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Global Environmental Governance and Politics of Ecotourism:Case Study of Cambodia

Baromey Neth, Sam Ol Rith & Béatrice Knerr

Department of Development Economics, Migration and Agricultural Policy, Faculty 11,University of Kassel, Germany

12th EADI General Conference Global Governance for Sustainable Development: The Need for Policy Coherence and New Partnerships

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What is This Research about?

Examine actors (state and non-state) that influence decision-making for planning and policies of ecotourism in Cambodia, and hence to whom the outcomes of the projects are targeted.

Allocate ecotourism / community-based ecotourism (CBET)

within the debates on governance in international relations

Explore the planning and policies of ecotourism / CBET in Cambodia

Identify constraints of ecotourism politics in Cambodia

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How This Research is Done?

… approached theoretically from diverse perspectives of political ecologists, which interpret events with reference to the behaviors or attitudes of actors in pursuit of their political agendas.

Neoliberalism & its relation with tourism, Global environmental governance (GEG) Politics of ecotourism

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Neoliberalism and Tourism

Economic value of the biodiversity

Change of conventional thinking about important political actors in the global system

Economic diversification

Market-oriented growth and the rise of neo-liberal development strategies tourism as a potential growth sector since the early 1990s

Global-local linkage community-based approaches in tourism development

Fundamental shift in international relations, development and environmental management

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Global Environmental Governance (GEG)

“… formal institutions and regimes empowered to enforce compliance, as well as the informal arrangements that people or institutions have agreed or perceived to be in their interest.” (Commission on Global Governance, 1995, p.4)

Philosophy Differences

Decentralization and power sharing (Hardt and Negri, 2000)

Extension of the power of states in the global system despite

the proliferation of non-state actors (Duffy, 2006)

Multilateralism (Wilkinson & Hughes, 2002; Wilkinson, 2005)

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Ecotourism – Definition and Facts

“… responsible travel to natural areas that conserves the environment and improves the well-being of local people.” (TIES, 1990)

Annual growth rate (tourist volumes): 20% - 34% (WTO, 2004).

2004: grew globally 3 times faster than the tourism industry (WTO, 2004).

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Politics of Ecotourism

A tool for sustainable development

Empower communities to regain and enhance their economic grip

Nature conservation and community development in natural resource rich but impoverished areas

The suitability and relation between the philosophy of ecotourism and neo-liberal definition of economic growth and modernization

Internal forces as facilitators or inhibitors of development

A political process related to wider global changes

Source: SNV, 2007

Source: http://www.ccben.org/

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Facts about Cambodia

Population

14.36 millions, 90% are Khmer some 85% are living in rural

areas 34.7% are living below poverty

line adult literacy rate: 73.6% Economy

mainly based on agriculture, textile industry and tourism

≈ 50% of the national budget is injected by ODA

Source: http://go.hrw.com/atlas/norm_htm/Cambodia.htm

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Environmental Management in Cambodia

Most natural resources are state-owned

26 protected areas, accounted for 18% of Cambodia’s total land areas

A participant of the GEG regime multi-stakeholder environmental governance

Economic growth & strengthened nexus of government-business sector decline in communities’ ownership rights over natural resources social tensions / conflicts and evictions

Communal Management

StateAppropriation

Industrial/IllegalActivities & SpontaneousSettlement

Conversion toOther Uses

CommunityCommonProperty

Resources

State /Open Access

Timber Concession /

Logging, Poaching& Encroachment

Private Ownership /Community

Management

Transformation of natural resources in Cambodia Source: Ferrari (2002)

Source: Ministry of Environment, Cambodia (2004)

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Environmental Management in Cambodia (cont.)

The policy transformation to adapt concession laws decline in natural resources & main sources of local community livelihoods

Emergence and intervention of non-government organizations

Pressure via foreign aid policy to adopt decentralization policies in environmental governance and endorse community-based initiatives.

Forest6.5 mill. ha

Agriculture705,394 ha

Fishing1 mill. ha

Economic Zone(e.g. 10 islands)

ConcessionLaws

http://www.licadho.org/articles/20070208/51

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Tourism in Cambodia

Annual growth rate (21.3%) one of the fastest growing destinations in SE Asia

Received 2,015,128 international tourists in 2007

Contributing USD 1.4 billions (10%) to GDP as the second largest sector following garment sector (USD 2.9 billions)

Ecotourism is managed by the Ministry of Environment

Ecotourism in protected areas as part of CBNRM strategies initiated by non-state actors.

Source: Neth Baromey (2007)

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Definitions of Ecotourism and CBET in Cambodian Context

CBET: “… a form of tourism that is run by the

community and for community. It promotes conservation of nature and culture. CBET also strives to improve the local likelihood as well as promoting meaningful interaction between community and visitors.” (CCBEN, 2002)

Ecotourism: “… a tool which is developed and managed sustainably in partnership with local communities and other stakeholders to ensure community involvement and equitable benefit sharing without negatively affecting the ecological integrity of the area or the social and cultural integrity of adjacent communities.” (TSCP, 2006)

Source: http://www.ccben.org/

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Global Environmental Governance and Politics of Ecotourism in Cambodia

Environmental protection becomes one of the most important funding priorities/policies among donors

Ecotourism as a component of conservation strategies favored by donors and NGO groups a tool of ICDP initiatives

≈ 36 ecotourism/CBET projects are being coordinated and funded by NGOs and donors

In 2002, the CCBEN was established as a ground for multi-stakeholder intervention in conservation and poverty alleviation

Source: http://www.ccben.org/

Source: MoT-Cambodia (2007)

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Global Environmental Governance and Politics of Ecotourism in Cambodia (cont.)

Ecotourism has been integrated into national and (cross) regional development policies

The transmission of preservationist philosophy (preservation narrative coexists with neoliberal discourse) & post cold war views about governance

Ecotourism / CBET is promoted to satisfy multiple audiences:

Nature conservation Economic development initiatives Poverty reduction

Environmental education Community empowerment and participation Decentralized approaches Mutual benefit distribution / sharing

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Ecotourism Politics of State and Non-State Institutions in Cambodia

International DevelopmentAgencies and Donors

(ADB, UNDP, GEF, IFC-WB, CI, FFI, SNV, WWF, etc.)

Government Institutions(Ministry of Tourism,

Ministry of Environment, etc.)

International & National(Local) Environmental

Organizations

Community-level Development and Conservation Programs

in Protected Areas / Biosphere Reserves / Ramsar Sites

(via Ecotourism incorporated into Integrated NRM)

Joint Venture

Foreign Consultants/ Advisors

- Integration of NR plans- Resource conservation & management- Protected area operations and maintenance- Community development- Community empowerment & involvement- Decentralization & deconcentration- Recreation programs- Research & monitoring

Economic Growth-Oriented

Conservation-Oriented

Main Benefit Receivers: Executing agency (MoE) and its responsible staffs

Government via taxes

Main Benefit Receivers: Selected members

of local communities

Neoliberal Actors

Populist/Neo-Populist Actors

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Constraints of Ecotourism Politics in Cambodia

Constraints Descriptions Actors

Theoretical Conversion of ideology into “classical approach” to conservation State & non-state

Policy Unclear accountabilities and definitions; weak & complex legal & institutional frameworks

State

Legal Different interpretations and lack of supportive document; unclear mandate; more economic opportunity focused; poor law enforcement strategies; unspecified key provisions of laws; political instability and frequent change of laws; etc.

State

Institutional low capacity; political pressure; corruption; bureaucracy and centralized management plans; nepotism; economic monopoly; lack of community’s awareness and support; overlapped responsibilities; etc.

State

Structural Client-patron relationship; top-down management; etc. State & non-state

Implementation Participation & benefits are hard to measure; insecure land ownership & resource accessibility; people’s limited legitimacy & access to livelihood resources; problem of identifying & selecting community members; disparities in economic generation & distribution; etc.

Non-state

Lack of community involvement; lack of institutional collaboration/partnership; trend towards mass ecotourism; etc.

State

Limited capacities of local communities and executing agencies’ staffs State & Non-state

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Conclusion

Cambodia’s ecotourism is highly political and strongly interrelated with structures of neoliberalism and GEG.

Dependency on external resources for ecotourism/CBET development brings in strong influence of external power and loss of local power and control.

None of the policies of the state and non-state actors prioritizes the well-being and secure livelihoods of the communities.

Ecotourism controlled by the state actors would lead to “mass ecotourism, while the current CBET would trigger people’s conflicts of interest, out-migration and expulsion. Source: SNV

(2007)

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Implications for Policy

Set up & implement adaptive co-management strategies

Invest in human and social capital construction

Maximize the use of traditional wisdom and practices

Improve the education and training of relevant personnel

Promote best practices of CBNRM and create appropriate CBET mechanisms that ensure long-term development objectives (through partnership building, sound policy or legislation formulation, institutional reform, communication networks, participatory research linkages …)

Increase ecotourism product development, marketing strategies and risk management

Provide more support to social and public services and local SMEs development with appropriate technology

Strengthen local empowerment and participation and ownership right

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THANKS FOR YOUR ATTENTION!