13

Godavari Estuarine Processes

Nittala S. Sarma School of Chemistry, Andhra University, Visakhapatnam

(email: nssarma@rediffmail.com) Godavari is the largest of Indian peninsular rivers. Upon reaching the eastern coastal plain, downstream of the dam at Dowlaiswaram (near Rajahmundry), the river divides into two main distributaries Gautami and Vasishta that give rise to a sprawling estuarine deltaic system fringed with tidal creeks and dense mangrove forests before reaching the Bay of Bengal. Along the arcuate delta, the position and orientation of ancient beach ridges reveal sea level fluctuations and delta progradation. The mean discharge of water is estimated as 2,830 m3s-1 (~90*109m3 yr-1), 95% of which occurs in the monsoon months (June-September). At the river mouth, circulation pattern changes rapidly with tide, local winds and sea breeze. Littoral current that is directed up coast (northerly longshore current) during premonsoon and monsoon causes erosion of the bottom that results in formation and accretion of the sand spit (Godavari point) and the northwest trending sandbar. The enclosed Kakinada Bay measuring 150 km2 is a stratified water body in nonmonsoon season when the salinity can go up to 34 psu and pH to 8.3. The Godavari estuary is well mixed with the tidal effect dominating in the lean season. The (semi-diurnal) tidal amplitude is 0.5-2 meters. In January, a strong tidal current of 55 cm s-1 was measured at the river mouth that decreases upstream. A salt wedge begins to develop in the early monsoon (May) and by September the estuary is well stratified as the runoff becomes maximal. The flushing time is inversely proportional to the discharge; which is ~4 tidal cycles (48h) in September (wet season) and ~46 tidal cycles (552 hrs) in December (dry season). Studies of primary productivity are virtually absent. More than 60 species of phytoplankton dominated by diatoms are reported. Dinoflagellates and bluegreen algae are represented by three species each. Among macroalgae, Bostrychia tenella and Caloglossa leprieurii, both red algal species occur, throughout the year. Meiobenthic nematodes constitute as much as ~90% of benthos. Together with that of Krishna, the Godavari estuary forms forte of prawn fishery with Penaeus monodon being the largest species, whose seedlings are harvested from wild on a large scale. A greater number of foraminiferal species, fourteen of them in higher abundance, were identified in this estuary than in any other (peninsular river) estuary. This is attributed to the availability of favourable substrate in plenty.

Since 1971, when the first hydrographic report appeared, the Godavari estuary has received a lot of attention especially in the wake of extensive aquaculture activity in recent times. Among nutrient elements, Si shows a distinct nonconservative behaviour and ammonia, nitrate and phosphate are less non-conservative. The C/N (atomic) ratio of suspended matter is ~18 in the upstream region but decreased to ~11 seaward. A detailed study of the influence of tidal circulation on the diurnal distribution of nutrients in the estuary, is an immediate requirement. And in turn, how do these nutrients influence the productivity and biodiversity is the logical end product that we need to know.

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Osmium, and its isotopes, and uranium are found to behave conservatively, although there are differences between the Gautami and Vasishta arms in the case of the former (Os).

Water of the mangrove ecosystem is more enriched in nutrients. In the low saline Coringa mangrove water, dissolved oxygen was only half and BOD twice that of the respective concentrations of 183µmol kg-1 and 72 µmol kg-1 in estuarine water. The ΣN which is the sum of NO3

--N, NH4+-N and NO2

--N remained nearly constant at 19 µmol kg-1 in the estuary-mangrove system. However, NO3

--N was 3 times lower in the estuary than in waters of mangrove region whereas both the NH4

+-N and NO2—N exhibited

behaviour in the opposite with 3-4 times higher values in estuarine waters. The role of suboxia in nitrogen turnover and release of sediment bound metal into the water column, a key mechanism operating in mangroves, has not been addressed so far. In the Godavari estuarine water, (dissolved) Fe is lower than world average while PO4-P (5 µmol kg-1 ) and particulate inorganic phosphorus (1.6 mg L-1) are high compared to other peninsular rivers. Formation of FePO4 in the colloidal/particulate phase and its subsequent mobilization in sediment under suboxic/anoxic condition may be an interesting problem to investigate.

Distinctly different behaviour between the estuary proper and the tidal creeks along with the fringing mangroves is shown for pH, alkalinity, total suspended matter, particulate and dissolved organic carbon, chlorophyll a, δ13C and bacteria. Similarly, pCO2 sharply increased to 2345±1328 ppm (433±77 ppm) in the Coringa mangrove, resulting in CO2 oversaturation of ~650% compared to that of the estuary proper of ~120%. The mangrove creeks are thus an active site of mineralization and CO2 flux to the atmosphere. Nevertheless, the export of organic carbon to the coastal ocean is dominated by in situ produced phytoplankton by a factor of 5 than that from mangrove region.

Compared to the world average the dissolved organic carbon in Godavari was low; 2.02 mg L-1 in the premonsoon and 0.3-1 mg L-1 in the postmonsoon season. The dissolved organic carbon did not undergo any change in the estuary but the particulate organic carbon nearly halved from 1.2 mg L-1 at the riverine end to the mouth. A high background humic organic matter was found to contribute to dissolved fluorescence in the adjacent coastal water. Higher levels of dissolved trace metals in the estuary might help humic acids retention in solution via chelation. Any systematic study of the Godavari estuarine system should be integrated with coastal ocean study.

15

An Anthology of Vellar Estuary

T. Balasubramanian and S. Ravichandran Centre of Advanced Study in Marine Biology, Annamalai University, Parangipettai

(email: stbcas@nic.in) The Vellar estuary has been thoroughly investigated for the past four decades in terms of physio-chemical and biological aspects and comparable to the best studied estuaries of the world. The river Vellar flowing on the southeast coast of India originates in the Shervaryan Hills of Salem District. After meandering through a distance of 480 kms, it forms the estuarine system at Parangipettai, before it joints the Bay of Bengal. The Vellar estuary is always open with the Bay of Bengal and it said to be a “true estuary” as there is no complete closure of the mouth. The estuary is subjected to semi-diural tides with maximum tidal amplitude of about 1 metre. The influence of neritic water with estuarine environment promotes perfect exchange of both biotic and abiotic variations and the tidal influence is extending over the distance of 16 km upstream of the estuary. Average depth of the estuary is 2.5 meter and the maximum depth at high tide is 5.3 metre. The estuary is about 600 meters wide at its mouth and is prone for both diel and short-term oscillations, especially in the northeast monsoon. The classical investigation was by Dyer and Ramamoorthy (1969). Heterotrophic bacterial population was found to be the highest in the marine zone followed by gradient, freshwater, and tidal zones of this estuary. Vibrio, Pseudonmonas, Micrococcus, Bacillus and Alcaligenes were recorded as the most common bacterial general of the estuary. The fungi Corollspora intermeddia and Cirrenalia tropicalis, are new records from India. The total zooplankton biomass in the estuary varies between 1,950 and 7,39,190 ind m-3 in the estuary. The contribution of invertebrate larvae is higher than the nearshore water. Eleven species of tintinids were found which produce ‘swarms’ in the neritic, estuarine, backwater and mangrove biotopes. Among the 47 species of benthic organism reported 4 to gastropods, 7 to bivalves, 9 to crustaceans, 6 other groups and 123 species of polychaetes coming under 94 genera and 44 families have been identified. Vellar estuary is used as the nursery ground for fish fry and fingerlings of the principal cultivable finfishes viz. Mugil cephalus, Liza dussumieri and L. macrolepis and Chanos chanos.

16

Ecosystem modeling of the Vembanad Lake (Cochin backwaters)

K. K. Balachandran Regional Centre, National Institute of Oceanography, Dr. Salim Ali Road, Kochi

(email: kkbala@nio.org)

The progressive deterioration of many of the Indian estuaries caused by anthropogenic activities is of concent because, these areas have never been considered as primary targets of conservation. The Vembanad Lake (Cochin backwaters) is an example of such disastrous management, which has lost nearly 40% area to human invasion. Considering the large human dimensions of the region (4000 persons km-2 and economic value Rs.300 crores yr-1), there is an immediate need to protect the system, keeping pace with developmental activities. Evidence of long-term anthropogenic impacts The human intervention in the Vembanad Lake started as early as 1888, when the Kol wetlands of the southern parts were reclaimed for agriculture. Subsequent developments were (i) Harbour and Wellington Island during 1920-36 (ii) Industries in the north estuary in 1940 (iii) Intense reclamations and human settlement since 1940s (iv) Changing land use patterns since 1976 and (v) Hydraulic barriers during 1976-82. All these anthropogenic activities have lead to pollution and declining bio-resources of the estuary. The exchange volume of the estuary has also reduced from 125 Mm3/tidal cycle during 1960 to 35 Mm3/tidal cycle during 1985. The eutrophication imposed severe stress on grazing organisms (zooplankton) and ultimately has resulted in the disappearance of many endemic species of fishes from the estuary.

Environmental setting The Vembanad Lake is ox-bow shaped (area 256 km2 and volume 0.55 km3) with six rivers flowing into it from a drainage area of 12,000 km2. The annual rainfall over the region is 3200 mm that brings in approximately 20,000 Mm3 of fresh water into the estuary. The monsoon-fed rivers are generally short, steep and fast–flowing.

Propagation of tides and salinity intrusion The tides are mixed semi-diurnal (M2 velocity 3 m s-1) and their propagation is modified inside the estuary due to the complex topography, thus creating different hydrologic zones. The lake is generally ebb-dominated and tides propagate up to 60 km inside where the amplitude is about 20 cm. During pre-monsoon, the seawater reaches the head of the estuary (Alleppey), but is restricted to 25 km during monsoon. It behaves like a partially-mixed estuary during pre monsoon, but frequent rains induce strong stratification from time to time. The shallow north estuary, as it is connected to two tidal inlets, develops frequent null zones. The industrial effluents discharged through the river Periyar accumulates here, making this zone intensely polluted. The estuary is highly sensitive to meteorological events (winds and fresh water flow), which influence the stratification and

17

flow characteristics considerably. The amplification in some of the tidal constituents towards the southern estuary indicates an asymmetry and is a cause of concern. This is because; the net movement of water has a direct bearing on the ecology of the estuary. Water quality The estuary receives nutrients from all tributaries apart from the industrial and domestic sewage. The nutrients exhibit tidal variation in the lower estuary, but the variations are weak in the north and south estuary. The supply of nutrients from the coastal waters is quite insignificant as compared to discharges upstream through point and non-point sources. The dominance of ammonia in the total nitrogen pool and release of phosphorus from estuarine sediments are striking. The contrasting behavior in the biogeochemistry of north and south estuaries is due to their sources and to complex hydrography. The zonal classification of the Vembanad Lake is one of the salient findings, which implies that forecasting of the Vembanad Lake requires integration of the zonal models. Factors controlling biological productivity The nutrients are available in surplus in the estuary, which support fairly high chlorophyll concentrations throughout the year. However, the primary productivity is not always proportional to the chlorophyll a concentrations, mainly because of the difference in the size and photosynthetic efficiency of phytoplankton. The zooplankton exhibits a clear seasonality with a maximum biomass during pre monsoon and minimum during other seasons. Micro-zooplankton proliferates in pre-monsoon season. It is probably this not well-studied group of organisms that provides alternate food for the carnivore meso-zooplankton. It is assumed that during other seasons when planktonic grazers are minimal, the unconsumed carbon either settles down or gets exported to the sea. This creates an important link between primary producers and their grazers involving detritus, bacteria, phytoplankton, micro and meso zooplankton and benthic production. Status of numerical modeling Development of an ecosystem model involves coupling of kinetics of several processes of a system including biological ones. An attempt was made to develop an ecosystem model at a test site in the Vembanad Lake. It comprises of a coupled water quality model (CWQM) where four interacting systems (DO, N, P and Phytoplankton) are represented by 8 kinetic equations. The ecosystem model was developed by including the kinetic equation for zooplankton (herbivore copepod) in the CWQM. The model considers the dynamics of nutrients, their uptake rates and preference to phytoplankton, growth-respiration-grazing-mortality of phytoplankton and assimilation by zooplankton. The ecosystem model was found to work fairly reasonably. However, the present model needs modification to make it more comprehensive. The deviations observed in chlorophyll concentration by the model are due to several reasons. The non-linearity in the chlorophyll and primary production is due to the variable size fraction and photosynthetic efficiency of phytoplankton. The chlorophyll assimilated by different

18

phytoplankton species and their photosynthetic efficiencies are to be included in the model. The biochemical activities of the different estuarine zones and the switch over from autotrophy to heterotrophy also must be considered separately while integrating the coupled water quality model. The biological model for zooplankton biomass had some limitation. This is because the zooplankton is mainly represented by copepods, which constitute three groups (herbivore, omnivore and carnivore), based on their feeding behavior. The present model considered only the herbivores and therefore underestimated the zooplankton biomass. Hence, model requires modification by including kinetic terms for these groups and the rate equations of the following compartments (1) detritus (2) bacteria (3) micro zooplankton (4) copepods and (5) benthic production. Restoration of the Vembanad Lake – a practical approach Implementation of conservation measures of this lake using model studies requires more time during which, the system may get more polluted. Therefore, an alternative way is suggested here to revive the estuary.

• Stop further reclamation and encroachment • Legalize 50 m wide shoreline of the lake as Govt. property • Stop further sanction of industries around the lake • Ensure zero effluent discharge from existing industries/agri./aquaculature • Regulate domestic effluent discharge • Remove all hydraulic barriers in the lake and ensure natural propagation of tides • Ensure moderate flow through all the rivers during pre monsoon

19

Ecosystem changes in relation to anthropogenic impacts: Addressing Chilka lagoon, a Ramsar site in India

A.V.Raman1, Y.Prabakar Rao1, C.Kalavathi1 and B.R.Subramanian2

1Department of Zoology, Andjra University, Visakhapatnam 2ICMAM Project Directorate, National Institute of Ocean Technology Campus, Velacherry-

Tambaram Main Road, Pallikaranai, Chennai (email: brs@icmam.gov.in)

Sound scientific knowledge concerning functioning and service appropriation is essential to the management of any ecosystem and Chilka Lake, Asia’s largest brackishwater lagoon and a Ramsar site since 1981, is no exception. The Lake, as with any other coastal lagoon, is in the process of transformation ecologically. On the basis of periodic monthly monitoring (at 36 GPS fixed locations) involving a suite of environmental variables following alteration to flushing and salinity regimes associated with a new mouth created in September 2000, it was possible to examine system behaviour over the last two years (2004-’06). This work provided a very large (year round) database dealing with nutrient inputs (ammonia, nitrite, nitrate, phosphate and silicate), chlorophyll a, dissolved oxygen, salinity, turbidity, transparency, suspended matter and the others which together offered considerable spatial and temporal clues on the nature of their distribution. Mean monthly nitrogen inputs from catchments revealed that DON constituted up to 74% of total nitrogen. Bacterial denitrification in sediments appeared a key process. From the (integrated) work held so far, it was possible to identify five functional groups – (smaller and larger phytoplankton, microphytobenthos, seagrass and macroalgae – which seem to play a crucial role regulating nutrient dynamics in the lagoon. Phytoplankton (represented by 197 species) in two size fractions (0.2-20 and >20µm) revealed highest (pico/nano) chlorophyll a levels (mean 96.94 mg m-3) during March-May 2006 (pre-monsoon) in the northern sector (mean salinity 11 PSU) where also cyanophyceans (e.g. Microcoleus sp., Oscillatoria limnetica) constituted up to 86% of the total phytoplankton population. There were distinct phytoplankton assemblages (determined through multivariate procedures, PRIMER) each dominated by bacillariophyceans, dinophyceans or cyanophyceans. Microphytobenthos biomass (chlorophyll a 10-20 µg.g-1 sediment dry weight) across lagoon revealed their distinctive contribution to Lake’s productivity. Seagrass (e.g. Halodule) and macroalgae (e.g. Chaetomorpha and Gracillaria) distribution and biomass (wet wt. 2-4 kg m-2) along with several aquatic angiosperms confirmed their importance to the energetic and overall nutrient pathways and budgets for the Lake.

20

An Overview of Physics

Satish R. Shetye National Institute of Oceanography, Dona Paula, Goa

(Email: shetye@nio.org)

The Mandovi and Zunari estuaries in Goa are coastal plain estuaries located between the Sahyadris (Western Ghats) and the Arabian Sea. Each estuary is about 50 km long. On the basis of their geometry, they can be divided into two distinct regimes. The first, on the seaward side, is the bay. It is about 10 km (5 km) long in case of the Zuari (Mandovi). The width at the mouth of Zuari is about 5 km; mouth of Mandovi is narrower. Depth in each bay decreases from about 8 metres at the mouth to about 3 m. The second regime is the channel that connects the bay to the head of each estuary. Each is less than a kilometer wide and narrows in the upstream direction. Due to their wide opening and small length, each bay comes under strong influence of the conditions on the open coast. The channels, on the other hand, mark the transition between the bays and the heads of the two estuaries. Tides in the two estuaries are mixed with semi-diurnal dominance. Amplitude of the most important component, M2, increases in the upstream direction due to narrowing of the cross-section of the two channels. The most dominant semi-diurnal component too increases in the upstream direction, but at a rate that is smaller than that of the M2. The annual cycle of salinity and other fields in the estuary have two distinct periods: the wet period during roughly June-September, the time of the Indian Summer Monsoon; and, the dry period from November to May. October marks the transition from the wet period to the dry. During the wet period the runoff in the Mandovi and Zuari estuaries is much greater than the volume of the estuaries. The volume of freshwater flowing through the Mandovi exceeds the volume of the estuary by a factor of at least 20. Though this figure is smaller for the Zuari, both estuaries are flushed many times over during the wet period. It is the flushing that determines the variability of fields like salinity during this period. During the dry period, the runoff decreases to negligible levels soon after withdrawal of the monsoon, and salt intrudes into the channels during the entire period. The process of intrusion is typical of that found in partially-mixed estuaries. Vertical stratification, resulting from formation of gravity currents, is high during the neaps. It breaks down once the currents pick up. As a result, a distinct periodicity related to tides is seen in vertical stratification in the estuaries. In the literature on estuaries in India there has often been mention of “monsoonal estuaries”. The evolution of salinity field in the Mandovi and Zuari estuaries allows us to define the special characteristics of such estuaries.

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Numerical models

A. S. Unnikrishnan and N. T. Manoj

National Institute of Oceanography, Dona Paula, Goa (email: unni@nio.org)

This Chapter discusses various numerical models used to study the dynamics and horizontal distribution of salinity in Mandovi-Zuari estuaries. Earlier, a one-dimensional network model was developed (Unnikrishnan et al., 1997) for representing the complex estuarine system of Mandovi and Zuari. The network model could simulate and explain the observed decay of tides at the upstream side (Ganjem in Mandovi and Sanguem in Zuari estuary) caused by the high freshwater discharges during the southwest monsoon season. The observed increase in mean sea level during the period of high river discharge was also well simulated by the model. Recently, a ‘hybrid model’ was developed (Manoj and Unnikrishnan, 2007), using a two-dimensional model for the wider regions of the estuaries and a one-dimensional model for narrower regions. The hybrid model is used to simulate the horizontal circulation and salinity distribution. It is found that the model reproduced the longitudinal salinity distribution in the estuaries very well during the dry season and reasonably well during the wet season. The above studies showed the utility of numerical models in studying the dynamics of Mandovi- Zuari estuaries as well for determining the distribution of passive tracers such as salinity. Most of the above models were developed by treating the estuaries to be well mixed. This is a good approximation to simulate horizontal distribution of active and passive variables. The future challenge lies in developing capability to simulate the distribution in the vertical.

22

Variability of nitrate and phosphate

S. Sardessai and D. Sundar National Institute of Oceanography, Dona-Paula, Goa

(email: sugandha@nio.org) Nitrate and phosphate are important elements of the biogeochemical system of an estuary. Observations carried out during the dry season April-May 2002, and March 2003 and wet season September 2002, show temporal and spatial variability of these two elements in the Mandovi and Zuari estuaries. During the month of September in the wet season nitrate concentration in the mid estuarine region of the Mandovi estuary increased from 4.4 µM in the upstream region to 6.0 µM. This increase could be due to the passage of the monsoonal runoff through mangroves which harbour sediments rich in nutrients, the mining activities on the banks of the rivers which use nitrogen containing explosives and the fertilizers used in agricultural coastal plains. Nitrates are found to decrease during the dry season possibly due to horizontal mixing of the shelf water, which contains less than 1µM of nitrate or its utilization in biogeochemical processes. The evolution of nitrate during the dry season indicates that the biogeochemical processes play a significant role in the removal of nitrate during the dry season. The concentration of nitrate during March 2003 was much lower than that during April-May 2002 indicating significant interannual variability in nitrate concentration. The Zuari estuary also shows similar variability as that of Mandovi. Phosphate concentration did not show much variation and the river water concentration was not much different from that at the mouth of the estuaries. Though phosphate also play a role in the biogeochemical processes, pattern of its variability could not be conclusively obtained due to insufficient data available.

23

Phytoplankton diversity in Mandovi-Zuari estuarine system of Goa

S. G. Prabhu Matondkar, Helga do. R. Gomes*, Sushma G. Parab, Suraksha Pednekar and Joaquim I. Goes*

National Institute of Oceanography, Dona Paula, Goa *Bigelow Laboratory for Ocean Sciences, West Boothbay Harbor, Maine, USA

(email: sgpm@nio.org) Mandovi-Zuari (M-Z) estuarine system experiences large variations in freshwater input, land runoff and seawater input in different seasons. The changes in input of these waters are also influenced by tides. In recent times, the M-Z system is also subjected to human influence through alterations in catchment area and ore mining activities, and the consequent land runoff. These aspects had prompted us to examine changes in phytoplankton diversity during last two decades. Phytoplankton counts in M-Z are high during non-monsoon period compared to monsoon. In Mandovi estuary phytoplankton varied from 1.32 to 5.22 X 105 L-1 during April whereas these were from 0.628 to 3.078 X 105 L-1 in Zuari. During monsoon phase (September) phytoplankton counts range in Mandovi was 0.68 –1.36 X 105 L-1 and that of Zuari were 1.02 – 3.07 X 105 L-1. Similar pattern was also observed in pigment distribution. In Mandovi Chl a during non monsoon period was as high as 6 mg m-3 and that in Zuari was 10 mg m-3. During monsoon the Chl a was mostly less than 4 mgm-3, which is lower compared to that in non monsoon period. In Mandovi estuary Nitzschia spp., Melosira spp., Synedra sp., Rhizosolenia spp., Chaetoceros spp. and Coscinodiscus spp. were the dominant phytoplankton found in April whereas Nitzschia spp., Coscinodiscus spp. were the dominant ones in Zuari. In September Nitzschia spp., Syndera sp., Thalassiosira spp, Dinophysis sp. were dominant in Mandovi but Zuari waters were dominated by Pheodactylum sp. and Nitzschia spp. These differences in two estuaries are compared and discussed. Although the number of species in both seasons varied greatly the diversity index remained unchanged (1 to 3.4) in both Mandovi and Zuari rivers. The low diversity <1 was associated with development of phytoplankton blooms of species Nitzschia spp., Coscinodiscus spp. and Navicula spp in the study area. These data are compared with historical data collected in the last 20 years and long term (decadal) changes in phytoplankton biomass and diversity in M-Z estuarine system of Goa is discussed.

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Zooplankton

R. Jyothibabu and N. V. Madhu National Institute of Oceanography, Regional Centre, Kochi

(email: jyothibabu@nio.org) A review on some important aspects of zooplankton community in the Mandovi and Zuari estuaries is presented. Both these estuaries have more or less similar zooplankton fauna with nearly 20 different taxonomic groups. Crustaceans in general and copepods in particular, dominate the zooplankton community. Species belonging to the copepod families – Acartidae, Pseudodiaptomidae and Paracalanidae are common in these estuaries. Other important groups are larvae of decapods and cirriped, sergestids, cladocerans, fish eggs and larvae, chaetognaths, copelates, gastropod larvae, cumaceans, hydromedusae, and amphipods. From the monthly data at seven locations, a clear seasonal cycle is not apparent, but, a consistent feature seen is that both biomass and abundance attain their lowest annual values during June-August. This is the time when the summer monsoon is active, runoff is high, and salinity is at its lowest during the year. The low abundance and biomass during the monsoon could be a consequence of the following three processes. First, there is the physical mechanism of flushing of the estuary because of the large runoff that replaces the water in the estuary many times over during the rainy season. This effect is particularly high in the Mandovi, whose runoff is higher and estuarine volume lower than that of the Zuari. Second, salinity is low in the estuary at this time of the year. As noted earlier, 50% of the copepods live in salinity range of 25—36 psu. Such salinities can be expected only near the mouth of the two estuaries in the region of the bays. The third could be the availability of food: phytoplankton concentration is at its lowest during the rainy season. The smaller component of zooplankton (microzooplankton), abundant in the Mandovi and Zuari, are to be addressed further. There are not many systematic studies on zooplankton from the Mandovi and Zuari estuaries that show the seasonal cycle. In summary, our understanding of zooplankton in the two estuaries remains poor at this stage. Critically needed are field experiments that would describe the zooplankton dynamics with more certainty than what the present data are capable of doing.

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Abundance of Macrofauna in the Mandovi and Zuari estuaries, Goa.

Z.A. Ansari, S. Sivadas, B.S. Ingole National Institute of Oceanography, Dona Paula Goa

(email: zakir@nio.org) The variability of macrofaunal assemblage in the Mandovi–Zuari estuarine complex was studied during 2002-2003 and compared with earlier data of the same area. Sediment samples in duplicate were collected from 15 stations using a van Veen grab. A total of 68 taxa were identified with polychaetes dominating in terms of abundance and diversity. Faunal density was the highest in Zuari estuary (582- 1911 ind m-2) than in the Mandovi, (663-1236 ind m-2). However, biomass was high in the Mandovi (5.59 -17.42 g m-2), mainly due to the presence of bivalves, than in the Zuari (3.38 -10.42 g m-2). Cossura sp. and Mediomastus sp. dominated during May 2002 and April 2003 while, Prinospio pinnata dominated during September 2003. The present data indicates a major change in the macrofaunal community compared to the earlier published literature. In 2002-03, the polychaete community was dominated by opportunistic species of family Capitellidae, Spionidae and Cossuridae compared to the carnivorous species belonging to family Eunicidae, Nephtyidae and Glyceridae in 1972-73. The fauna reduced from 1604 ind m-2 (1972-73) to 573 ind m-2 in 1992 but showed significant increase in 2002-03 (1073 ind m-2). However, the numbers of species were reduced from 111 (1972-73) to 68 species (2002-2003). Many species, endemic to the estuarine system, were recorded in low abundance or were absent. Clam bed of Meretrix casta reported earlier from these estuaries, had very low abundance in 2002-03. It can be concluded that, the macrofaunal community in the Mandovi-Zuari estuary has changed during the last few decades but the reason is not clearly understood. Hence a detail investigation is necessary to understand the factors responsible for such changes.

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Dissolved and Particulate Iron and Manganese

Analia M. Mesquita and Sujata Kaisary National Institute of Oceanography, Dona Paula, Goa

(email: analia@nio.org) Estuarine systems are potential sites of chemical and geochemical alterations, and often serve as filters of river-derived materials. Goa is an important mineral producing area. Iron ore mining and export forms the backbone of the states economy. The Mandovi – Zuari estuarine system, the entire network formed by the Mandovi and Zuari rivers including the Kumbarjua Canal, is extensively used for the transport of iron and manganese ores. The intensive mining activities, run off from the mineralized zones during the wet season, leaching from mines, extensive barge traffic plying along the rivers transporting the ores from the hinterland to Mormugao harbor contribute substantially to the input of these metals in this estuarine system. A study of the distribution and seasonal variation of trace metals, mainly in estuarine (dissolved and particulate) environment and sediments in wet and dry seasons, was carried out to assess the probable influence of mining on the concentrations of these metals. Using inverse distance weighting the spatial distributions of the particulate and dissolved concentrations of Fe and Mn were mapped along the salinity gradient of the two rivers. Significant seasonal signals were observed in the spatial variations of their concentration and partitioning of Fe and Mn between dissolved and particulate fractions. Removal of metals from both fractions was observed in the mixing zone, which was reflected by their enhanced observed concentrations in sediments. The equilibrium distribution of Fe and Mn in this estuarine system was assessed based on their partition coefficients, KD. Higher partition coefficients observed for Fe in both the rivers indicated it to be the more strongly bound than Mn. Partition coefficients (KD ) calculated for the Fe and Mn in the two rivers exhibited a decrease with increase in SPM concentration, consistent with the so called ‘particle concentration effect’.

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Distribution of tributyltin compounds in the mandovi estuary

Narayan B Bhosle National Institute of Oceanography, Dona Paula, Goa

(email: bhosle@nio.org) Organotins are used for several industrial applications. For example, they are used as stabilizers for polyvinyl chloride, plastic additives, insecticides, fungicides, bactericides, wood preservatives and as constituents in antifouling paints. Their use as components of antifouling paints has increased several folds for the last few decades. The ship hulls coated with organotin such as tributyltin (TBT) reduce the attachment of marine organisms onto the ship hulls. Although organotins serve as effective antifouling agents, when released into marine environments, they are highly toxic to non-target organisms. Extensive use of these chemicals has resulted in the contamination of marine waters resulting in extensive damage in the form of imposex in gastropods, loss of oyster and shell fisheries. Because of these environmental concerns, many countries banned and/or restricted the use of organotins. In India organotins are used as antifouling agents. However, to the best of our knowledge, not much is known about the levels of onrganotins in Indian waters, sediments, and animals. Mandovi estuary is one of the few marine areas of the country where some information on TBT levels is available. I have made an attempt to summarise what is known about TBT in this estuary.

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Distribution of Sewage Pollution Indicator Bacteria in Mandovi-Zuari Estuaries

N. Ramaiah, V. Rodrigues, E. Alvares, C. Rodrigues, R. Baksh, S. Jayan and C. Mohandass

National Institute of Oceanography, Dona Paula, Goa (email: ramaiah@nio.org)

Raw sewage disposal into the Mandovi and Zuari estuaries has been a common practice in the history of the estuaries. It is only recently that sewage from major cities like Panaji is treated before disposing into the estuary. With increasing population, the amount of sewage dumped in to the estuary has also increased. It is therefore of interest to determine what are the present levels of pollution indicator bacteria due to sewage disposal. This information would then help determine whether or not and the extent of waste treatment and disposal procedures to be put in place to safeguard the natural environments. In this presentation, we describe spatial distribution and annual cycle of sewage pollution indicator (total coliforms and total fecal coliforms) and human pathogenic bacteria (Escherichia coli and Streptococcus faecalis) in water and sediment samples in the Mandovi and Zuari estuaries. Samples were collected from different locations in these estuaries and analyzed for ascertaining the water quality from the point of view of microbiological pollution. From this extensive analysis, it is observed that the waters in these estuaries are unfit for bathing as per the USEPA standards. Steps must be put in place to control the flux of raw sewage and related pollutants in these estuaries. Promotion and implementation of actions leading to reduction in sewage pollution indicating bacteria and pathogenic microbes are needed. Sewage treatment at all domestic settlements and, avoidance of indiscriminate disposal of other organic wastes are required.

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The Khaznam of Goa

S.N. de Sousa Goa State Pollution Control Board, Patto, Panaji, Goa

(email: simao@rediffmail.com) The Khaznam (Khazan lands) of Goa, are agricultural lands, which are subject to inundation by the neighbouring river from which they are protected by bunds. These salty low lying flat lands were originally mangrove swamps/mudflats lying along both the banks of the rivers of Goa. The early settlers of this place who came down from the Ghats reclaimed the lands by constructing mud bunds all along the river and started cultivating them. There are no written records to show when the early settlers occupied the present land of Goa, and how and when they established the khaznam. Xavier (1852) postulates that it was sometime between the 8th and 9th century A.D. The settlers, after reclaiming the land, formed a system of gaumkary (village associations), to own and cultivate the land collectively and gave themselves a set of laws. In this article we describe the working of the khaznam of Goa. Earlier descriptions of these lands have focused on the socio-economic aspects while the emphasis in the present article is on the processes behind working of a khazan. The khaznam consist of four main components: the bundh, the manas (sluice gate), the pôiim (internal water bodies) and the rice fields - elevated portion of land for cultivation. Each one of the first three components has its own role to play in the cultivation and upkeep of the rice fields. The bundh is a 2-2.5m high dam made of the clayey soil from the marshlands or mudflats. It protects the khazan from inundation with brackish water from the estuary at high tide, and also helps to maintain water level in the khazan during monsoon. The manas (sluice gate) is a simple mechanism that allows water from the pôiim to drain out into the neighbouring estuary during low tide while automatically closing during high tide to prevent brackish water from entering the khazan. In a way, the manas acts as a one-way valve. However, during the monsoon, the normal functions of the manas are blocked by using addambo that prevents the shutters of the manas from opening during low tide. This is done to maintain water level in the rice fields, which is necessary for the healthy growth of rice saplings and also to control spreading of weeds. The pôiim are the internal water bodies interlinked to one another and connected to the estuary though the manas. These shallow water bodies act as drainage channels connecting the storm drains of the village to the river during monsoon, while during dry season they act as water receptacles for the khazan holding the brackish water leaking through the sluice gate. The elevated portion of the khazan forms the cultivable area (the rice fields) where paddy is grown during the monsoon season. It is divided into mélgam (plots) of 0.5-1.0 ha area each. Some summer crops, like vaingann, pulses and vegetable, etc. are also grown under

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irrigation, on the lands not affected by saline water. Elevated mud paths (1m x 1m cross-section) criss-crossing the khazan provide free access to farmers from the village road to any plot. Fishing in the khazan is a secondary activity, a spin-off of land reclamation. Fishing at the manas is done using a special type of net – bag net – which is fixed at the manas opening during the low tide when the water from the pôiim flows out into the estuary, while fishing in the pôiim is carried out using different types of nets, like gill nets, cast nets etc. After a period of 5-10 years of continuous cultivation, pests like weeds, snails, leaches, field rats, etc. grow rapidly in the khazan, making the cultivation of these fields uneconomical. To destroy these pests, the fields are deliberately kept inundated under brackish water for a period of 4 months from January till April-end. This process is known as handdem. A case study was carried out of a typical Goan khazan, the Corlim khazan, where simultaneous measurements of salinity and water level variations were made in the pôiim and in the neighbouring estuary over a period of two tidal cycles, to see the effect of tidal fluctuations in the estuary on salinity and water level in the pôim. The results indicate that tidal variations in the estuary have very little effect on the water level in the pôiim. While the water level in the estuary showed large variations of 160 cm over the entire tidal cycle, the water level in the pôiim varied within a narrow range of only 15 cm indicating that the manas system is highly efficient in controlling brackish water intrusion into the khazan. Measurements of salinity, on the other hand, indicated that the salinity in the pôiim is not controlled by the simple process of mixing of brackish water with the fresh ground water but rather by other complex processes of rainfall, groundwater influx, seepage of brackish water through the bundhs, evaporation and leakage through the manas. As a way forward, the article makes a strong case that necessary measures should be taken to ensure that at least a few examples of this intricate agriculture-fishery system survive in the traditional way, as examples of our heritage.

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Mandovi and Zuari Systems – A Bibliography

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Mandovi and Zuari Systems – A bibliography*

Physical Processes Hydrology and water resources Ghosh, T.K.; Venkatachalam, P.; Viswanathan, S. Assessment of groundwater potential of Mandovi Basin of Goa through remote sensing and data base information system. In: Proceedings of the National Symposium on Remote Sensing in Develoment and Management of Water Resources, Space Applications Centre, Ahmedabad, October 25-27, 1983. Sahai, B.; Chaturvedi, R.S.; Iyer, H.S. Eds. Indian Soc. of Photo-Interpretation and Remote Sensing. Dehradun, India. 1983; 49-53. Shankar, D.; Kotamraju, V.; Shetye, S.R. A quantitative framework for estimating water resources in India. Curr. Sci. 86; 2004; 543-552. Suprit, K.; Shankar, D. Simulating the discharge of the Mandovi river, Goa. Prediction in ungauged basins for sustainable water resources planning and management. Raju, K.S. (Ed.). Jain Brothers, New Delhi: 175–186 Physical Characteristics, Mixing and circulation Antony, M.K.; Rao, D.P.; Sankaranarayanan, V.N. Studies on the monsoonal flow of the Mandovi Estuary. Mahasagar. 7; 1974; 69-72. Cherian, T.; Rao, L.V.G.; Varma, K.K. Variations in physical characteristics of the waters of Zuari Estuary. Indian J. Mar. Sci. 4; 1975; 5-10. Murty, C.S.; Das, P.K.; Nair, R.R.; Veerayya, M.; Varadachari, V.V.R. Circulation and sedimentation processes in and around the Aguada bar. Indian J. Mar. Sci. 5; 1976; 9-17. Nayak, M.R. An overview of a moored ocean data buoy programme. Beitr. Meereskd. 61; 1990; 69-78. Nair, K.V.K.; Neralla, V.R.; Ganguly, A.K. Current measurements off Mormugao. Symp. on Indian Ocean. New Delhi, India, 2-4 Mar 1967. Bull. Natl. Inst. Sci. India. 38; 1968; 256-262. Purandare, U.V.; Chandra, P.; Nayak, B.U. Contrast in mixing patterns of Mandovi and Zuari estuaries in Goa. In: Proceedings of the Second Indian National Conference on Harbour and Ocean Engineering (Inchoe-97), Thiruvananthapuram, December 7-10, 1997. Vol. 1. Centre for Earth Science Studies. Cochin, Kerala (India). 1997; 182-190. *Most of the documents listed in this bibliography are available in NIO library. e-Prints of these can be requested at www.nio.org > Research > Publications.

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Rao, L.V.G.; Cherian T.; Varma, K.K.; Varadachari, V.V.R. Hydrographic conditions and flow pattern in Cumbarjua Canal, Goa. Indian J. Mar. Sci. 5; 1976; 163-168. Rao, T.S.S. Salinity and distribution of brackish warm water zooplankton in Indian estuaries. In: Proceedings of the Symposium on Warm Water Zooplankton. NIO. Dona Paula, Goa, India. 1976; 196-204. Sankaranaryanan, V.N.; Jayaraman, R. Intrusion of upwelled water in the Mandovi and Zuari estuaries. Curr. Sci. 41; 1972; 204-206. Sankaranarayanan, V.N.; Rao, D.P.; Antony, M.K. Studies on some hydrographical characteristics of the estuarine and inshore waters of Goa during the south-west monsoon 1972. Mahasagar. 11; 1978; 125-136. Shetye, S.R.; Murty, C.S. Seasonal variation of the salinity in the Zuari Estuary, Goa, India. Proc. Indian Acad. Sci. (Earth Planet. Sci.). 96; 1987; 249-257. Thomas, C.; Rao, L.V.G.; Varma, K.K. Hydrography and suspended sediment load of oceanic and estuarine waters adjoining Mormugao during early summer. Indian J. Mar. Sci. 3; 1974; 99-104. Varma, K.K.; Rao, L.V.G.; Cherian, T. Temporal and spatial variations in hydrographic conditions of Mandovi Estuary. Indian J. Mar. Sci. 4; 1975; 11-17. Varma, K.K.; Cherian, T. Physical characteristics of Chapora Estuary (Goa, India). Mahasagar. 8; 1976; 193-197. Tides and Sea-level Das, P.K.; Murty, C.S.; Varadachari, V.V.R. Flow characteristics of Combarjua canal connecting Mandovi and Zuari estuaries. Indian J. Mar. Sci. 1; 1972; 95-102. Das, V.K. Seasonal variation in mean-sea level at Mormugao, west coast of India. Mahasagar. 12; 1979; 59-67. Dehadrai, P.V. Changes in the environmental features of the Zuari and Mandovi Estuaries in relation to tides. Proc. Indian Acad. Sci. (B: Biol. Sci.). 72; 1970; 68-80. Desa, E.; Peshwe, V.B.; Joseph, A.; Mehra, P.; Naik, G.P.; Kumar, V.; Desa, E.S.; Desai, R.G.P.; Nagvekar, S.; Desai, S.P. A compact self-recording pressure based sea level gauge suitable for deployments at harbour and offshore environments. In: Proceedings of the 6th National Symposium on Ocean Electronics, 18-19 December 2001. Cochin Univ. of Science and Technology. Kerala (India), Dep. of Electronics. 2001; 9-21.

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Desai, R.G.P.; Joseph, A.; Agarvadekar, Y.; Dabholkar, N.; Mehra, P.; Gouveia, A.; Tengali, S.; VijayKumar, K.; Parab, A. Development and implementation of cellular-based real-time reporting and internet accessible coastal sea-level gauge - A vital tool for monitoring storm urge and tsunami. Curr. Sci. 90; 2006; 1413-1418. Hinge, D.M. Observed sea level at Mormugao, Goa. NIO. CSIR. Dona Paula, Goa, India. Sea Level Rise due to Greenhouse Effect: Implications for India. Dona Paula, Goa, India, 27 Oct 1988. Report of the Workshop. Sea Level Rise due to Greenhouse Effect: Implications for India, 27 October, 1988. 1988; p.54. Joseph, A.; Desa, E.; Desa, E.; Smith, D.; Peshwe, V.B.; Vijaykumar, K.; Desa, J.A.E. Evaluation of pressure transducers under turbid natural waters. J. Atmos. Ocean. Technol. 16; 1999; 1150-1155. Joseph, A.; Vijayakumar; Desa, Elger; Desa, E.; Peshwe, V.B. A technique to circumvent lower density water trapping by tide-wells. In: SYMPOL-'99. Proceedings of the National Symposium on Ocean Electronics, 16-17 December, 1999. Cochin Univ. of Sci. and Technol. Cochin, India. 1999; 55-63. Joseph, A.; Vijaykumar, K.; Desa, Elgar; Desa, E.; Peshwe, V.B. Over-estimation of sea level measurements arising from water density anomalies within tide-wells - A case study at Zuari Estuary, Goa. J. Coast. Res. 18; 2002; 362-371. Joseph, A.; Desai, R.G.P. Web-enabled and real-time reporting: Cellular based instrumentation for coastal sea level and surge monitoring. The Indian Ocean tsunami. Murthy, T.S.; Aswathanarayana, U.; Nirupama, N. (Eds.). Taylor and Francis; London; UK; 2007; 247-257. Marathe, G.T.; Srinivas, M.G. Remote sensing application to an evaluation of the tidal submergence areas along a small stretch of Mandovi River in Goa. In: Proceedings of the National Symposium on Remote Sensing in Develoment and Management of Water Resources, Space Applications Centre, Ahmedabad, October 25-27, 1983. Sahai, B.; Chaturvedi, R.S.; Iyer, H.S. (Eds.). Indian Soc. of Photo-Interpretation and Remote Sensing. Dehradun, India. 1983; 99-104. Murty, C.S.; Dass, B.K. Premonsoon tidal flow characteristics of Mandovi Estuary. Indian J. Mar. Sci. 1; 1972; 148-151. Shankar, D. Low-frequency variability of sea level along the coast of India. Ph.D. Thesis, Goa Univ., Goa, India. 1998; xix+ 207 pp Shetye, S.R.; Almeida, A.M. An examination of the factors that influence the monthly-mean sea level along the coast of India. IOC/Unesco. Paris, France. IOC/Unesco Workshop on Regional Co-operation in Marine Science in the Central Indian Ocean and Adjacent Seas and Gulfs, Colombo, 8-13 July 1985. 1995; 87-104. (IOC Workshop Rep.. No. 37 - Suppl.)

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Shetye, S.R.; Gouveia, A.D.; Singbal, S.Y.S.; Naik, C.G.; Sundar, D.; Michael, G.S.; Nampoothiri, G. Propagation of tides in the Mandovi-Zuari estuarine network. Proc. Indian Acad. Sci. (Earth Planet. Sci.). 104; 1995; 667-682. Shetye, S.R.; Gouveia, A.D.; Singbal, S.Y.S.; Naik, C.G.; Sundar, D.; Michael, G.S.; Nampoothiri, G. Propagation of tides in the Mandovi-Zuari estuarine network. In: Proceedings of the Workshop on Integrated Coastal and Marine Area Management Plan for Goa. Integrated Coastal and Marine Area Management Project Directorate. Chennai (India), Dep. of Ocean Development, Chennai (India). 1999; 174-193. Shetye, S.R. Propagation of tides in the Mandovi and Zuari estuaries. Sadhana. 24; 1999; 5-16. Shetye, S.R.; Gouveia, A.D.; Singbal, S.Y.S.; Naik, C.G.; Sundar, D.; Michael, G.S.; Nampoothiri, G. Propagation of tides in the Mandovi-Zuari estuarine network. In: Proceedings of the Workshop on Integrated Coastal and Marine Area Management Plan for Goa. Integrated Coastal and Marine Area Management Project Directorate. Chennai, Dep. of Ocean Development. (India). 1999; 174-193. Unnikrishnan, A.S.; Shetye, S.R.; Gouveia, A.D. Tidal propagation in the Mandovi-Zuari Estuarine network, west coast of India: Impact of freshwater influx. Estuar. Coast. Shelf Sci. 45; 1997; 737-744. Sundar, D.; Shetye, S.R. Tides in the Mandovi and Zuari estuaries, Goa, west coast of India. J. Earth Syst. Sci. 114; 2005; 493-503. Optical properties Menon, H.B.; Mohan, M.; Nayak, S.R.; Navalgund, R. Water leaving radiance from the coastal waters of Goa. In: The Fifth Pacific Ocean Remote Sensing Conference (PORSEC), 5-8 December 2000. Proceedings. Natl. Inst. of Oceanography. Dona Paula, Goa (India). 1; 2000; 77-82. Menon, H.B. Calibration of an optical equation to analyse the atmospheric turbidity and water quality of an estuarine environment. Photonirvachak. 32; 2004; 287-300.

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Chemical Processes and Pollution General Characteristics De Sousa, S.N. Monitoring of some environmental parameters at the mouth of the Zuari River, Goa. Indian J. Mar. Sci. 6; 1977; 114-117. Dehadrai, P.V. Changes in the environmental features of the Zuari and Mandovi estuaries in relation to tides. 1. All India Symp. in Estuarine Biology, 27-30 Dec 1969. First All India Symposium in Estuarine Biology, December 27-30, 1969: Abstracts of papers. 1969; 4-5. Qasim, S.Z.; SenGupta, R. Environmental characteristics of the Mandovi Zuari estuarine system in Goa. Estuar. Coast. Shelf Sci. 13; 1981; 557-578. Sen Gupta, R.; Singbal, S.Y.S. Water quality of the rivers Mandovi and Zuari during 1977-78. Geological Surv. of India. Hyderabad, India. Semin. on Earth Resources for Goa's Development. Panaji, Goa, India, 18-21 Sep 1981. Earth Resources for Goa's Development: A collection of papers submitted for the seminar held at Panaji Goa on 18-21 September 1981. 1985; 549-554. Singbal, S.Y.S. Diurnal variations of some physico-chemical factors in the Zuari estuary of Goa. Indian J. Mar. Sci. 2;; 1973; 90-93. Singbal, S.Y.S. Diurnal variation of some physico-chemical factors in the Mandovi Estuary of Goa. Mahasagar. 9; 1976; 27-34. Singbal, S.Y.S.; Fondekar, S.P.; Reddy, C.V.G. Chemical characteristics of the inshore waters in Velsao Bay (Goa, India). Mahasagar. 9; 1976; 35-40. Singbal, S.Y.S. Environmental study of the waters of Mandovi-Zuari estuarine complex, Goa. Geological Surv. of India. Hyderabad, India. Semin. on Earth Resources for Goa's Development. Panaji Goa, India, 18-21 Sep 1981. Earth Resources for Goa's Development: A collection of papers submitted for the seminar held at Panaji Goa on 18-21 September 1981. 1985; 530-548. Oxygen and Nutrients de Sousa, S.N. Studies on the behaviour of nutrients in the Mandovi estuary during premonsoon. Estuar. Coast. Shelf Sci. 16; 1983; 299-308. De Sousa, S. N. Chemical characteristics of Mandovi-Zuari riverine systems. Ph. D. Thesis, Bombay University, 268 pp. De Sousa, S.N.; SenGupta R. Variations of dissolved oxygen in Mandovi and Zuari estuaries. Indian J. Mar. Sci. 15; 1986; 67-71.

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de Sousa, S.N. Effect of mining rejects on the nutrient chemistry of Mandovi Estuary, Goa. Indian J. Mar. Sci. 28; 1999; 355-359. Heredia, A.M. Some aspects of the nitrogen cycle in mangrove and estuarine waters. M.Sc. Dissertation, Goa University. Goa, India, 2000; 201pp. Sankaranarayanan, V. N.; Jayaraman, R. Intrusion of upwelled water in the Mandovi and Zuari estuaries. Curr. Sci., 41; 1972; 204-206. Verlencar, X.N. Dissolved organic nutrients and phytoplankton production in the Mandovi Estuary and coastal waters of Goa. Mahasagar. 17; 1984; 141-149. Verlencar, X.N. Distribution of nutrients in the coastal and estuarine waters of Goa. Mahasagar 20; 1987; 205-215. Major and minor substances Bhaskar, P.V. Studies on some aspects of marine microbial exopolysaccharides. Ph.D. Thesis, Goa Univ., Goa, India. 2003; 266 pp Bhaskar, P.V.; Bhosle, N.B Dynamics of transparent exopolymeric particles (TEP) and particle-associated carbohydrates in the Dona Paula Bay, west coast of India. J. Earth Syst. Sci.: 115; 2006; 403-413. De Silva, C.; Rajendran, A. Vitamin B-12 concentrations in Mandovi and Zuari estuaries. Mahasagar. 16; 1983; 153-159. De Souza, F.P.; Dalal, V.N.K. Study on fluoride in the Mandovi-Zuari river system (Goa). Mahasagar. 17; 1984; 9-17. De Souza, F.P.; Dalal, V.N.K. A study of bromide in the Mandovi-Zuari river system of Goa. Estuar. Coast. Shelf Sci. 21; 1985; 601-606. De Souza, F.; Bhosle, N.B. Variation in the composition of carbohydrates in the Dona Paula, Bay (west of India) during May/June 1998. Oceanol. Acta. 24; 2001; 221-237. de Sousa, S.N.; SenGupta, R. Distribution and behaviour of fluoride in Mandovi and Zuari estuaries, central west coast of India. Indian J. Mar. Sci. 17; 1988; 195-201. Fondekar, S.P.; Reddy, C.V.G. Arsenic content in the coastal and estuarine waters around Goa. Mahasagar. 7; 1974; 27-32. Fondekar, S.P.; Reddy, C.V.G. Arsenate and arsenite levels in the coastal and estuarine waters of Goa. Mahasagar. 8; 1976; 157-163.

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George, M.D.; Sawkar, K. Organically associated copper in Mandovi and Zuari estuaries. Mahasagar. 14; 1981; 71-73. George, M.D.; Sawkar, K.; Reddy, C.V.G. Determination of Cd, Pb and Cu in Mandovi Estuary by differential pulse anodic stripping voltammetry. Indian J. Mar. Sci. 13(2); 1984; 64-68. George, M.D. Speciation and behaviour of Cd, Pb and Cu in Zuari Estuary, west coast of India. Indian J. Mar. Sci. 22(3); 1993; 216-220. Kamat, S.B.; Sankaranarayanan, V.N. Distribution of iron in estuarine and nearshore waters of Goa. Indian J. Mar. Sci. 4; 1975; 30-33. Kamat, S.B.; Sankaranarayanan, V.N. Concentrations of particulate iron in estuarine and coastal waters of Goa. Indian J. Mar. Sci. 4; 1975; 34-38. Kamat, S.B. Carbohydrates in the estuarine and coastal waters around Goa. Indian J. Mar. Sci. 5; 1976; 232-234. Karanth, N.G.K.; Lokabharathi, P.A.; Nair, S. Distribution of phenolic acids in soils from two mangrove areas of Goa. Indian J. Mar. Sci. 4; 1975; 215-217. Rajagopal, M.D.; Rajendran, A.; Reddy, C.V.G. Distribution of dissolved boron in the waters of the Zuari Estuary (Goa). Indian J. Mar. Sci. 10; 1981; 20-23. Sankaranarayanan, V.N.; Reddy, C.V.G. Copper content in the inshore and estuarine waters along the central west coast of India. Curr. Sci. 42; 1973; 223-224. Sardessai, S. Dissolved particulate and sedimentary humic acids in the mangroves and estuarine ecosystem of Goa, west coast of India. Indian J. Mar. Sci. 22(1); 1993; 54-58. Sarma, V.V.; Manerikar, M.; Kumar, M.D. The behaviour of pH and carbon dioxide in a monsoon influenced tropical estuary. National Inst. of Oceanography. Visakhapatnam, India. Natl. Symp. on Oceanography and Coastal Zone Management. Visakhapatnam, India, 23-24 Apr 1997. National Symposium on Oceanography and Coastal Zone Management, 23-24, April 1997. Souvenir. 1997; p.65. Sarma, V.V.S.S. Variability in forms and fluxes of carbon dioxide in the Arabian Sea. Ph. D. Thesis, Goa University, Goa, 250 pp. Sarma, V.V.; Kumar, M.D.; Manerikar, M. Emission of carbon dioxide from a tropical estuarine system. Geophys. Res. Lett. 28; 2001; 1239-1242. Sen Gupta, R.; Naik, S. Studies on calcium, magnesium sulphate in the Mandovi Zuari River systems (Goa). Indian J. Mar. Sci. 10; 1981; 24-34.

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Shenoy, D.M. Biogeochemical cycling of dimethyl sulphide in the northern Indian Ocean. Ph.D. Thesis, Goa Univ., Goa, India. 2002; 102 pp Shirodkar, P.V.; Anand, S.P. Behaviour of boron in Mandovi Estuary (Goa). Mahasagar. 18; 1985; 439-448. Upadhyay, S.; SenGupta, R. The behaviour of aluminium in waters of the Mandovi estuary, west coast of India. Mar. Chem. 51; 1995; 261-276. Windom, H.; Sanders, J.G. Arsenic Geochemistry in a controlled Marine Ecosystem. Indian J. Mar. Sci. 10; 1981; 309-313. Pollution Bhosle, N.B.; Matondkar, S.G.P. Variation in trace metals in two populations of green mussel mytilus viridis L. from Goa. Mahasagar. 11; 1978; 191-194. Bhosle, N.B.; Garg, A.; Jadhav, S.; Harjee, R.; Sawant, S.S.; Venkat, K.; Anil, A.C. Butyltins in water, biofilm, animals and sediments of the west coast of India. Chemosphere. 57; 2004; 897-907. Bhosle, N.B. Butyltin compounds in biofilm and marine organisms from the Dona Paula Bay, west coast of India. Multiple dimensions of global environmental change. Sonak, S.(Ed.). TERI Press; New Delhi; India; 2006; 432-443. Chander, S. Effluent control and operation of marine outfall at Zuari Agro. In: Proceedings of the National Workshop on Marine Outfalls, April 26-28, 1984, Panaji, Goa. Naidu, P.R.; Venugopal, T. (Eds.). (Program. Objective Ser. 20). Central Board for the Prevent. and Control of Water Pollut.. New Delhi, India. 1984; XI.1-XI.9. Jagtap, T.G. Metal distribution in Halophila beccarii (Aschers) and surrounding environment along the central west coast of India. Mahasagar. 16; 1983; 429-434. Mesquita, A.; Kaisary, S.; Fernandes, B.; Singbal, S.Y.S. An assessment of toxic metal distribution in and around Marmugao Harbour. In: Seminar on Recent Advances in Ocean Engineering and Underwater Technology 10 - 11 November, 1995. CIFE. Bombay, India. 1995; p.1. Nayak, G.N. Mining activity in the catchment area and its impact on Mandovi-Zuari estuaries of Goa. In: Proceedings of the Workshop on Integrated Coastal and Marine Area Management Plan for Goa. Integrated Coastal and Marine Area Management Project Directorate. Chennai, Dep. of Ocean Development (India). 1999; 70-95.

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Geological and Geochemical Processes Sedimentation processes Bhaskar, P.V.; Cardozo, E.; Giriyan, A.; Garg, A.; Bhosle, N.B. Sedimentation of particulate matter in the Dona Paula Bay, west coast of India during November to May 1995-1997. Estuaries. 23; 2000; 722-734. Bhukhari, S.S.; Nayak, G.N. Clay minerals in identification of provenance of sediments of Mandovi Estuary, Goa, west coast of India. Indian J. Mar. Sci. 25; 1996; 341-345. Bukhari, S.S.; Nayak, G.N. Seasonal variation of suspended matter and associated parameters in a tropical estuary, central west coast of India. In: Coastal zone management. Natl. Semin. on Coastal Zone Management. Dharwad, India, 10-11 Dec 1998. Hegde, V.S. (Ed.). S.D.M. College of Engineering and Technology. Dharwad, India. 2000; 57-78. (S.D.M. Coll. Eng. Tech. and Int. Geol. Correlat. Prog. Spec. Publ. 2). Chandramohan, P.; JayaKumar, S.; SanilKumar, V.; Ilangovan, D. Fine particle deposition at Vainguinim tourist beach, Goa, India. J. Coast. Res. 14; 1998; 1074-1081. Janakiraman, G.; Fernando, V.; Venkatesan, R.; Rajaraman, V.S. Design of a marine sediment trap and accessories. In: Proceedings of the Third Indian Conference on Ocean Engineering, 11-13 December 1986, IIT, Bombay, Vol. 2. IIT. Bombay. 1986; K93-K99. Mehta, A.J.; Nayak, B.U.; Hayter, E.J. A preliminary investigation of fine sediment dynamics in Cumbarjua canal, Goa. Mahasagar. 16 1983; 95-108. Purandare, U.V.; Kumar, R. Synoptic sediment and salinity variability at Mormugao Port. Centre for Earth Science Studies. Cochin, Kerala, India. In: Proceedings of the Second Indian National Conference on Harbour and Ocean Engineering (Inchoe-97), Thiruvananthapuram, December 7-10, 1997. Vol. 2. CESS. Cochin, India. 1997; 1108-1115. Rao, D.G.; Rao, T.C.S. Textural characteristics of sediments of Mormugao bay, central west coast of India. Indian J. Mar. Sci. 3; 1974; 93-98. Sanyal, S.P.; Mallik, T.K.; Ray, I.; Rao, R.B.S.; Ravikumar, V.; Rao, T.S.; Reddy, D.R.S.; Jairam, M.S.; Raju, D.C.L.; Banerjee, B.K. Seabed survey of the continental slope areas off Cochin for geochemical scan for hydrocarbons (SM - 50 Cruise). Rec. Geol. Surv. India. 123; 1990; p.144. Subbaraju, L.V.; Krishna, K.S. Establishment of gravity stations and inference of crustal thickness around Mormugao Harbour and NIO. J. Geol. Soc. India. 45(3); 1995; 317-321.

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Wagle, B.G.; Gujar, A.R.; Subrahmanyam, V.; Mislankar, P.G. Seabed surveys of Mormugao Harbour, central west coast of India. Indian J. Mar. Sci. 17; 1988; 59-62. Geochemistry of sediments Alagarsamy, R. A study on some metals in the Mandovi estuary sediments, Goa. Ph.D. Thesis, Univ. of Bombay, Bombay, India. 1988; 87pp. Alagarsamy, R. Organic carbon in the sediments of Mandovi Estuary, Goa. Indian J. Mar. Sci. 20(3); 1991; 221-222. Alagarsamy, R. Distribution and seasonal variation of trace metals in surface sediments of the Mandovi estuary, west coast of India. Estuar. Coast. Shelf Sci. 67; 2006; 333-339. De Silva, C.; Bhosle, N.B. Phosphorus availability and phosphatase activity in the sediments of Mandovi estuary, Goa. Indian J. Mar. Sci. 19(2); 1990 143-144. De Souza, F.P.; Garg, A.; Bhosle, N.B. Biogeochemical characteristics of sedimenting particles in Dona Paula Bay, India. Estuar. Coast. Shelf Sci.: 58; 2003; 311-320. Jayakumar, D.A.; Rajendran, A. Speciation of iron and manganese in the sediments of Mandovi Estuary. In: Proceedings of International Symposium on Marine Pollution. 1990; 205-227. Jayakumar, D.A.; Rajendran, A. Speciation of iron and manganese in the sediments of Mandovi Estuary. Int. Symp. on Marine Pollution. CAS in Marine Biology, Parangipettai, India, Jan 1989. Marine pollution and toxicology. Venugopalan, V.K.; Balasubramanian, T. (Eds.). CAS in Marine Biology, Annamalai Univ.. Parangipettai, India. 1991; 205-227. Joshi, L.U.; Zingde, M.D.; Abidi, S.A.H. Anomalous behaviour of uranium isotopes in backwater sediments of Zuari River. J. Radioanal. Chem. 79; 1983 317-323. Nasnolkar, C.M.; Shirodkar, P.V.; Singbal, S.Y.S. Studies on organic carbon, nitrogen and phosphorus in the sediments of Mandovi Estuary, Goa. Indian J. Mar. Sci. 25; 1996; 120-124. Rajagopal, M.D.; Reddy, C.V.G. Phosphorus retention capacity of sediments in Mandovi Estuary (Goa). Indian J. Mar. Sci. 13(1); 1984; 1-4. Shirodkar, P.V.; Sengupta, R. Chemistry and behaviour of B, Ca and Mg in interstitial waters of sediments from the coastal and estuarine regions of Mandovi River along the West Coast of India. Indian J. Mar. Sci. 14(4); 1985; 196-201.

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Shirodkar, P.V.; Dalal, V.N.K. Sediment boron and its relation to sediment properties in a tropical estuary. Mahasagar. 21; 1988; 45-54. Coastal morphology Iyer, S.D.; Wagle, B.G. Morphometric analyses of the river basins in Goa. Geogr. Rev. India. 49; 1987; 11-18. Kumar, S. Geology of the Pequeno Island of St. George's group of islands off Marmugao (India). Bull. Earth Sci. 3; 1974; 65-68. Kunte, P.D.; Wagle, B.G. Analysis of space borne data for coastal zone information extraction of the Goa Coast, India. Ocean Coast. Manage. 22(3); 1994; 187-200. Mascarenhas, A. Restoration of sand dunes along human-altered coasts: A scheme for Miramar Beach, Goa. In: Proceedings of the International Conference on EcoBalance and Life Cycle Assessment in India, February 13-15, 2002. Sharma, V.K. (Ed.). Indira Gandhi Institute of Development Research; Mumbai; India; 2002; 27-31. Wagle, B.G. Geomorphology of the Goa coast. Proc. Indian Acad. Sci. (Earth Planet. Sci.). 91; 1982; 105-117. Wagle, B.G. Geomorphology of Goa and Goa Coast: A review. Giornale Geol. 55(2); 1993; 19-24. Wagle, B.G.; Kunte, P.D. Appraisal of geomorphology of the Goa coast. In: Proceedings of the Workshop on Integrated Coastal and Marine Area Management Plan for Goa. Dep. of Science, Technology and Environment, Gov. of Goa, Saligao, Bardez, Goa, 25-26 Aug 1999. Integrated Coastal and Marine Area Management Project Directorate, Dep. of Ocean Development, Chennai (India). 1999; 194-203. Paleo-studies Badve, R.M.; Sakurkar, C.V.; Vartak, V.R. Palynology and depositional environment of fossiliferous clays from Goa State. J. Geol. Soc. India. 59; 2002; 331-337. Basavaiah, N.; Khadkikar, A.S. Environmental magnetism and it's application towards palaeomonsoon reconstruction. J. Indian Geophys. Union. 8; 2004; 1-14. Mascarenhas, A.; Chauhan, O.S. On the past environments of the coastal plains of Goa. In: Twelth Convention of Indian Association of Sedimentologists, 20th-22nd December 1995. Abstracts. Goa Univ., India. 1995; p. 66.

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Miscellaneous Coastal and harbour structures Jaya Kumar, S.; Chandramohan, P.; Jena, B.K.; Pednekar, P. Engineering parameters for expansion of MPT berths, Goa. In: Int. Conf. in Ocean Engineering COE '96. Madras, India, 17-20 Dec 1996. Proceedings. Allied. Chennai, India. 1996; 372-376. Pathak, M.C.; Kotnala, K.L.; Prabaharan, N. Effects of bridge piers on a tropical estuary in Goa, India. J. Coast. Res. 4. 1988; 475-481. Patil, B.T.; Ranganna, G.; Phayde, T.T.S.; Gajendragad, M.R.; Wagh, A.B.; Sawant, S.S. Performance of cracked concrete in marine environment. Indian Inst. of Technology. Madras, India. In: Second National Conference on Dock and Harbour Engineering, 9-12, December 1987. Proceedings Vol. 1. IIT. Madras, India. 1987; 473-476. Purandare, U.V.; Chandra, P. Hydraulics of inland waterway in interconnected Mandovi Zuari estuarine system and improvement schemes. In: PIANC-PCDC Third Seminar on Ports and Inland Waterways, Goa-India, November 13-18, 1995. Proceedings. PIANC, Indian National Section, India. 1995; 831-845. Purandare, U.V.; Chandra, P.; Chavan, S.S. Optimisation of layous for developments at Mormugao Port. In: International Conference in Ocean Engineering 2001, December 11-14, 2001, Proceedings. Department of Ocean Engineering, Indian Inst. of Technology. Madras (India), Allied. Chennai (India). 2; 2001; 279-284. Purandare, U.V.; Kapileshwar, P.S.; Chandra, P. Modelling for blockage schemes in Mandovi-Zuari estuary.. In: International Conference in Ocean Engineering 2001, December 11-14, 2001, Proceedings. Department of Ocean Engineering, Indian Inst. of Technology. Madras (India), Allied. Chennai (India). Allied. Chennai (India). 2; 2001; 443-450. Purandare, U.V.; Chandra, P. Potential of drowned river valley estuaries on Indian west coast for development and harnessing. In: Third Indian National Conference on Harbour and Ocean Engineering (INCHOE - 2004). Proceedings. Mandal, S.; SanilKumar, V.; JayaKumar, S. Eds. National Institute of Oceanography. Dona Paula, Goa (India). 2; 2004; 792-800. Navigation Purandare, U.V. Studies for improvement of navigation in Aguada Bay at Goa. In: Third National Conference on Dock and Harbour Engineering, 6-9 December 1989. Proceedings. Karnataka Reg. Eng. Coll.. Suratkal, India. 2; 1989; 589-595.

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General Banerjee, G. A multivariate analysis of a marine ecosystem. Ph.D. Thesis, Goa Univ., Goa, India.; 92 pp Qasim, S.Z. Indian estuaries. Allied. New Delhi (India). 2003; 420 pp.

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List of Participants

Invited speakers S. A. H. Abidi “BANI HOUSE” 450/786, Napier Road-II Thakurganj Chowk Lucknow 226 020 K. K. Balachandran National Institute of Oceanography Regional Centre, Dr. Salim Ali Road Kochi 682 018 T. Balasubramanian Centre of Advanced Study in Marine Biology Annamalai University Parangipettai 608 502 S. N. de Sousa Goa State Pollution Control Board Patto, Panaji Goa 403 001, B. N. Desai Former Director, NIO Hansrajwadi Behind Poddar High School Tagore Road St. Cruz (west) Mumbai 400 053. S.K. Mukhopadhyay Central Salt & Marine Chemical Research Institute G.B. Marg, Bhavnagar 364 002 P.V. Narvekar National Institute of Oceanography Dona Paula Goa 403 004 Nittala S. Sarma School of Chemistry Andhra University, Visakhapatnam 530 003

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B.R.Subramanian ICMAM Project Directorate National Institute of Ocean Technology Campus Velacherry- Tambaram Main Road Pallikaranai Chennai 601 302 M. D. Zingde National Institute of Oceanography Regional Centre Lokhandwala Road, Four Bungalows Andheri (West) Mumbai 400 053

Participants from National Insitute of Oceanography E. Alvares Z.A. Ansari R. Baksh N. B Bhosle B Chakraborty Mangesh Gauns Harikrishna (Visakhapatnam) B.S. Ingole S. Jayan R. Jyothibabu (Kochi) Sujata Kaisary M. Dileep Kumar N. V. Madhu (Kochi) K. Manisha (Visakhapatnam) N. T. Manoj S. G. P. Matondkar Analia M. Mesquita G. S. Michael, Imran Mirza C. Mohandass K. R. Muraleedharan (Kochi) F Musa Mandar Nanajkar S. Neetu Sushma G. Parab, Suraksha Pednekar N. Ramaiah V Purnachandra Rao C. Rodrigues

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V. Rodrigues S. Sardessai D. Shankar S. S. C. Shenoi Satish R. Shetye Suhas Shetye Rakhi Shirodkar Sanjay Kumar Singh S. Sivadas D. Sundar K. Suprit, I. Suresh A.S. Unnikrishnan Harsha Vardhan (Visakhapatnam)