed Khans and paid tribute Distanced from western Europe over the hostility

between Orthodox Christianity and Roman Christianity Feared Growing Strength of the Roman Catholic

Kingdom of Poland

Conflict with Rome both Secular and Religious

15th century expansionist state of Poland-Lithuania turned toward Russia◦ Poles and Lithuanians were Roman Catholic◦ Fall of Constantinople to the Turks in 1453

Rome did not help Constantinople had acquiesced to Roman authority in

1204 Russian churchmen viewed fall of Constantinople as

divine punishment for betraying Orthodox Christianity 1453 Muscovite state declared it was the divinely

appointed successor to Byzantium Muscovite ruler took the title “Tsar” or Caesar Declared Moscow to be the 2nd Jerusalem and 3rd Rome

Ivan the Great (1462-1505)