gre reading hn

新东方在线 [www.koolearn.com]网络课堂电子教材系列 GRE 阅读

GRE 阅读电子讲义

主讲：胡楠

欢迎使用新东方在线电子教材

第 1部分新GRE阅读简介

解读新GRE考试阅读理解部分的改革

国外考试部北美项目胡楠

美国教育考试服务中心（ETS）将在 2011年 8月推出新的美国研究生院入学

考试（GRE）。新的考试在传统GRE的考试内容、考试形式和计分方法上进行了变

化。无疑，这一考试的变革将会深刻地影响国内莘莘学子的海外求学准备历程。

而语文部分将依然是中国考生的软肋。按照 ETS官方的讲法：“（新GRE考试


将会）减少对于单词意涵背记的孤立考察（如取消类比和反义试题），更加突

出基于语境的理解能力的考察（如增加阅读理解题目）。”以期更加深入并且真

实地反映考生的高级认知能力。具体说来，这些能力包括：

分析一段论述文字并推导结论；根据不完全的数据做推导；识别作者的

前提/假设条件和视角；理解语言文字的多层次含义，包括字面意涵，修

辞意涵和作者目的等

挑选重要观点，区别主要论述和次要/相关论述；总结全文；理解文章结

构

理解词，句和段落篇章的意涵；理解不同词和概念间的关系等。

那么，发生在新 GRE考试语文部分的具体变化主要有哪些呢？随之而来的

准备重点的变化究竟是什么呢？我们首先来看看从解题的时间要求上新 GRE考

试将带给我们怎样的变化（请见表 1）。

传统GRE考试新GRE考试两个部分两个部分每部分 38题每部分约 20题每部分 30分钟每部分 30分钟表 1 新旧GRE考试语文部分时间对比

仅从表面上看来新 GRE考试似乎给了考生更多的解题时间，这一变化会让

粗心大意者欣喜不已。这一理解偏差的根本原因在于没有同时考察 GRE题型的

显著变化。让我们再来看看传统GRE考试语文部分中的题型分布（请见表 2）。

传统GRE考试题型每部分中的题数/总题数类比/反义词 20/38

句子填空 7/38

阅读理解 11/38


表 2 传统GRE考试语文部分各种题型数量对比

从表 2中我们可以看到，传统GRE考试语文部分中阅读理解和句子填空试题

仅占语文考试题目比重的不到二分之一（18/38），而新GRE考试则主要由这

两部分试题组成。这表明，我们再也不能仅仅通过勤奋地背记单词而取得考试的

优胜；想要在新GRE考试中获得相对优势就必须夯实自己的“实力”。这个

“实力”就是在更广泛语篇中参透作者字里行间的意义。换句话说，就是新

GRE考试语文部分成倍地增加了英文语篇的阅读量，变相缩短了考试时间，实

际上增加了考试难度。这将使绝大部分中国大陆考生不堪重负，甚至丧失已有的

竞争优势。

面对这种情况，我们唯有两条解决策略。一是在新GRE考试登陆中国大陆地

区之前参加传统GRE考试；二是认真分析新GRE的变化规律并且切实提高自

己的学术文章阅读水平。下面，笔者将着力谈及新GRE考试阅读理解部分的题

型，以期对各位考生有所启发。新GRE考试阅读理解部分有三种题型组成（请

见表 3）：

Multiple-choice Questions — Select One Answer Choice: These are the traditional

multiple-choice questions with five answer choices of which the examinee must select

one.

第一种：多项选择题I

（5选 1）

Multiple-choice Questions — Select One or More Answer Choices: These provide

three answer choices and ask the examinee to select all that are correct; one, two or all

three of the answer choices may be correct. To gain credit for these questions, the

examinee must select all the correct answers, and only those; there is no credit for

partially correct answers.

第二种：多项选择题II（新题型）（在 3个选择项中选择任意符合题意的答案，1项到3 项均可，错选漏选不给分）

Select-in-Passage: The question asks the examinee to click on the sentence in the

passage that meets a certain description. To answer the question, the examinee chooses

one of the sentences and clicks on it; clicking anywhere on a sentence will highlight it.

第三种：段中点选题（新题型）（在段落中点选符合题设问题的答案句）


表 3 新GRE考试阅读理解部分的三种题型

下面，我们举一个 ETS官方样题题目来分析。

Sample questions 1 to 3 below are based on this passage:

Policymakers must confront the dilemma that fossil fuels continue to be an indispensable source of

energy even though burning them produces atmospheric accumulations of carbon dioxide that increase

the likelihood of potentially disastrous global climate change. Currently, technology that would capture

carbon dioxide emitted by power plants and sequester it harmlessly underground or undersea instead of

releasing it into the atmosphere might double the cost of generating electricity. But because

sequestration does not affect the cost of electricity transmission and distribution, delivered prices will

rise less, by no more than 50 percent. Research into better technologies for capturing carbon dioxide

will undoubtedly lead to lowered costs.

（第一种题型：多项选择题I）

Sample Multiple-choice Questions — Select One Answer Choice

1. The passage implies which of the following about the current cost of generating electricity?

A. It is higher than it would be if better technologies for capturing carbon dioxide were available.

B. It is somewhat less than the cost of electricity transmission and distribution.

C. It constitutes at most half of the delivered price of electricity.

D. It is dwelt on by policymakers to the exclusion of other costs associated with electricity delivery.

E. It is not fully recovered by the prices charged directly to electricity consumers.

Answer: C

解析：首先，我们需要找到题干文句中的定位关键词 “ the current cost of generating

electricity”。之后，将这个关键词定位到文章中去，发现这组定位词出现在文章当中的第二句话当中：“Currently, technology that would capture carbon dioxide emitted by power plants and sequester it harmlessly underground or undersea instead of releasing it into the atmosphere

might double the cost of generating electricity.”我们发现文章的下一句话当中出现了这样的比例关系。“But because sequestration does not affect the cost of electricity transmission and

distribution, delivered prices will rise less, by no more than 50 percent.”这说明“sequestration”

所占的比重不超过总费用的二分之一。既然只有“发电”和“减排”两个过程。那么，发电的花费当然是最多只能占到二分之一了。答案Ｃ所说正是：“It constitutes at most half of the

delivered price of electricity.”故选。通过这道题目，我们发现 ETS在新GRE考试中沿用了传统GRE考试的解题套路。


（第二种题型：多项选择题II）

Sample Multiple-choice Questions — Select One or More Answer Choices

Consider each of the three choices separately and select all that apply.

2. The passage suggests that extensive use of sequestration would, over time, have which of the

following consequences?

A. The burning of fossil fuels would eventually cease to produce atmospheric accumulations of

carbon dioxide.

B. The proportion of the delivered price of electricity due to generation would rise and then

decline.

C. Power plants would consume progressively lower quantities of fossil fuels.

Answer: B

解析：首先，从文章中可以看出，没有什么方法可以“停止”大气中二氧化碳的累积，所以 A 选项中所提到的“ The burning of fossil fuels would eventually cease to produce

atmospheric accumulations of carbon dioxide.”显然是错误的。另外，整个文章中也并没有提供一种方法可以使得电厂可以 “减少化石燃料的使用量”，所以Ｃ选项显然不符合题意。由于文章中的最后二句话中指出：“But because sequestration does not affect the cost of

electricity transmission and distribution, delivered prices will rise less, by no more than 50 percent.

Research into better technologies for capturing carbon dioxide will undoubtedly lead to lowered costs.”

所以，随着化石燃料使用量的增加，未来可以预期的发电成本将会先增加后减少。应该选择选项Ｂ（The proportion of the delivered price of electricity due to generation would rise and then

decline.）由此可以看出，尽管新GRE考试中出现了新的多项选择题型，但是并没有在实质上改变原有的命题核心思想。即考察考生的对文章事实的理解和推断进一步信息的能力。所以，原有的解题方法的运用不仅是可能的，也是必要的应对新GRE考试的工具。

（第三种题型：段中点选题）

Sample Select-in-Passage Question

3. Select the sentence that explains why an outcome of sequestration that might have been expected

would not occur.

Answer:"But because sequestration does not affect the cost of electricity transmission and distribution, delivered prices will rise less, by no more than 50 percent."


面对这三种全新的题型，我们需要具备的能力和准备的方向又该如何呢？

除却传统GRE复习过程中对于语篇结构和句法的把握之外，段中点选题

（Select-in-Passage Question）又为我们提出了新的要求。这种题型要求我们准确把

握文章中各个句子之间的逻辑关系。由于传统GRE阅读理解考试当中很少涉及

此类信息的考察，句际关系就成了多数考生思维上的盲点。事实上，英文作为一

种“形合”的语言，它的起承转合之间经常依赖逻辑关系词的介入和辅助。以第

三题为例，此题表面上是考察考生对句子的理解和信息搜索能力，而实际上则

是考察问题中所涉及的结论在原文当中是如何被解释的。如果各位能够注意到提

干当中的“…explains why an outcome of sequestration…”，那么，就可以迅速而直接

地定位到原文的表示原因的句式（…But because sequestration…）当中。这种

why和 because之间的微妙对应关系可以泛化到广阔的同类命题当中去。笔者对

在新GRE考试中可能出现的句际关系做了以下总结（请见表 4），相信这些信

号词的总结会给广大考生在应对新GRE考试阅读理解部分时带来帮助。

1 分类式中的标志词　categories classification groups

　 sorts classes 　

2 排序式中的标志词　first now later

　 last 　　

3 列举式中的标志词　1 2 3 4 another next

　 first, second also 　

4 (1) 比较式中的标志词　compare like/alike resembles

　 in the same manner 　


4 (2) 对比式中的标志词　although however but

　 different 　　

5 (1) 表原因的标志词　because for this reason since

　 attribute to traceable 　

5 (2) 表结果的标志词　as a result in effect therefore

　 reflection motivation expansion

6 定义式的标志词　define the term means we mean

　 is defined as that is i.e.

7 例证式的标志词　for example for instance to illustrate

　 specifically such as 　

8 (1) 表示问题的标志词　problem duskiness fogginess

　 phenomenon dilemma mistiness

8 (2) 表示解决的标志词　solution remedy therapy

　 resolve resolution 　表 4 新GRE考试阅读理解中常见句际关系词总结


Six types of reading comprehension questions.

These types focus on (1) the main idea or primary purpose of the passage;

(2) information explicitly stated in the passage;

(3) information or ideas implied or suggested by the author;

(4) possible applications of the author’s ideas to other situations, including the identification of

situations or processes analogous to those described in the passage;

(5) the author’s logic, reasoning, or persuasive techniques; and

(6) the tone of the passage or the author’s attitude as it is revealed in the language used.

GRE官方题型分析报告（胡楠）

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12

EXERCISE 01 　推构　推　推　推　　　

EXERCISE 02 主　　　主　　　　　　主

EXERCISE 03 态　　　　　　　态态　　

EXERCISE 04 　　　推　　构主主　构　

EXERCISE 05 　推推　　　　　构　　　

EXERCISE 06 　　　　态　构　　态　　

EXERCISE 07 主推　　主　推　态　态　

EXERCISE 08 主　推构　主　态推构构　

EXERCISE 09 构推　　　推　　　主　构

EXERCISE 10 主　推构　推　态　　　　

EXERCISE 11 主　类推主　构　　　　　

EXERCISE 12 主　　态推推　主推　推　


EXERCISE 13 主　　　　　　　主态　　

EXERCISE 14 主推构主　构类　　　主　

EXERCISE 15 主　推　　　构　　　　　

EXERCISE 16 　　推　主　　　　　　构

EXERCISE 17 　　　构　　构主　　　　

EXERCISE 18 构　主推主　　构　　　　

EXERCISE 19 　　推构　推主主　推　　

EXERCISE 20 主　推　主　　推类　态类

EXERCISE 21 构　　　　态　　　主　　

EXERCISE 22 构　　推构　　　主　　态

EXERCISE 23 主推　态　　　　　　构　

EXERCISE 24 主　主　　构推主　推态　

EXERCISE 25 　　态构主　　　推推　　

EXERCISE 26 主　　　主　　　推　推　

EXERCISE 27 主　　　　　态　　　　　

EXERCISE 28 主　　　推构态主　推　　

EXERCISE 29 主类构　主　　　推推推　

EXERCISE 30 主　　推　态　主推　　　

EXERCISE 31 主推推　　构构主　　构　

EXERCISE 32 主　推类主　推推　推构　

EXERCISE 33 推主推态主态　　　推类　

EXERCISE 34 态构　　推　　主　推　　


EXERCISE 35 主构　　推　　主　　推　

EXERCISE 36 主　　　构　推主推　推　

EXERCISE 37 类主　　推推构主　推态　

EXERCISE 38 　　推主主　　　推　构　

EXERCISE 39 态推　　构　　构　　推　

EXERCISE 40 　推　构主推　　　　推　

EXERCISE 41 　推　　　　主　推推构　

EXERCISE 42 主　　类主　　　推　构　

EXERCISE 43 主　　类　推推　构　推　

EXERCISE 44 主　　推主推　态　构推　

EXERCISE 45 主　　　推态推主　推构　

EXERCISE 46 主　推　主主推　推推　　

EXERCISE 47 主　　推　推　主　构　　

EXERCISE 48 　推构推推　　主　推　　

EXERCISE 49 　　　　　　类　构推　　

EXERCISE 50 构类推　主类　　　构　　

EXERCISE 51 主　推类主　　　推　推　

EXERCISE 52 　　　推推构推　　推主　

EXERCISE 53 　推推主主推主　　　构　

EXERCISE 54 　　　推　　　　主推　　

EXERCISE 55 推　构主主　类推推　　　

EXERCISE 56 主　推类构推　主　构　　


EXERCISE 57 　　类构构　类推构推　　

EXERCISE 58 主　构　　　推主　　推　

EXERCISE 59 主推　构构推推　构　构　

EXERCISE 60 主　　态类　构　　类　　

EXERCISE 61 主构　类构　　主推　主　

EXERCISE 62 　类　推　　　　构　类　

EXERCISE 63 推　　推推　　主推　　　

EXERCISE 64 主推　　主　　推　推　　

EXERCISE 65 主推推构　构构主　　态　

EXERCISE 66 　推推　态　　推推类态　

第 2部分案例分析

2901

(01) The common belief of some linguists that each language is a perfect vehicle for the thoughts

of the nation speaking it is in some ways the exact counterpart of the conviction of the Manchester

school of economics that supply and demand will regulate everything for the best. (02) Just as

economists were blind to the numerous cases in which the law of supply and demand left actual

wants unsatisfied, so also many linguists are deaf to those instances in which the very nature of a

language calls forth misunderstandings in everyday conversation, and in which, consequently, a

word has to be modified or defined in order to present the idea intended by the speaker: “He took

his stick—no, not John’s, but his own.” (03)No language is perfect, and if we admit this truth, we

must also admit that it is not unreasonable to investigate the relative merits of different languages


or of different details in languages.

1. The primary purpose of the passage is to

(A) analyze an interesting feature of the English language

(B) refute a belief held by some linguists

(C) show that economic theory is relevant to linguistic study

(D) illustrate the confusion that can result from the improper use of language

(E) suggest a way in which languages can be made more nearly perfect

2. The misunderstanding presented by the author is similar to which of the

following?

I. X uses the word “you” to refer to a group, but Y thinks that X is

referring to one person only.

II. X mistakenly uses the word “anomaly” to refer to a typical example,

but Y knows that “anomaly” means “exception.”

III. X uses the word “bachelor” to mean “unmarried man,” but Y

mistakenly thinks that bachelor means “unmarried woman.”

(A) I only

(B) II only

(C) III only

(D) I and II only

(E) II and III only

3. In presenting the argument, the author does all of the following EXCEPT:

(A) give an example

(B) draw a conclusion

(C) make a generalization

(D) make a comparison

(E) present a paradox

4. Which of the following contributes to the misunderstanding described by

the author?

(A) It is unclear whom the speaker of the sentence is addressing.

(B) It is unclear to whom the word “his” refers the first time it is used.

(C) It is unclear to whom the word “his” refers the second time it is used.

(D) The meaning of “took” is ambiguous.

(E) It is unclear to whom “He” refers.


3101

As Gilbert White, Darwin, and others observed long ago, all species appear to

have the innate capacity to increase their numbers from generation to generation.

The task for ecologists is to untangle the environmental and biological factors that

hold this intrinsic capacity for population growth in check over the long run. The

great variety of dynamic behaviors exhibited by different populations makes this

task more difficult: some populations remain roughly constant from year to year;

others exhibit regular cycles of abundance and scarcity; still others vary wildly,

with outbreaks and crashes that are in some cases plainly correlated with the

weather, and in other cases not.

To impose some order on this kaleidoscope of patterns, one school of thought

proposes dividing populations into two groups. These ecologists posit that the

relatively steady populations have “density-dependent” growth parameters; that

is, rates of birth, death, and migration which depend strongly on population

density. The highly varying populations have “density-independent” growth

parameters, with vital rates buffeted by environmental events; these rates

fluctuate in a way that is wholly independent of population density.

This dichotomy has its uses, but it can cause problems if taken too literally.

For one thing, no population can be driven entirely by density-independent factors

all the time. No matter how severely or unpredictably birth, death and migration

rates may be fluctuating around their long-term averages, if there were no

density-dependent effects, the population would, in the long run, either increase

or decrease without bound (barring a miracle by which gains and losses canceled

exactly). Put another way, it may be that on average 99 percent of all deaths in a

population arise from density-independent causes, and only one percent from

factors varying with density. The factors making up the one percent may seem

unimportant, and their cause may be correspondingly hard to determine. Yet,

whether recognized or not, they will usually determine the long-term average

population density.

In order to understand the nature of the ecologist’s investigation, we may

think of the density-dependent effects on growth parameters as the “signal”

ecologists are trying to isolate and interpret, one that tends to make the

population increase from relatively low values or decrease from relatively high

ones, while the density-independent effects act to produce “noise” in the

population dynamics. For populations that remain relatively constant, or that

oscillate around repeated cycles, the signal can be fairly easily characterized and

its effects described, even though the causative biological mechanism may

remain unknown. For irregularly fluctuating populations, we are likely to have too

few observations to have any hope of extracting the signal from the

overwhelming noise. But it now seems clear that all populations are regulated by

a mixture of density-dependent and density-independent effects in varying


proportions.

1. The author of the passage is primarily concerned with

(A) discussing two categories of factors that control population growth and assessing their relative importance

(B) describing how growth rates in natural populations fluctuate over time and explaining why these changes occur

(C) proposing a hypothesis concerning population sizes and suggesting ways to test it

(D) posing a fundamental question about environmental factors in population

growth and presenting some currently accepted answers

(E) refuting a commonly accepted theory about population density and offering a new alternative

2. It can be inferred from the passage that the author considers the

dichotomy discussed in the second paragraph to be

(A) applicable only to erratically fluctuating populations

(B) useful, but only if its limitations are recognized

(C) dangerously misleading in most circumstances

(D) a complete and sufficient way to account for observed phenomena

(E) conceptually valid, but too confusing to apply on a practical basis

3. Which of the following statements can be inferred from the last

paragraph?

(A) For irregularly fluctuating populations, doubling the number of observations made will probably result in the isolation of density-dependent effects.

(B) Density-dependent effects on population dynamics do not occur as frequently as do density-independent effects.

(C) At present, ecologists do not understand any of the underlying causes of the density-dependent effects they observe in population dynamics.

(D) Density-dependent effects on growth parameters are thought to be caused by some sort of biochemical “signaling” that ecologists hope eventually to

understand.

(E) It is sometimes possible to infer the existence of a density-dependent factor controlling population growth without understanding its causative mechanism.

4. According to the passage, which of the following is a true statement about

density-dependent factors in population growth?


(A) They ultimately account for long-term population levels.

(B) They have little to do with long-term population dynamics.

(C) They are always more easily isolated and described than those that are density-independent.

(D) They include random environmental events.

(E) They contradict current ecological assumptions about population dynamics.

5. According to the passage, all of the following behaviors have been

exhibited by different populations EXCEPT:

(A) roughly constant population levels from year to year

(B) regular cycles of increases and decreases in numbers

(C) erratic increases in numbers correlated with the weather

(D) unchecked increases in numbers over many generations

(E) sudden declines in numbers from time to time

6. The discussion concerning population in paragraph 3 serves primarily to

(A) demonstrate the difficulties ecologists face in studying density-dependent factors limiting population growth

(B) advocate more rigorous study of density-dependent factors in population growth

(C) prove that the death rates of any population are never entirely density-independent

(D) give an example of how death rates function to limit population densities in

typical populations

(E) underline the importance of even small density-dependent factors in regulating long-term population densities

7. In the passage, the author does all of the following EXCEPT:

(A) cite the views of other biologists

(B) define a basic problem that the passage addresses

(C) present conceptual categories used by other biologists

(D) describe the results of a particular study

(E) draw a conclusion


6402

The age at which young children begin to make moral discriminations about

harmful actions committed against themselves or others has been the focus of

recent research into the moral development of children. Until recently, child

psychologists supported pioneer developmentalist Jean. Piaget in his hypothesis

that because of their immaturity, children under age seven do not take into

account the intentions of a person committing accidental or deliberate harm, but

rather simply assign punishment for transgressions on the basis of the magnitude

of the negative consequences caused. According to Piaget, children under age

seven occupy the first stage of moral development, which is characterized by

moral absolutism (rules made by authorities must be obeyed) and imminent

justice (if rules are broken, punishment will be meted out). Until young children

mature, their moral judgments are based entirely on the effect rather than the

cause of a transgression. However, in recent research, Keasey found that six-year-

old children not only distinguish between accidental and intentional harm, but

also judge intentional harm as naughtier, regardless of the amount of damage

produced. Both of these findings seem to indicate that children, at an earlier age

than Piaget claimed, advance into the second stage of moral development, moral

autonomy, in which they accept social rules but view them as more arbitrary than

do children in the first stage.

Keasey’s research raises two key questions for developmental psychologists

about children under age seven: do they recognize justifications for harmful

actions, and do they make distinctions between harmful acts that are preventable

and those acts that have unforeseen harmful consequences? Studies indicate that

justifications excusing harmful actions might include public duty, self-defense, and

provocation. For example, Nesdale and Rule concluded that children were capable

of considering whether or not an aggressor’s action was justified by public duty:

five year olds reacted very differently to “Bonnie wrecks Ann’s pretend house”

depending on whether Bonnie did it “so somebody won’t fall over it” or because

Bonnie wanted “to make Ann feel bad.” Thus, a child of five begins to understand

that certain harmful actions, though intentional, can be justified; the constraints

of moral absolutism no longer solely guide their judgments.

Psychologists have determined that during kindergarten children learn to

make subtle distinctions involving harm. Darley observed that among acts

involving unintentional harm, six-year-old children just entering kindergarten

could not differentiate between foreseeable, and thus preventable, harm and

unforeseeable harm for which the perpetrator cannot be blamed. Seven months


later, however, Darley found that these same children could make both

distinctions, thus demonstrating that they had become morally autonomous.

5. Which of the following best describes the passage as a whole?

(A) An outline for future research

(B) An expanded definition of commonly misunderstood terms

(C) An analysis of a dispute between two theorists

(D) A discussion of research findings in an ongoing inquiry

(E) A confirmation of an established authority’s theory

6. According to the passage, Darley found that after seven months of

kindergarten six year olds acquired which of the following abilities?

(A) Differentiating between foreseeable and unforeseeable harm

(B) Identifying with the perpetrator of a harmful action

(C) Justifying harmful actions that result from provocation

(D) Evaluating the magnitude of negative consequences resulting from the

breaking of rules

(E) Recognizing the difference between moral absolutism and moral autonomy

7. According to the passage, Piaget and Keasey would not have agreed on

which of the following points?

(A) The kinds of excuses children give for harmful acts they commit

(B) The age at which children begin to discriminate between intentional and unintentional harm

(C) The intentions children have in perpetrating harm

(D) The circumstances under which children punish harmful acts

(E) The justifications children recognize for mitigating punishment for harmful acts

8. It can be inferred that the term “public duty” in the context of the passage

means which of the following?

(A) The necessity to apprehend perpetrators.

(B) The responsibility to punish transgressors

(C) An obligation to prevent harm to another

(D) The assignment of punishment for harmful action

(E) A justification for punishing transgressions

9. According to the passage, Keasey’s findings support which of the following


conclusions about six-year-old children?

(A) They have the ability to make autonomous moral judgments.

(B) They regard moral absolutism as a threat to their moral autonomy.

(C) They do not understand the concept of public duty.

(D) They accept moral judgment made by their peers more easily than do older

children.

(E) They make arbitrary moral judgments.

10. It can be inferred from the passage that Piaget would be likely to agree

with which of the following statements about the punishment that children

under seven assign to wrongdoing?

(A) The severity of the assigned punishment is determined by the perceived magnitude of negative consequences more than by any other factor.

(B) The punishment is to be administered immediately following the transgression.

(C) The children assign punishment less arbitrarily than they do when they reach the age of moral autonomy.

(D) The punishment for acts of unintentional harm is less severe than it is for acts

involving accidental harm.

(E) The more developmentally immature a child, the more severe the punishment that the child will assign.

11. According to the passage, the research of Nesdale and Rule suggests

which of the following about five-year-old children?

(A) Their reactions to intentional and accidental harm determine the severity of the punishments they assign.

(B) They, as perpetrators of harmful acts, disregard the feelings of the children they harm.

(C) They take into account the motivations of actions when judging the behavior of other children.

(D) They view public duty as a justification for accidental, but not intentional,

harm.

(E) They justify any action that protects them from harm.


4601

(01)It is now established that the Milky Way is far more extended and of much greater mass than

was hitherto thought. (02)However, all that is visible of the constituents of the Milky Way’s

corona (outer edge), where much of the galaxy’s mass must be located, is a tiny fraction of the

corona’s mass. (03)Thus, most of the Milky Way’s outlying matter must be dark.

(04)Why? (05)Three facts are salient. (06)First, dwarf galaxies and globular clusters, into

which most of the stars of the Milky Way’s corona are probably bound, consist mainly of old stars.

(07)Second, old stars are not highly luminous. (08)Third, no one has detected in the corona the

clouds of gaseous matter such as hydrogen and carbon monoxide that are characteristic of the

bright parts of a galaxy. (09)At present, therefore, the best explanation—though still quite

tentative—for the darkness of the corona is that the corona is composed mainly of old, burned-out

stars.

1. The passage as a whole is primarily concerned with

(A) analyzing a current debate

(B) criticizing a well-established theory

(C) showing how new facts support a previously dismissed hypothesis

(D) stating a conclusion and adducing evidence that may justify it

(E) contrasting two types of phenomena and showing how they are related

2. According to the passage, a bright part of a galaxy typically includes

(A) dwarf galaxies and clusters of stars

(B) a balanced mixture of old and new stars

(C) a large portion of the galaxy’s mass

(D) part of the corona of the galaxy

(E) gases such as hydrogen and carbon monoxide

3. It can be inferred from the passage that, compared with what they now

think, until fairly recently astronomers believed that the Milky Way

(A) was much darker

(B) was much smaller

(C) was moving much more slowly

(D) had a much larger corona

(E) had much less gaseous matter

4. The passage presents which of the following as incontrovertible?

I. The low luminosity of old stars

II. The absence of clouds of gaseous matter from the corona of the Milky

Way

III. The predominance of globular clusters and dwarf galaxies in the

corona of the Milky Way


(A) I only

(B) III only

(C) I and II only

(D) II and III only

(E) I, II, and III

5101

(01)Analyzing the physics of dance can add fundamentally to a dancer’s skill. (02)Although

dancers seldom see themselves totally in physical terms—as body mass moving through space

under the influence of well-known forces and obeying physical laws—neither can they afford to

ignore the physics of movement. (03)For example, no matter how much a dancer wishes to leap

off the floor and then start turning, the law of conservation of angular momentum absolutely

prevents such a movement.

(04)Some movements involving primarily vertical or horizontal motions of the body as a whole,

in which rotations can be ignored, can be studied using simple equations of linear motion in three

dimensions. (05)However, rotational motions require more complex approaches that involve

analyses of the way the body’s mass is distributed, the axes of rotation involved in different types

of movement, and the sources of the forces that produce the rotational movement.

1. The primary purpose of the passage is to

(A) initiate a debate over two approaches to analyzing a field of study

(B) describe how one field of knowledge can be applied to another field

(C) point out the contradictions between two distinct theories

(D) define and elaborate on an accepted scientific principle

(E) discuss the application of a new theory within a new setting

2. The author mentions all of the following as contributing to an

understanding of the physics of dance EXCEPT:

(A) the law of conservation of angular momentum

(B) analyses of the way in which the body’s mass is distributed

(C) equations of linear motion in three dimensions

(D) analyses of the sources that produce rotational motions

(E) the technical terms for movements such as leaps and turns

3. The author implies that dancers can become more skilled by doing which

of the following?

(A) Ignoring rotational movements

(B) Understanding the forces that permit various movements


(C) Solving simple linear equations

(D) Learning the technical terms utilized by choreographers

(E) Circumventing the law of conservation of angular momentum

4. Analysis of which of the following would require the kind of complex

approach?

(A) A long leap across space

(B) A short jump upward with a return to the same place

(C) A sustained and controlled turn in place

(D) Short, rapid steps forward and then backward without turning

(E) Quick sidesteps in a diagonal line

6401

(01)Although the development of new infrastructure (such public facilities as power plants,

schools, and bridges) is usually determined by governmental planning, sometimes this

development can be planned more flexibly and realistically by private investors who anticipate

profit from the collection of user fees. (02)Such profits can contribute to the financing of more

infrastructure if demand proves great enough, whereas the reluctance of developers to invest in

such projects can signal that additional infrastructure is not needed. (03)During the economic

boom of the 1980’s, for example, the state of Virginia authorized private developers to build a

$300 million toll road. (04)These developers obtained the needed right-of-way from property

owners, but by 1993 they still had not raised the necessary financing. (05)The unwillingness of

investors to finance this project does not negate the viability of privately financed roads; rather, it

illustrates a virtue of private financing. (06)If a road appears unlikely to attract enough future

traffic to pay for the road, then it should not be built.

1. The passage implies that the “governmental planning” may lead to which

of the following problems?

(A) Improper use of profits derived from user fees

(B) Unduly slow development of necessary new infrastructure

(C) Unrealistic decisions about developing new infrastructure

(D) Incorrect predictions about profits to be gained from user fees

(E) Obstruction of private financing for the development of new infrastructure

3201


(This passage is excerpted from an article that was published in 1982.)

(01)Warm-blooded animals have elaborate physiological controls to maintain constant body

temperature (in humans, 37℃). (02)Why then during sickness should temperature rise,

apparently increasing stress on the infected organism? (03)It has long been known that the level

of serum iron in animals falls during infection. (04)Garibaldi first suggested a relationship

between fever and iron. (05)He found that microbial synthesis of siderophores—substances that

bind iron—in bacteria of the genus Salmonella declined at environmental temperatures above

37℃ and stopped at 40.3℃. (06)Thus, fever would make it more difficult for an infecting

bacterium to acquire iron and thus to multiply. (07)Cold-blooded animals were used to test this

hypothesis because their body temperature can be controlled in the laboratory. (08)Kluger

reported that of iguanas infected with the potentially lethal bacterium A. hydrophilia, more

survived at temperatures of 42℃ than at 37℃, even though healthy animals prefer the lower

temperature. (09)When animals at 42℃ were injected with an iron solution, however, mortality

rates increased significantly. (10)Research to determine whether similar phenomena occur in

warm-blooded animals is sorely needed.

1. Which of the following can be inferred about warm-blooded animals solely

on the basis of information in the passage?

(A) The body temperatures of warm-blooded animals cannot be easily controlled in the

laboratory.

(B) Warm-blooded animals require more iron in periods of stress than they do at other times.

(C) Warm-blooded animals are more comfortable at an environmental temperature of 37℃

than they are at a temperature of 42℃.

(D) In warm-blooded animals, bacteria are responsible for the production of siderophores,

which, in turn, make iron available to the animal.

(E) In warm-blooded animals, infections that lead to fever are usually traceable to bacteria.

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