Parts of SpeechGrammar Review

Why learn grammar?

People are often judged on their speaking and writing skills.

If a person has a large vocabulary and follows standard grammar rules, he or she is treated differently than someone whose vocabulary is limited or who ignores basic rules.

People whose language skills aren’t polished are often passed over for jobs or promotions, even when they have all of the other necessary qualifications.

Parts of speech

•Nouns•Pronouns•Verbs•Adverbs•Adjectives•Prepositions•Conjunctions•Interjections

NOUN

Definition: a person, place, thing, idea, or event

COMMON NOUNS: flower, cloud, boy, chair, painting

PROPER NOUNS: Mount Sentinel, Jacob, Ms. Martin, Mona Lisa

ABSTRACT NOUNS: peace, love, harmony, pride, anger

CONCRETE NOUNS: grass, whisper, Lance Armstrong

VERB

An word that describes action (hit) or state of being (happy)

There are helping verbs & main verbs.

For example: I should have been walking home every night. Should, have, and been are all helping

verbs Walking is the main verb.

ADJECTIVE

An adjective describes or modifies nouns, pronouns, or other adjectives

What are the adjectives in the following sentence? My mother is beautiful, smart, and

slightly silly.

WATCH OUT!

Unfortunately, words don’t always fall neatly into any single category. They can only be categorized when they are used in a sentence.

For instance, the word rain can be used as several different parts of speech NOUN: The rain fell softly. VERB: It rained all night. ADJECTIVE: The rain gauge is half full.

PRONOUNS

Pronouns are words that take the place of a noun. Common pronouns include he, she, it,

they, me, etc.

PRONOUNS

Pronouns have several characteristics. They can be referred to in the following ways: Person Number Gender Case Class Special

PERSONAL PRONOUNS

First person: I, we Second person: you Third person: he, she, it, they

If I tell you to write a first person account of something that happened to your family, you would use the words I and we several times! However, unless you’re purposely writing in the second person (which is uncommon) the word you should stay out of your papers and essays!

NUMBER PRONOUNS

Singular: one person or thing I, he, she, it, me, him, her

Plural: two or more people or things We, they, us, them

GENDER PRONOUNS

Feminine: she, her, hers Masculine: he, him, his Neutral: it, its

CASE PRONOUNS

Subjective (used as subject): I, you, he, she, it, we, they, who, whoever We went to the store. We is the subject, because it is doing the action

Objective (used as object): me, you, him, her, it, us, them, whom, whomever I hurt you. You is the object because it is receiving the action.

Possessive (used as an adjective): my/mine, your/yours, his, her/hers, our/ours, their/theirs, its That is my dollhouse. My is the possessive because it is telling us who the

dollhouse belongs to. It’s DESCRIBING the owner of the dollhouse.

CLASS PRONOUNS

Personal (noun equivalent): I, me, you, he, him, she, it, we, us, you, they, them, its, our/ours, their/theirs

Relative (pronoun reflects back to the noun or pronoun that the clause modifies): who, whom, whose, that, which Ex: The boy who left is ten.

Indefinite (refers to nonspecific persons or things): all, another, any, anybody, anyone, anything, both, each, either, no one, many, neither, everyone, few, several, some, etc.

Interrogative (introduces questions): who, what, whose Demonstrative (may be noun or adjective): this, that,

these, those Ex: This is easy. (noun or adj?) Ex: This book is mine. (noun or adj?)

SPECIAL PRONOUNS

Reflexive (receiver and doer are the same): myself, yourself, himself, herself, itself, ourselves, yourselves, themselves Ex: I cut myself.

Intensive (emphasizes a noun or pronoun): myself yourself, ourselves, yourselves, themselves, himself, herself, itself Ex: I myself prefer butter.

Reciprocal (individual parts of a plural antecedent): each other, one another They love each other.

MAIN VERBS & HELPING VERBS

The verb may simply consist of a single word – the main verb.▪ I walk home every night.

It may also consist of several words – the main verb and the helping verb(s).▪ I should have been walking home every

night.

Helping Verbs (can also function as main verbs)

BeBeingBeenAmIs

AreWasWereHaveHasHadDo

Does Did

Modals (can only function as helping verb)

CanMay

CouldShould WouldWill ShallMightMust

Linking Verbs

These verbs express a state of being, rather than an action. They include all forms of the following words: Look, taste, appear, seem, get, grow,

smell, feel, make sound, become, be (am, are, is, was, were)

Sensory Verbs

Most of the time, sensory verbs (look, taste, smell, sound, feel) act as linking verbs, but sometimes they act as action verbs. Sensory: The dog looked happy. (Happy describes

the dog. The happy dog would have the same meaning.)

Action: The dog looked happily at the fresh steak. (Happily describes how the dog looked at the steak.)

Sensory: The cookies taste salty. (Salty describes the cookies.)

Action: Lou tasted salt on the cookies. (Salt is a noun. It doesn’t describe Lou.)

REGULAR/IRREGULAR VERBS

Regular verbs are predictable in the way the tenses are conjugated (end is changed). ▪ Past tense (-ed)▪ Present participle (-ing)

Irregular verbs don’t follow these same rules ▪ Ex: deal, choose, dream, etc.▪ What other irregular verbs can you think of?

VERBALS

Verbals are words that look like verbs but are used in a different way. There are three kinds: gerunds,

participles, and infinitives.

VERBALS

Gerund▪ The –ing form is used as a noun.▪ Writing improves with practice.Participle▪ when used with helping verbs, these words are

verbs themselves ▪ when used without a helping verb, these words

are adjectivesInfinitive▪ the infinitive form is the base form of a verb

preceded by the word to (to walk)▪ it can function as a noun, adjective, or adverb

VERBALS

Gerund▪ Example: Walking is great exercise.Participle▪ Verb Example: I was walking home when it

started to rain.▪ Adjective Example: I have a good pair of

walking shoes.Infinitive▪ Noun Example: He wanted to walk.

ADJECTIVES

▪ Definition: Describe (modify) nouns, pronouns, and other adjectives.

Adjectives always answer one of the following questions:▪ Which one? favorite uncle▪ What kind? valuable painting▪ How many? three mice▪ How much? little patience

ADJECTIVES

▪ Coordinate adjectives modify the same word and are separated by a comma.▪ Ex: The quick, easy recipes are my favorite.

▪ Cumulative adjectives build meaning. A comma doesn’t come between them. The first word may intensify the second.▪ Ex: My blue suede shoes need cleaning.

ADJECTIVES

▪ REMEMBER…▪A comma never goes between the final adjective and the word it modifies.NO: They spent a long, quiet, afternoon together.

YES: They spent a long, quiet afternoon together.

ADVERBS

▪ Definition: describe or modify adjectives, verbs, or other adverbs.▪ When adverbs modify verbs, they often

answer one of these questions:▪ When?▪ Where?▪ Why?▪ How?▪ Under what condition?▪ How often?▪ How much?

ADVERBS

The following are common adverbs:

CarefullyCalmlyPerfectlyOftenQuicklySlowlyNowRegularlySeldomThoughtfullyThen Sometimes

Positives, Comparatives, and Superlatives

ADJECTIVES

Positive: big, pleasant

Comparative: bigger, more pleasant

Superlative: biggest, most pleasant

ADVERBS

Positive: fast, carefully

Comparative: faster, more carefully

Superlative: fastest, most carefully

Adjectives/Adverbs

COMPARATIVE

Compares two people, places, or things.

Ex: My younger son plays the piano. (I have only two sons.)

SUPERLATIVE

Only used with three or more people or things.

Ex: My oldest sibling lives in Denver. (I have more than two siblings.)

Good & Well

GOOD

We use good as the adverbial form to answer the question “What kind?”

Sherry is a good cook. (Good is the adjective form modifying cook.)

WELL

We use well as the adverbial form to answer “How much?” or “How?”

Sherry also paints well. (Well is the adverbial form modifying paints.)

Good & Well

WELL

Further confusion occurs because the word well can be considered an adjective when referring to a person’s health.

After feeling sick for two days, Ann is finally feeling well again.

Punctuation, Capitalization, & Spelling

Grammar Review

Commas ,

Commas group words that belong together and separate words that don’t belong together.

Place markers in numbers

Commas are used to distinguish number places (hundreds, thousands, millions, etc.)

Ex: $11,000,000

Cities, States, and Countries

When the state or country is listed after the city, it is separated by a pair of commas.

Denver, Colorado, is the capital of Colorado.

Month, Day, & Year

When the month, day, and year are written out within a sentence, the year is separated by a pair of commas. When only the month and day are given, do NOT use a comma.

We’ll meet May 9. We’ll meet May 2011. We’ll meet May 9,

2011.

Letter Greetings and Closings

Commas are used after the greetings and closing in a letter.

Dear Jane,How are you? I

am fine.

Sincerely, Bob

Items in a series (list)

Items in a series can be nouns, verbs, phrases, and clauses. The comma before the and is optional. (But more writers use it.)

My niece wants a doll, a dress, and a book for Christmas.

Extra Information

Commas group any extra information in a sentence.

Intro: By the way, Charles said hello.

Appositives: Aaron, the neighbor’s son, is already driving.

Nonrestrictive info: Charles, by the way, said hello.

“Tagged-on” words: You’re coming, aren’t you?

Quotations

After quote: “Books are wonderful,” said Mrs. Martin.

Before quote: Mrs. Martin said, “Books are wonderful.”

Split quote, “Books,” said Mrs. Martin, “are wonderful.”

Comma DON’Ts

DO NOT separate a subject from its verb with a single comma.

NO: How the Broncos lost the Superbowl, is a mystery to their fans.

YES: How the Broncos lost the Superbowl is a mystery to their fans.

NO: Football, is an important American tradition.

YES: Football is an important American tradition.

Comma DON’Ts

DO NOT separate the verb from its object with a single comma.

NO: Important Christmas traditions are, a Christmas tree, carols, and Santa Claus.

YES: Important Christmas traditions are a Christmas tree, carols, and Santa Claus.

NO: Over 100 million Americans celebrate, at least in some way this December tradition.

YES: Over 100 million Americans celebrate, at least in some way, this December tradition.

Comma DON’Ts

DO NOT separate the final adjective from the word it modifies.

NO: She was a pretty, smart, and charming, woman.

YES: She was a pretty, smart, and charming woman.

Quotation Marks “ ”

Quotation marks mark the beginning and end of directly quoted words.

Quotation Marks “ ”

Quotation marks mark the beginning and end of directly quoted words.

A quotation is a writer’s or speaker’s exact words.

In a direct quotation, the speaker’s words are repeated exactly as they were spoken or written.

Quotation Example

Tallulah Bankhead said, “If I had my life to live again, I’d make the same mistakes, only sooner.”

Split Quotation

The first letter after a split quotation isn’t normally capitalized (unless it would be anyway – like the word “I” or a name).

“If I had my life to live again, I’d make the same mistakes,” Tallulah Bankhead said, “only sooner.”

Punctuation

Notice too, that the punctuation falls INSIDE the quotation marks.

Quotations in a sentence

To blend quotes into a sentence, put quotation marks around direct quotations. Don’t capitalize the first letter of the quotation.

Ex: Rose Macauly says you should believe everything in the newspapers, since “this makes them more interesting.”

Indirect quotations

An indirect quotation uses someone’s idea, but not his/her exact words. DON’T use quotation marks in this case.

Ex: Rose Macauly says you should believe everything you read in the newspapers because it’s more interesting that way.

Quotations within quotations

Single quotation marks enclose a quotation within a quotation.

Ex: Somerset Maughm said, “It wasn’t until late in life I discovered how easy it was to say ‘I don’t know.’”

Titles

Quotation marks are placed around the titles of SHORT works such as newpaper and magazine articles, short stories, songs, and chapters of books.

Ex: Did you read “A Challenge the Schools Didn’t Take” in USNews?

My favorite song is “Fishin’ in the Dark” by Nitty Gritty Dirt Band.

Quotation marks with other punctuation

Periods and commas go INSIDE the quotation marks.

Colons and semicolons go OUTSIDE the quotation marks.

Question marks, exclamation points, and dashes go inside OR outside, depending if they are with the quoted material or not.

Quotation marks with other punctuation

Ex: One of my favorite essays is James Thurber’s “University Days.”

Ex: The price for the best paper went to “Drucker’s Influence on Management”; it was the only one submitted.

Ex: Did you hear him read “The Road Not Taken”?

Ex: Did you hear him ask, “Who is ready for lunch?”

Colons :

Colons are used AFTER independent clauses (sentences) to direct attention to a list, an appositive, or a quotation.

DON’T capitalize the first word of the list or appositive. DO capitalize the first word of a quotation.

Colons

List : We plan to visit all the great tourist spots: the Garden of the Gods, Pikes Peak, and Barney’s Diner.

Appositive: His laundry pile could be described in two words: big and smelly.

Direct quotation: Consider the advice we give to writers: “Approach writing like you would any other art form.”

Colons

Another use: Colons can also be used between sentences if the second sentence summarizes or explains the first. The first word after the colon can be capitalized or left lowercase. Just be consistent!

Example: Faith is like love: It cannot be forced.

Colons

Tip! An independent clause (complete sentence) ALWAYS comes before a colon. What comes AFTER a colon may or may not be a complete sentence.

Incorrect: Please bring: a sleeping bag, sturdy hiking shoes, and a flashlight.

Correct: Please bring some supplies for camping: a sleeping bag, sturdy hiking shoes, and a flashlight.

Semicolons ;

Semicolons are used in place of a period to indicate a close relationship between independent clauses. They are also used as a sub for commas to improve clarity.

Semicolons ;

Semicolons are used when two sentences are closely related in meaning but aren’t joined by a conjunction (and, but, etc.).

I don’t know who my grandfather was; I am much more concerned about what his grandson will be. –Abraham Lincoln

Semicolons ;

Semicolons can also be used between independent clauses linked with a adverb or transitional phrase.

Sandy plans to travel to Jamaica over spring break; however, she still hasn’t purchased her airline ticket.

Semicolons ;

Semicolons are also used between items in a series containing internal punctuation. They can be used to separate items that already contain commas.

Example: I have lived in Missoula, Montana; Chicago, Illinois; and Seattle, Washington.

Semicolons ;

Tip! Unless you’re using one with a list, there should always be a complete sentence BEFORE and AFTER a semicolon.

Incorrect: I can’t even clear my throat in five minutes; much less introduce the president.

Correct: I can’t even clear my throat in five minutes, much less introduce the president.

Correct: I can’t even clear my throat in five minutes, much less introduce the president; I won’t even try!

Apostrophes ‘

Two important functions: In contractions to replace missing numbers or letters

Used to show ownership

Apostrophes

CONTRACTIONS

Show the omission of numerals and letters They are = they’re You are = you’re 1990 = ’90

OWNERSHIP

Apostrophes show that someone or something in in possession of something else. My cousin’s car is in the

garage.▪ This shows that one cousin

owns the car My cousins’ car is in the

garage.▪ This shows that the car is

owned by multiple cousins.

Apostrophes ‘

Words that end in s can be tricky. You can just use an

apostrophe▪ Kansas’ weather is

volitile. OR you can add an

s after the apostrophe▪ Bob Jones’s car is

brand new.

Apostrophes ‘

Singular Possessive Add an apostrophe

plus s to form the singular possessive

Jane’s books were left at home.

Today’s world is dangerous.

It’s all part of a day’s work.

Apostrophes ‘

Plural Possessive Most plural nouns end in s.

Just add an apostrophe for the plural form.▪ The girls’ coats were

warm.▪ Her friends’ expressions

warmed her heart. Add an apostrophe plus s if

the word doesn’t end in s.▪ The women’s hats were

expensive.

Apostrophes ‘

Joint Possession Add an apostrophe only to

the LAST name when both people own something▪ Bob and Tom’s room is a

mess. (they both own the same room)

Add an ‘s to BOTH if there is separate possession.▪ John’s and Ted’s tests

were in the top 5%. (they each took a separate test)

Apostrophes ‘

Compound Nouns If the noun is

compound, use ‘s (or s’) with the last element of the compound.▪ My mother-in-law’s

quilts are beautiful.▪ My sister-in-law’s

children are smart.

Confusing uses of apostrophes

WORD

It’s/its

You’re/your

They’re/their/there

Who’s/whose

USES

It is/possessive pronoun

You are/possessive pronoun

They are/possessive pronoun/refers to place or position

Who is/possessive pronoun

Confusing uses of apostrophes

It’s raining. The dog hurt its paw.They’re happy to be home. This is their home. The cookies are over there.Who’s coming with us?Whose book is this?You’re first in line.Your books are on the table.