Katerina Tvardikova katerina.tvardikova@gmail.com

Guide to “bite marks”

Huge variability (see further). Marks are generally sharp, narrow and shallow, or deeper and sharp. Small ants tend to remove larger amount of material. All ants tend to bite repeatedly.

Large ant at 1700 m asl

Usually sharp and narrow bites

Large ant (2) at 1700 m asl

Some sharp and narrow cuts visible, but covered by repeated bites

Large ant (3) at 1700 m asl

Typical sharp and narrow cuts visible

Large ant (4) at 1200 m asl

Large ant (5) at 200 m asl

I identified double predation here – larger ant in the lower part – sharp cuts;

and a wasp – 3 cuts in middle part

Mid-size ant (6) at 200 m asl - Wanang

Tiny black ant (7) at 200 m asl - Wanang

Typical damage caused by small ants – tiny plasticine pieces were usually

dispersed all around the leaves also

Tiny black ant (8) at 200 m asl - Wanang

Sometimes only the tiny pieces of plasticine were left on the leaves and

ants finished whole caterpillar

Marks left by predatory beetles are usually wider than those from ants, not sharp,

usually with visible indentation. Sometimes, the larger surface is scratched

and deep indentation around cuts are visible.

Beetle – 700 m

Bite of predatory beetles are always Cantharidae

Beetle – 700 m

Beetle – 200 m - Wanang

Bird beak marks are between the most easily recognizable. They are way much larger than marks made by insect. Shape of the beaks is usually visible – all sides of the caterpillar

needs to be checked to make sure that the mark continue!. Sometimes, bird manage to cut the caterpillar in the half or pull it out of the pin, in such cases, the part or caterpillar can

be found fallen on the ground and beak mark is visible.

Bird – Dimorphic Fantail – 2700 m

Bird – Dimorphic

Fantail (2) – 2700 m

Bird – 200 m – Wanang

Bird – Black Fantail –

2700 m

Bird – Fantail Berrypecker

– 2700 m

Bird – Fantail Berrypecker

(2) – 2700 m

Bird – Smoky Honeyeater

– 2700 m

Bird – Mottled Whistler –

2700 m

Bird – Mottled Whistler

(2) – 2700 m

Bird – Sclater’s Whistler

– 2200 m

Bird – Blue-Grey Robin –

2200 m

Bird – Black Pitohui – 1700 m

Bird – Dimorpic Fantail (3) – 2700 m

Bird – Large Scrubwren – 2700 m

Bird – Papuan Scrubwren

– 2700 m

Bird – 200 m -

Wan

Bird –White-winged Robin – 2700 m

Grasshoppers were ocassionally observed to be feeding on the leaves

as well as our caterpillars. Their mouthparts leave rounded marks.

Partially missing leaf could be also a clue.

Grasshopper Parasitic Wasps

Some sharp puncture marks were identified as the punctures made by

parasitic wasp trying to lay egg to the experimental caterpillar.

but NO ATTEMPTS WERE OBSERVED

Other Insect – Grasshopper – 200 m

Other Insect – Parasitic wasp – 200 m

Other Insect – Parasitic wasp – 200 m

Other – Small rat – Ohu

Most of the marks made by wasps were curved (more than those by ants), and wasp obviously tried to pull the material away. Marks are generally wider and more “messy”, as

wasps grab the caterpillar also by legs. Cuts also goes deeper into the material, while ants’s are either shallow and long or deeper and very sharp and narrow.

Bee – 700 m

Bites of bee from forced experiment

Wasp – 700 m

Wasp – 700 m

Wasp – Wanang

Wasp – Large – Wanang