golden grammar rules that help you improve your english

Golden Grammar Rules are written by Michael Swan, author of Practical English Usage. Find out more about PEU in the online catalogue at www.oup.com/elt.

For a more detailed explanation, please refer to the extracts from Practical English Usage.

Golden Grammar Rules that help you improve your English

PHOTOCOPIABLE © Michael Swan 2008

Use the simple present – play(s), rain(s) etc – to talk about habits and repeated actions.

I play tennis every Saturday. (NOT I am playing tennis every Saturday.)

It usually rains a lot in November.

Use the present progressive – am playing, is raining etc – to talk about things that are happening around the time of speaking.

I’m playing very badly today. (NOT I play very badly today.).

Look! It’s raining! (NOT Look! It rains!)

Don’t use the present perfect – have/has seen, have/has gone etc - with words that name a finished time.

I saw him yesterday. (NOT I have seen him yesterday.)

They went to Greece last summer. (NOT They have gone … last summer.)

Golden Grammar Rules are written by Michael Swan, author of Practical English Usage. Find out more about PEU in the online catalogue at www.oup.com/elt.

For a more detailed explanation, please refer to the extracts from Practical English Usage.

Golden Grammar Rules that help you improve your English


Don’t use the to talk about things in general.

Books are expensive. (NOT The books are expensive.)

I love music. (NOT I love the music.)

Use for with a period of time.Use since with the beginning of the period.

for the last two hours = since 9 o’clock

for three days = since Monday (BUT NOT since three days)

for five years = since I left school

For more details, see PEU 460

Don’t separate the verb from the object.

verb obj

She speaks English very well. (NOT She speaks very well English.)

Andy likes skiing very much. (NOT Andy likes very much skiing)

For more details, see PEU 611

Golden Grammar RulesThese detailed explanations are taken from Practical English Usage by Michael Swan. Find out more about PEU in the online catalogue at www.oup.com/elt.

– I hear you’re working at Smiths. �Yes, I’ve been working there for a month.(NOT I’m working there for . . .)

– I know her well.I’ve known her for years. (NOT I know her for years.)

– My brother’s a doctor.How long has he been a doctor? (NOT How long is he a doctor?)

Compare also:How long are you here for? (= until when; when are you leaving?)How long have you been here for? (= since when; when did you arrive?)

For the difference between simple and progressive forms, see 459.

For the difference between since and for, see 208.

For tenses with since, see 522.

2 This is the first time etc

We use a simple present perfect after this is the first time that . . . , it’s thesecond . . . that . . . , and similar structures (see 591).

This is the first time that I’ve heard her sing. (NOT This is the first time that Ihear her sing.)

It’s the fifth time you’ve asked me the same question.This is only the second opera I’ve ever seen.

For present perfect and simple present passives with similar meanings (e.g. The shop has

been / is closed), see 420.

461 present tenses (1): introduction

1 the two present tenses

Most English verbs have two present tenses. Forms like I wait, she thinks arecalled ‘simple present’ or ‘present simple’; forms like I am waiting or she’sthinking are called ‘present progressive’ or ‘present continuous’. The twopresent tenses are used in different ways.

2 general time: simple present

When we talk about permanent situations, or about things that happenregularly or all the time (not just around now), we usually use the simplepresent (see 462–463 for details).

My parents live near Dover. Water freezes at 08Celsius.I go to London about three times a week.

3 around now: present progressive

When we talk about temporary continuing actions and events, which are justgoing on now or around now, we usually use a present progressive tense (see464 for details).

What are you doing?�I’m reading.I’m travelling a lot these days.

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4 future time

Both present tenses can be used to talk about the future.I’ll meet you when you arrive.Come and see us next week if you’re passing through London.

For the differences, see 463–464, 466.

462 present tenses (2): simple present (forms)

1 forms

Affirmative Question Negative

I work do I work? I do not workyou work do you work? you do not workhe/she/it works does he/she/it work? he/she/it does not workwe work do we work? we do not workthey work do they work? they do not work

– Contracted negatives (see 143): I don’t work, he doesn’t work etc– Negative questions (see 368): do I not work? or don’t I work? etc

For passives (e.g. The work is done), see 412.

2 spelling of third person singular forms

Most verbs:add -s to infinitive

work ? workssit ? sitsstay ? stays

Verbs ending in consonant + y:change y to i and add -es

cry ? crieshurry ? hurriesreply ? replies

But (vowel + y): enjoy ? enjoys

Verbs ending in -s, -z, -ch, -sh or -x:add -es to infinitive

miss ? missesbuzz ? buzzeswatch ? watchespush ? pushesfix ? fixes

Exceptions: have ? hasgo ? goesdo ? does

3 pronunciation of third person singular forms

The pronunciation of the -(e)s ending depends on the sound that comes beforeit. The rules are the same as for the plural -(e)s ending – see 525.Irregular pronunciations: says (/sez/, not /seIz/); does (/dVz/, not /du;z/).



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Use the simple present – play(s), rain(s) etc – to talk about habits and repeated actions.

I play tennis every Saturday. (NOT I am playing tennis every Saturday.)

It usually rains a lot in November.


4 future time

Both present tenses can be used to talk about the future.I’ll meet you when you arrive.Come and see us next week if you’re passing through London.

For the differences, see 463–464, 466.

462 present tenses (2): simple present (forms)

1 forms

Affirmative Question Negative

I work do I work? I do not workyou work do you work? you do not workhe/she/it works does he/she/it work? he/she/it does not workwe work do we work? we do not workthey work do they work? they do not work

– Contracted negatives (see 143): I don’t work, he doesn’t work etc– Negative questions (see 368): do I not work? or don’t I work? etc

For passives (e.g. The work is done), see 412.

2 spelling of third person singular forms

Most verbs:add -s to infinitive

work ? workssit ? sitsstay ? stays

Verbs ending in consonant + y:change y to i and add -es

cry ? crieshurry ? hurriesreply ? replies

But (vowel + y): enjoy ? enjoys

Verbs ending in -s, -z, -ch, -sh or -x:add -es to infinitive

miss ? missesbuzz ? buzzeswatch ? watchespush ? pushesfix ? fixes

Exceptions: have ? hasgo ? goesdo ? does

3 pronunciation of third person singular forms

The pronunciation of the -(e)s ending depends on the sound that comes beforeit. The rules are the same as for the plural -(e)s ending – see 525.Irregular pronunciations: says (/sez/, not /seIz/); does (/dVz/, not /du;z/).

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page 449463 present tenses (3): simple present (use)

1 general time: It always rains in November

We often use the simple present to talk about permanent situations, or aboutthings that happen regularly, repeatedly or all the time.

What do frogs eat? (NOT What are frogs eating?)It always rains here in November.I play tennis every Wednesday.Alice works for an insurance company.

2 not used for things happening just around the present

We do not usually use the simple present to talk about temporary situations oractions that are only going on around the present. Compare:– Water boils at 1008Celsius.

The kettle’s boiling – shall I make tea? (NOT The kettle boils . . .)– It usually snows in January.

Look – it’s snowing! (NOT Look – It snows!)– I play tennis every Wednesday.

Where’s Bernard?�He’s playing tennis. (NOT . . . He plays tennis.)

3 non-progressive verbs

However, the simple present is used for this ‘around the present’ meaningwith verbs that do not have progressive forms (see 471).

I like this wine very much. (NOT I’m liking . . .)I believe you. (NOT I’m believing you.)



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463 present tenses (3): simple present (use)

1 general time: It always rains in November

We often use the simple present to talk about permanent situations, or aboutthings that happen regularly, repeatedly or all the time.

What do frogs eat? (NOT What are frogs eating?)It always rains here in November.I play tennis every Wednesday.Alice works for an insurance company.

2 not used for things happening just around the present

We do not usually use the simple present to talk about temporary situations oractions that are only going on around the present. Compare:– Water boils at 1008Celsius.

The kettle’s boiling – shall I make tea? (NOT The kettle boils . . .)– It usually snows in January.

Look – it’s snowing! (NOT Look – It snows!)– I play tennis every Wednesday.

Where’s Bernard?�He’s playing tennis. (NOT . . . He plays tennis.)


However, the simple present is used for this ‘around the present’ meaningwith verbs that do not have progressive forms (see 471).

I like this wine very much. (NOT I’m liking . . .)I believe you. (NOT I’m believing you.)



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4 talking about the future

We do not normally use the simple present to talk about the future.I promise I won’t smoke any more. (NOT I promise I don’t smoke any more.)We’re going to the theatre this evening. (NOT We go to the theatre this

evening.)There’s the doorbell.�I’ll get it. (NOT I get it.)

However, the simple present is used for ‘timetabled’ future events (see 215).His train arrives at 11.46. I start my new job tomorrow.

And the simple present is often used instead of will . . . in subordinate clausesthat refer to the future. (For details, see 580).

I’ll kill anybody who touches my possessions. (NOT . . . who will touch . . .)I’ll phone you when I get home. (NOT . . . when I’ll get home.)

The simple present is also used in suggestions with Why don’t you . . .?Why don’t you take a day off tomorrow?

5 series of events:demonstrations, commentaries, instructions, stories

When we talk about series of completed actions and events, we often use thesimple present. This happens, for example, in demonstrations, commentaries,instructions and present-tense stories (see 465 for more details).

First I take a bowl and break two eggs into it. Next . . . (NOT First I am takinga bowl . . .)

Lydiard passes to Taylor, Taylor shoots – and it’s a goal!How do I get to the station?�You go straight on to the traffic lights, then you

turn left, . . ..So I go into the office, and I see this man, and he says to me . . .

6 how long? present tenses not used

We use a perfect tense, not a present tense, to say how long a present action orsituation has been going on. (See 460 for details.)

I’ve known her since 1960. (NOT I know her since 1960.)

464 present tenses (4): progressive (or ‘continuous’)

1 present progressive: forms

am/are/is + -ing

I am waiting.Are you listening? She isn’t working today.

For double letters in words like sitting, stopping, see 562.

For passive forms (e.g. The work is being done), see 412.

2 use: ‘around now’

We use the present progressive to talk about temporary actions and situationsthat are going on now or ‘around now’: before, during and after the moment ofspeaking.

Hurry up! We’re all waiting for you! (NOT We all wait . . .)What are you doing?�I’m writing letters. (NOT . . . I write letters.) s



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We do not normally use the simple present to talk about the future.I promise I won’t smoke any more. (NOT I promise I don’t smoke any more.)We’re going to the theatre this evening. (NOT We go to the theatre this

evening.)There’s the doorbell.�I’ll get it. (NOT I get it.)

However, the simple present is used for ‘timetabled’ future events (see 215).His train arrives at 11.46. I start my new job tomorrow.

And the simple present is often used instead of will . . . in subordinate clausesthat refer to the future. (For details, see 580).

I’ll kill anybody who touches my possessions. (NOT . . . who will touch . . .)I’ll phone you when I get home. (NOT . . . when I’ll get home.)

The simple present is also used in suggestions with Why don’t you . . .?Why don’t you take a day off tomorrow?

5 series of events:demonstrations, commentaries, instructions, stories

When we talk about series of completed actions and events, we often use thesimple present. This happens, for example, in demonstrations, commentaries,instructions and present-tense stories (see 465 for more details).

First I take a bowl and break two eggs into it. Next . . . (NOT First I am takinga bowl . . .)

Lydiard passes to Taylor, Taylor shoots – and it’s a goal!How do I get to the station?�You go straight on to the traffic lights, then you

turn left, . . ..So I go into the office, and I see this man, and he says to me . . .


We use a perfect tense, not a present tense, to say how long a present action orsituation has been going on. (See 460 for details.)

I’ve known her since 1960. (NOT I know her since 1960.)

464 present tenses (4): progressive (or ‘continuous’)

1 present progressive: forms

am/are/is + -ing

I am waiting.Are you listening? She isn’t working today.

For double letters in words like sitting, stopping, see 562.

For passive forms (e.g. The work is being done), see 412.

2 use: ‘around now’

We use the present progressive to talk about temporary actions and situationsthat are going on now or ‘around now’: before, during and after the moment ofspeaking.

Hurry up! We’re all waiting for you! (NOT We all wait . . .)What are you doing?�I’m writing letters. (NOT . . . I write letters.) s




page 451Why are you crying? Is something wrong? (NOT Why do you cry? . . .)He’s working in Saudi Arabia at the moment.

3 repeated actions

The present progressive can refer to repeated actions and events, if these arejust happening around the present (for more details, see 466).

Why is he hitting the dog? I’m travelling a lot these days.

4 changes

We also use the present progressive to talk about developments and changes.That child’s getting bigger every day. House prices are going up again.


We often use the present progressive to talk about the future (see 214).What are you doing tomorrow evening?Come and see us next week if you’re passing through London.

6 things that happen all the time: not used

We do not normally use the present progressive to talk about permanentsituations, or about things that happen regularly, repeatedly or all the time.Compare:– Look – the cat’s eating your breakfast!

What do bears eat?�Everything. (NOT What are bears eating? . . .)– Why is that girl standing on the table?

Chetford Castle stands on a hill outside the town. (NOT . . . is standing . . .)– My sister’s living at home for the moment.

Your parents live in North London, don’t they?

7 verbs not used in progressive forms

Some verbs are not used in progressive forms (see 471), even if the meaning is‘just around now’.

I like this wine. (NOT I’m liking this wine.)Do you believe what he says? (NOT Are you believing . . .?)The tank contains about 7,000 litres at the moment. (NOT The tank is

containing . . .)




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Use the present progressive – am playing, is raining etc – to talk about things that are happening around the time of speaking.

I’m playing very badly today. (NOT I play very badly today.).

Look! It’s raining! (NOT Look! It rains!)


Why are you crying? Is something wrong? (NOT Why do you cry? . . .)He’s working in Saudi Arabia at the moment.

3 repeated actions

The present progressive can refer to repeated actions and events, if these arejust happening around the present (for more details, see 466).

Why is he hitting the dog? I’m travelling a lot these days.

4 changes

We also use the present progressive to talk about developments and changes.That child’s getting bigger every day. House prices are going up again.


We often use the present progressive to talk about the future (see 214).What are you doing tomorrow evening?Come and see us next week if you’re passing through London.

6 things that happen all the time: not used

We do not normally use the present progressive to talk about permanentsituations, or about things that happen regularly, repeatedly or all the time.Compare:– Look – the cat’s eating your breakfast!

What do bears eat?�Everything. (NOT What are bears eating? . . .)– Why is that girl standing on the table?

Chetford Castle stands on a hill outside the town. (NOT . . . is standing . . .)– My sister’s living at home for the moment.

Your parents live in North London, don’t they?

7 verbs not used in progressive forms

Some verbs are not used in progressive forms (see 471), even if the meaning is‘just around now’.

I like this wine. (NOT I’m liking this wine.)Do you believe what he says? (NOT Are you believing . . .?)The tank contains about 7,000 litres at the moment. (NOT The tank is

containing . . .)




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We use a perfect tense, not a present tense, to say how long something hasbeen going on. (See 460 for details.)

I’ve been learning English for three years. (NOT I’m learning English for threeyears.)

465 present tenses (5):stories, commentaries and instructions

1 stories

Present tenses are often used informally to tell stories. The simple present isused for the events – the things that happen one after another. The presentprogressive is used for ‘background’ – things that are already happening whenthe story starts, or that continue through the story. (This is like the differencebetween the simple past and past progressive: see 422.)

So I open the door, and I look out into the garden, and I see this man. He’swearing pyjamas and a policeman’s helmet. ‘Hello,’ he says . . .

There’s this Scotsman, you see, and he’s walking through the jungle when hemeets a gorilla. And the gorilla’s eating a snake sandwich. So theScotsman goes up to the gorilla . . .

The simple present is common in summaries of plays, stories, etc.In Act I, Hamlet sees the ghost of his father. The ghost tells him . . .Chapter 2: Henry goes to Scotland and meets the Loch Ness Monster.

2 commentaries

In commentaries, the use of tenses is similar. The simple present is used forthe quicker actions and events (which are finished before the sentences thatdescribe them); the present progressive is used for longer actions andsituations. There are more simple and fewer progressive tenses in a footballcommentary, for instance, than in a commentary on a boat race.

Smith passes to Devaney, Devaney to Barnes – and Harris intercepts . . .Harris passes back to Simms, nice ball – and Simms shoots!

Oxford are pulling slightly ahead of Cambridge now; they’re rowing with abeautiful rhythm; Cambridge are looking a little disorganised . . .

3 instructions and demonstrations

We often use present tenses in a similar way to give instructions,demonstrations and directions.

OK, let’s go over it again. You wait outside the bank until the managerarrives. Then you radio Louie, who’s waiting round the corner, and hedrives round to the front entrance. You and Louie grab the manager . . .

First I put a lump of butter into a frying pan and light the gas; then while thebutter’s melting I break three eggs into a bowl, like this . . .

How do I get to the station?�You go straight on to the traffic lights, then youturn left . . .



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5 time words: ever, before, recently etc

When we talk about finished events with words that mean ‘at some/any timeup to now’ (like ever, before, never, yet, recently, lately, already), we normallyuse the present perfect.

Have you ever seen a ghost? She’s never said ‘sorry’ in her life.I’m sure we’ve met before. Has the postman come yet?We haven’t seen Beth recently.Could you clean the car?�I’ve already done it.

6 repetition up to now: I’ve written six letters . . .

We can use the present perfect to say that something has happened severaltimes up to the present.

I’ve written six letters since lunchtime.Adverbs of frequency like often, sometimes, occasionally are common with thepresent perfect.

How often have you been in love in your life?I’ve sometimes thought of moving to Australia.

7 continuation up to now: I’ve known her for years

To talk about actions and situations that have continued up to the present,both the simple present perfect and the present perfect progressive arepossible (depending on the kind of verb and the exact meaning – for details,see 459).

I’ve known her for years. (NOT I know her for years. – see 460.1)I’ve been thinking about you all day.

For present perfect tenses in clauses referring to the future (e.g. I’ll take a rest when I’ve finished

cleaning the kitchen), see 580.

456 present perfect (2): perfect or past?

1 thinking about past and present together

We use the present perfect if we are thinking about the past and presenttogether. We do not use the present perfect if we are not thinking about thepresent. Compare:– My sister has learnt French. (She can speak French now.)

Shakespeare probably learnt Italian. (NOT Shakespeare has probably learntItalian.)

– We’ve studied enough to pass the exam. (The exam is still to come.)We studied enough to pass the exam. (The exam is over.)

– Ann and Peter have got married! (news)My parents got married in Canada.

We do not use the present perfect in story-telling.Once upon a time a beautiful princess fell in love with a poor farmer.

(NOT . . . has fallen in love . . .)



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2 finished-time words: present perfect not used

We do not often use the present perfect with words that refer to a completelyfinished period of time, like yesterday, last week, then, when, three years ago, in1970. This is because the present perfect focuses on the present, and wordslike these focus on the past, so they contradict each other. Compare:– Have you seen Lucy anywhere?

I saw Lucy yesterday. (NOT I have seen Lucy yesterday.)– Tom has hurt his leg; he can’t walk.

Tom hurt his leg last week. (NOT Tom has hurt his leg last week.)– What have you done with the car keys? I can’t find them.

What did you do then? (NOT What have you done then?)– My brother has had an accident. He’s in hospital.

When did the accident happen? (NOT When has the accident happened?)– All my friends have moved to London.

Eric moved three years ago. (NOT Eric has moved three years ago.)

For tenses with just and just now, see 307.

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Don’t use the present perfect – have/has seen, have/has gone etc - with words that name a finished time.

I saw him yesterday. (NOT I have seen him yesterday.)

They went to Greece last summer. (NOT They have gone … last summer.)


2 finished-time words: present perfect not used

We do not often use the present perfect with words that refer to a completelyfinished period of time, like yesterday, last week, then, when, three years ago, in1970. This is because the present perfect focuses on the present, and wordslike these focus on the past, so they contradict each other. Compare:– Have you seen Lucy anywhere?

I saw Lucy yesterday. (NOT I have seen Lucy yesterday.)– Tom has hurt his leg; he can’t walk.

Tom hurt his leg last week. (NOT Tom has hurt his leg last week.)– What have you done with the car keys? I can’t find them.

What did you do then? (NOT What have you done then?)– My brother has had an accident. He’s in hospital.

When did the accident happen? (NOT When has the accident happened?)– All my friends have moved to London.

Eric moved three years ago. (NOT Eric has moved three years ago.)

For tenses with just and just now, see 307.

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3 ever, before, recently etc

But with words that mean ‘at some/any time up to now’ (like ever, before,never, yet, recently, already), we normally use the present perfect (see 455.5).

Have you ever been to Chicago? I’ve seen this film before.

4 time not mentioned

We use the present perfect when we are thinking of a period of ‘time up tonow’, even if we do not mention it.

Have you seen ‘Romeo and Juliet’? (= Have you ever seen it? or Have youseen the present production?)

You’ve done a lot for me. (. . . up to now)On the other hand, we do not use the present perfect when we are thinking ofa particular finished time, even if we do not mention it.

Did you see ‘Romeo and Juliet’? (It was on TV last night.)My grandfather did a lot for me. (. . . when he was alive)

5 news and details

We normally use the present perfect to announce news (see 455.4).But when we give more details, we usually change to a past tense.

Joe has passed his exam! He got 87%.There has been a plane crash near Bristol. Witnesses say that there was an

explosion as the aircraft was taking off, . . .The Prime Minister has had talks with President Kumani. During a three-

hour meeting, they discussed the economic situation, and agreed on theneed for closer trade links between the two countries.

For more details, exceptions and notes on American usage, see 457.6.

457 present perfect (3): perfect or past(advanced points)

1 causes and origins: Who gave you that?

We normally use the present perfect when we are thinking about past eventstogether with their present results (see 455.3).

I can’t come to your party because I’ve broken my leg.However, we usually prefer a past tense when we identify the person, thing orcircumstances responsible for a present situation (because we are thinkingabout the past cause, not the present result). Compare:– Look what John’s given me! (thinking about the gift)

Who gave you that? (thinking about the past action of giving)– Some fool has let the cat in.

Who let that cat in?Other examples:

Why are you crying?�Granny hit me. (NOT . . . Granny has hit me.)I’m glad you were born. How did you get that bruise?That’s a nice picture. Did you paint it yourself?Some people think that ‘Pericles’ was not written by Shakespeare.The Chinese invented paper. (NOT The Chinese have invented paper.)



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– Would you like some more rice? (An indefinite amount – as much as thelistener wants.)

We need rice, sugar, eggs, butter, beer, and toilet paper. (The speaker isthinking just of the things that need to be bought, not of the amounts.)

– Is there any water in the fridge? (The speaker wants a limited amount.)Is there water on the moon? (The interest is in the existence of water, not the

amount.)– This engine hardly uses any petrol. (The interest is in the amount.)

This engine doesn’t use petrol. (The interest is in the type of fuel, not theamount.)

We do not use some/any when it is clear exactly how much/many we aretalking about. Compare:– You’ve got some great books.

You’ve got pretty toes. (A definite number – ten.You’ve got some pretty toeswould suggest that the speaker is not making it clear how many –perhaps six or seven!)

For details of the difference between some and any, see 547.

For full details of the uses of some, see 546; for any, see 55.

68 articles (8): talking in general

1 the does not mean ‘all’

We do not use the with uncountable or plural nouns to talk about things ingeneral – to talk about all books, all people or all life, for example. The does notmean ‘all’. Instead, we use no article. Compare:– Move the books off that chair and sit down. (= particular books)

Books are expensive. (NOT The books are expensive.)– I’m studying the life of Beethoven. (= one particular life)

Life is complicated. (NOT The life . . . )– Where’s the cheese?�I ate it. – Why has the light gone out?

I love cheese. Nothing can travel faster than light.– I’ve joined the local Dramatic Society.

It’s not always easy to fit in with society.– I never really understood the nature of my father’s work.

She’s very interested in nature, especially animals and birds.– Write your name in the space at the bottom of the page.

Would you like to travel into space?Note that most (meaning ‘the majority of’) is used without the.

Most birds can fly. (NOT The most . . .)Most of the children got very tired. (NOT The most . . .)

2 generalisations with singular countable nouns

Sometimes we talk about things in general by using the with a singularcountable noun.

Schools should concentrate more on the child and less on exams.This is common with the names of scientific instruments and inventions, andmusical instruments.

Life would be quieter without the telephone.The violin is more difficult than the piano. s



articles (8): talking in general 68

page 59We can also generalise by talking about one example of a class, using a/an(meaning ‘any’) with a singular countable noun.

A baby deer can stand as soon as it’s born.A child needs plenty of love.

Note that we cannot use a/an in this way when we are generalising about all ofthe members of a group together.

The tiger is in danger of becoming extinct. (NOT A tiger is in danger ofbecoming extinct. The sentence is about the whole tiger family, not aboutindividuals.)

Do you like horses? (NOT Do you like a horse?)

For the use of the + adjective to generalise about groups (e.g. the old, the blind ) see 17.

69 articles (9): the (difficult cases)

It is sometimes difficult to know whether or not to use the. For example, weuse no article to generalise with uncountable and plural words (see 68); but weuse the to show that the listener/reader knows which people or things we aretalking about (see 64). Sometimes both these meanings come together, and itis difficult to know which form is correct. The grammatical distinctions in thisarea are not very clear; often the same idea can be expressed both with the andwith no article. The following notes may help.

1 groups: nurses or the nurses; railways or the railways?

When we generalise about members of a group, we usually use no article. Butif we talk about the group as a whole – as if it was a well-known unit – we aremore likely to use the. Compare:– Nurses mostly work very hard. – Stars vary greatly in size.

The nurses have never gone on strike. The stars are really bright tonight.– Farmers often vote Conservative.

What has this government done for the farmers?– It’s difficult for railways to make a profit. (any railways)

The railways are getting more and more unreliable. (our well-knownrailways)

This often happens when we talk about nationalities. Compare:New Zealanders don’t like to be mistaken for Australians.The Australians suffered heavy losses in the First World War.

2 French painters; the Impressionists

We are more likely to use the if we are talking about a ‘closed’ group or classwith a relatively definite, limited number of members. Compare:– French painters (a large, indefinite group)

the Impressionists (a particular artistic movement; we know more or lesswho belonged to the group)

– 19th-century poetsthe Romantic poets (Shelley, Keats, Byron, Wordsworth and a few others)

– British comprehensive schoolsthe British ‘Public Schools’ (a limited group of expensive high-prestige

schools)

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Don’t use the to talk about things in general.

Books are expensive. (NOT The books are expensive.)

I love music. (NOT I love the music.)


459 present perfect (5): simple or progressive?


Some verbs are not used in progressive forms (see 471), even if the meaning isone for which a progressive form is more suitable. Common examples are be,have and know.

John’s been ill all week. (NOT John’s been being ill . . .)She’s had a cold since Monday. (NOT She’s been having a cold . . .)I’ve only known her for two days. (NOT I’ve only been knowing her . . .)

2 temporary or permanent

We use progressive forms mostly for shorter, temporary actions and situations.When we talk about longer-lasting or permanent situations we often prefer thesimple present perfect. Compare:– That man has been standing on the corner all day.

For 900 years the castle has stood on the hill above the village.– I haven’t been working very well recently.

He hasn’t worked for years.– I’ve been living in Sue’s flat for the last month.

My parents have lived in Bristol all their lives.Progressive and simple tenses are sometimes both possible, with a slightdifference of emphasis.

It’s been raining / It’s rained steadily since last Saturday.Harry has been working / has worked in the same job for thirty years.

We generally use the progressive to talk about continuous change ordevelopment, even if this is permanent.

Scientists believe that the universe has been expanding steadily since thebeginning of time.

3 how much? how often? simple present perfect

We use the simple present perfect to say how much we have done, or howoften we have done something. Compare:– I’ve been planting rose bushes all afternoon.

Look at all the rose bushes I’ve planted! (NOT . . . I’ve been planting.)– We’ve been painting the house.

We’ve painted two rooms since lunchtime. (NOT We’ve been painting tworooms since lunchtime.)

– I’ve been playing a lot of tennis recently.I’ve played tennis three times this week.

460 present perfect (6): present perfect or present?

1 how long? present perfect

We use a present perfect to say how long a situation or action has continuedup to now. Compare:– It’s raining again.

It’s been raining since Christmas. (NOT It’s raining since Christmas.)– Are you learning English?

How long have you been learning? (NOT How long are you learning?) s



present perfect (6): present perfect or present? 460

page 447– I hear you’re working at Smiths. �Yes, I’ve been working there for a month.(NOT I’m working there for . . .)

– I know her well.I’ve known her for years. (NOT I know her for years.)

– My brother’s a doctor.How long has he been a doctor? (NOT How long is he a doctor?)

Compare also:How long are you here for? (= until when; when are you leaving?)How long have you been here for? (= since when; when did you arrive?)

For the difference between simple and progressive forms, see 459.

For the difference between since and for, see 208.

For tenses with since, see 522.

2 This is the first time etc

We use a simple present perfect after this is the first time that . . . , it’s thesecond . . . that . . . , and similar structures (see 591).

This is the first time that I’ve heard her sing. (NOT This is the first time that Ihear her sing.)

It’s the fifth time you’ve asked me the same question.This is only the second opera I’ve ever seen.

For present perfect and simple present passives with similar meanings (e.g. The shop has

been / is closed), see 420.

461 present tenses (1): introduction

1 the two present tenses

Most English verbs have two present tenses. Forms like I wait, she thinks arecalled ‘simple present’ or ‘present simple’; forms like I am waiting or she’sthinking are called ‘present progressive’ or ‘present continuous’. The twopresent tenses are used in different ways.

2 general time: simple present

When we talk about permanent situations, or about things that happenregularly or all the time (not just around now), we usually use the simplepresent (see 462–463 for details).

My parents live near Dover. Water freezes at 08Celsius.I go to London about three times a week.

3 around now: present progressive

When we talk about temporary continuing actions and events, which are justgoing on now or around now, we usually use a present progressive tense (see464 for details).

What are you doing?�I’m reading.I’m travelling a lot these days.



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Use for with a period of time.Use since with the beginning of the period.

for the last two hours = since 9 o’clock

for three days = since Monday (BUT NOT since three days)

for five years = since I left school

Golden Grammar RulesThese detailed explanations are taken from Practical English Usage by Michael Swan. Find out more about PEU in the online catalogue at www.oup.com/elt.7 one object or two

Some verbs can be followed by either a direct object, or an indirect object, orboth.

I asked John. I asked a question. I asked John a question.Other verbs like this include teach, tell, pay, show, sing, play and write. Notethat when sing, play and write have no direct object, we put to before theindirect object. Compare:– Sing her a song.

Sing to her. (NOT Sing her.)– Write me a letter.

Write to me when you get home.(More common than Write me . . . in standard British English.)

For structures with object complements (e.g. They made him captain), see 607.

611 very and very much

1 adjectives and adverbs: very kind, very quickly

We use very, not very much, before adjectives and adverbs.You’re very kind. (NOT You’re very much kind.)The situation is very serious. (NOT . . . very much serious.)I came very quickly. (NOT . . . very much quickly .)

However, very much is used before comparatives.I’m very much happier in my new job. (NOT. . . very happier . . .)

For very with superlatives (very first, very best etc), see 140.4.

For the very same, see 503.

2 not very

Not very expresses quite a low degree.It’s not very warm – you’d better take a coat.That meal wasn’t very expensive. (= quite cheap.)

Note that little cannot be used in this way.He’s not very imaginative. (NOT He’s little imaginative.)

3 past participles: very much loved, very worried

Before past participles we normally use very much.She was very much loved by her grandchildren. (NOT She was very loved.)Journey times will be very much reduced by the new road. (NOT . . . very

reduced . . .)But we use very with some past participles that are used as adjectives. Fordetails, see 410.4.

I’m very worried about Angela. (NOT . . . very much worried . . .)We were very surprised when Pete passed his exam. (More common than

. . . very much surprised . . .)

4 very much (adverb)

Very much can be an adverb.We very much enjoyed the party. (NOT We very enjoyed.)



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We do not normally put very much between a verb and its object.I very much like mountains. (NOT I like very much mountains.)

Very much can also be a determiner before a noun.She didn’t have very much money.Have you got very much work to do?

Very much is not often used as a determiner in affirmative clauses (see 357.5).There was a lot of snow on the road. (NOT There was very much snow.)

For very . . . indeed, see 273.

612 wait

Wait can be followed by an infinitive.I’ll wait to hear from you before I do anything.

Before a direct object, wait for is used.Please wait for me here. (NOT Please wait me here.)

That-clauses are not used, but an object + infinitive structure is possible.We’ll have to wait for the photos to be ready. (NOT . . . wait that the photos

are ready.)The time preposition for is often dropped after wait.

I waited (for) a very long time for her answer.The transitive verb await is formal, and is used mostly with abstract objects.

We’re still awaiting instructions.

For the difference between wait for and expect, see 196.

613 want

1 infinitive with toAfter want, we normally use an infinitive with to.

I don’t want to come back here ever again. (NOT I don’t want come back . . .)That-clauses are not normally used after want, but an object + infinitivestructure (see 283) is possible.

Do you want me to make you some coffee? (NOT Do you want (that) I makeyou some coffee?)

I don’t want that woman to come here.

2 structure with object complementWant can be followed by an object together with a complement (adjective,adverb or past participle) to express ideas such as change or result.

They wanted him dead. She doesn’t want him back.I want her out of there now. We want the job finished by Tuesday.

To be or as is used before a noun complement.I want you to be my friend. (OR . . . as my friend. NOT I want you my friend.)

3 want meaning ‘need’In informal British English, we can say that a thing ‘wants’ (= needs)something, particularly with reference to actions.

That car wants a clean. Your hair wants a good brush.In this case, want can be followed by an -ing form (like need – see 366).

This coat wants cleaning. (= . . . needs to be cleaned.) s



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Don’t separate the verb from the object.

verb obj

She speaks English very well. (NOT She speaks very well English.)

Andy likes skiing very much. (NOT Andy likes very much skiing)

golden grammar rules that help you improve your english

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