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A treatiseon the basic ecological geographyof the state

E. William Anderson,Michael M. Borman, and William C. KruegerOregon Agricultural Experiment Station

May 1998 SR 990 $40.00

Front cover: Stratified ancient geological formation typical of John DayEcological Province, Oregon.

Back cover: Overview of Snake River Ecological Province, looking north-west across the Malheur Reservoir area into the extensive, light-coloredancient lake lacustrine landforms that typify Snake River EcologicalProvince, Oregon.

Opposite: View of Mt. Thielsen over snow-covered pumice desert as seenfrom Crater Lake in Mazama Ecological Province, Oregon.

All photos by E. William Anderson.

The Ecological Provincesof OregonA treatise on the basic ecological geographyof the state

By

E. William Anderson,Michael M. Borman,and William C. Krueger

Oregon Agricultural Experiment StationMay 1998

This publication synthesizes over 40years of study by E. William (Bill)Anderson and his co-workers.Oregon is extremely fortunate thatBill Anderson was the Chief ofParty for the initial range surveys inthe late 1930s and that he remainedin Oregon for the rest of his career.Since his retirement, Bill hascontinued to study Oregon's re-sources and to develop the conceptand descriptions of ecological

AuthorsE. WILLIAM ANDERSON retired in

1974 as Oregon State RangeConservationist for USDA SoilConservation Service. He is acertified range management con-sultant and a charter member, lifemember, fellow, and past president(1962) of the Society for RangeManagement, which awarded himits highest honor, the Frederic G.Renner Award, in 1979. He also isa charter member, life member, andfellow of the Soil and Water Con-servation Society. His awards andhonors include the Agricultural Hallof Fame Award in 1986 from the

provinces for Oregon. This is aprime example of having the rightperson in the right positions at theright times and for the duration oftime necessary to develop a suffi-cient understanding of these re-sources to produce this document.All of us working with naturalresources in Oregon owe Bill atremendous debt of gratitude.

WILLIAM C. KRUEGER

MICHAEL M. BORMAN

1994 from the Renewable NaturalResources Foundation.

MICHAEL M. BORMAN is ExtensionRangeland Resources Specialist,Department of Rangeland Re-sources, Oregon State University.He also has had experience as arange consultant, as a range scientistfor the Agricultural ResearchService, and as a range ecologist forthe National Biological Service.

WILLIAM C. KRUEGER 1S Professor

and Head, Department of RangelandResources, Oregon State University.He has 30 years of research experi-

College of Agricultural Sciences, ence in grazing ecology and range-Oregon State University, and the land restoration.Sustained Achievement Award in

AcknowledgmentsOver the years, the following

people in the USDA Soil Conserva-tion Service made major contribu-tions to formulating the ecologicalprovince concept by helping tocharacterize and delineate lines ofdemarcation between ecologicalprovinces out on the land and byallowing this activity in Oregon.

Range conservationists: FredGreenfield, Duane Town, EugeneHickman, and David Franzen.

Soil scientists: George Green, ElmerHill, Burrell Lovell, Joe Cahoon,Grant Lindsay, Eugene Dyksterhuis,and William Powers.

State administrators: Harold Tower,Tom Helseth, and A. J. Webber.

ii Ecological Provinces of Oregon

ContentsAuthors and Acknowledgements ........................................................ iiProvince Map ..................................................................................... ivIntroduction ........................................................................................ 1Prologue .............................................................................................. 2Definitions and Abstracts ................................................................... 3Province Descriptions

Blue Mountain ................................................................................ 5Cascade ......................................................................................... 14Coast ............................................................................................. 21Columbia Basin ............................................................................ 28High Desert ................................................................................... 38Humboldt ...................................................................................... 47John Day ....................................................................................... 52Klamath ........................................................................................ 63Mazama ........................................................................................ 86Owyhee ......................................................................................... 94Palouse .......................................................................................... 98Siskiyou ...................................................................................... 100Snake River ................................................................................ 109The Dalles ................................................................................... 115Willamette ................................................................................... 121

References ...................................................................................... 130Appendices and Supplements

Figures .......................................................................................... 69Common-name Checklist of Plants ............................................ 133Index of Tables ........................................................................... 138Province Map ........................................................ inside back cover

Ecological Provinces of Oregon iii

OREGON

A I N G TS H

C A L I F 0 R N I A N E V A D A

ECOLOGICAL PROVINCESOREGON

K. William Anderson . Michael M. Borman - William C. Krueger

A

Introduction

A N ECOSYSTEM'S PROCESSES

function on a variety oftemporal and spatial scales.

Planning and management likewisemust be on a related scale. For manage-ment purposes, it is important to under-stand the concepts of ecological sitesand ecological provinces-areas withinwhich there is relative similarity inresource type, quality, quantity, andassociations. This publication describesOregon's ecological provinces and listsreferences for further information.

An ecological site is a local combinationof certain soils, climate, topography,and vegetation; the combination hasmanagement implications.

An ecological province, which is asubdivision of a region, has a distinc-tive combination of geological featuresand ecological sites. In an ecologicalprovince, general regional differencesin vegetation complexes among eco-logical sites are related to basic differ-ences in underlying geology, geomor-phology, and climate on a relativelybroad scale that encompasses a numberof ecological sites.

For public and private land managersand technicians, the concept of ecologi-cal provinces is a valuable frameworkwithin which to consider potentiallarge-scale system responses to man-agement activities. The ecological-provinces framework describes spatialhomogeneity in ecosystems whichgenerally influences types, quality, andquantity of environmental resources.

In managing water quality, for ex-ample, it is important to separateattainable water quality from thatwhich is diminished by land use.Quality attainable in one region maynot be attainable in another due tonatural factors. Agency guidelines forvegetation composition, distribution,and cover should also be based on whatis attainable. These attributes will besimilar within ecological provinces anddissimilar among them.

Monitoring efficiency, data interpreta-tion, and detection of trends in impor-tant ecological attributes can all beimproved if monitoring is organizedbased on ecological provinces.

Within Oregon, the ecological prov-inces described in this publicationstratify the natural variation that existsacross watershed basins and politicalboundaries such as counties, nationalforests, and Bureau of Land Manage-ment districts. Although monitoring isessential to detect trends toward or awayfrom management goals, it is oftenneglected due to budget constraints.

It is important to keep in mind that anecological province is not homogeneous.For example, High Desert Province ischaracterized by large and small closedbasins surrounded by extensive terraceswith interspersed ridges, hilly uplands,isolated buttes, and block-faulted for-mations. The terrace and basin portionof the province is flat to gently sloping;intermediate hills, buttes, and moun-tains are steep to very steep. Ecologicalsites range from and low-lying terracesto subalpine mountain tops and fromlake beds that are nearly always dry topermanent wetlands and marshes.However, a unifying characteristic isthe dry, cold climate that significantlyinfluences growing conditions throughits impact on effective environment.

The effective environment of a givensite is produced by the interaction of allenvironmental factors there-includingsoil, aspect, slope, elevation, moisture,and temperature-and supports a spe-cific combination of plant species. Eachprovince has some individual character-istics or combinations that sufficientlyinfluence effective environment so thateach produces or supports vegetationalcomposition and structure that is simi-lar within a province and differentamong provinces. Vegetation on north-facing slopes within a province will bereasonably similar, but frequently thereare important differences between

provinces in the characteristics of soilsand vegetation on north-facing slopes.

Demarcation between provinces inOregon is quite distinct in some loca-tions, as between the John Day andColumbia Basin provinces along thebreaks of a large rocky plateau nearClarno (Fig. 1) and also between theJohn Day and High Desert provincesnorth of Hampton (Fig. 2). At otherlocations, the line of demarcation isbroad and transitional, as in an areanear Kinzua where a mixture offorested soils representing both theJohn Day and Blue Mountain provincesforms a transition band 2 to 3 mileswide. Another example is between theMazama and High Desert provinceswhere the pumice mantle, whichdistinguishes Mazama from adjacentprovinces, gradually thins into the HighDesert Province. The vegetationaldifferences, and thus the provincialboundary, are not clear-cut but ratheroccur within a belt of demarcation.

The descriptions of the 15 ecologicalprovinces in Oregon provide valuableinformation including: location; ageneral description of the province;general soils description and soil seriesidentifications; climate informationwith a focus on temperatures, growingseasons, and precipitation amounts anddistribution; descriptions of vegetationcomplexes and their relationships tosoils and climatic variables; and a dis-cussion of management implications.

Each province also has a description ofthe line or band of demarcationbetween it and adjacent provinces sothat field workers can determine on theground when they are at a transitionfrom one province to another. This is anextremely valuable resource to helpfield personnel look for and evaluatechanges based on what should be ex-pected and to refine salient differencesand similarities between provinces.

Introduction 1

Prologue

N JUNE 1949, THE USDA SOILConservation Service (SCS), nowcalled the Natural Resources Con-

servation Service, began the task ofidentifying and describing the rangesites in Oregon.

The concept of "range site" was rela-tively new at that time although OregonSCS had been making range surveyssince about 1939 in which units of thelandscape that were ecologicallydifferent were mapped. The first ofthese surveys was of the Keating Soil& Water Conservation District in BakerCounty, E. W. Anderson, Chief of Party.World War II interrupted developmentof this kind of resource inventory onrangelands in the Pacific Northwestmainly because most SCS range conser-vationists enlisted for military service.

Assessing and mapping rangelands'ecological status, which was originallycalled "range condition," also origi-nated in the Pacific Northwest, circa1937. These were significant changesfrom the general kind of range surveybeing conducted throughout the West inthat early era. These involved mapping18 vegetation types; e.g., grasslandtype, sagebrush type, annual type, juni-per type, and meadow type. Thevegetation types represented then-current stands of vegetation rather thanecological sites.

At an early stage, it became apparentthat the basic purpose of this Oregonsite-identification project necessitatedstudying woodlands and forests as wellas rangelands, because of the interrela-tionship of forage, wood products, andsoil conservation aspects involved incomprehensive management of renew-able resources, which was a basic pro-gram of SCS in Oregon at that time. Amajor factor in precipitating thisapproach was the view held by mostranchers that their "range" was theentire area on which their livestockgrazed, be it sagebrush hills or forests.Consequently, by the mid-1950s, thenarrow concept of range site was

broadened in Oregon to include theseother kinds of land, and the term"ecological site" was coined to betterrepresent the actual situation. OfficialSCS approval for this change was neverrequested. Instead, the concept of eco-logical site was allowed to quietlymaterialize as a locally accepted versionof the principles incorporated in theterm "range site" as it applied to range-lands east of the Rocky Mountains.

After years of studying and describingecological sites in eastern Oregon, thisdefinition was formulated in the 1960s:An ecological site is an area of landhaving a distinctive combination ofsoils and climatic, topographic, andnatural biotic (chiefly vegetation) fac-tors that has management implications.'

It also became apparent early in theproject that data on ecological sites inone segment of eastern Oregon differedsignificantly in several ways from dataon comparable sites in other segmentsof eastern Oregon.

For example, the makeup of reasonablyrelict native plant communities on undu-lating topography in Gilliam Countydiffered markedly from a comparablesituation in Baker County, and theyboth differed markedly from a compa-rable situation in Harney County. Soilcharacteristics might be somewhatsimilar from place to place yet differedsignificantly in certain importantaspects, especially at the soil-serieslevel of soil classification.

In some cases, herbage production oncomparable sites also differed signifi-cantly from one segment of easternOregon to another, suggesting that thiswas likely due to broad climaticdifferences. Forested sites in the BlueMountains produced essentially thesame tree species as those in theOchoco Mountains or those on eastslopes of the Cascade Mountains nearThe Dalles, yet the understory plantcommunities differed markedly fromone place to the other, as did the soils.

Searching for reasons for these differ-ences helped formulate the concept thatbroadly homogeneous natural subdivi-sions of Oregon existed and that they,like ecological sites, could be andshould be identified, described, andmapped. If the broad soil-plantrelationships were as outstandinglyconsistent within each of these subdivi-sions and as different from one subdivi-sion to another as they appeared to beat that time, then it seemed reasonablethat any sound agricultural or resource-oriented program must recognize thesenatural subdivisions of the state.

Furthermore, these natural subdivisionsand the specific soil-plant relationshipswithin them do not coincide with poli-tical boundaries such as counties,national forests, BLM districts, or pri-vate ownerships. Thus, it seemedimperative that educators and techni-cians in forestry, range, wildlife,hydrology, agronomy, economics, andsoils and even some property ownersand managers needed to recognize andunderstand these basic facts about theecological patterns of the countryside.'Consequently, as early as 1950 itbecame an unofficial component of thesite-identification project to identify,characterize, and delineate these broadnatural subdivisions of Oregon.

One of the confounding questions earlyin the process of characterizing and de-lineating these natural subdivisions ofeastern Oregon was what to call them.

At first, in 1949-50, they were called"problem areas," and they certainlypresented some problems. However, theterm "problem areas" in Soil Conserva-tion had been used previously in the1930s by Dr. H. H. Bennett, founder ofthe soil conservation movement, so wedecided "problem areas" was notappropriate for use in our Oregonsituation. Instead we used "naturalrange areas." However, this term even-tually did not fit the nature of the studybecause it involved kinds of land inaddition to rangelands. Therefore, the

2 Prologue

term was changed to "land resourceareas" during the 1950s and was useduntil about 1965 when SCS SoilScience Division published USDAAgricultural Handbook 296, "LandResource Regions and Major LandResource Areas of the United States."The publication was revised in 198129The meaning of "land resource area" inthis SCS publication was basicallydifferent from that of the original termin Oregon. The published term waspredicated primarily on soils, whereasthe original term was predicated on

ecological units in which soil was onlyone of several differentiating factors.

After publication of Agricultural Hand-book 296, the natural subdivisions ofOregon were renamed "resource prov-inces" to avoid conflict and confusion.

About 1980, the term was made moreprecise by the change to "ecologicalprovince" with the following definition:a subdivision of a region having adistinctive combination of geologicalfeatures and ecological sites.

The concept of ecological sites andnatural subdivisions of Oregon hasbeen presented in a simple informa-tional talk at many local meetings ofconservation districts and agriculturaland livestock organizations in Oregon.It was first published in 1956 in adiscussion of soil-plant relationships.'It was later published, in 1962, in adiscussion of the behavior of forageyields3 and in 1986 in relation to plantindicators of effective environmentwithin the various ecological provincesof Oregon.'

Definitions and AbstractsDefinitionsEcological province A subdivision ofa region having a distinctive combina-tion of geological features and ecologi-cal sites.

Ecological site An area of land havinga distinctive combination of soil, cli-matic, topographic, and natural biotic(chiefly vegetation) factors; the combi-nation has management implications.

AbstractsBlue Mountain Province The moun-tainous segment of northeast Oregon. Itis characterized by extensive, verythick basalt bedrock, groups of ruggedmountains, steep canyons, and exten-sive ridges and plateaus. Rugged moun-tains consist of uplifted granites, basalt,and various metamorphosed shales,sandstones, limestones, greenstones,and tuffs. Elevations in Oregon rangefrom about 1,000 feet in the northeastcorner to 9,839 feet on Sacajawea Peakin the Eagle Mountains. Elevations aremainly between 3,000 and 5,000 feet.

Cascade Province The higher eleva-tions and crest of the Cascade Moun-tains. It is characterized by andesitic orbasaltic mountainous terrain with steepdendritic drainage patterns, especiallywhere associated with upper reaches ofthe Willamette River system. Eleva-

tions range from about 1,200 feet at thenorthwest boundary to above 5,500 feetat the southern boundary.

Coast Province The mountainous up-lands of the Coast Mountains and thehills, valleys, tidelands, headlands, andbeaches between the mountains and theocean. It is characterized by very steepdendritic drainages related to 20 riversdraining into the ocean. Elevations inOregon range from sea level to about4,000 feet on prominent mountains.

Columbia Basin Province The basindraining north into the Columbia Riverin north-central Oregon. It is character-ized by basaltic hilly uplands and a siz-able sandy basin west of the Hermistonarea that are dissected by six majordrainages flowing into the ColumbiaRiver. Elevations in Oregon range fromabout 100 feet along the ColumbiaRiver to about 3,500 feet.

High Desert Province The most nor-them extent of the Great Basin of NorthAmerica. It is in south-central Oregon.It is characterized by numerous largeand small closed basins surrounded byextensive terraces formed in ancientlakes. Interspersed are low basalticridges, hilly uplands, isolated buttes,mountains, and block-faulted igneousformations. Elevations in Oregon rangefrom 4,030 feet at Harney Lake to

9,670 on Steens Mountain. Elevationsof basins and terraces in Oregon arebetween 4,030 and about 4,500 feet.

Humboldt Province A segment of thenorthern portion of the Great Basin ofNorth America. It is in southeasternOregon. It is characterized by long,generally north-to-south mountainranges and valleys with ancient laketerraces and fans lying along the foot-slopes. Elevations in Oregon rangefrom 4,025 at Alvord Desert to 8,545feet on the Pueblo Mountains.

John Day Province The rugged north-central area of Oregon. It is character-ized by extensive, geologically eroded,steeply dissected hills of thick, ancientsedimentary materials interspersed withbuttes and plateaus capped with basaltor tuffaceous rock. Elevations rangefrom about 1,000 feet in the northwestcorner to 7,360 feet at Fields Peak inthe Ochoco Mountains.

Klamath Province The basaltic moun-tainous part of south-central Oregon,characterized by large basins consistingof lakebeds surrounded by extensiveancient lake terraces interspersed withextensive basaltic terrain. Drainage issouth, mainly through the Klamath Riv-er system. Elevations in Oregon rangefrom 4,050 feet at Malin to 8,405 feet atDrake Peak northeast of Lakeview.

Definitions and Abstracts 3

Mazama Province The area coveredby a continuous mantle of aeoliandeposits of pumice and other volcanicmaterials spewed over the countrysidewhen Mt. Mazama erupted explosivelyabout 6,500 years ago. Other volcanicactivity and eruptions, as well as glacialactions, have created areas consistingof basaltic, andesitic, rhyolitic, and tuf-faceous deposits and cinders and glacialtill. Elevations range from 2,700 feet atthe northwest boundary to 8,390 feet onGearhart Mountain. Most of the prov-ince lies between 4,000 and 5,000 feetelevation.

Owyhee Province The western foot-hills and associated plains of the Owy-hee Mountains, which are in southwest-ern Idaho. It is characterized by exten-sive, very rocky uplands sloping downto the west and by numerous basalt-rimcanyons, lava fields, rhyolites, a fewancient lake basins, and some moun-tainous areas. Elevations in Oregonrange from about 4,000 feet to 6,168feet on the Mahogany Mountains. Mostof the province lies between 4,000 and5,000 feet elevation.

Palouse Province The gently slopingto rolling cultivated area lying north-

east of the Pendleton Branch Agricul-tural Experiment Station in UmatillaCounty. It is the only area in easternOregon suitable for long-term drylandfarming under an annual croppingrotation with no need to summer fallowfor additional soil moisture. Elevationsin Oregon are mainly between 1,350and 2,000 feet.

Siskiyou Province The area in south-western Oregon that is strongly influ-enced by the mild climate of northernCalifornia. It is characterized by exten-sive mountainous areas of the Klamathand Siskiyou mountains and westernfootslopes of the southern portion ofthe Cascade Mountains. Elevations inOregon range from 925 feet at GrantsPass to 7,533 feet at Mt. Ashland.

Snake River Province The Oregonportion of the huge Snake River basinthat extends across southern Idaho. It ischaracterized by extensive ancientterraces which are geologically erodedand dissected to currently appear asplateaus, basins, and low rolling andprominent hills interspersed withbasaltic mountainous terrain. Eleva-tions in Oregon range from 1,800 feetat Copperfield on the Snake River to

7,127 feet on Lookout Mountain ineastern Baker County.

The Dalles Province The lowereastern slopes and foothills along thenorth portion of the Cascade Moun-tains. It is the transition zone betweenthe hot, dry climate of eastern Oregonand the cool, moist climate of theCascade Mountains. Elevations inOregon range from about 100 feet atthe Columbia River to 5,110 feet onGreen Ridge near the Metolius River.Most of the province in Oregon liesbetween 2,000 and 4,500 feet elevation.

Willamette Province The huge valleylying between the Cascade and Coastmountain ranges in Oregon. It is char-acterized by flood plains, old valleyfill, and ancient high terraces andrelatively low residual hill lands whichinclude the foothills of both mountainranges. Elevations in Oregon rangefrom about 50 feet at the ColumbiaRiver to about 2,000 feet on mountains.Most of the province in Oregon liesbelow 1,700 feet.

4 Definitions and Abstracts

5

BlueMountain

EcologicalProvince

LocationIn Oregon, this province consti-

tutes the mountainous northeasternsegment of the state. It covers slightlyless than 6 million acres including allof Wallowa County, major segments ofUnion, Umatilla, Baker, Grant, andMorrow counties, and small segmentsof Wheeler and Gilliam counties. Theold mill town of Kinzua in northwest-ern Wheeler County is in the western-most tip of Blue Mountain Province.The province extends north into Wash-ington and east into Idaho.

DescriptionBlue Mountain Province in Oregon

is typified by groups of rugged moun-tains, steep canyons, and extensiveplateaus divided by dendritic-patterndrainages (Fig. 3). Basalt is the majorbedrock underlying mountains andplateaus, which accounts for the typicalrimrock canyons. The most ruggedmountains in the province are the EagleMountains in the area where Wallowa,Union, and Baker counties join; theElkhorn Mountains in western Bakerand northeastern Grant counties; andthe Strawberry Mountain area in centralGrant County. These mountains consistof uplifted granitic, basaltic, and vari-ous metamorphosed shales, sandstones,limestones, greenstones, and tuffs.9

The Wallowa Valley from Wallowa toJoseph and the Grand Ronde Valleyfrom Union to LaGrande and Elgin areused for irrigated agriculture and forsome dryland farming. South of PilotRock and east of Pendleton, some foot-slopes of Blue Mountains are drylandfarmed to produce mainly wheat andbarley. Most of the province is tim-bered and natural grasslands (Fig. 4).

Elevation within Blue Mountain Prov-ince in Oregon is mainly between 3,000and 5,000 feet. The lowest point is be-low 1,000 feet where Oregon, Washing-ton, and Idaho join on the Snake River;i.e., at the extreme northeast corner ofOregon and the extreme southeast cor-ner of Washington.

The highest peaks in the Eagle Moun-tains are Sacajawea Peak at 9,839 feet,Matterhorn at 9,832 feet, and AneroidPeak, Petes Peak, Twin Peaks, andPoint Joseph which are all above 9,600feet. In the Elkhorn Mountains, RockCreek Mountain is 9,106 feet, Elkhornis 8,931 feet, Twin Peaks is 8,897 feetand Mt. Ireland is 8,321 feet. In theStrawberry group, Strawberry Moun-tain is 9,038 feet, Slide Mountain is8,521 feet, Canyon Mountain is 8,007feet, Indian Creek Butte is 7,889 feet,and Pine Creek Mountain is 7,390 feet.(Elevations are from U.S. ForestService maps.)

SoilsSoils of the Blue Mountain Prov-

ince can be conveniently groupedaccording to the natural vegetationproduced: upland grasslands, uplandshrub-grasslands, meadows, forestedareas, subalpine, and alpine.

Upland soils that produce natural grass-lands (i.e., less than 10% natural shrubcover) are quite uniform in characteris-tics throughout the province. They havebeen formed primarily in silty aeoliandeposits that reportedly originated andwere blown south during the era ofreceding glaciers farther north in Wash-ington. Subsequent aeolian deposits ofvolcanic ash during eruptions, such asMazama's, influenced the parent mate-rials in which these soils were formed.

Where these soils lie on plateaus andnorth-facing slopes under climatic con-ditions associated with mountainoustopography-usually about 3,500 to4,000 feet elevation and receivingabout 15 inches or more annual preci-pitation-they generally are moderatelydeep to shallow, have very dark brownto black fairly thick silt-loam-texturesurface layers, and dark brown moder-ately fine to clayey subsoils over basaltbedrock. Grassland soils on north-facing slopes are normally deeper thanthose on plateaus. This is probably due

Blue Mountain Ecological Province

to the snow-drift effect of prevailingsoutherly winds that have redistributedaeolian deposits. Soils on south- andwest-facing slopes in canyons andmountainous terrain at these elevationshave dark brown medium-texture sur-face layers and moderately fine-texturesubsoils. They are usually extremelystony and fairly shallow over basaltbedrock.

Upland soils that produce naturalshrub-grassland vegetation (i.e., 10%or more natural shrub cover) are mainlyin two situations in Blue MountainProvince. The most common is locallycalled scabland. These soils, which areon plateaus and ridgetops, are veryshallow and very stony. They have thinloamy surface layers and clayey sub-soils and are usually less than 10 inchesdeep to basalt bedrock. Normally, theyfrost heave severely and are very sus-ceptible to sheet erosion.

The other upland soils that producenatural shrub-grassland vegetation areon very steep north-facing areas withinthe elevation range of natural grass-lands. These areas represent snowdriftpockets that receive moisture beyondthat from normal precipitation. Thenorth-facing aspect also increaseseffectiveness of the moisture received.These soils are moderately deep to verydeep and usually not stony. They havethick black silty surface layers andbrown silty to clayey subsoils. Out-crops of bedrock may exist.

Throughout the natural grasslands ofBlue Mountain Province, grasslandsoils on some plateaus and ridges com-monly occur in a unique land patternlocally called biscuit scabland. Thispattern consists of small mounds ofgrassland soils 5 to 20 feet or more indiameter and usually about 20 to 36inches deep over basalt bedrock. Eachmound, or biscuit, is surrounded byvery shallow, very stony shrub-grassland soils over basalt bedrock,which are locally called scabland.Hence the name, biscuit scabland.

The biscuits vary in shape, usuallyround but sometimes oblong. Theyoccupy from about 5 to 30% of the areain which they occur. Some spectacular

biscuits are in the vicinity of Flora innorth-central Wallowa County; they are5 feet high or more. Also in that vici-nity are biscuits on which ponderosapine grows.

For an explanation of the origin of thisparticular land pattern, see the descrip-tion of Columbia Basin EcologicalProvince in which biscuit scabland is aprominent, widespread phenomenon.

Soils on meadows vary from locality tolocality because they are formed inalluvium from adjacent watersheds andare directly related to the degree andlongevity of wetness, which variesfrom sometimes dry to always wet.

Soils along major streams usually havemedium- or loamy-texture surfacelayers and gravelly substrata. Gravellysurface layers and gravel bars are com-mon. Woody vegetation can flourish onthese kinds of meadows partly becausewater flowing through the soil profile isaerated. In contrast, meadow soils inswales and along minor meanderingwaterways usually have medium-texturesurface layers and clayey substrata.These soils seldom produce nativeshrubby species, except for certainspecies of willow, because water in thesoil is ponded and not aerated.

Some soils on mountain meadows inBlue Mountain Province have promi-nent, sometimes thick layers of volcan-ic ash in the profile that likely washedoff surrounding watersheds. These ashysoils erode like "sugar" when disturbedor exposed and form vertical, some-times deep channels which are verydifficult to rehabilitate because of theerosiveness of the ash layers.

Soils of dry meadows generally havemedium-texture surface layers andclayey subsoils. These soils occur assmall basins within the forested area, asareas around the perimeters of wetmeadows, and as shoestring bottomsalong intermittent streams. They aremoderately deep and usually not stony.

Soils in prominent valleys generally area mixture of alluvium and low-terracematerials; the mixture varies fromlocation to location within a valley. In

the vicinity of Hot Lake in GrandeRonde Valley, the soils are poorlydrained and affected by sodium; theyare known as black alkali. This isprobably the only occurrence of sodicsoils in Blue Mountain Province.

Soils of forested areas in Blue Moun-tain Province vary according to the typeof forest. Stands of ponderosa pine withan understory of bunchgrasses usuallygrow on plateaus, ridgetops, and south-facing slopes. These soils have loamysurface layers and clayey subsoils overbasalt bedrock. They are usually shal-low, stony, susceptible to erosion, and,when severely eroded, they frost heave.This forms a stone pavement on thesurface which seriously hinders naturalrevegetation and increases water lossfrom the watershed through runoff.

Several combinations of soils, mois-ture, aspect, and slope are related tomixed ponderosa pine-Douglas-firstands that have an understory of pine-grass, elk sedge, and associated species.

In areas receiving about 26 to 40inches precipitation on shallow-soilsouth exposures. These soils haveloamy surface layers and clayeysubsoils and usually are stony.

In areas receiving about 16 to 26inches precipitation on moderatelydeep to deep soils that are nearlylevel or slope slightly north or south.These soils have loamy or ashysurface layers and moderately fine toclayey subsoils. They may be stony.

On steep, north-facing slopes ofdrainages below the main forestedzone. These soils generally are mod-erately deep and stony with loamyor ashy surface layers and loamy tomoderately fine-texture subsoils.

Soils of the grand fir-Douglas-fir andthe grand fir-alpine fir forests generallyare moderately deep to very deep withthick ashy upper layers and loamy toclayey subsoils. These soils lie onmoderately steep to steep north-facingslopes and, above about 6,000 feetwhere precipitation exceeds about 40inches, the soils are on gently slopingto rolling topography. Soils of thesubalpine fir-whitebark pine and of

6 Blue Mountain Ecological Province

Table 1. Climatic Data for Blue Mountain Ecological Province, Oregon."

Station and Precipitation Average maximum and minimumlength of record Elevation Annual Nov.-March April-July temperatures (°F)

(years) (feet) (inches) (%) (%) January April-July

Baker CountyHalfway 10 2,675 20.2 63 26 31.6-8.6 75.2-39.2

Sparta 34 4,150 20.8 63 41 33.3-16.2 69.5-40.5

Grant CountyGranite 7 4,939 27.1 61 26 22.6* 48.0*

Olive Lake 5 5,937 32.8 60 27 31.5-9.2 58.1-31.7

Umatilla CountyMeacham 29 4,050 34.7 62 24 32.0-17.7 63.2-39.9

Ukiah 18 3,340 18.2 52 32 34.0-11.9 69.9-34.6

Union CountyCove 21 3,000 22.5 47 37 36.1-20.8 70.5-42.2

Elgin 10 2,666 22.3 57 26 35.8-18.9 73.4-40.2

LaGrande 21 2,786 20.1 54 31 38.0-21.8 73.3-45.0

Starkey 7 3,400 18.0 44 37 36.7-14.2 68.8-34.7

Union 22 2,765 12.9 43 40 35.8-22.4 72.0-41.6

Wallowa CountyEnterprise 20 3,700 13.3 38 42 33.0-12.5 70.2-36.5

Joseph 20 4,175 16.2 39 42 32.1-12.9 66.9-39.1

Wallowa 18 2,950 17.4 49 33 33.8-15.0 73.2-38.4

County AveragesBaker 20.5 63 34 32.5-12.4 72.4-39.9

Grant 30.0 61 27

Umatilla 26.5 57 28 33.0-14.8 66.6-37.3

Union 19.2 49 34 36.5-19.6 71.6-40.7

Wallowa 15.6 42 39 33.0-13.5 70.1-38.0

Province Average 22.4 54 32 33.8-15.1 70.2-38.0

No official weather stations in Blue Mountain Province in Gilliam, Morrow, or Wheeler counties.

* average

alpine nonforested areas generally arevery gravelly, stony, or rocky and veryshallow to moderately deep. In the BlueMountain Province they are mainly atabout 7,000 feet elevation. Essentially,these soils are primarily raw materialsfrom the wide variety of parentmaterials forming the mountains.

annual total. Average January maxi-mum and minimum temperatures are33.8 and 15.1°F, respectively. AverageApril through July maximum and mini-mum temperatures are 70.2 and 38°F,respectively. Precipitation and tempera-ture data vary by locality (Table 1).

VegetationAccording to the 1936 State of

Oregon Forest Type Map,54 which pre-dates extensive logging, about a thirdof all Blue Mountain Province at thattime was primarily natural grasslands;about two-thirds was forested.

ClimateBased on data from 14 official

weather stations, representing a cross-section of the province, average annualprecipitation for the province is about22.4 inches. About 32% of annual pre-cipitation falls during April throughJuly, the herbaceous native-plantgrowing season. November throughMarch precipitation is about 54% of the

A recent precipitation map53 showsabout 115 inches annual precipitation inthe Eagle Mountains south of Enter-prise, over 45 inches in the ElkhornMountains west of Baker City, and over35 inches in the Strawberry Mountaingroup southeast of John Day.

The most and part of Blue MountainProvince is the lower reaches of the Im-naha and Snake River canyons; it alsois the lowest elevation in the province.

Natural grasslands (i.e., less than 10%natural shrub cover) are sporadicthroughout lower elevations of the BlueMountain Province. They range in sizefrom small openings and long narrowridgetops in forested areas to extensiveopen grasslands. They extend along theentire northern province boundary fromnear Pilot Rock west to near Kinzua; inthe vicinity of Ukiah, Starkey, La-Grande, and Elgin; and in central andnorthern Wallowa County from

Blue Mountain Ecological Province 7

Wallowa-Enterprise-Joseph east andnorth past Findley Buttes and Zumwalt,including the breaks of the Snake,Imnaha, and Grande Ronde canyons.

The grasslands near Findley Buttes arethe highest native-forage-producingupland sites in eastern Oregon when invigorous, high-ecological status. Theyprobably are a model of what has beencalled the Palouse Prairie (Fig. 5).

Essentially the same combination ofplant communities and soil series oc-curs throughout these widely separatedgrasslands, due to the provincewideuniformity of soil parent materials andclimatic conditions under which thesesoils and plant communities formed.

On these natural grassland ecologicalsites, basic perennial grasses are Idahofescue, bluebunch wheatgrass, Sand-berg bluegrass, an d prairie junegrass.Big bluegrass, pinegrass, elk sedge, andtimothy grow on more moist uplandsites. Dry meadows have a wide varietyof species including Idaho fescue, sodbluegrasses, slender wheatgrass, thinbentgrass, California oatgrass, Colum-bia needlegrass, and threadleaf sedge.Wet meadows are typified by tuftedhairgrass, redtop, slender wheatgrass,sod bluegrasses, baltic rush, Nebraskasedge, and red fescue.

Uniquely, in the lower reaches of theSnake and Imnaha canyons, the mostand portion of this province, there aresmall areas containing Fendler three-awn. This is probably the only locationin Oregon where it grows. Its majorrange is in the Great Plains. Oldtimerlocal ranchers called it "democrat"grass and claimed it did not show upuntil Franklin D. Roosevelt and theDemocrats came into political power inthe 1930s. Peck's 1961 manual ofhigher plants of Oregon23 cites it asbeing in these canyons.

It is possible that ranchers, havingwintered livestock in the canyons foryears, first noticed this grass when thesevere drought of the 1930s diminishedother forage species; coupled withintense winter grazing, this made thepreviously unnoticed threeawn appearprominent because it is apparently

unpalatable when mature. How the spe-cies got there in the first place could bethe basis for a campfire storytellingsession: Nez Perce Indians returningfrom buffalo hunts in Montana? Wasexplorer Fremont's expedition once lostin the Imnaha canyon?

Blue Mountain Province natural grass-land sites are characterized by an abun-dance and wide variety of perennialforb species which make up 10 to 15%of natural plant communities on mostsites. Several low shrubs, such as lowOregon-grape, wax currant, rose, com-mon snowberry, green and gray rabbit-brushes, and herbaceous sage com-monly grow in trace amounts in thesenatural grasslands.

One distinctive feature of Blue Moun-tain Province is the overall scarcity ofbig sagebrush and other tall shrubs thatdominate much rangeland in Oregon.Even on grasslands in deteriorated eco-logical status, shrubs do not becomeprominent in Blue Mountain Province.Rather, deteriorated grasslands arecharacterized by a dominance of peren-nial forbs, such as yarrow, lupine, gum-weed, and biscuitroot and annual forbsand grasses. However, at least fourspecies of the genus Artemisia grow inthe province: big and stiff sagebrushes,tarragon, and lobed wormwood.

Along the line of demarcation betweenBlue Mountain and John Day prov-inces, both big sagebrush and westernjuniper, strongly characteristic of JohnDay Province, grow within the band orarea where the two provinces join. Thisband of integrated vegetation is likelynatural. However, it is also likely thatcharacteristic John Day Province vege-tation such as sagebrush and juniper hasexpanded into Blue Mountain Provincedue to severe grazing and timber har-vesting which degraded the vigor oforiginal Blue Mountain plant communi-ties, thereby allowing encroachment ofJohn Day woody species.

Expansion of Blue Mountain vegetationsouth into John Day Province is unlikelybecause the climate becomes abruptlymore and on the John Day side of theline. Ecological invasion more often isfrom and to more moist situations.

Three major kinds of natural shrub-grassland (i.e., 10% or more naturalshrub cover) are in Blue MountainProvince. The most common is the sitelocally called scabland. Vegetation onthis very shallow, very stony site isdominated by Sandberg bluegrass.Bluebunch wheatgrass, Idaho fescue,and a few other perennial grass speciesoccur sparsely between the surfacestones. Perennial forbs, such as Hookerbalsamroot, biscuitroot, bighead clover,bitterroot, onion, and snow buckwheatare prominent. Stiff sagebrush is thedominant shrub; however, an occasionalrose or common snowberry may grow.

An entirely different kind of naturalshrub-grassland occurs on very steepnorth-facing areas within the elevationrange of natural grasslands. These areasrepresent snowdrift pockets whichreceive moisture beyond normal preci-pitation. Vegetation is dominated byshrubs such as common snowberry,rose, chokecherry, hawthorn, mock-orange, and ninebark. An occasionalponderosa pine or Douglas-fir may beseen. The understory is dominated byIdaho fescue along with such grasses astimothy, oniongrass, Kentucky blue-grass, Columbia needlegrass, pinegrass,mountain brome, bluebunch wheat-grass, and many perennial forb species.

Bottomlands along major streams,where soils are usually gravelly,produce woody vegetation along withmeadow vegetation. Water flowingthrough the gravelly soils is aerated,and woody species such as cotton-woods, some willow species, alder,birch, and ponderosa pine are capableof flourishing in spite of seasonal orperiodic high-water tables or overflow.

The understory vegetation varieswidely according to the frequency andduration of soil water; the plantcommunities range from dry meadowto wet meadow species, usuallyoccurring in patches.

Coniferous forest occupies most ofBlue Mountain Province. These forestsrepresent five generalized plantcommunities (with transition fromwarm to cool to cold forest), each withmanagement implications.


Table 2. Average Dates Vegetation Growth Begins and Endsin Blue Mountain Ecological Province, Oregon.

Station andlength of record Elevation Average date Average date

(years) (feet) growth begins* growth ends*

Baker CountyHalfway 10 2,675 March 24 August 21Sparta 34 4,150 April 1 September 12

Grant CountyGranite 7 4,939 April 26 Does not occurOlive Lake 5 5,937 May 7 Does not occur

Umatilla CountyMeacham 29 4,050 April? Does not occurUkiah 18 3,340 April 1 August 17

Union CountyCove 21 3,000 March 27 September 21Elgin 10 2,666 March 15 August 18LaGrande 21 2,786 March 15 August 13Starkey 7 3,400 April 1 August 15Union 22 2,765 March 15 July 2

Wallowa CountyEnterprise 20 3,700 April 1 July 10Joseph 20 4,175 April 4 July 31Wallowa 18 2,950 March 24 August 4

No official weather stations in Gilliam, Morrow, or Wheeler counties in BlueMountain Province, Oregon.

* The average date vegetation growth begins on native perennial bunchgrasses isapproximately the date the average daily temperatures reach 39 to 40°F. Average datevegetation growth ends is considered to be when available soil moisture is depleted.Interpretations are based on data in Johnsgard.17

1. Ponderosa pine with understorydominated by Idaho fescue, blue-bunch wheatgrass, many forbspecies, and shrub species with pinereproduction. A warm forest.

2. Ponderosa pine with understorydominated by pinegrass, elk sedge,Idaho fescue, bluebunch wheatgrass,many forb species, and many shrubspecies with pine reproduction.

3. Mixed ponderosa pine, Douglas-fir,some grand fir, and some larch withan understory consisting of pine-grass, elk sedge, Idaho fescue, othershade-tolerant grass and forb species,and many shrub species with pineand Douglas-fir reproduction. A coolforest (Fig. 6).

4. Mixed grand fir, Douglas-fir, larch,lodgepole pine, and Engelmannspruce with sparse understory ofshade-tolerant grass and forb speciesmainly in openings, shade-tolerant

shrubs, and much grand fir andDouglas-fir reproduction.

5. Subalpine fir, larch, lodgepole pine,and Engelmann spruce with a sparseunderstory of shade-tolerant forbsand shrubs. A cold forest.

Subalpine areas contain a variety ofplant communities that include speciessuch as whitebark pine; subalpine fir;elk, Ross, and Hood sedges; green andIdaho fescues; yarrow; fleeceflower;and mountain big sagebrush. These arenot coniferous forests. Rather, they arepatchy patterns of various plant com-munities (Fig. 7).

The different kinds of soil that helpdifferentiate Blue Mountain Provincefrom John Day Province are supportedby significant differences in the site-specific plant communities. For ex-ample, the ponderosa pine-bunchgrassecological site is in both provinces and,based on casual observation, the sites

resemble each other: pine trees, shrubs,grasses, and forbs. However, numeroussamples of this ecological site in bothprovinces reveal significant differencesin the species that constitute the plantcommunity of the site.

In Blue Mountain Province, the follow-ing species regularly grow but arerarely, if ever, found on this site in JohnDay Province: Kentucky bluegrass,onespike oatgrass, threadleaf sedge,huckleberry, mockorange, and herba-ceous sage. On the other hand, thefollowing species regularly grow onthis site in John Day Province but arerarely, if ever, found on this site in BlueMountain Province: Wheeler bluegrass,Ross sedge, Thurber needlegrass,mountain snowberry, green rabbitbrush,curlleaf mountain-mahogany, big sage-brush, and western juniper. Obviously,these differences are not readilyapparent within the belt of demarcationbetween provinces but are apparent inprovincewide data.

Even greater differences occur on theponderosa pine-sedge ecological site ineach of the provinces. The followingspecies regularly grow in Blue Moun-tain Province but rarely, if ever, arefound on this site in John Day Prov-ince: slender wheatgrass, timber oat-grass, western fescue, Columbianeedlegrass, threadleaf sedge, bluewildrye, slender hairgrass, deerbrush,elderberry, spirea, ninebark, huckle-berry, serviceberry, syringa, dogbane,chokecherry, bitter cherry, oceanspray,bearberry, and herbaceous sage.

The following species regularly growon this site in John Day Province butrarely, if ever, on this site in BlueMountain Province: basin wildrye,Wheeler bluegrass, mountain snow-berry, curlleaf mountain-mahogany,green rabbitbrush, big sagebrush, andwestern juniper.

Generally, forested-site plant communi-ties in Blue Mountain Province includemore species than those in John DayProvince. This is especially noticeablein the shrub component. The reasonmight be related to the soils and climateof Blue Mountain Province comparedto those of John Day Province.


A study of the geographic distributionof major plant species within Oregon,based on their occurrence withinspecific ecological provinces and onspecific ecological sites, would be aworthwhile contribution to cominggenerations of resource scientists andmanagers who are increasingly requiredto set goals and objectives for variousecological situations.

Management ImplicationsBlue Mountain Province includes

irrigated agriculture mainly in thevicinity of LaGrande, Elgin, and Enter-prise which produces specialized crops,such as seed potatoes, turfgrass seed,grains, and animal forages. There is alittle dryland farming for grain, andsome irrigated areas, between PilotRock and Cayuse on the Umatilla River.Some previously dryfarmed areas wereput into perennial cover under the Con-servation Reserve Program of the 1980s.

Most grasslands in Blue MountainProvince are privately owned, butgrazing on much of these lands isclosely interrelated with grazing onpublic lands. Public forested landsprovide a high proportion of summergrazing for livestock, elk, and deer, andprovide summer habitat for much of theprovince's wild mammals. In contrast,winter ranges for livestock and mostwildlife are lower elevation privatelands or BLM public lands.

The ashy Tolo soil series is probablythe most productive forest soil in east-ern Oregon, and the Waha and Wahalaseries are probably the most productiveupland range soils in eastern Oregon.

A very large part of the province israngeland and forested. A high propor-tion of forested land is publicly ownedand managed under the Wallowa-Whitman, Umatilla, and Malheurnational forests. A small proportion ofBLM-administered public land liesalong the eastern fringe of the province.

The North Fork John Day Wilderness,Hells Canyon National RecreationArea, Hells Canyon Wilderness, EagleCap Wilderness, Strawberry MountainWilderness, most of Monument Rock

Wilderness, and most of the UmatillaIndian Reservation are in Blue Moun-tain Province. Collectively, this is ahuge set-aside area requiring stringentintegrated resource management.

Blue Mountain Province essentially isthe entire source of water upon whichall life in northeast Oregon-andfarther-depends. It holds a myriad ofsubwatersheds that capture, store, andrelease water into numerous drainages.This fact must be given prime consider-ation in all management strategies,small or large.

Resource issues, problems, opportuni-ties, and options usually involve multi-ple ownerships, resources, and resourceuses within Blue Mountain Province aswell as in adjacent provinces. Theresult of what happens in Blue Moun-tain watersheds is far-reaching.

Province Demarcation

Blue Mountain-Snake RiverDemarcation

The line of demarcation betweenBlue Mountain and Snake River prov-inces begins in the Snake River canyonat Copperfield on the Oxbow whereSnake River exits the Snake RiverProvince and enters the Blue MountainProvince in the upper Hells Canyon.From that point, the line runs southwestup the ridge between Pine Creek andSnake River. All drainage into PineValley and Pine Creek is considered tobe in Blue Mountain Province; how-ever, the nearby deep Snake River can-yon makes this line a matter of judg-ment based mainly on native plantcommunities and soils. From the divideon Highway 86 between Eagle Valleyand Pine Valley, the line runs westerlyat about 4,000 feet elevation along theupper edge of the ancient terraces southof Sparta, in Blue Mountain Province.

The line crosses into Union County eastof Pondosa at about 4,000 feet eleva-tion and continues northwesterlythrough Telocaset and around the northand west edges of North Powder Valley,then south at about 4,000 feet elevationto just west of Baker City. The ancientlake terraces, which typify the Snake

River Province, are fairly apparentaround the north and west sides ofNorth Powder Valley where they buttinto the basaltic mountainous uplandsto the west, which typify Blue Moun-tain Province. West of Baker City is anapparent geological uplift that abruptlyelevates the line between terraces andmountainous uplands to about 5,000feet elevation.

The demarcation line continues southfrom that point west of Baker City atabout 5,000 feet elevation and thenwest along the north side of SumpterValley to Sumpter and south along thewest side of Sumpter Valley. Sumpter isat the edge of Snake River Province.

From Sumpter Valley, the line contin-ues southwest at about 5,000 feet eleva-tion around the north side of WhitneyValley in upper North Fork Burnt River.About 5 miles northwest of Whitney onCamp Creek, the line of demarcationabruptly drops back to about 4,000 feetelevation where it continues around thewest side of Whitney Valley and southalong the North Fork, up the MiddleFork, then south and up the South ForkBurnt River southwest of Unity.

Some segments of the line describedabove have stands of coniferous trees,mainly ponderosa pine, on both sides,i.e., in both provinces. However, theconifer stands in Snake River Provinceare growing on deep soils related toancient Snake River terraces; tree standsin Blue Mountain Province are growingon primarily aeolian soils overlyingbasalt formations which typifies theBlue Mountain Province. Based solelyon the presence of pines, this line ofdemarcation may seem insignificant.However, differences in growth indicesof pine might prove significant andshould be compared. Based on the totalplant community-understory vegeta-tion and associated trees-this majorsoils line is definitely significant froman ecological standpoint.

In the head of South Fork Burnt Riverabout 8 miles southwest of Unity atabout 4,500 feet elevation, the line ofdemarcation between Blue Mountainand Snake River provinces continues

(continued on page 12)


Table 3. Major Ecological Sites in Blue Mountain Ecological Province, Oregon.

Upland site types Bottomland site typesClimax type & characteristic vegetation & characteristic vegetation

Natural grassland Droughty rolling hills Moist bottom(less than 10% Bluebunch wheatgrass, Idaho fescue, Sandberg Basin wildryecanopy cover bluegrass Dry meadowof shrubs) Rolling hills a Idaho fescue, sod bluegrasses

Idaho fescue, bluebunch wheatgrass, Sandberg Wet meadowbluegrass Tufted hairgrass, redtop, sod bluegrasses

Moist rolling hills

Idaho fescue/low shrubsDroughty south exposure

Bluebunch wheatgrass, Sandberg bluegrass, Idahofescue

Steep south exposureBluebunch wheatgrass, Sandberg bluegrass, Idahofescue

Droughty north exposureBluebunch wheatgrass, Idaho fescue, Sandbergbluegrass

North exposureIdaho fescue, bluebunch wheatgrass, Sandbergbluegrass

Steep north exposureIdaho fescue, bluebunch wheatgrass/low shrubs

Alpine grasslandbGreen fescue, Idaho fescue, needlegrass, elk sedge

Shrub-grassland(10% or morecanopy coverof shrubs)

Mixed coniferous-deciduous tree(5% or more canopycover of trees)

Coniferous tree(5% or morecanopy coverof trees)

Scabland a

Sandberg bluegrass, bluebunch wheatgrass/stiffsagebrush

Clayey terrace

Idaho fescue/stiff sagebrushShrubby north exposure

Tall shrubs/Idaho fescue/forbsAlpine sagebrushb

Mountain big sagebrush/elk sedge

Well-drained bottomDry-wet meadows/shrubs/aspen,cottonwood, ponderosa pine

Pine-bunchgrassPonderosa pine/Idaho fescue, bluebunchwheatgrass

Pine-pinegrassPonderosa pine/pinegrass, Idaho fescue

Lodgepole pine-pinegrassLodgepole pine/pinegrass, elk sedge

Pine-Douglas-fir-pinegrassPonderosa pine, Douglas-fir/pinegrass, elk sedge

Douglas-fir-ponderosa pine forestDouglas-fir, ponderosa pine/shade plants

Grand fir-Douglas-fir forestGrand fir, Douglas-fir/twinflower, shade plants

Subalpine fir forestSubalpine fir, larch, spruce/shade plants

Alpine open woodlandbSubalpine fir, whitebark pine/shrubs/sedge

a Biscuit scabland is a mapping unit that is a complex of two ecological sites, rolling hills (the biscuits) and scabland, in which the

biscuits occupy about 5% or more of the area in the unit. If biscuits occupy less than 5%, the unit should be mapped as scabland.

b Alpine was not studied sufficiently to identify specific ecological sites.

Blue Mountain Ecological Province >

south and rises up to the vicinity ofTable Rock at 7,873 feet elevation. Thisappears to be caused by a huge geo-logic uplift, the eastern edge of whichappears to be the Table Rock-BullrunRock-Lone Rock escarpment of theuplifted plateau. The very rough coun-try to the east of this uplift lies in SnakeRiver Province. Southwest of LoneRock, the line of demarcation returns toabout 5,000 feet elevation where itstays as it continues south and aroundthe upper North Fork Malheur River.

Near where Crane Creek joins NorthFork Malheur River, the Blue MountainProvince line goes west and around thesouth side of Crane Prairie at about5,000 feet elevation. It is near the junc-tion of Crane Creek and North ForkMalheur River that the Blue Mountain,Snake River, and John Day provincesjoin.

Blue Mountain-John DayDemarcation

From this junction, the line of de-marcation between Blue Mountain andJohn Day provinces continues north-westerly from south of Crane Prairie insoutheastern Grant County at about5,500 feet elevation, which places itbetween Summit Prairie, in BlueMountain Province, and Logan Valleywhich is in John Day Province.

The line follows the rims southwest ofHigh Lake around the south slopes ofStrawberry Mountain, Indian CreekButte, and Pine Creek Mountain atabout 5,500 feet elevation, and thenwest and north along the western slopesof Canyon Mountain. Along the north-facing slopes of Canyon Mountain,Baldy Mountain, and Strawberry Moun-tain (all in Blue Mountain Province),the line falls at about 4,500 to 5,000feet or lower, based on the elevation atwhich volcanic ash is prominent insoils on these north-facing slopes. Thevolcanic ash soils typify Blue MountainProvince.

The line crosses the Middle Fork JohnDay River about 6 miles upstream fromBates, at about 4,500 feet elevation.Bates is in John Day Province as is theentire downstream reach of the Middle

Fork. It is at this point above Bates thatthe Blue Mountain Province is onlyabout 5 miles wide, from John DayProvince on the west to Snake RiverProvince on the east. This narrow areaof Blue Mountain Province straddlesthe divide between Middle Fork JohnDay River and the West Fork andMiddle Fork Burnt River.

The demarcation line runs northwest-erly from Bates at about 4,500 feetelevation in the upper slopes of MiddleFork John Day River drainage. The oldmining town of Susanville is in JohnDay Province.

From Susanville, the line continuesnorth at about 4,500 feet elevation,about the level at which truncated orexposed tuffaceous deposits form steepslopes or escarpments. These tuffa-ceous deposits and underlying clayeymaterials typify the John Day Province.

From just west of Putney Mountain, inBlue Mountain Province, the line con-tinues west and crosses Highway 395near Meadow Brook Summit south ofDale at about 4,000 feet elevation.From there the line meanders generallynorthwest at about 4,000 feet elevationthen pitches abruptly down a ridgetopto cross the North Fork John Day Riverat the first oxbow that changes theriver's flow from west to south, about18 miles downriver from Dale Bridge.

From west of Putney Mountain to thepoint where the line of demarcationcrosses the North Fork John Day River,all watersheds draining north into theNorth Fork are in Blue Mountain Prov-ince. These include Desolation Creek,Meadow Brook Creek, and the steepnorth-facing timbered slopes along theNorth Fork.

Soils in these watersheds are medium-texture. Usually they have ashy surfacelayers formed by aeolian deposits ofvolcanic ash that accumulated on thenorth-facing slopes like snowdrifts.Underlying materials are generallybasaltic. Ashy surface soils and basalticunderlying materials typify much of theBlue Mountain Province, especially intimbered areas, and the timber existsbecause of these soils, not vice versa.

From the oxbow of the North ForkJohn Day River where the line ofdemarcation crosses, the line followsthe river east upstream to about a halfmile west of the confluence ofDeerhorn Creek with North Fork.

At this point, the line rises north out ofthe John Day canyon along the ridgewest of Deerhorn Creek to about 4,000to 4,500 feet elevation. From there itmeanders westerly in and out of tribu-tary canyons as it follows the majorupper-level rimrocks at the south edgeof the plateau. Plateau areas north ofthis line are in Blue Mountain Prov-ince; the canyon slopes of North Forkand tributaries below about 4,000 feetelevation are in John Day Province.

Placing the line of demarcation up theridge west of Deerhorn Creek was ajudgment call. It was deemed that theDeerhorn and Camas creeks' drainagesresemble the upstream Blue MountainProvince soils and vegetation morethan they do the downstream John DayProvince soils and vegetation.

Buckaroo Flat, Thompson Flat, PotatoHill, Grassy Butte, and other suchplateau points above about 4,000 feetelevation that jut out into the John DayRiver drainage are in Blue MountainProvince.

There is evidence that this junctionactually may be a belt, rather than aline, which is common where ecologi-cal provinces or ecological sites join.For example, at Thompson Flat at thesouth end of Potamus Ridge is an areaof biscuit scabland (patterned ground)in which the soil of a biscuit was 0 to 6inches silt loam, 6 to 10 inches siltyclay loam (these are typical surface soiltextures in Blue Mountain Province),10 to 20 inches silty clay, and 20 to 30inches or more clay (these are typicalsubsoil characteristics in John DayProvince). In this biscuit scabland site,the interspersed scabland soil is veryshallow and very stony with abundantsurface basaltic stones, which is typicalfor scabland in both Blue Mountain andJohn Day provinces.

Geologists have reported that the BlueMountains of Oregon were at one time


the north shore of an ancient sea. If so,clay deposits such as at Thompson Flat,at about 4,000 feet elevation, are likelyassociated with ancient lake terraces.

It is interesting to note, as supportingevidence, that the ancient lakeshoreterraces signifying where Snake RiverProvince joins Blue Mountain Provincein Baker County are very visible at4,000 feet elevation near Keating andRichland. The continuity of the 4,000feet elevation level, coupled with evi-dence of ancient lakebed terraces,obviously has great significance froman ecological province perspective.

Kinzua is in westernmost Blue Moun-tain Province. South and west ofKinzua the line of demarcation betweenBlue Mountain and John Day provincesis about 4,000 feet elevation.

This area has a mixture of forested soilsthat typify the Blue Mountain Provinceand other forested soils that typify JohnDay Province. This pattern of soilscreates a belt of demarcation 2 to 3miles wide. Consequently, a mappedline, such as the 4,000 feet elevation, isjudgmental yet consistent with the lineof demarcation southeast of Kinzua.The major difference in these soils isthat those typifying Blue MountainProvince have medium- or moderatelyfine-texture profiles and are usuallyatop basalt bedrock; soils typifyingJohn Day Province have clayey or claysubsoils and are atop ancient fine-texture sediments or tuffaceousdeposits.

Blue Mountain-Columbia BasinDemarcation

About 4 miles northwest ofKinzua, the Blue Mountain, John Dayand Columbia Basin provinces joinnear the old Hoover School at about4,000 feet elevation. From that pointnorth and east, the line of demarcationis between Blue Mountain and Colum-bia Basin provinces at about 3,500 feetelevation, within natural grasslands.About 22,000 acres in the Lonerockvicinity of southeastern Gilliam Countylie in Blue Mountain Province. Withinthis segment of Blue Mountain Prov-ince is an island of John Day Province

which surrounds Lonerock and coversabout 7,500 acres in Gilliam County.

The line of demarcation between BlueMountain and Columbia Basin prov-inces in southeastern Gilliam andsouthwestern Morrow counties is about3,500 feet elevation. This elevationapproximates major soil lines that arethe basis for differentiating betweenBlue Mountain and Columbia Basinprovinces .71,11

On the Columbia Basin (north) side ofthis line, the major soil series are pre-dominantly Condon, Morrow, andLickskillet which have thin gray-brownto brown silt loam surface layers andbrown silt loam or silty clay loamsubsoils over basalt bedrock.

On the Blue Mountain (south) side ofthis line, the major soil series includeWaha, Wahala, and Gwin, which havethick, very dark brown to black siltloam or silty clay loam surface layersand dark brown silty clay loam or claysubsoils over basalt bedrock. Obvi-ously, these soil differences are notabrupt in the landscape but occur in arelatively narrow belt.

The significance of these major soildifferences, from an ecological prov-ince perspective, is that the Blue Moun-tain Province soils with their darkercolor, thicker surface layers, and finertexture reflect, among other things,more precipitation and a colder climatethan in the Columbia Basin. As a result,grasslands in Columbia Basin Province(with its more and climate) are domi-nated by bluebunch wheatgrass withsome Idaho fescue in the stand; on theBlue Mountain side of the line, Idahofescue strongly dominates the composi-tion with some bluebunch wheatgrassin the stand. There are several othersignificant differences between thesetwo generalized plant communities.

Note that the line of demarcationbetween Blue Mountain and ColumbiaBasin provinces lies along the north-and northwest-facing foothill slopes ofthe Blue Mountains. This northerlyaspect likely is another ecologicalfactor that helps explain soil and plantdifferences on the line of demarcation

because of associated storm patterns,cooler temperatures, and snowpack.

The demarcation line crosses fromsoutheastern Gilliam County to south-ern Morrow County about 3 miles northof Lonerock at about 3,500 feet ele-vation. It crosses Highway 207 about1 mile south of Hardman and meandersnortheast to just south of Lena on theSouth Fork Butter Creek, where theHughes cattle ranch is headquartered.

From the top of Franklin Hill, it runseast across North Fork Butter Creekand crosses Highway 395 about 8 milessouth of Nye Junction. From this point,the line continues northeast alongOwens Creek and lower Birch Creekand declines to about 2,000 feet eleva-tion south of Pilot Rock. From there,the line goes northeast at about 2,000feet elevation along the footslopes ofupland foothills to Cayuse on theUmatilla River, at about 1,500 feetelevation .71,11

Blue Mountain -PalouseDemarcation

Just on top of the hill north ofCayuse, the Blue Mountain, ColumbiaBasin, and Palouse provinces join.From that point, the line of demarcationbetween Blue Mountain and Palouseprovinces runs northwest to Weston atabout 2,000 feet elevation. It continuesaround the east side of the valley atMilton-Freewater and north intoWashington at about 2,000 feet eleva-tion. The latter part of this line is basedon the soil line separating Athena siltloam and the high-rainfall phase ofWalla Walla silt loam soil series, whichtypify the Palouse Province in Oregon,from the stony foothill soils of BlueMountain Province.75


CascadeEcological

Province

LocationCascade Ecological Province of

Oregon encompasses high elevations ofthe Cascade Mountains from ColumbiaRiver Gorge south to within about 10miles of the California state line insouthwestern Klamath County. It in-cludes the cooler, more moist moun-tains west of the hot, dry eastern Ore-gon area, north of the hot, dry KlamathFalls-Ashland-Medford area, and eastof the warm Willamette Valley. Cas-cade Province is typified by Douglas-fir-true fir-hemlock forests (Fig. 8).Western hemlock is the key ecologicalindicator species distinguishingCascade Province.

The province covers about 3.7 millionacres in Hood River, Multnomah,Clackamas, Wasco, Jefferson, Marion,Lane, Linn, Douglas, Jackson and Kla-math counties. It is physically separatedfrom the Cascade Mountains in Wash-ington by the Columbia River Gorge,which is in Willamette Province. Theentire Cascade Province is in Oregon.

DescriptionCascade Province is characterized

by mountainous terrain related to theCascade Mountain range in Oregon andby steep dendritic drainage patternswhich are primarily associated with theWillamette River system. Lower

elevations in the province are along thewestern boundary at about 1,200 feetelevation on north-facing slopes ofstreams draining west from the CascadeRange in Multnomah, Clackamas,Marion, Linn, and Lane counties.Along the eastern border of the prov-ince, lower elevations vary from about2,000 feet west of Hood River Valley inHood River County to about 4,000 feetin western Wasco County. Southward,near the California border, the lowerelevations of Cascade Province areabout 5,500 feet.

The highest elevation within CascadeProvince is Mt. Hood at 11,245 feet.Other high points within the provinceare Mt. Jefferson, 10,405 feet; Mt. Mc-Loughlin, 9,497 feet; Pelican Butte,8,025 feet; Brown Mountain, 7,990feet; and Klamath Point, 7,510 feet.The high country within the province isgenerally between 5,000 and 6,000 feetelevation (Fig. 9). Other spectacularpeaks in the Cascade Mountains lie inMazama Province. (Elevations are fromUSGS 1:250,000 topographic maps.)

Numerous field observations are thatthe advent of western hemlock in theforest composition is a reliable andwidespread ecological indicator of thepoint at which a very significantecological change occurs in soils,vegetation, and management implica-

tions when transecting from arid, warmforest to moist, cold forest. Changes inother species-woody and herbaceous-are concurrent with the advent ofwestern hemlock. Western hemlock in aforest apparently is an indicator of aneffective environment with 60 inches ormore of precipitation annually as wellas significantly cooler local climaticconditions .41, 46

When transecting from the arid, warmforest of The Dalles Province west intothe moist, cool forest of Cascade Prov-ince, the advent of western hemlock inthe plant community apparently signalsthe zone of more moisture and coolertemperatures, which also is indicatedby the Divers, Hutson, and Thader soilseries in Hood River County.

Consequently, western hemlock waschosen as the key indicator species dif-ferentiating Cascade Province fromcontinguous provinces in Oregon be-cause, first, it is widespread at higherelevations on both east and west slopesof the Cascade Mountains; and, second,a tree is a reliable indicator of averageclimatic conditions over long cycles.

SoilsThe geomorphology of soils

typifying Cascade Province shows avariety of parent materials associated

14 Cascade Ecological Province

with the geology of the CascadeMountains. Primary parent materialsinclude residuum and colluvium frombasalt, andesite, tuffs, breccias, and ashrelated to the volcanic activity andweathering during formation of thecurrent mountain range.

Cascade Province extends about 250miles, north to south, in Oregon. Con-sequently, the province includes a verywide cross-section of climatic andgeologic situations which results innumerous soil series (Table 4).

ClimateBased on two official weather sta-

tions at upper elevations in CascadeProvince, average annual precipitationis about 84.5 inches, of which about21% occurs during the herbaceous-plant growing season, April throughJuly. October through March ("winter")precipitation is about 70% of the annualtotal. Average January maximum andminimum temperatures are 38.1 and21.6°F, respectively. Average Aprilthrough July growing season maximum

and minimum temperatures are 58 and37.3°F, respectively.

Based on four official weather stationsrepresenting the lower western bound-ary of the province, average annualprecipitation is about 72.5 inches, ofwhich about 19% occurs during theherbaceous-plant growing season, Aprilthrough July. October through Marchprecipitation is about 77% of the total.Average January maximum and mini-mum temperatures are 40.9 and 28.1 °F,respectively. Average April throughJuly growing season maximum andminimum temperatures are 67.8 and42.9°F, respectively.

A recent precipitation map53 showsabout 60 inches or more average annualprecipitation along the east boundary ofCascade Province. Along the westboundary, average annual precipitationis about 70 inches or more.

However, where the province extendswest on north-facing exposures alongmajor drainages,°the average annualprecipitation in the general area is less

Table 4. Distribution of Prominent Soil Seriesin Cascade Ecological Province, Oregon.

Oregon counties

Representativesoil series

AschoffBohannon

Bull RunCoyata

DiversDumont

HenlineHolderman

HowardHutson

JojoKeel

KinneyKlickitatMackatieMcCully

Pinhead

ReineckeThader

U)coECU

0

oco

°'0

o2

C:0

-0u

:IFro

ECZcCU

cc0

NE

C00

xx x

X

xx x

x

xx x

x xx x

xx x

xx

xx

x x

x x

X

x x

x

xx

x

xx

than 70 inches. Nevertheless, the effectof north-facing cool exposures in-creases the effectiveness of the actualprecipitation to the equivalent of 70inches or more. This map also showsnearly 200 inches average annualprecipitation on Mt. Hood and nearly150 inches on Mt. Jefferson.


Oregon Forest Type Map,54 the onlysizable nonforested areas in CascadeProvince were areas above timberlineon Mt. Hood and Mt. Jefferson and afew scattered burns which were lessthan 10% restocked. Otherwise, theprovince was forested except for somesmall mountain meadows, bogs, andbands of natural shrublands in timberedareas and sporadically where deep,longlasting snowpacks form.

Soil and plant studies of specific eco-logical sites within Cascade Provinceare not available if, indeed, such studieshave been made. However, generalobservations indicate that above 3,500to 4,000 feet elevation, noble andshasta fir and mountain hemlock areprominent trees; lodgepole pine iscommon on flats and in concave areas.Beargrass, rhododendron, red huckle-berry, trailing blackberry, salal, swordfern, Cascade Oregon-grape, and bushchinkapin are common in the forestunderstory and diminish in abundanceabove about 5,000 feet elevation.

Below about 3,500 to 4,000 feet,Douglas-fir, white and grand fir, andwestern hemlock are prominent trees,occasionally with white pine in thenorthern portion or sugar pine in thesouthern portion and, at lower eleva-tions, bigleaf maple. The understory isfairly abundant at these elevations andincludes vine maple, bush chinkapin,snowbrush, grayleaf manzanita,Cascade Oregon-grape, bracken fern,and blue huckleberry.

Mountain meadows and bogs aretypified by species such as Crater Lakesedge, black alpine sedge, Drummondrush, alpine aster, and tall trisetum.Subalpine zones include such speciesas subalpine fir, Engelmann spruce, and

Cascade Ecological Province 15

Table 5. Climatic Data for Cascade Ecological Province, Oregon."

Station and Precipitation Average maximum and minimumlength of record Elevation Annual Oct.-March April-July temperatures (°F)


High CountryClackamas County

Government Camp 29 3,580 85.1 72 19 37.4-22.9 56.8-36.5

Douglas CountyMusick 6 5,530 84.8 69 23 38.8-23.3 59.3-38.0

High Country Average 84.5 70 21 38.1-21.6 58.0-37.3

Low Western BoundaryClackamas County

Sundown Ranch 21 2,400 74.6 76 19 41.7-30.0 62.1-42.5Three Lynx 22 1,135 67.7 77 18 41.6-29.7 69.8-45.1Zig Zag 11 1,435 73.3 74 20 39.6-27.5 68.0-43.2

Marion CountyDetroit 15 1,400 74.2 79 17 40.7-25.3 71.2-40.8

Low WesternBoundary Average 72.5 77 19 40.9-28.1 67.8-42.9

No official weather stations in Cascade Province in Hood River, Jackson, Jefferson, Klamath, Lane, Linn, Multnomah, orWasco counties.

whitebark pine. Bands of shrubs aroundtimbered slopes include huckleberry,heather, and a wide variety of forbs.

Management ImplicationsMuch of Cascade Province consists

of steep mountainous watersheds re-lated to the dendritic pattern of upperdrainages, primarily into the WillametteRiver system. Because of the steepslopes and fragile soils, roads must berestricted as well as carefully plannedand maintained in order to maintain orrestore acceptable watershed quality.

Watershed implications in this provinceare probably the greatest of any prov-ince in Oregon because of urbanizationin the Willamette Valley. Water fromthese watersheds is increasingly impor-tant; thus, in the Cascade Provincewatershed values should be a primaryconsideration in management decisions.

The character of Cascade Province andits watershed implications suggest theneed to consider a land classificationsystem that distinguishes between areassuited to tree farms and areas in whichforestry should be oriented primarilyaround watershed management.

A precedent for this approach has beenused in general agriculture. There, a sys-tem classifies land according to variousdegrees of suitability for agriculturaluse. During early stages of the nationalsoil conservation movement, this land-use approach was effective in inform-ing the public and landowners aboutbasic conservation principles. It alsohelped landowners make relativelybroad determinations, based primarilyon soils and slopes, of types of land-useactivities and management options. Asimilar classification of forested landswould likely help publicize and put intouse basic forest management principlesrelated to watershed quality as well ascommercial use.

about 6 miles south of Parkdale inUpper Hood River Valley and east ofHighway 35, at an elevation of about3,000 feet. Starting from this location,the line meanders northwest to theColumbia River Gorge where itcontinues along steep breaks of thegorge. Hood River Valley and Colum-bia Gorge are in Willamette Province.44The line of demarcation betweenCascade and Willamette provinces issignified by the appearance of westernhemlock in the Cascade forests.

North of Larch Mountain in easternMultnomah County, the line graduallydrops to about 1,400 feet in the vicinityof Bridal Veil, and from this area theline veers south at about that elevation.As the line goes south, it followseastward up the south-facing slopes ofeach major drainage that heads in theCascade Mountains and returnswestward along the base of north-facing slopes of that same drainage.

Some areas in the province may besuitable for intensive forestry-treefarming. Other areas undoubtedly needto be managed primarily for watershedquality, which would likely involvesuch practices as selective harvesting toachieve prescribed watershed qualitieswith minimum soil deterioration.

Province DemarcationCascade - Willamette

DemarcationThe juncture between Cascade,

The Dalles, and Willamette provinces is

This path reflects a significant patternin the elevations at which westernhemlock signifies the Cascade Prov-ince. Obviously, the pattern is an effectof the warm and climate of WillametteValley which extends up these valleys.Along the base of north exposures,


western hemlock is at about 1,200 feet,and that elevation on north exposures indrainages does not vary significantlyfrom the Sandy River southeast of Port-land south to the North Umpqua Rivernortheast of Roseburg. Western hem-lock grows at about 1,200 feet eleva-tion on north-facing slopes of eachmajor drainage in this part of Oregon.

However, in this same area on south-facing slopes (which represent increas-ingly drier and warmer situations)western hemlock rises in elevationfrom north to south. For example, alongthe Sandy River southeast of Portland,western hemlock occurs at about 1,400feet elevation on south-facing slopes.But, when the line of demarcationcontinues southward from the vicinityof Firwood on Highway 26 in Clacka-mas County, the appearance of westernhemlock on south exposures rises toabout 1,600 feet. Farther south alongSouth Santiam River, western hemlockgrows at about 1,800 feet elevation onsouth-facing slopes. °

Western hemlock on south-facingslopes and on climate-climax positionsprobably grows at about 1,800 feetelevation along the Santiam, Calapooya,and McKenzie river drainages. How-ever, farther south along the MiddleFork Willamette River, the occurrenceof western hemlock rises to about 2,000feet elevation on both south- and north-facing slopes.

In this north-to-south transition, theline of demarcation between Cascadeand Willamette provinces extends east,up the Sandy River to about Bright-wood; up the Clackamas River to aboutFish Creek; up the Little North Santiamto about Elkhorn; up the North Santi-am River to about 6 miles east of MillCity; up the Middle Santiam River tojust below Green Peter Dam; up SouthSantiam River to about House RockForest Camp; up the Calapooya Riverto about King Camp; and up McKenzieRiver to about Belknap Springs.

Near Belknap Springs, the easternboundary of Willamette Province isclose to the western boundary ofMazama Province. A narrow stripconnects the part of Cascade Province

north of the McKenzie River and theportion south of it. The line betweenCascade and Willamette provinces eastof Cottage Grove, which is in Willam-ette Province, lies at about 2,000 feetelevation on west-facing slopes. Itmeanders up and back down variousminor drainages between there and theNorth Fork Umpqua River.

The line crosses North Fork UmpquaRiver about 5 miles northeast of Glide,in Willamette Province, near IdleyldPark in the topographic gap whereRock Creek fish hatchery is. From thisgap, the line runs south up the ridge toabout 2,800 feet elevation on south-facing slopes near Shivigny Mountain,which is in Cascade Province.

From this area around the upperreaches of Little River, hemlock growsat about 1,500 feet elevation on north-facing slopes and at about 2,800 feet onwest- and south-facing slopes. Unpub-lished studies36 indicate that areasabove about 3,600 feet in CascadeProvince are forested mainly by true firand mountain hemlock. These high-elevation areas have been referred tolocally as the High Cascades, and theyare components of Cascade Province.

Cascade -Siskiyou DemarcationIn the vicinity of Lane Mountain

about 10 miles east of Roseburg, whichis in Willamette Province, lies thejunction of Cascade, Willamette, andSiskiyou provinces.36, so In this vicinity,

the drainages into South Umpqua Riverare southwesterly which exposes thegenerally south-facing headwaters ofthe drainages to the arid, hot climatethat typifies Siskiyou Province. Conse-quently, the line between Cascade andSiskiyou provinces generally followsaround the headwaters of the drainagesat about 3,000 feet on south- and west-facing slopes.

In the headwaters of South UmpquaRiver and its tributaries, the line ofdemarcation wanders south at about4,000 feet elevation. It continues alongthe west slopes of Quartz Mountain andthen southerly along the west slopes ofBald Mountain to cross the RogueRiver about 6 miles below the commu-nity of Prospect, which is in MazamaProvince. In this area the narrow ashflow out of Mt. Mazama (Crater Lake),which extends southwest between thecommunities of Union Creek and Pros-pect, creates a narrow strip connectingthe portions of Cascade Province thatlie to the north and the south of CraterLake.

From about 6 miles below the commu-nity of Prospect, the line meanders

Table 6. Average Dates Vegetation Growth Begins and Endsin Cascade Ecological Province, Oregon.



High CountryClackamas County

Government Camp 29 3,580 April 27 Does not occur

Douglas CountyMusick 6 5,530 April 1 Does not occur

Low Western BoundaryClackamas County

Sundown Ranch 21 2,400 March 7 Does not occurThree Lynx 22 1,135 February 22 Does not occurZig Zag 11 1,435 March 1 Does not occur

Marion CountyDetroit 15 1,400 March 1 Does not occur

* The average date vegetation growth begins on native perennial bunchgrasses isapproximately the date average daily temperatures reach 39 to 40°F. Average dategrowth ends is considered to be when available soil moisture is depleted. Interpreta-tions are based on data in Johnsgard.17


southeast at about 4,000 feet elevation.It gradually rises in elevation throughthe headwaters of drainages into RogueRiver, Big Butte Creek, and Little ButteCreek. Mt. McLoughlin is in CascadeProvince. Fish Lake at the head of LittleButte Creek is in Siskiyou Province.The juncture of Cascade, Siskiyou, andKlamath provinces is near BrushMountain in southeastern JacksonCounty at about 5,500 feet elevation.

Cascade - Klamath DemarcationThe line between Cascade and Kla-

math provinces runs southeast at about5,500 feet elevation around the head-waters of Jenny Creek in southwesternKlamath County and on to the southslopes of Buck Mountain. From BuckMountain, the line turns north on theeast side of Buck Peak, Mt. Harriman,Pelican Butte, Lather Mountain, andKlamath Point. Each of these moun-tains is in Cascade Province. The junc-ture of Cascade, Klamath, and Mazamaprovinces is near Klamath Point.

Cascade - Mazama DemarcationFrom that juncture, the line be-

tween Cascade and Mazama provincesgoes northwest about 1 to 3 miles southof and somewhat paralleling Highway62, to the vicinity of Union Creek com-munity. In this area, the Mazama Prov-ince extends southerly in a valley 2 to 3miles wide lying on each side of High-way 62 from Union Creek south toProspect.

This narrow extension of MazamaProvince appears to be a large ash flowalong the upper Rogue River extendingsouthwest from the main pumicemantle near Crater Lake. The soiltypifying this ash-flow extension ofMazama Province is Alcot series. Soilsin adjacent Cascade Province areFreezner and Geppart.68

From the vicinity of Union Creek com-munity, the line runs north across thedivide between the Rogue River andNorth Umpqua River watersheds justeast of Buckneck Mountain. Fromthere, it follows northerly down ClearCreek, across the plateau at Toketeeairstrip, and across North Umpqua

Table 7. Comparison of the More Abundant and CharacteristicGrass, Shrub, and Tree Species in the Cascade, Coast, and WillametteProvinces in Oregon.7, 23

aa aCZ E

V) mcoco

t00

Vegetation U U

GrassesBluegrass, annual Poa annua xBluegrass, hotsprings Poa laxiflora xBluegrass, Kentucky Poa pratensis xBluegrass, Wheeler Poa nervosa xBrome, California Bromus carinatus xBrome, Columbia Bromus vulgaris xBrome, soft Bromus mollis xFescue, foxtail Festuca megalura xHairgrass, diffuse Aira elegans xHairgrass, silver Aira caryophyllea xOatgrass, tall Arrhenatherum elatius xOniongrass, Alaska Melica subulata xOrchardgrass Dactylis glomerata xReedgrass, bluejoint Calamagrostis canadensis xRyegrass, Italian Lolium multiflorum xRyegrass, perennial Lolium perenne xSweetgrass, California Hierochloa occidentalis xTimothy, alpine Phleum alpinum xVelvetgrass, common Holcus lanatus xWoodreed, drooping Cinna latifolia x x

ShrubsAlder, mountain Alnus tenuifolia xAlder, red Alnus rubra x xAlder, Sitka Alnus sinuata xAzalea, Cascade Rhododendron albiflorum xBirch, bog Betula pumila xBlackberry, dwarf Rubus lasiococcus xBlackberry, evergreen Rubus laciniatus xBlackberry, strawberryleaf Rubus pedatus xCeanothus, redstem Ceanothus sanguineus xCeanothus, snowbrush Ceanothus velutinus xCherry, bitter Prunus emarginata xCurrant, Crater Lake Ribes erythrocarpum xCurrant, mapleleaf Ribes acerifolium xCurrant, redflower Ribes sanguineum xCurrant, sticky Ribes viscosissimum xCurrant, trailing black Ribes laxiflorum xDewberry, snow Rubus nivalis xDewberry, western Rubus vitifolius xDogwood, western red Cornus californica xElderberry, red Sambucus callicarpa xGooseberry, Watson Ribes watsonianum xHawthorn, black Crataegus douglassii xHazel, western Corvlus cornuta x

Huckleberry, grouse Vaccinium scoparium xHuckleberry, ovalleaf Vaccinium ovalifolium xHuckleberry, red Vaccinium parviflorum x

(continued)


Table 7 (cont'd). Comparison of the More Abundant and CharacteristicGrass, Shrub, and Tree Species in the Cascade, Coast, and WillametteProvinces in Oregon.

a)al a>

0 Z5E(a

CZ(C 0

Vegetation 0 0

Shrubs (continued)Huckleberry, thinleaf Vaccinium membranaceum xKalmia, bog Kalmia microphylla x

Manzanita, greenleaf Arctostaphylos patula x

Maple, vine Acer circinatum x

Menziesia, rustyleaf Menziesia ferruginea x

Mountain-ash, dwarf Sorbus occidentalis x

Mountain-ash, Pacific Sorbus sitchensis x

Oregon-grape, tall Berberis aquifolium x

Pachystima Pachystima myrsinites xPoison-oak, Pacific Rhus diversiloba x

Prince's-pine, common Chimaphila umbellata x

Rose, Nootka Rosa nutkana x

Rose, pearfruit Rosa pisocarpa x

Rose, sweetbrier Rosa eglanteria x

Scotchbroom Cytisus scoparius x

Serviceberry, western Amelanchier florida x

Spirea, Douglas Spirea douglasii x

Spirea, subalpine Spirea densiflora x

Willow, feathervein Salix pennata x

Willow, Sierra Salix orestera xWintergreen, Oregon Gaultheria ovatifolia x

Wormwood, Douglas Artemisia douglasiana x

TreesAsh, Oregon Fraxinus latifolia x

Cottonwood, black Populus trichocarpa x

Dogwood, Pacific flowering Cornus nuttallii x

Douglas-fir Pseudotsuga menziesii x x x

Fir, grand Abies grandis x x

Fir, Pacific silver Abies amabilis x

Fir, subalpine Abies lasiocarpa x

Hemlock, mountain Tsuga mertensiana x

Hemlock, western Tsuga heterophylla x x

Maple, bigleaf Acer macrocephyllum x

Oak, Oregon white Quercus garryana x

Pine, lodgepole Pinus contorta murrayana xPine, shore Pinus contorta contorta xPine, western white Pinus monticola x

Pine, whitebark Pinus albicaulus x

Redcedar, western Thuja plicata x x

Spruce, Sitka Picea sitchensis x

Willow, Pacific Salix lasiandra x

Willow, Piper Salix piperi x

Willow, Scouler Salix scouleriana x

River below Toketee Reservoir. It thenheads northeast to cross the dividebetween North Umpqua River and theheadwaters of the Middle Fork Willam-ette River about 5 miles west of theCascade Range crest.91

From the headwaters of the MiddleFork Willamette River, the line betweenCascade and Mazama provinces runsnorth around the west side of BearMountain to Salt Creek canyon. There,the Southern Pacific railroad climbs aswitchback out of Salt Creek to passover the summit of the Cascade Moun-tains just west of Odell Lake, which isin Mazama Province. The line ofdemarcation goes north, to the west ofWaldo Lake, and then east of MoolackMountain and around the headwaters ofthe South Fork McKenzie River.93

The 1970 General Soil Map of LinnCounty80 does not provide soil informa-tion in the mountainous eastern portionof the county. Therefore, the line of de-marcation between Cascade and Maza-ma provinces in that area is drawn onthe basis of topographic features of theline on maps to the south of this area.

In Lane and Douglas counties, themapped pumice-mantle boundary isprimarily along a major topographicchange in the landscape: a relativelyundulating or sloping area to the east ofthe line, which typifies MazamaProvince in that area and, to the west,relatively steep mountainous terrainwhich represents the sharp dendriticdrainage pattern of Cascade Province.

Some pumice from the eruption of Mt.Mazama likely fell in the CascadeMountains west of the current pumicemantle. However, because of the steepdendritic drainage pattern representingheadwaters of numerous drainages intothe Willamette River, these pumicedeposits probably have been washeddownstream or may still be in isolateddeposits mainly on steep north-facingslopes within Willamette Province.

Using the previously described topo-graphic feature as a guide, the line ofdemarcation between Cascade andMazama provinces is predicted to runnorth from the headwaters of the South


Fork McKenzie River on around theheadwaters of the McKenzie and SouthSantiam rivers near Fish and Lavalakes, about where Highway 20 crossesthe pass. From there, the predicted lineveers northeast to cross Highway 22about 4 to 5 miles northwest of SantiamJunction. The line probably continuesnortheast into Jefferson County north ofThree Fingered Jack peak and to whereJefferson Creek joins Metolius River.In that area, Cascade, Mazama, and TheDalles provinces meet.

The demarcation line between Cascadeand Mazama provinces in Douglas,Lane, and Linn counties is based onsoil lines between Holderman and Keelsoil series, which typify CascadeProvince, and Winopee and Shukash

soil series, which typify MazamaProvince.79 Farther north, in westernJefferson County, the soil series inCascade Province may be Howash andMackatie, which typify CascadeProvince on the Warm Springs IndianReservation.96 Soil series in adjacentMazama Province include Lapine,Shanahan, Deschutes, and Steiger.70

Cascade -The DallesDemarcation

From the juncture of Cascade,Mazama, and The Dalles provinces inwestern Jefferson County, the line be-tween Cascade and The Dalles prov-inces runs north along the easternslopes of the Cascades at about 4,500feet elevation-approximately the

elevation at which western hemlockbecomes a significant component offorested plant communities in this area.

In southwestern Wasco County, thedemarcation line drops to about 4,000feet elevation as it goes north. Westernhemlock's growth at lower elevationsin northern Oregon than in southernOregon is seen on both east and westslopes of the Cascades as well as alongthe east slopes of the Coast Range.Apparently, this is due to an overallwarmer climate to the south whichcauses western hemlock to grow at highelevations. The line meanders north atabout 3,000 feet elevation to an areanear the southeastern corner of UpperHood River Valley where Cascade, TheDalles, and Willamette provinces join.


I CoastEcological

Province

LocationThe Coast Ecological Province in

Oregon includes the mountainous up-lands of the Coast Range and the hills,valleys, tidelands, and beaches withinthe fog zone of the Pacific Ocean. Itextends about 300 air miles north tosouth across the entire state from theColumbia River down to the Oregon-California border. It is widest east towest along the Columbia River where itextends from near Fort Stevens west ofAstoria upriver about 50 air miles tonear Rainier. It is about 45 air mileswide near Cape Blanco in Curry Coun-ty. Farther south, near Gold Beach, theprovince is only about 1 to 2 mileswide in a few locations due to uplandpromontories in Siskiyou Province,such as Grizzly Peak and SundownMountain, which are higher than thenormal fog zone along the coast.

Coast Province in Oregon covers about4.5 million acres in Clatsop, Columbia,Washington, Tillamook, Yamhill, Polk,Lincoln, Benton, Lane, Douglas, Coos,and Curry counties. It extends northacross the Columbia River into Wash-ington and south into California.

DescriptionPhysiographically, the Coast

Province in Oregon includes nearly the

entire drainage systems of 20 rivers-from north to south, the Clatskanie,Youngs, Lewis and Clark, Necanicum,Nehalem, Salmonberry, Miami, Wilson,Trask, Nestucca, Siletz, Yaquina, Alsea,Yachats, Coos, Coquille, Sixes, Elk,Pistol, and Chetco.

It also includes lower reaches of threemajor rivers-Siuslaw, Smith, andUmpqua-which have major water-sheds in Willamette Province to theeast. About 15 miles of the lower RogueRiver, which transects Siskiyou Prov-ince to the east, is within the coastalfog zone that characterizes the southernportion of Coast Province in Oregon.

Coast Province has three general geo-morphic features: the mountainousCoast Range, coastal terraces, and anarrow coastal plain interrupted byheadlands of resistant rocks that extendto the shoreline (Fig. 10).

All principal valley mouths have beendrowned by the sea. Extensive sanddunes near the mouths of most riversare intermittent from Coos Bay north.Drowning of present streams hasformed bays and long alluvial flats. Thetide commonly reaches 20 miles up amajor river.'

The entire west boundary of CoastProvince is at sea level. The highest

point in the province is Marys Peak inBenton County at 4,097 feet elevation(Fig. 11). A few other prominent moun-tains, including Hanging Rock at 3,954feet in Coos County and DutchmanButte at 3,907 feet in Douglas County,are in Coast Province. However, mostprominent peaks are less than 3,400feet elevation. (Elevations are fromUSGS 1:250,000 topographic maps.)

Numerous field observations are thatthe advent of western hemlock in theforest composition is a reliable andwidespread ecological indicator of thepoint in the landscape at which a verysignificant ecological change occurs insoils, vegetation, and managementimplications when transecting from andforest to moist forest. Other species,woody and herbaceous, also changewith the advent of western hemlock.

In Oregon,western hemlock in a forestapparently indicates an effective envi-ronment equivalent to 60 or more inchesaverage annual precipitation and signi-ficantly cooler local climatic condi-

tions,34, 35, 36, 37, 44, 45, 46

Western hemlock is a reliable indicatorof average climatic conditions overlong climate cycles. Thus, westernhemlock was chosen as the key speciesdifferentiating Coast Province, in which

Coast Ecological Province 21

it generally is common in foresteduplands, from Willamette and Siskiyouprovinces in which it is not generallycommon in forested uplands.


typifying Coast Province of Oregon

involves a very wide variety of parentmaterials including geologically recentalluvial terraces and bottomlands alongstreams, tidal flats at mouths of valleysthat have been drowned by the sea, oldmarine terraces, and the Coast Moun-tains which consist of sandstone, basalt,breccias, and tuffs.9 Further complica-

Table 8. Distribution of Prominent Soil Seriesin Coast Ecological Province, Oregon.

Oregon counties

c0

Representativesoil series co

AstoriaBandonBohannon

BraillierBrennerCapeblanco

CascadeCoquilleDepoe

DiggerDullardsFendall

FlorasGearhartHeceta

HembreHoneygrove xKlickitatKnappeLangloisMillicomaNehalemNelscottNeskowin

NestuccaNetartsOlyicPeavinePreacherQuillayute

ReedsportSauvieSlickrock

UmpcoosWaldportWarrenton

WestportWinema

Yaquina

x

CO

0. .0 caN

U U0

U 0

x

x

co rn

c 0 C _0

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tion results from the extent of the CoastProvince which, in Oregon, is from themouth of the Columbia River south tothe California border and from theshores of the Pacific to the crest (andbeyond in some instances) of the CoastRange in Oregon. The province includesall or part of 12 counties and all ormajor portions of 20 rivers. Conse-quently, soil series of Coast Province inOregon are too numerous to categorize.However, Table 8 illustrates how someseries are widespread in the provinceand others are more or less local.

ClimateBased on 24 official weather

stations, primarily covering the coastalportion of Coast Province, averageannual precipitation is about 76.2inches. Of that, about 40% falls duringthe major part of the herbaceous-plantgrowing season, February throughJune. October through January (winter)precipitation is about 55% of the preci-pitation. Average January maximumand minimum temperatures are 49.5and 35.4°F, respectively. Average Feb-ruary through June maximum andminimum temperatures are 59.4 and41.6°F, respectively.

The highest precipitation recorded atthese stations is 130.6 inches atGlenora, at about 575 feet elevationabout 10 miles south of Tillamookcommunity. Lowest precipitation, lessthan 60 inches, is recorded at Clats-kanie on the Columbia River and atBandon in Coos County.

A recent precipitation map53 showsabout 200 inches average annualprecipitation in northeastern TillamookCounty where the elevation is over3,000 feet in the headwaters of theNorth Fork Wilson River. This is thehighest precipitation in Oregon.

This map also shows about 175 inchesaverage annual precipitation in westernPolk County, north of the formerValsetz community, at over 3,000 feetelevation near Sugarloaf Mountain; andabout 150 inches in northeasternLincoln County at over 3,000 feetelevation near Stott Mountain. Other

22 Coast Ecological Province

x

x

x

X

X

x

x

x

x x x

x

x

x

x

x

x

x

x

x

prominent uplands in Coast Provincehave 100 or more inches average annualprecipitation. Tillamook County has thelargest area of over-100-inches averageannual precipitation in the province.Based on official weather stations, the

southern counties of Douglas, Coos,and Curry are more and annually andwarmer in January than other countiesto the north. They also have somewhathigher minimum temperatures in theFebruary through June growing season.

Table 9. Climatic Data for Coast Ecological Province, Oregon."

VegetationFrom a vegetation standpoint,

Coast Province in Oregon is generallythe area west of the elevation at whichwestern hemlock grows in forest plantcommunities of the Coast Range from

Station andPrecipitation Average maximum and minimum

length of record Elevation Annual Oct.-Jan. Feb.-June temperatures (°F)(years) (feet) (inches) (%) (%) January Feb.-June

Clatsop CountyAstor Expt. Sta. 15 50 75.7 54 39 47.4-32.8 58.9-40.3

Astoria 21 10 80.8 55 37 46.7-34.9 58.3-42.1

Jewell 11 200 71.2 55 38 42.5-30.5 58.9-38.9

Seaside 21 10 79.7 54 39 50.6-35.9 58.4-42.1

Columbia CountyClatskanie 17 50 55.6 55 40 41.9-31.3 58.9-41.3

Coos CountyBandon 10 8 55.5 57 39 52.6-36.7 58.4-42.1

Coquille 9 61 59.8 56 40 51.3-32.9 62.0-41.2

McKinley 12 140 66.9 54 41 51.4-35.6 61.2-40.0

Marshfield 29 38 64.5 54 41 51.6-36.6 59.3-41.4

North Bend 21 11 62.3 57 39 52.2-38.0 58.5-43.8

Powers 20 275 61.6 57 40 52.9-33.9 63.7-40.8

Curry CountyBrookings 21 80 81.9 56 40 54.0-39.9 60.0-44.1

Gold Beach 16 50 81.6 57 39 54.0-39.9 58.2-44.1

Port Orford 18 24 71.5 54 42 53.6-39.6 58.6-44.1

Douglas CountyGardiner 22 15 78.1 54 41 50.3-38.6 58.7-43.4

Reedsport 13 12 74.2 55 40 50.7-36.6 59.2-42.6

Lane CountyCanary 20 100 78.6 55 39 49.9-35.0 59.5-40.8

Deadwood 12 350 91.9 57 38 47.2-35.4 61.0-40.9

Lincoln CountyTidewater Hatchery 11 40 93.0 56 38 46.5-33.8 61.5-41.7

Newport 19 128 65.7 54 40 49.4-38.1 57.1-43.5

Toledo 34 50 75.6 53 42 51.5-34.7 60.5-39.9

Tillamook CountyCloverdale 11 20 82.7 53 40 48.5-34.4 58.5-41.4

Glenora 25 575 130.6 58 39 42.8-30.5 58.5-36.5

Tillamook 19 15 89.4 54 39 49.0-34.0 58.1-40.4


County AveragesClatsop 76.9 55 38 46.8-33.5 58.6-40.9

Columbia 55.6 55 40 41.9-31.3 58.9-41.3

Coos 61.8 56 40 52.0-35.6 60.5-41.6

Curry 78.3 56 40 53.9-39.8 58.9-44.1

Douglas 76.2 55 41 50.5-73.6 59.0-43.0

Lane 85.3 56 39 48.6-35.2 60.3-40.9

Lincoln 78.1 54 40 49.1-35.5 59.7-41.7

Tillamook 100.9 55 38 46.8-33.0 58.4-39.4


the Columbia River south to southwest-ern Douglas County. Along this line ofdemarcation between Coast and Wil-lamette provinces, Coast Province istypified by forest communities in whichsuch species as western hemlock,Douglas-fir, red elderberry, and redalder are common (Fig. 12). The con-tiguous Willamette Province to the eastis typified by forest plant communitiesin which western hemlock is scarce orabsent but Douglas-fir, bigleaf maple,and Oregon white oak are common.

In southwestern Douglas County, theCoast Province becomes contiguouswith Siskiyou Province to the south; theline of demarcation continues south-westerly through Curry County to thenormal coastal fog zone about 12 milesupriver from Gold Beach on the RogueRiver. Along the line, Coast Province istypified by western hemlock, Douglas-fir, and some scattered tanoak in forestplant communities. Contiguous Siski-you Province is typified by a domi-nance of tanoak and abundant Pacificmadrone, wedgeleaf ceanothus, andDouglas-fir.

From central Curry County south to theCalifornia border, the Coast Provinceconsists of the normal coastal fog zoneand continues contiguous to SiskiyouProvince. In this area, Coast Province istypified by Sitka spruce, Douglas-fir,western hemlock, red alder, California-laurel, and, in the vicinity of Mt. Emilyand Elk Mountain, scattered smallstands of coast redwood. SiskiyouProvince to the east is typified bytanoak, Pacific madrone, and Douglas-fir with scattered, minor occurrence ofwestern hemlock on north exposures.51

For a comparison of the more abundantand characteristic grass, shrub, and treespecies in the Cascade, Coast, and Wil-lamette ecological provinces in Oregon,see Table 7, pages 18-19.

According to the 1936 State of OregonForest Type Map,54 about 5% of CoastProvince was classified as nonforestedlands-native or improved pasturealong major river and creek bottomsand wetlands around bays. About 1% ofthe province was classified as sanddunes and nonforested coastal vegeta

Table 10. Average Dates Vegetation Growth Begins and Endsin Coast Ecological Province, Oregon.

Station andlength of record Elevation

(years) (feet)

Clatsop CountyAstor Expt. Sta. 15 50Astoria 21 10Jewell 11 200Seaside 21 10

Columbia CountyClatskanie 17 50

Coos CountyBandon 10 8

Coquille 9 61McKinley 12 140Marshfield 29 38North Bend 21 11

Powers 20 275

Curry CountyBrookings 21 80Gold Beach 16 50Port Orford 18 24

Douglas CountyGardiner 22 15

Reedsport 13 12

Lane CountyCanary 20 100Deadwood 12 350

Lincoln CountyTidewater Hatchery 11 40Newport 19 128Toledo 34 50

Tillamook CountyCloverdale 11 20Glenora 25 575Tillamook 19 15

Average date Average dategrowth begins* growth ends*

winter growing Does not occurwinter growing Does not occur

February 7 Does not occurwinter growing Does not occur

February 7 Does not occur

winter growing Does not occurwinter growing Does not occurwinter growing Does not occurwinter growing Does not occurwinter growing Does not occurwinter growing Does not occur

winter growing Does not occurwinter growing Does not occurwinter growing Does not occur



winter growing Does not occurwinter growing Does not occurwinter growing Does not occur

winter growing Does not occurMarch 4 Does not occur

winter growing Does not occur

* The average date vegetation growth begins on herbaceous plants is approximatelythe date average daily temperatures reach 39 to 40°F. Average date growth ends isconsidered to be when available soil moisture is depleted. Interpretations are based ondata in Johnsgard."

tion. Less than 1% was occupied byshore pine. All the rest was classified asDouglas-fir forest of various ageclasses of which about 10% was classi-fied as deforested burns, including thehuge Tillamook burn.

Clatskanie, Jewell, and Glenora weath-er stations, inland in northern CoastProvince, have average monthly tem-peratures below 39°F at some time inwinter which terminates winter growthon herbaceous plants. Farther south,

however, the Deadwood station in LaneCounty, about 18 air miles inland fromthe coast in the Siuslaw River drainage,has growing conditions all winter. Thislikely reflects the generally warmercoastal climate that penetrates up theSiuslaw drainage. The Powers station,which is about 25 air miles inland fromCape Blanco, also has continuouswinter growing conditions, likely dueto the penetration of coastal climate upthe South Fork Coquille River.


Although not supported by officialweather station data, higher elevationsin the Coast Range have averagemonthly temperatures in winter thatterminate growth of herbaceous plants.Snowfall for brief periods is commonin winter on the Coast Range.

Management ImplicationsMuch of Coast Province consists

of relatively steep mountains anddendritic drainages of 24 river systemsthat cross the province to flow into theColumbia River or Pacific Ocean. For-estry is by far the prevalent commercialactivity in the province. However tour-ism, fisheries, wildlife, and agricultureare significant commercial activitiesthat are closely interrelated and, tosome degree, interdependent withcommercial forestry.

The potential for judicious managementof renewable natural resources issignificantly complicated by the patternof ownership in Coast Province.

A map in the 1978 BLM RecreationGuide for Oregon shows private andpublic land ownership; at that time,about 50% or more of the province wasowned privately, including some hugeblocks of land. Furthermore, most ofthe public lands administered by BLMlie in an alternate-section, checkerboardpattern with private lands. This furthercomplicates interrelationships andinterdependencies.

The predominant forest aspect andvarying soil and physiographic compo-nents of Coast Province strongly sug-gest the need for a land classificationprocedure that helps identify importantbases for management strategies.

The procedure would distinguish, forexample, between areas capable ofsustaining intensive forestry-treefarming-and other areas whereforestry should be designed explicitlyto complement other significant valuessuch as watershed, fish, wildlife, andaesthetics. With such land classifica-tion, resource management strategiesand combinations of practices would beinitially predicated on inherent soil andphysiographic factors.

It is important that management strate-gies and practices be devised jointly byappropriate scientists, practitioners, andrepresentatives of the involved publicso as to optimize the learning-by-listening process that is basic forresolving complicated resource issues.

A precedent for this approach has beenused previously in general agriculture.It is a system for classifying landaccording to various degrees of capa-bility for agricultural use. During earlystages of the soil conservation move-ment, this land-use capability approacheffectively informed the public andlandowners about basic conservationprinciples. It also helped landownersmake relatively broad determinations,based primarily on soils and slopes, ofvarious types of land-use activities andmanagement options.

A similar classification of forestedlands would likely help publicize andput into practice basic forest manage-ment principles related to watershedquality and other commercial values,as it did in agriculture.

Province Demarcations

Coast-Willamette DemarcationThe line of demarcation between

Coast and Willamette provinces beginsjust west of Rainier on the bank of theColumbia River in Columbia County.From there it meanders west along thetops of steep slopes overlooking theColumbia at about 500 feet elevation.About 6 miles east of Clatskanie, theline veers sharply to the south on topo-graphy about 750 to 1,000 feet eleva-tion that is west of Clatskanie River.

At the ridge that separates the Clats-kanie and Nehalem river drainages, theline of demarcation turns northwestalong the north side of Nehalem Riverdrainage at about 1,000 feet elevation.In the upper reaches of FishhawkCreek, the line goes south to crossNehalem Valley less than a mile west ofNehalem community, at about 600 feetelevation. From there, it ascends theridge leading south to Green Mountainwhere, at an elevation of about 1,750feet, it circles east and south of the

mountain to cross Sunset Highway(U.S. 26) in the headwaters of RockCreek at about 1,600 feet elevation.

From the summit pass on Highway 26,the line goes southeast at about 1,750feet elevation to the Tillamook-Washington county line. It cuts south atthat elevation around the east and southsides of Round Top and the headwatersof Gales Creek. It crosses the pass be-tween Gales Creek and Wilson River atabout 1,600 feet elevation and returnsto 1,750 feet elevation to meandersouth around the headwaters of drain-ages flowing east into the Tualatin andNorth Yamhill rivers.

Northwest of McMinnville, the demar-cation line makes a huge swing west atabout 1,700 feet elevation around theheadwaters of drainages flowing southinto South Yamhill River. The linecrosses Highway 22 northwest ofGrande Ronde at about 670 feetelevation and crosses Highway 18 inVan Duzer State Park at about 770 feetelevation. This is the pass between theYamhill and Salmon river drainages.

From Van Duzer State Park, the demar-cation line ascends the ridge to thesouth. Within about 3 miles it is againat about 1,750 feet elevation on Saddle-back Mountain. From there, it goes eastand south at about 1,750 feet elevationaround headwaters of drainages flow-ing into Yamhill and Little Luckiamuterivers. From the south side of Mon-mouth Peak in southwestern PolkCounty, the line descends the ridgesoutheasterly to cross the LuckiamuteRiver at about 650 feet elevation. Itascends Cougar Ridge and thenmeanders south along the crest of theCoast Range. The Coast Range de-scends on the narrow divide betweenMarys River and Yaquina River toabout 730 feet elevation at the commu-nity of Summit, which is about 5 milesnorthwest of Blodgett on Highway 20.

From the community of Summit, thedemarcation line continues west andsouth along the crest of the CoastRange to cross the Corvallis-Newporthighway (U.S. 20) at about 800 feetelevation about 2 miles northwest ofBurnt Woods community. This is the


pass between Tumtum River flowingeast and Little Elk Creek flowing west.From there, the line of demarcationruns south along the crest of the CoastRange to Marys Peak where it turnsnorth and east around Marys Peak atabout 1,700 feet elevation.

The line crosses the pass on Alsea High-way (Oregon 34) at about 1,125 feetelevation and continues southeast upthe ridge and around the east slopes ofFlat Mountain at about 1,750 feet ele-vation. From there the line continuessouth at about the same elevation. Thisis the crest of the Coast Range betweendrainages flowing into Alsea River tothe west and Long Tom River to theeast.

The demarcation line continues southalong the crest of the Coast Range tothe pass between Wildcat Creek to thewest and Noti Creek to the east, whichis about 6 miles southwest of FernRidge reservoir. The line continuessoutheasterly along the crest of theCoast Range and then descends into theSiuslaw River drainage to cross theriver about 12 miles downriver fromLorane community, which is northwestof Cottage Grove.

From the crossing on the river, the linefollows up the northside bottomlandsalong the river to about 2 miles east ofKing Ranch. The bottomlands alongSiuslaw River below 600 feet elevationare in the fog-belt zone of the CoastProvince, which is typified by the pres-ence of occasional Sitka spruce trees.From the vicinity of King Ranch on theSiuslaw, the line travels south along thedivide between Siuslaw and Smithrivers and then west around the head-waters of Smith River.93

From the headwaters of South ForkSmith River about 5 miles northwest ofDrain community, the line veers westalong the divide between Smith Riverto the north and drainages flowing intoUmpqua River to the south. This por-tion of the Umpqua system is inWillamette Province.

About 4 miles north of Scottsburg, theline goes south to cross Umpqua Riverat Scottsburg community.36'" It ascends

the ridge across the river from Scotts-burg and goes southeast along theridgetops to the big bends in UmpquaRiver west of Kellogg community.From there, it goes south along theridgetop that divides drainages flowingeast into Umpqua River and drainagesflowing to the west into the Coos andCoquille rivers.

The line crosses the Coos Bay WagonRoad west of Reston community, whichis in Willamette Province, at 1,850 feetelevation and continues southwesterlyat about 2,000 feet elevation. 36,16,11

About 7 miles southwest of CamasValley community, which is in Willam-ette Province, the line crosses Highway42 along Middle Fork Coquille River atabout 800 feet elevation. From there,the line climbs the ridge southeasterlyto Chipmunk Ridge .51 The junction ofthe Coast, Willamette, and Siskiyouprovinces is near the southeast end ofChipmunk Ridge.

The line of demarcation between Coastand Willamette provinces is based pri-marily on the elevation at which west-ern hemlock is common. This line alsois supported by the general occurrenceof such forested soils as the Bellpine,Jory, Retner, and Bateman series, whichtypify Willamette Province, and by theBohannon, Blachly, Preacher, andDigger series which typify CoastProvince.

It is interesting to note that at locationsalong the crest of the Coast Rangewhere elevation is significantly below1,700 feet, the hemlock line is at thepass on the summit. For example,where Sunset Highway (U.S. 26)crosses the summit into the NehalemRiver drainage, the province line isabout 1,600 feet elevation. At thecommunity of Summit on the passbetween Marys River and YaquinaRiver, the summit is about 730 feet ele-vation. On Highway 20 between Cor-vallis and Newport, the summit is about800 feet elevation. On the Alsea High-way (Oregon 34), the summit is about1,125 feet elevation.

Farther south, the Coast-Willametteline of demarcation, based on the

advent of western hemlock in foresteduplands, is about 600 feet elevationwhere it crosses Siuslaw River, about470 feet as it crosses Umpqua River,and about 800 feet as it crosses MiddleFork Coquille River. These rivers havemajor headwaters in WillametteProvince. Furthermore, Umpqua Riverdrains sizable watersheds in bothCascade and Siskiyou provinces.

Each of these river crossings and passesin the crest of the Coast Range, wherethe advent of western hemlock signifiesthe line of demarcation, apparentlymarks where the effects of the warm,and Willamette Valley climate areovercome by the more moist, coolcoastal climate.

Coast-Siskiyou DemarcationFrom the juncture of Coast, Wil-

lamette, and Siskiyou,provinces nearChipmunk Ridge in southwesternDouglas County, the line of demarca-tion between Coast and Siskiyouprovinces goes south at about 3,000feet elevation to Dutchman Butte. Itfollows Hayes Ridge southwesterly andsouthward to Ninemile Mountain andcontinues southwesterly at about 3,200feet elevation to north of Kelsey Peakin northeastern Curry County.

From there, the line runs west to thevicinity of Big Meadows and thennorth, west, and southwest at about3,000 feet elevation around the upperMule Creek watershed. It followsPanther Ridge southwesterly at about2,800 feet elevation close to the Coos-Curry county line.

From there, the line extends southalong the east slopes of Ophir Moun-tain and Brushy Mountain at about2,800 feet elevation. In the vicinity ofLake of the Woods Mountain the lineruns southwest to Soldier Camp Moun-tain, Second Prairie Mountain, andFirst Prairie Mountain. Elevationdecreases from about 2,800 feet atSoldier Camp Mountain to about 1,200feet in the vicinity of Lobster Hill justnorth of Rogue Rivers'

The demarcation line in northeasternand north-central Curry County is


based primarily on the elevation atwhich western hemlock is common inforested uplands in Coast Province, ascompared to the common appearance oftanoak, madrone, and other plantspecies that signify the warmer anddrier conditions that typify the westernportion of Siskiyou Province.

This line of demarcation also is sup-ported by the general presence of suchforested soils as Preacher, Bohannon,Digger, and Umpcoos, which typifyCoast Province,60 and the soil seriesAtring, Kanid, Acker, Beekman,Pollard, and Vermisa, which typifySiskiyou Province in this vicinity.56

In the vicinity of Lobster Hill the linebetween Coast and Siskiyou provincesintersects the upper boundary of thenormal coastal fog zone at about 1,200feet elevation. This upper boundarycoincides with the line of demarcationfrom this area south to the Oregon-California border. Several sharp bendsin the Rogue River near Lobster Hillapparently hinder the fog from goingfarther upriver. The line of demarca-tion, therefore, crosses the Rogue Riverbetween Lobster Hill and Skookum-house Butte.

The line, which is the upper boundaryof the coastal fog zone, continues atabout 1,200 feet elevation around theheadwaters of Quosatana Creek andwest around Kimball Hill. The line runssouthwesterly somewhat parallel to theRogue River and then south at about1,200 feet elevation.

It travels up and around the head-waters of Hunter Creek, then west ofSundown Mountain, up and aroundheadwaters of Pistol River and itstributaries, of Chetco River and itstributaries, and of Winchuck River andits tributaries at about 1,200 feet ele-vation.51 It crosses from Oregon intoCalifornia about 8 air miles east of thePacific Ocean.

From the vicinity east of LobsterCreek, a tributary of the Rogue River,and south to the Oregon-Californiaborder, the line of demarcation betweenCoast and Siskiyou provinces is basedon the presence of Sitka spruce, red

alder, Douglas-fir, western hemlock,and other species that typify the cool,moist fog zone coastal climate.

By comparison, the common appear-ance of tanoak, Pacific madrone, andrelated species signify the warmer,drier conditions that typify SiskiyouProvince. This line also is supported bythe general presence of such soils asBosland, Floras, Millicoma, andReedsport, which typify Coast Provincein this area, and Fritsland, Bravo,Mislatnah, and Pollard which typifySiskiyou Province in this area.56

From the California border north, theupper boundary of the normal coastalfog zone is at about 1,200 to 1,400 feetelevation in the drainages of Winchuck,Chetco, Pistol, and Rogue rivers whereit constitutes the line of demarcationbetween Coast and Siskiyou provinces.

From the vicinity of the Rogue Rivernorth to Humbug Mountain, the upperboundary of the coastal fog zoneremains at about 1,200 feet elevation.However, it does not constitute theCoast Province boundary in this areabecause east of the fog zone in this areaare forested uplands in which westernhemlock is common.

Western hemlock is a key indicatorspecies that typifies uplands of CoastProvince from this vicinity north to theColumbia River.

North from Humbug Mountain, theupper level of the fog zone lowers toabout 800 feet elevation.51 Still farthernorth, the fog zone is up to about 500to 600 feet elevation in the valleys ofmajor drainages such as the Alsea,Yaquina, and Salmon rivers. There, thefog zone boundary is represented by theappearance of Sitka spruce, a keyindicator species of the cool, moist fogzone. 25, 34, 35, 36, 44, 45, 46

Changes from south to north in theelevation of the upper boundary of thecoastal fog zone is likely caused bychanges in coastal climatic conditions.Although not substantiated by availableweather data, observations of onshorestorm patterns have been that stormyweather south from Cape Blanco often

is less severe than it is to the north,which may help account for a cooler,more moist annual climate north alongthe coast. The pattern of plant commu-nity composition from south to northsupports this view.

The coastal fog zone's upper boundaryis the distance that fog normally pene-trates major coastal river systems hav-ing headwaters at higher elevations inthe Coast Range. However, on majorcoastal rivers with headwaters at lowelevations in the Willamette Valley,such as the Umpqua, the normal fogzone penetrates only to the point thatthe warmer, drier climate of theWillamette Valley resists fog penetra-tion up the drainage. On the upperUmpqua River, for example, the linebetween Coast and Willamette prov-inces crosses the river from north tosouth at Scottsburg, which has anelevation of 47 feet. The WillametteValley's type of vegetation - repre-senting a warm, dry climate -is veryapparent to the east of the line ofdemarcation at Scottsburg.

The differences between the coastal fogzone north from Humbug Mountain andthat from Humbug Mountain south tothe California border suggests thatfurther study to the south, into Califor-nia, might substantiate the existence ofa Northern Coast Ecological Provincein California.

The coastal fog zone south from Hum-bug Mountain may be a transitionbetween a vegetation dominated to thenorth by Sitka spruce/western hemlock/shore pine/Douglas-fir and, to thesouth, by a vegetation dominated bytanoak/Douglas-fir/coast redwood.However, based on current concepts,the coastal fog zone south from Hum-bug Mountain, although somewhatdifferent from that north of the moun-tain in terms of vegetation and soils,has been included in Coast EcologicalProvince.


ColumbiaBasin

EcologicalProvince

LocationThe Columbia Basin Province in

north-central Oregon includes the lowerportion, generally below about 3,500feet elevation, of several major water-sheds that drain north into the Colum-bia River. It covers about 3.25 millionacres and includes northwestern Uma-tilla County, the northern two-thirds ofMorrow County, all Gilliam County ex-cept for a very small area in the south-east corner, all of Sherman County,much of northeast and southeast WascoCounty, a small area in northwestWheeler County, and about 2,500 acreswest of Willowdale in northern Jeffer-son County.

Milton-Freewater is in the northeastcorner of the province; The Dalles isjust west (outside) the northwest cornerof the province in Oregon. The provinceis bisected by lower reaches of sixmajor drainages: Deschutes River, JohnDay River, Rock Creek, Willow Creek,Butter Creek, and Umatilla River, all ofwhich flow generally north. The prov-ince extends into Washington.

DescriptionElevations within Columbia Basin

Province in Oregon range from about100 feet near The Dalles to about 3,500feet along the line of demarcation

between Columbia Basin and BlueMountain provinces. The physiographyis mainly a hilly upland sloping upfrom north to south and dissected bynumerous dendritic-pattern drainages.A sizable sandy basin lies west of theHermiston area. There are no promi-nent mountains in the province inOregon.

Columbia Basin Province in Oregonhas two physiographic subdivisionswhich have significant ecological andmanagement implications. These arethe ancient lake basin, which is largelyirrigated agriculture except on theBoardman Bombing Range Reserve,and the silty uplands, which are drylandagriculture and native rangelands.

The smaller of the two subdivisions isthe ancient lake basin. Locally, this areais commonly called the Umatilla Basin,probably because early irrigation in thevicinity of Echo, Stanfield, Hermiston,Umatilla, Irrigon, and Boardmandepended on water from Umatilla Riverstored in Cold Springs Reservoir westof Hermiston. More recently, pumpingfrom wells and from the ColumbiaRiver has greatly expanded irrigationagriculture in the lake basin and likelywould have expanded it a great dealmore if it hadn't been for the hugeBoardman Bombing Range Reserve.

The lake basin subdivision of ColumbiaBasin Province covers about 450,000acres in Oregon.

The lake basin, with its underlyingstrata of gravel beds, hardpans, andother materials, is geologically relatedto the era of glacial melt farther northfollowing the ice age. Geologists havereported that the glacial melt resulted inthe Missoula flood(s); the ice jam nearThe Dalles that backed up water (LakeCondon); and the ice floes containingsand, silt, gravel, and other glacialdebris and erratics. When the floesmelted, these erratics and debris weredeposited over the landscape in the lakebasin. Skeletal remains of mammothsand other ice-age artifacts have beenuncovered in the lake basin.

The silty uplands portion of ColumbiaBasin Province is almost entirely dry-land agriculture and rangeland. Nearlyall arable acreage is being farmed orhas been at one time, primarily forwheat production in a wheat summer-fallow alternate-year rotation (Fig. 13).All the silty upland rangeland isconsidered a natural grassland (lessthan 10% canopy cover of woodyspecies in original ecological status).

Throughout the natural grasslands thathave not been cultivated in Columbia

28 Columbia Basin Ecological Province

-

_

- ajL?,-

Basin Province in Oregon, silty grass-land soils on most plateaus and ridgesbetween about 1,700 and 3,500 feetelevation occur in a unique land patternlocally called biscuit scabland.

The pattern consists of small mounds ofgrassland soils 5 to 20 feet or more indiameter and usually about 20 to 36inches deep over basalt bedrock. Eachmound, or biscuit, is surrounded byvery shallow, very stony soils overbasalt bedrock, which locally is calledscabland. Hence the name biscuitscabland (Fig. 14). The biscuits varysomewhat in shape and size, usuallyround but sometimes oblong.

They make up about 5 to 30% or moreof the area in which they are found.Where biscuits are in more than about40 to 50% of the area, some have beenfarmed. Cultivation has redistributedthe soil mantle so that it is essentiallycontinuous but of varying depth-deeper on former biscuits and shal-lower over what used to be scabland,with an undulate surface.

Biscuit scabland in Columbia BasinProvince is common from just west ofPilot Rock in Umatilla County to Dufurin Wasco County; however, the soil ofthe biscuit component of this patternchanges from location to location.

Soil series on biscuits include Condon,Morrow, Valby, Wapinitia, and Maupinsilt loams; Condon series is the mostextensive. The soil on the scablandcomponent is Bakeoven. Biscuits donot occur generally below 1,700 feetelevation in aeolian soils such asRitzville and Walla Walla silt loams.

During the past 150 years, more than30 hypotheses have been advanced toexplain the origin of biscuit scabland,according to John Eliot Allen, emeritusprofessor of geology at Portland StateUniversity. The possible reasons in-clude moles, gophers, Indian burials,hut sites, buffalo wallows, ant hills, andmounds formed around water, gas, oil,or mud springs.

Allen believed four of these werereasonable: erosion, during which themounds were protected by vegetation;wind deposition, which posits that the

mounds are coppice dunes formedaround trees or shrubs; freezing andthawing, which, in the far north,produces polygonal ground on tundra;and gophers' tunneling backward fromtheir nest sites which, over the years,gradually built up the area around thenest (this last theory was based on asituation in California).

Undoubtedly, all such mounds are notalike, even though they look alike onthe surface. Also, all four of Allen'schoices may apply somewhere but,conceptually, do not apply to the biscuitscablands of Columbia Basin Provincein Oregon.

Here are some facts about Oregon'sbiscuit scabland. First, numerous road-cuts throughout the biscuit scabland inColumbia Basin Province prove thatthe material underlying the biscuits issolid, very thick basalt (Fig. 15). Thatfact alone discredits some hypothesescited above, i.e., gophers, ants, trees,and freezing-thawing polygons.

Second, the soil profile of each Colum-bia Basin biscuit in any general areahas essentially, if not exactly, the samesequence of horizons, colors, textures,and depth ranges as nearby continuousmantles of that soil. They are the samesoil series whether in biscuits or incontinuous mantle. This suggests thegeomorphology-the source of parentmaterial and the conditions underwhich the soil was formed is the samefor the biscuits as for the soil mantle.

One previously unpublished concept ofthe origination of biscuit scabland isbased on much personal experiencewith the biscuit scabland complex inthe Columbia Basin and Blue Mountainprovinces in Oregon and on variouspublished articles, one of which lists 23topical references.18

The concept originated with a pointmade in one of these articles about theera of glaciation in North America. Thearticle noted that there were "sympa-thetic" ice sheets on areas at higherelevation south of the continentalglaciers. This is credible and forms thebasis for the following concept of howbiscuit scabland originated.

Glaciers lay north of Oregon. Biscuitscabland is on ridges and plateaus be-tween 1,700 and 3,500 feet in Colum-bia Basin Province and at about 3,500to 4,500 feet elevation in Blue Moun-tain Province.

Sympathetic ice sheets likely coveredsome of these higher areas at the timeglaciers were receding. Elevationsabove 4,500 feet and other, lower areascould have been covered with thick iceor even local glaciers. When a layer ofice melts, it melts uniformly over thesurface but also melts faster in somespots than in others to form circular orelongated depressions which eventuallybecome holes in the ice.

As glaciers were receding north, theprevailing winds were from the cold,glacial area to the warm, equatorialarea, i.e., from north to south generally.As glaciers receded, glacial debris wasexposed. Prevailing winds blew dustsouth where it was deposited to becomethe vast aeolian silty soils that typifythe upland soils of Columbia Basin andBlue Mountain provinces.

Aeolian soil material was deposited assympathetic ice sheets melted. Con-ceivably, the aeolian deposits on the icewashed into and collected in holeswhere the ice was melting. These col-lections of silt became mounds as theice sheet melted. The final ice melt onthe sympathetic ice sheet was wherescabland now exists between themounds.

Obviously, erosion from runoff wouldremove silts from the area that is nowscabland. Erosion also would tend toround the top of each biscuit and toslope the sides. Elongated biscuits areoriented generally with the slope of theland, and lines of biscuits oriented withthe slope of the land are common. Thismight indicate that the final meltworked its way downslope in a concen-trated stream, thereby flushing off thesilt to form a linear pattern of scabland.This water action might also helpexplain why scabland without biscuitsis primarily along outer edges of ridgesand on sloping areas in minor drainageswhere water had concentrated to washthe silt off basalt bedrock.

Columbia Basin Ecological Province 29

Some biscuits are deeper than others,which might be related to the thicknessof the ice sheet. Holes would havemore time to fill with silt where the icesheet was fairly thick and the processof melting was prolonged. Some areasdo not have biscuit scabland but dohave a solid mantle of silty soils. Thismay indicate the absence of an icesheet at the time of aeolian deposition;many of these extensive soil areas areat relatively low elevations where icesheets probably did not exist.

After the glaciers receded, prevailingwinds returned to the global pattern,generally from southwest to northeast.The winds redistributed the aeolian siltsover the landscape to leave shallow soillayers on south- and west-facing slopesand deep deposits like snowdrifts onnorth-facing slopes. This pattern istypical currently. After the glacial era,prevailing southerly winds depositedand redistributed volcanic ash over thearea from sources such as Mt. Mazama.Consequently, volcanic ash is a promi-nent component of aeolian silty soils inboth Columbia Basin and Blue Moun-tain provinces in Oregon.

SoilsDischarges of materials from pre-

historic Umatilla River and wind redis-tribution of sandy and silty surfacematerials originating during glacialmelt have likely influenced the mix ofparent materials of the lake basin soils.

Sandy soils of this basin include suchseries as Quincy, Royal, Taunton, andKoehler, which represent deep sands aswell as sandy soils overlying hardpansor gravel beds and miscellaneous de-posits related to the ice age. Stabilizedsand dunes, usually oriented southwestto northeast, account for some of thelow ridges and valleys that typify partsof the basin. The dunes are representedgenerally by the Winchester soil series.

Bottomlands along lower Butter Creekand lower Umatilla River, which areused mainly for irrigated agriculture,are not sandy soils. They include suchsoil series as Onyx and Hermiston,which consist of alluvial silty materialsoriginating in upper reaches of major

drainages. Onyx silt loam is one of thebest bottomland soils in eastern Oregonfor irrigated agriculture. Large areas ofstrongly sodic bottomland and low ter-race soils, such as Stanfield and Uma-pine series, are around Hermiston.

Along the perimeter of this ancient lakethere is evidence of a lakeshore terraceat about 900 feet elevation where itbutts against adjacent uplands. Gener-ally, this terrace consists of laminatedcalcareous silty lacustrine depositswhich are likely related to aeolianmaterials reportedly blown southduring the era of receding glaciersfarther north.

Conceivably, aeolian materials thatwere deposited in the ancient lakebecame mud flats around the perimeter,and these now appear as a lakeshoreterrace. Thin, laminated horizontallayers in this silty lakeshore terracematerial support the concept that theywere lacustrine deposits, i.e., depositedin still water over a long time.

Along the lake basin's northeast peri-meter, the lakeshore terrace is overlaidby sandy materials of varying thick-ness. They likely are related to theprevailing northwesterly winds whichredistributed sandy surface materialsfrom the interior to the northeasternedge of the lake basin after the lake re-ceded. Sagehill series soils illustrate thesand overlay of the silty lake terrace.

Along the southeastern and southernpart of the lake basin, the lakeshoreterrace is overlaid by aeolian siltymaterial of varying thickness. Theseaeolian deposits likely were made afterwater receded and the lakeshore terracewas exposed. Usually the line of de-marcation is fairly distinct between theaeolian deposit and the underlyinglacustrine deposit. Moreover, the aeo-lian deposit overlying the lakeshoreterrace resembles nearby upland aeoli-an soils in parent material, structure,and texture. Silty soils overlying thelakeshore terrace around the perimeterof this lake basin include series such asSagemoor, Warden, and Ellisforde.

Basalt underlies Columbia Basinuplands. Soils overlying this basalt

bedrock have been formed primarily insilty aeolian deposits that reportedlyoriginated and were blown south duringthe era glaciers receded in Washington.These silty soils are quite uniformthroughout the province but varysomewhat from location to location dueto climatic factors that influence soilprofile development, such as color andsubsoil texture.

For example, Ritzville series is a deepsilt loam associated with precipitationof 9 to 11 inches. Walla Walla series isa deep silt loam associated with about13 to 14 inches precipitation. Soils suchas Condon and Valby are moderatelydeep silt loam over basalt, and PilotRock series is moderately deep siltloam over cemented hardpan; all areassociated with 12 to 14 inches preci-pitation. Morrow silt loam is moder-ately deep over basalt and has a siltyclay loam subsoil which reflects the 14-to-15-inch precipitation zone in whichit is found.

All these soils in Columbia BasinProvince are lighter in color than soilsformed in comparable aeolian depositsin Blue Mountain Province.

Grassland soils on north-facing slopesare normally deeper than those on pla-teaus due to the snowdrift effect thatprevailing southerly winds have had inredistributing aeolian deposits. Wren-them soil series reflects this situation.Soils on south- and west-facing slopes,such as Lickskillet series, are verystony and fairly shallow to bedrock.

The upland soil that suports naturalshrub-grassland vegetation in Colum-bia Basin Province lies on plateaus andridgetops and is very shallow and verystony. It has a thin loamy surface layerand clayey subsoils and is usually lessthan 10 inches deep to basalt bedrock.The soil series is Bakeoven, and thisland is locally called scabland.

ClimateBased on six official weather

stations representing a cross-section ofthe ancient lake basin area in whichfarming usually requires irrigation, theaverage annual precipitation for the


Table 11. Climatic Data for Columbia Basin Ecological Province, Oregon."

Station and Precipitation Average maximum and minimumlength of record Elevation Annual Oct.-Feb. March-June temperatures (°F)

(years) (feet) (inches) (%) (%) January March-June

Area in which farming usually requires irrigationGilliam County

Arlington Airport 20 890 8.8 66 27 38.7-25.1 70.2-44.5

Blaylock 17 237 9.8 68 24 39.9-27.2 71.8-47.3

Morrow CountyElla 9 830 8.8 61 28 39.7-22.7 70.0-41.6

Umatilla CountyEcho 19 601 10.2 57 33 38.9-24.0 71.8-43.3

Hermiston 22 451 8.5 60 32 39.5-22.4 72.4-42.4

Umatilla 21 285 7.8 59 32 39.7-23.8 71.9-43.1

Irrigated-area Average 9.0 62 29 39.4-24.2 71.3-43.7

Area of dryland summer-fallow farmingGilliam County

Condon 21 2,880 12.4 52 37 36.6-20.7 62.5-35.4

Mikkalo 7 1,500 9.1 61 25 35.6-20.9 65.7-40.1

Morrow CountyHeppner22 1,950 13.1 50 40 39.9-23.7 64.4-37.4

Sherman CountyGrass Valley 15 2,381 11.2 58 33 38.0-21.8 63.6-34.5

Kent 21 2,707 10.7 53 36 36.6-21.7 62.3-38.2

Moro 22 1,858 11.8 63 30 36.3-22.7 64.6-37.2

Wasco 22 1,270 11.7 65 27 37.0-23.6 66.2-40.6

Umatilla CountyMilton-Freewater 20 1,056 13.8 54 38 39.8-25.3 69.8-44.9

PendletonRoundup Park 40 1,070 14.2 54 33 40.5-24.9 73.7-43.2

Pilot Rock 18 1,817 13.7 48 41 40.5-23.3 67.8-41.2

Wasco CountyDufur 20 1,250 12.0 67 28 37.9-22.3 66.8-36.0

Dryland-area Average 12.2 57 33 38.0-22.8 66.2-39.0

No official weather station in Columbia Basin Province in Wheeler County.

area is 9 inches. Of this, 29% comesduring the growing season of nativeherbaceous plants, March through June.About 62% of total precipitation fallsfrom October through February. Aver-age January maximum and minimumtemperatures are 39.4 and 24.2°F,respectively. Average March throughJune maximum and minimum tempera-tures are 71.3 and 43.7°F, respectively.

Based on 11 official weather stationsrepresenting a cross-section of the siltyupland area in which dryland summer-fallow wheat farming is practiced, theaverage annual precipitation there is12.2 inches. Of this, 33% falls duringthe growing season of dryland agricul-

tural crops and herbaceous nativeplants, March through June. Octoberthrough February precipitation is about57% of total annual precipitation.Average January maximum and mini-mum temperatures are 38 and 22.8°F,respectively. Average March throughJune maximum and minimum tempera-tures are 66.2 and 39°F, respectively.Precipitation and temperature data varyfrom locality to locality (Table 11).

It should also be noted that thisprovince, especially the ancient lakebasin portion, is noted for dense fog inwinter. This is a source of precipitationthat is not represented in weather-station data, yet likely it has a signifi-

cant effect on the moisture available forplant growth.

VegetationVegetation in the ancient lake basin

portion of Columbia Basin Province inOregon is a natural shrub-grassland(10% or more canopy cover of shrubs)based on soil and ecological site studiesmade in the 1950s and 1960s.38

Shrubs, such as big sagebrush, rubberrabbitbrush, green rabbitbrush, andbroom snakeweed are prominentthroughout the lake basin area on deepsandy soils, on sandy soils overlyingburied sedimentary deposits, and onshallow silty soils overlying the


sedimentary lakeshore terrace. Broomsnakeweed was called matchweed bylocal old-timers because sheepherderswintering flocks on this "desert range"would crumple a handful of the resin-ous shrub as tinder to start a fire.

The 1937 Western Range Survey ofUSDI Grazing Service District 7, whichextended more or less from Arlingtoneast to the Stanfield area and from theColumbia River south to about thepresent southern boundary of theBombing Range, mapped extensiveareas of bitterbrush.

This federal grazing district was, at thattime, used primarily to winter sheepand cattle. Subsequent soil and sitestudies reveal that bitterbrush grows inthis area on relatively deep sands andon stabilized sand dunes. In this loca-tion and climate, bitterbrush does notgrow on sites where the sandy surfacesoil overlying sedimentary deposits isrelatively thin nor on sites where thesurface soil is loamy or silty. Thissuggests a soil-moisture relationship.

The presence of vigorous bitterbrush onsandy soils in this location under a cli-mate of less than 9 inches annual preci-pitation, over 60% of which falls inwinter, is indeed an ecological odditygiven the normal habitat of bitterbrushin Oregon. Ecological site studies inOregon over many years indicate thatbitterbrush requires effective moistureof 12 inches annual precipitation ormore.' In the case of this lake basin,some combination of ecological factorsobviously is producing the requiredeffective environment. Possible factorsmight include the region's fog patternsand soil characteristics.

This basin is noted for dense fog inwinter which might augment precipita-tion records significantly because plantfoliage intercepts fog moisture anddirects it into the soil profile. Actualannual precipitation may exceed 9inches in some years. Sandy soilscharacteristically absorb water readily;a high percentage of water absorbed isreadily available to plants; andabsorbed water penetrates deeper insandy soil during a given period than insoils of finer texture.

Table 12. Generalized Moisture Equivalent (Field Capacity)of Various Soil Textures.

Moistureequivalent

Texture (% of dry soil) Incremental increase

Coarse sand 4.6

Fine sand 7.6 65% greater than coarse sand

Loamy sand no data Possibly 50 to 60% greater than fine sand

Sandy loam 15.5 104% greater than fine sand, but possibly only

Loam 18.9

about 40% greater than loamy sand

22% greater than sandy loam

Silt loam 24.4 29% greater than loam

Clay loam 32.4 33% greater than silt loam

Clay 38.2 18% greater than clay loam

Sandy soils actually retain water atdepths for longer than one might expectbecause sand itself acts as a mulch thatprotects deep soil moisture fromexcessive evaporation and desiccation.Capillary movement of water upward isless among coarse soil particles thanamong fine soil particles.

Early soil and site studies in this basinrevealed moist to wet sand below about6 feet deep in July and August. How-ever, the possibility that the moisturewas wicked up from an undergroundaquifer is not improbable in those daysbefore irrigation from wells loweredthe water table. Bitterbrush is a verydeep-rooted plant once established, andit can utilize such deep soil moisture.

The water-holding capacity of varioussoil textures (Table 12) indicates thereis a greater increment in moisture equi-valent (field capacity) between severalsandy-soil textures than between loamysoils or soils of finer texture. 19,20

An interesting factor in soil-plant rela-tionships is seen in the incrementalincreases in field capacity-such as theability of the soil profile to retain water,from coarse sand to fine sand and likelyon to loamy sand-and the decreasingincrement between loamy sand andsandy loam textures. The relationshipbetween the incremental increase offield capacity in various sandy texturesand the occurrence of bitterbrush in thissandy basin is not clear.

However, a cursory study of relation-ships between bitterbrush stands and

soil textures in this sandy lake basinwas made during the 1950s or 1960s.38Auger holes at most section corners andquarter-corners provided a uniform gridsampling in an area about 4 miles fromeast to west and 2 miles from north tosouth. The area had sporadic stands ofvigorous bitterbrush, some 30 to 40sample plots. Essentially all plots withsoil described as loamy sand or finesand produced bitterbrush. In virtuallyall locations where soil was describedas sandy loam there was no bitterbrush.

The phenomenon of loamy sand plotswith no bitterbrush suggests a wildfirepattern. The major habitat for bitter-brush in this lake basin portion ofColumbia Basin Province are theQuincy loamy fine sand and Koehlerloamy sand soil series.

The growing season of bitterbrush inthe lake basin is very much earlier thanany other bitterbrush site in easternOregon. Here, bitterbrush flowers atleast 30 days earlier than in otherlocations where it is common. Thatindicates that the annual growth cycleof bitterbrush in the basin has adaptedto begin and end while adequate soilmoisture is available.

The herbaceous vegetation on thesesandy sites is dominated by needle-and-thread, Indian ricegrass, Sandberg blue-grass, and varying amounts of Colum-bia milkvetch, wormwood, pteryxia,Gorman lomatium, and Carey balsam-root. Cheatgrass is a strong winterannual which forms rosettes 3 to 6inches in diameter over the the winter


and provides excellent spring forage forvarious classes of grazing animals.These sandy sites also are well knownas nesting habitat for curlews.

Herbaceous vegetation on stabilizedsand dunes is dominated by Indianricegrass, yellow wildrye, Sandbergbluegrass, squirreltail, and a variety ofperennial forbs such as buckwheat,Gorman lomatium, wormwood,pteryxia, scurfpea, yellow spiderflower,veiny dock, and pricklypear.

Around the southern perimeter of thelake basin, the natural plant communityon the silty lake terrace site is one ofthe simplest natural plant communities

in Oregon. It is a shrub-grassland inwhich big sagebrush, gray rabbitbrush,and broom snakeweed constitute slight-ly more than 10% canopy cover. Blue-bunch wheatgrass and Sandberg blue-grass strongly dominate the total cover;perennial forbs, such as yarrow, snowbuckwheat, woollypod loco, and spread-ing phlox are sparse in the canopycover. A good example of this site inreasonably natural ecological status isThe Nature Conservancy's BoardmanResearch Natural Area in the southeastcorner of the Boardman Bombing Range.

Based on 171 recordings representingexamples of eight major ecological

Table 13. Average Dates Vegetation Growth Begins and Endsin Columbia Basin Ecological Province, Oregon.



Area in which farming usually requires irrigationGilliam County

Arlington Airport 20 890 February 20 May 20Blaylock 17 237 February 18 May 27

Morrow CountyElla 9 830 February 25 May 13

Umatilla CountyEcho 19 601 February 20 May 25Hermiston 22 451 February 25 May 16Umatilla 21 285 February 22 May 11

Area of dryland summer-fallow farmingGilliam County

Condon 21 2,880 March 15 July 5Mikkalo 7 1,500 March 1 May 31

Morrow CountyHeppner 22 1,950 March 1 June 22

Sherman CountyGrass Valley 15 2,381 March 7 June 26Kent 21 2,707 March 15 June 22Moro 22 1,858 March 7 June 22Wasco 22 1,270 March 1 June 17

Umatilla CountyMilton-Freewater 20 1,056 February 22 June 22Pendleton

Roundup Park 40 1,070 February 22 June 21Pilot Rock 18 1,817 March 26 June 13

Wasco CountyDufur 20 1,250 March 1 June 21

* The average date vegetation growth begins on native perennial bunchgrasses isapproximately the date average daily temperatures reach 39 to 40°F. Average dategrowth ends is considered to be when available soil moisture is depleted. Interpreta-tions are based on data in Johnsgard.'7

sites in this province in southern Uma-tilla, Morrow, Gilliam, and Shermancounties on which native vegetationwas in high ecological status, thenatural vegetation of silty uplands inColumbia Basin Province in Oregon isa natural grassland, i.e., less than 10%canopy cover of shrubs (Fig. 16).

Data from these 171 recordings showthat low gray rabbitbrush was on 87%of the plots but in very minor amounts.In contrast, big sagebrush was recordedon only 29% of the plots and only inminor amounts. It is typical of range-lands throughout the silty uplands ofthis province in Oregon to have lowgray rabbitbrush and broom snake-weed, rather than big sagebrush, as theshrub component of native plant com-munities in deteriorated ecologicalstatus. Natural revegetation of aban-doned croplands in this province resultsin gray rabbitbrush as the primaryshrub component. Other shrubs that aresparse in examples of high-ecological-status plant communities include rose,gray horsebrush, and green rabbitbrush.

Obviously, the question of fire arises indiscussions of whether these plant com-munities are natural grasslands. Firecan temporarily eliminate big sage-brush and may even aggravate growthof gray rabbitbrush. However, the areacovered by the recordings is extensive,so it is not reasonable to assume that allexamples of high ecological status haduniform and comparable fire historiesand that an original sagebrush coverhad been uniformly and permanentlyaltered by fire over the entire area.

Based on ecological site studies, thenatural shrub pattern on silty uplandranges in Columbia Basin Province ofOregon changes from east to west. Eastof the southwest corner of MorrowCounty, big sagebrush is minimal, ifpresent at all, in native plant communi-ties in high ecological status. Big sage-brush is not a prominent shrub evenunder deteriorated ecological status.However, in the vicinity of southeast-ern Gilliam County and west intosouthern Sherman and Wasco counties,the likelihood of big sagebrush in-creases somewhat, especially underdeteriorated ecological status. Still,


shrubs collectively usually do not makeup 10% canopy cover on silty uplandranges in that portion of ColumbiaBasin Province.

Several broad ecological factors arerelated to this phenomenon.

First, the reason big sagebrush is mini-mal, if present at all, east of GilliamCounty may be that Blue MountainProvince native plant communitiesform a buffer zone between that portionof the Columbia Basin and the JohnDay Province to the south.

Big sagebrush is a prominent compo-nent of the natural shrub-grasslandsthat typify the John Day Province. BlueMountain native plant communitieshave evolved under very favorable soiland climate conditions, and a widevariety of other shrubs typify this prov-ince. For this reason, big sagebrush hasnot been able to encroach north throughthe vigorous Blue Mountain plant com-munities. This explanation is supportedby the fact that, throughout Blue Moun-tain Province, big sagebrush is not aprominent shrub no matter what theplant community's ecological status.

Second, west of Kinzua, the western-most extent of Blue Mountain Prov-ince, a huge topographic saddle extendsfrom Kinzua west about 50 miles to theMutton Mountains in the northeastcorner of Warm Springs Indian Reser-vation. The Deschutes and John Dayrivers flow north through this saddle;however, the rivers' tributaries gener-ally are entirely within John Day orColumbia Basin province. The demar-cation line between the two provincesessentially is the division betweenwatersheds draining north into Colum-bia Basin from those draining southinto John Day Province.

Along this huge saddle, the ColumbiaBasin and John Day provinces are con-tiguous at a relatively low elevation of3,000 to 3,500 feet. Presumably, thisoffers less resistance to encroachmentof vigorous shrubs, such as big sage-brush, from John Day Province intoColumbia Basin Province, unlike thesituation in the Blue Mountain bufferzone. Nevertheless, native plant

communities in high ecological statuson silty aeolian Columbia Basin sites,such as near Shaniko, generally do notsupport a 10% canopy cover of shrubs.This is in spite of the likelihood thatnative vegetation around Shaniko wasdecimated in early 1900s when Shanikowas the largest inland shipping centerfor wool in the United States.

Two reasonable conclusions are that thenatural native vegetation on uplandsilty aeolian soils of Columbia BasinProvince in Oregon was not a shrub-grassland, and that big sagebrush is nota vigorous component of deterioratedplant communities, such as those inJohn Day Province.

Specimens of big sagebrush that lookvery old are in western Columbia BasinProvince. They are almost exclusivelyalong drainageway bottoms in the Des-chutes and John Day river canyons andtheir tributaries.

In this part of the province, these drain-ageway bottoms consist of deep, verygravelly and stony colluvial materialsoriginating from nearby basalt rimrocksand canyon walls. These kinds of soilsprovide ideal sites for big sagebrush.

In the same area, where silty alluviumfrom upland silty soils has accumulatedas meadows in drainages, natural vege-tation consists of basin wildrye andassociated meadow species, dependingon degree and duration of soil moisture.

It seems reasonable to assume that theincidence of big sagebrush in the west-ern part of the province likely is relatedto the avenues for encroachmentprovided over time by the Deschutesand John Day river canyons and theirdendritic tributaries, which havesuitably deep, coarse, colluvial soils.

In the Columbia Basin Province ofOregon, the silty upland ranges includea ecological site locally called scab-land. It occurs along the outer edges ofridgetops and on sloping areas in minordrainages between about 1,000 and3,500 feet elevation. Slopes vary from2 to 20%. The soil of this site is verystony loam and is very shallow (7 to 10inches) over basalt bedrock. Natural

vegetation is dominated by Sandbergbluegrass and stiff sagebrush, i.e., ashrub-grassland. Some areas, however,have no stiff sagebrush although thesoil and other components of the plantcommunity remain the same.

Overall, the natural plant communitiesof silty upland sites throughout theColumbia Basin Province of Oregonconsist primarily of bluebunch wheat-grass, Sandberg bluegrass, Idahofescue, and a wide variety of perennialforbs. Idaho fescue is absent on themost droughty sites, such as southexposures, but it strongly dominates theplant community on more moist sitessuch as steep north exposures.

The cultivar 'Sherman' big bluegrasswas originally selected from a grass-land site near Moro in Sherman County.Beardless bluebunch wheatgrass, fromwhich the cultivar `Whitmar' wasdeveloped, has been recorded in thesilty-soil site west of Boardman andnorth of the sandy-soil area. However,the type location from which Whitmarwas selected is in Whitman County,Washington.

Management ImplicationsColumbia Basin Province in

Oregon includes irrigated agricultureon bottomlands along major drainagessuch as Rock Creek in Gilliam County;Willow and Butter creeks in MorrowCounty; and Birch and McKay creeksand Umatilla River in Umatilla County.These sources of irrigation water arefairly reliable because they are renewedby runoff from prominent watersheds.However, water use likely will be morestrictly controlled under fish-habitatand similar regional programs. Theselands are used primarily to producelivestock forages.

Some farmers use sprinkler irrigationfrom wells in the vicinity of Athena toproduce wheat, peas, alfalfa, and othercrops. Irrigation near Milton-Freewateris primarily a gravity-flow system fororchards and a variety of food crops.Boardman-area irrigation involves bothgravity-flow systems from water storedin Cold Springs Reservoir and pumpingfrom wells and the Columbia River;


Table 14. Major Ecological Sites in Columbia Basin Ecological Province, Oregon.Upland site types Bottomland site types

Climax type & characteristic vegetation & characteristic vegetation

Natural grassland Arid rolling hills Semimoist bottom(less than 10% Bluebunch wheatgrass, Sandberg bluegrass Basin wildrye, bluebunch wheatgrass,canopy cover Rolling hills a Idaho fescue

of shrubs) Bluebunch wheatgrass, Idaho fescue, Sandberg Moist bottom

bluegrass Basin wildrye, sod bluegrasses

Droughty south exposure Semiwet bottom

Bluebunch wheatgrass, Sandberg bluegrass Redtop, tufted hairgrass, Kentucky

South exposure bluegrass

Bluebunch wheatgrass, Sandberg bluegrass, Alkaline bottomIdaho fescue Basin wildrye, saltgrass

Sandy north exposureNeedlegrass, big bluegrass, Sandberg bluegrass

Droughty north exposureBluebunch wheatgrass, Idaho fescue, Sandbergbluegrass

North exposureIdaho fescue, bluebunch wheatgrass, Sandbergbluegrass

Scabland a

Sandberg bluegrass/snow buckwheat, phlox

Shrub-grassland Scabland a(10% or more Sandberg bluegrass/stiff sagebrushcanopy coverof shrubs)

Deciduous tree(5% or morecanopy coverof mature trees)

Sand duneIndian ricegrass/desert parsley/bitterbrush, bigsagebrush

Sand terraceNeedle-and-thread, Indian ricegrass/bitterbrush,big sagebrush

Silty terraceBluebunch wheatgrass, Sandberg bluegrass/bigsagebrush

Moist sodic bottomBasin wildrye, cordgrass, saltgrass/greasewood

River bottomForbs/tall shrubs/cottonwoods

a Biscuit scabland is a mapping unit that represents a complex of rolling hills ecological site (the biscuits) and scabland ecologicalsite, in which the biscuits occupy 5% or more of the area in the mapping unit. If biscuits cover less than 5%, the site should be

considered scabland.

production is of livestock forages,grains, and food crops. State regula-tions limit use of underground water inorder to maintain aquifers. Other watersources are likely to come under strictercontrol because of regional fish habitatprograms.

Wind erosion is a potential problem inthe area of irrigated sandy soils if thewater supply diminishes significantly.Cultivation has destroyed all nativevegetation, so these soils are extremely

erodible when exposed and dry. If itbecomes necessary to take some landsout of irrigation due to limited water, itwill be very difficult to revegetate withspecies that will establish and persist inthe and climate and shifting sandysoils. Massive sand dunes easily couldinundate existing urban and ruralhomes and businesses and coverotherwise stable agricultural lands.

From Pilot Rock west, arable soils areunder a summer-fallow wheat cropping

rotation with special effort to minimizeerosion, especially in fallow years.Practices such as stubble mulch, cross-slope farming, diversions, terraces,contour strip cropping, and others havebeen tried with mixed success primarilybecause these practices often requirespecial equipment and more time andlabor, which cuts net income.

The silty upland ranges of ColumbiaBasin Province in Oregon are not wellsuited for year-long livestock grazing


because, generally speaking, theirsummer forage is not good quality.

A well-balanced ranch in this areaincludes irrigated land for producingwinter feeds, some higher-elevationsummer rangelands which are usuallyin Blue Mountain Province, and lower-elevation rangelands in Columbia BasinProvince for spring, late autumn, and,to some extent, winter grazing.

The ancient lakeshore terraces west ofButter Creek Junction on Highway 207are covered by a mantle of silty aeoliansoil. Where the overlay is relativelythin, the underlying laminated calcare-ous lakeshore terrace is close enough tothe surface to resist water and rootpenetration, making these soils gener-ally unsuited for dryland agriculture.

Examples of abandoned cropland areon the lakeshore terrace along the lake'ssouthern perimeter. Some of theseabandoned croplands were later seededto crested wheatgrass in an attempt toreplace the destroyed native forage.However, the seedings were largelydisappointing or totally unsuccessful, atleast partly because the ancient lake-shore terrace is not suited to cultivationor reseeding, even though it is a siltysoil and easily worked. Management-or rather, mismanagement-of thegrass seedings likely is also a factor inthe adverse results.

Ancient Lake BasinDemarcation

The eastern line of demarcationbetween the ancient lake basin andaeolian silty uplands in Columbia BasinProvince begins at the Columbia Rivernear the Oregon-Washington border. Itmeanders south and up Juniper Canyonto near where the north and south forksof Juniper Canyon merge. From therethe line goes southwesterly to about 5miles east of Cold Springs Reservoirand then generally south to crossUmatilla River about 3 miles southeastof Echo.

In this area, the ancient lakeshoreterrace comprises the substrata beneathoverlying soils which are the Sagehillfine sandy loam and Ellisforde silt loam

soils. The soil representing the aeoliansilty uplands to the east of the lakebasin is Ritzville silt loam 75

From about 1 mile south of Echo, theline follows southwest about 2 milessouth of and nearly parallel to thehighway between Echo and Highway207 near Butter Creek. The line veersnorth to cross Butter Creek at about thejunction of Echo Road and Highway207 and then runs west.

The line between the ancient lake basinand the deep aeolian silty soil uplandsto the south continues west to enterMorrow County in the middle of Town-ship 3N R27E. Then it goes southwestto near Sand Hollow where it turnssoutheast to cross Highway 207 about2 miles west of Butter Creek Junction.From this point west, the ancient lake-shore terrace that forms the perimeterof the lake basin is covered by a mantleof silty aeolian soil that includes War-den, Ellisforde, and Sagemoor soils.85

From the vicinity of Butter CreekJunction, the line goes west acrossSand Hollow to upper Juniper Canyonwhere it follows the canyon northwestto near the south boundary of thebombing range. From there it runs westat about 900 feet elevation along theupper level of the lakeshore terrace toCecil, where it crosses Willow Creekand enters Gilliam County.

The Oregon Trail traversed from east towest along the southern edge of thisancient lakeshore terrace on the way toCecil on Willow Creek. Well Springand the nearby historic site of a skir-mish with Indians are on the lakeshoreterrace.

From the vicinity of Cecil, where thedemarcation line of the ancient lakebasin crosses into Gilliam County, theline runs west to Fourmile Canyon. Itfollows the east canyon rim north andthen along the Eightmile Canyon tocross Willow Creek at Rhea.78 This areaof Warden soil in Gilliam County is thefarthest west in the Columbia BasinProvince in Oregon that a sizable areaof the calcareous laminated silty lake-shore terrace exists under a thin mantleof silty aeolian materials.

However, small remnants of thislakeshore terrace can be found about4 miles up the Deschutes River fromHighway 84, which indicates that thisterrace may have been between WillowCreek and the Deschutes River whilethe ancient lake was intact. Conceiv-ably, when the ice jam at The Dallesbroke, water in the lake rushing downthe Columbia Gorge could havescoured out all but remnants of the siltylakeshore terrace lying west of thisremaining segment in northeasternGilliam County.


Columbia - Palouse DemarcationThe line of demarcation between

Columbia Basin and Palouse provincesbegins at the Oregon-Washingtonborder about 5 miles northwest ofMilton-Freewater in Umatilla County.From that point the line runs southwest,passing just east of Milton-Freewater.

About 2 miles south of Milton-Freewater the line turns west to about3 miles north of Helix where it abruptlyveers south across Wildhorse Creek tothe Umatilla River about 1.5 milesnortheast of Mission. It follows on thenorth side of the river east upstream toabout Cayuse where the ColumbiaBasin, Palouse, and Blue Mountainprovinces join.

The demarcation line from Milton-Freewater to near Mission is the soilline between Walla Walla silt loamseries, in Columbia Basin Province,and Walla Walla silt loam, high-precipitation phase, which is in PalouseProvince.75

Columbia-Blue MountainDemarcation

The line of demarcation betweenColumbia Basin and Blue Mountainprovinces meanders southwest fromnear Cayuse along the mountainfootslopes at about 2,000 feet elevationto south of Pilot Rock. It continuessouthwesterly up Owens Creek to crossHighway 395 about 8 miles south ofNye Junction, at an elevation of about3,500 feet, and continues west across


37

North Fork Butter Creek to the top ofFranklin Hill. It lies just south of Lenaon South Fork Butter Creek and travelssouthwesterly at about 3,500 feet eleva-tion, passing about 6 miles southeast ofHeppner and on toward Hardman.66

From Hardman vicinity, the line runswest to cross into Gilliam County andthen southwest to just north of Lone-rock, which is in an isolated segment ofJohn Day Province in southeast GilliamCounty.78

About 1 mile west of Lonerock, the lineis between Columbia Basin and BlueMountain provinces for about 3 miles;then, near the old Lost Valley Schoolroad junction, the line is betweenColumbia Basin to the north and JohnDay Province to the south. In thisvicinity, the line is a belt several mileswide in which differentiating featuresof Blue Mountain, Columbia Basin,and John Day provinces intermingle.The mapped line is a judgment call.78 9°

Columbia -John Day DemarcationAbout 3 miles northwest of

Kinzua, which is in Blue MountainProvince, the line of demarcationbetween Columbia River and John Dayprovinces goes westerly at about 4,000feet elevation in the vicinity of Cum-mings Pass and across Butte Creekabout 3 miles northwest of Fossil,which is in John Day Province. Fromthat point, it runs southerly, westerly,and then north at about 4,000 feetelevation to encompass a large rockyplateau that juts south into WheelerCounty. The plateau is in ColumbiaBasin Province.

The plateau's southwest corner, whereit overlooks John Day Province in thevicinity of Clarno, is a good place tosee a very abrupt province boundary.The view from below, near Clarno,shows the plateau above the basalt rim,which is Columbia Basin Province, andthe exposed, light-color tuffaceous andsedimentary deposits below the rimwhich are typical of John Day Prov-ince.

The line between Columbia Basin andJohn Day provinces crosses the John

Day River from Gilliam County intoWasco County at the Wasco-Shermancounty line on the river. The John DayRiver canyon north of this point is inColumbia Basin Province; south, it is inJohn Day Province.

From this point the line of demarcationmeanders southwest along the west-side breaks of John Day River canyonto about 2 miles north of Antelope andcontinues southwest along the north-side breaks of Antelope Creek. About2 miles north of Antelope, a roadcut onHighway 218 displays the ColumbiaBasin basalt cap and silty aeolian soiloverlying the light-color sedimentarymaterials of the John Day Province.This is another example of an abruptline of demarcation that can be exam-ined closely and easily.

From the vicinity of Kinzua westward,the demarcation line is represented by

dthe soils line between Condon anBakeoven soils in Columbia BasinProvince and Simas and Tub soils inJohn Day Province.78.86, 9°

The line of demarcation crosses High-way 97 in Cow Canyon about 1 milenorth of the confluence of Antelope andTrout creeks. From there it goes south-west into Jefferson County to encom-pass the small plateau area about 2miles west of Willowdale.83

The line then follows north along theeast-side rimrocks of Deschutes Rivercanyon to the railroad siding Nena,where it crosses to the west side ofDeschutes River. The Deschutes Rivercanyon north from Nena is in ColumbiaBasin Province; south, it is in John DayProvince. Nena railroad siding is about7 miles upriver from Maupin.

From Nena, the line of demarcationruns southwest up the ridge on the westside of Deschutes River to the top ofthe divide, which used to be the northboundary of Warm Springs IndianReservation. Mutton Mountains are inJohn Day Province. The line followsthe ridgetop northwest to the roadbetween Wapinitia and Simnasho. It isnear this ridgetop pass on the road thatColumbia Basin, John Day, and TheDalles provinces adjoin.

From this point, the line of demarcationbetween Columbia Basin and TheDalles provinces veers north to passjust east of Pine Grove, which is in TheDalles Province, and north in thevicinity of Smock Prairie School andWamic, both of which also are in TheDalles Province. From east of Wamic,the line goes north. In this vicinity, thelower reaches of White River canyon,which heads near Mt. Hood, create anarrow strip of The Dalles Provinceextending into Columbia BasinProvince southwest of Tygh Valley.

Tygh Valley itself is a small island ofJohn Day Province which extendsabout 10 miles east to west and about1 mile north to south. The light-colorclayey ancient sediments (Simas andTub soils) that typify John Day Prov-ince are obvious in this location. Northof Tygh Valley, Tygh Ridge and Post-age Stamp Lookout are in ColumbiaBasin Province.

Columbia -The DallesDemarcation

Where the road to Little BadgerForest Camp crosses Tygh Creek about3 miles northwest of its junction withHighway 197, the line of demarcationbetween Columbia Basin and TheDalles provinces winds north to Dufur,which is barely inside Columbia BasinProvince.

From Dufur, the line travels toward TheDalles. However, the line passes about2 miles east of The Dalles and ends atthe Columbia River near the mouth ofFifteenmile Creek and The Dalles dam.The city of The Dalles is in The DallesProvince.

The line of demarcation betweenColumbia Basin and The Dalles prov-inces is based on soil lines betweenCondon, Walla Walla, Wapinitia, andMaupin soil series, which representColumbia Basin Province in this vici-nity, and Frailey, Wamic, and Skylinesoil series, which are on the easternfootslopes of the Cascade Mountainsand represent The Dalles Province.86

Columbia Basin Ecological Province

HighDesert

EcologicalProvince

LocationHigh Desert Ecological Province in

south-central Oregon is the northern-most segment of the huge westernGreat Basin that extends south intoMexico and east into west Texas .14 InOregon, the province covers about 7.8million acres, mainly in Lake and Har-ney counties but with small portions inMalheur, Deschutes, and Crook coun-ties. It extends south into northwesternWashoe County, California and north-western Humboldt County, Nevada.

DescriptionHigh Desert Province is character-

ized by innumerable large and smallclosed basins surrounded by extensiveterraces formed in ancient lakes. Inter-spersed in this pattern of closed basinsand terraces are low basaltic ridges,hilly uplands, isolated buttes such asGlass, Paiute, and Beattys; mountainssuch as St. Patrick, Wagontire, andWarner; and block-faulted igneousformations such as Steens Mountain,Abert Rim, and Poker Jim Ridge. Ele-vations range from 4,030 feet at HarneyLake to 9,670 feet on Steens Mountain.(Elevations are from USGS 1:250,000topographic maps.)

mediate hills, buttes, and mountains aresteep to very steep. Ecological sitesrange from and low-lying terraces tosubalpine mountain tops and from lake-beds that are nearly always dry to per-manent wetlands and marshes (Fig. 17).

This is the part of Oregon that appar-ently was largely inundated by ancientlakes. Evidence of extensive inundationexists in exposed shoreline terraces,such as on the highway roadcut north-west of the Horse Ranch near FortRock, and in wave-action beachlines onuplands, such as southeast of SummerLake and the east side of Warner Val-ley. These shoreline terraces are atabout 4,500 feet elevation (Fig. 18).

Beachlines and shoreline terraces arenot in a continuous band around theperimeter of this province because theyhave been superseded by other geologicformations in various locations. Forexample, in the area from Fort Rocknorth to Brothers, the ancient shorelineterrace is obscured by a mantle of pum-ice and/or lava flows from Mazama,Paulina, and probably other volcanoes.In this area, the boundary betweenHigh Desert and Mazama provinces is abelt rather than a distinct line.

ceous vegetation resembles the andportion of Mazama Province, which istypified by bluebunch wheatgrass andIdaho fescue. Where less than 8 to 10inches of pumice mantle are overburied soil, herbaceous vegetationresembles the High Desert Province's,which is typified by bluebunch wheat-grass and Thurber needlegrass.32

SoilsSoils in the terraces and basins of

High Desert Province were formedfrom parent materials mainly throughwater action. They range from deeploam to deep clayey soils in basins, andfrom deep sandy to shallow clayey soilson terraces and fans where weak tostrong hardpans are common. On someterraces and fans, the soil surface maybe extremely stony, which might berelated to thin surface flows of basaltthat have fractured or to colluvialaction. These soils may be stronglyalkaline, calcareous, or neutral. Anupland terrace formation occurs in thevicinity of some igneous mountainssuch as Hart Mountain. The slopingupland terrace landform represents anoutflow of igneous tuffaceous materialwhich characteristically weathers intodense clay.

The terrace and basin portion of theprovince is flat to gently sloping; inter-

Field observations indicate that, wherethe pumice mantle is more than 8 to 10inches thick over buried soils, herba-

Usually, these upland clayey terraceshave a surface cover of basalt stones

38 High Desert Ecological Province

MMU

-jr

If

w ...... .. ...

but soil beneath surface stones is notstony. This suggests that a thin layer ofbasalt was deposited on the surface aftertuffaceous underlying material hadformed the upland terrace landform.The upland clayey terraces usuallysupport a stand of low sagebrush.

Soils developed on basaltic uplandsgenerally are moderately deep to veryshallow and stony or gravelly, and theymay be extremely rocky. They aregenerally slightly acidic in surfacelayers to slightly alkaline in the subsoil.

Soils in the vicinity of Christmas Valleyand Fort Rock Valley have sandy sur-face layers which likely are related tothe nearby, upwind, tuffaceous ancientlakeshore terraces. Areas of deep sands,which are probably dunes formed overtime, are common. The northwest partof High Desert Province was settledand dry farmed in about 1910. How-ever, settlement quickly dwindled

before 1914 when drought began.Extensive stands of gray rabbitbrush inthis area indicate previously farmedlands.

Along the north and east boundary ofHigh Desert Province in Oregon, whichis mainly in Harney and Malheurcounties, available soil data do notsuffice to produce groups of soil seriesto illustrate the soils contrasts that areknown to exist between High DesertProvince and contiguous provinces-John Day, Snake River, and Humboldt.This is because available soil maps ofHarney and Malheur counties showreconnaissance mapping units onnonfarmed lands that merely representdifferent kinds of soil, e.g., basins/plains, shallow/not shallow, well-drained/less well drained, loamy/clayey. The drainage basin surveyswere made primarily to identify areasthat might be suitable for irrigation, iffeasible.72' 73, 92, 94

Table 15. Climatic Data for High Desert Ecological Province, Oregon."

This deviation from general soil mapsfor other Oregon counties and riverbasins, where associations of soil serieswere mapped, hinders using soil data tohelp clarify ecological differencesbetween provinces.

ClimateHigh Desert Province in Oregon is

uniformly dry as illustrated by datafrom 16 official weather stations." Allstations, except for Hart MountainAntelope Refuge, are in or near thebottom of closed basins between 4,100and 4,500 feet elevation.

Average annual precipitation for theprovince is about 10 inches. The devia-tion ranges from 8 inches at Plush toabout 12 inches at Diamond and French-glen, which are in the vicinity of SteensMountain. A precipitation map53 showsseveral sizable basins in the provincethat receive less than 10 inches annu-

Station and Precipitation Average maximum and minimumlength of record Elevation Annual Oct.-March April-June temperatures (°F)

(years) (feet) (inches) (%) (%) January April-June

Harney CountyBlitzen 17 4,300 8.6 57 27 38.8-10.8 69.6-31.6

Burns 29 4,140 10.1 68 23 35.5-12.2 68.7-38.8Diamond 11 4,130 12.2 51 36 40.3-17.9 66.2-34.2Frenchglen 5 4,100 12.2 52 37 40.6-18.5 71.2-37.8Harney Expt. Sta. 22 4,139 9.6 68 24 32.8-9.6 68.3-34.8

Northern Great BasinExpt. Sta. 19 4,675 11.8 58 30 35.4-14.9 65.1-35.0

Sod House 15 4,103 9.2 60 28 36.2-14.5 68.0-37.2

Lake CountyCliff a 10 4,300 9.1 49 34 37.9-14.3 65.8-28.6

Fremontb 19 4,300 10.2 65 26 38.3-13.6 66.2-29.2

Hart Mountain 13 5,900 10.2 50 38 36.7-16.1 61.4-33.6Lake a 15 4,316 8.3 48 37 40.0-14.1 67.7-32.1

Paisley 19 4,300 9.9 61 29 39.4-19.8 68.0-38.7Plush 13 4,385 8.0 50 38 40.0-19.2 67.8-38.9Silver Lake 26 4,476 9.9 59 27 39.3-16.9 66.5-31.6

The Poplars 6 4,316 9.7 59 33 35.7-8.6 67.5-31.9

Valley Falls 20 4,250 11.9 61 30 40.1-18.8 71.3-35.1

County AveragesHarney 10.5 59 29 37.1-14.1 68.2-35.6Lake 9.7 56 32 38.6-15.7 66.9-33.3


No weather stations in High Desert Province in Deschutes, Crook, or Malheur counties.a In Christmas Lake Valleyb Near Horse Ranch

High Desert Ecological Province 39

ally, a few prominent uplands that re-ceive about 15 inches annually, about25 inches annually on top of HartMountain, and over 50 inches annuallyon top of Steens Mountain. In someinstances, these differences existwithin a few air miles of each other.

High Desert Province in Oregon alsois uniformly cold. Average maximumand minimum temperatures during thenormal growing season, April throughJune, are about 68 and 35°F respec-tively. Frosts can come any week ofthe year. The relatively low tempera-tures during the growing season effec-tively change the net effective environ-ment on a site 5 which, in turn, signifi-cantly influences the kinds of speciesthat naturally are in the plant commu-nity as well as the amount of herba-ceous growth produced.

Cold springs mean minimum tempera-tures can offset or minimize benefitsderived from favorable moisture con-ditions. When monitoring responses toclimate and/or resource managementstrategies, mean minimum tempera-tures in spring are especially signifi-cant for evaluating results.

Vegetation on top of large mountainsin High Desert Province in Oregonreflects the frigid temperatures andfierce winds there. For example, sage-brush plants on top of Hart Mountainhave hedged canopy tops that slant upfrom west to east, like a roof, awayfrom prevailing westerly winds. Fur-thermore, rough fescue, which is nativeto more northern latitudes (primarilynorth of 47°N latitude in easternWashington, in western Montana, andin British Columbia and Alberta) growson both Hart and Steens mountains atabout 7,000 feet elevation. This sug-gests the climatic conditions there maybe comparable to the more northernlatitudes where rough fescue is acommon component of native plantcommunities.'

Throughout High Desert Province,climate varies widely from locality tolocality at any given time, both season-ally and from year to year, even thoughin general it is a uniformly dry climatewith extremes of cold and hot.

VegetationAccording to the 1936 Forest Type

Map of Oregon,54 stands of westernjuniper were at that time on uplandareas scattered across High DesertProvince in Oregon.

In the area north and northwest ofSilver Lake community, juniper standscollectively covered an estimated18,000 acres in 1936. From the vicinityof Cougar Mountain, about 20 air milesnorth of Silver Lake, scattered juniperstands existed eastward nearly toWagontire Mountain and collectivelycovered an estimated 185,000 acres in1936. On the western and northernslopes of Steens Mountain, an esti-mated 80,000 acres of scattered juniperstands existed in 1936.

Natural stands of western juniper inHigh Desert Province in Oregonusually are associated with rocky orvery stony uplands, lava flows, andridges where understory vegetation,when burning, is insufficient to helpcreate crown fires. In the vicinity ofChristmas Lake Valley, some naturaljuniper stands are on areas of moder-ately deep sands. Natural stands ofjuniper are characterized by the pres-ence of very old trees and of uneven-age classes.

An ecological oddity, the Lost Forest, isnortheast of Christmas Lake Valley. In1936 it covered an estimated 2,500acres and consisted of huge old-growthponderosa pine with some junipergrowing on sandy soils at about 4,500feet elevation. The pine has beenpartially harvested by a BLM timbersale. The isolated stand lies about 25 airmiles east of the nearest pine forest,which is in Mazama Province.

Another isolated 60-acre grove ofponderosa pine is on the Hart MountainNational Antelope Refuge. It is at about6,000 feet elevation in a locationknown as Blue Sky on the east slopesof Warner Peak near Post Meadows,south of the refuge headquarters.

Specimens of white fir, which grow inprotected spots at high elevations, arerare in High Desert Province inOregon.

The 1936 Forest Type Map of Oregonalso shows scattered stands of hard-woods, probably aspen, in drainagesand on north and northwest slopes ofSteens Mountain; collectively thestands covered an estimated 5,000 acresin 1936. Similar stands of aspen onHart Mountain are too small andscattered to be shown on the 1936 map.

The huge number of closed basins thattypify High Desert Province in Oregoninclude perpetually dry lakebeds, lake-beds that are inundated infrequentlyand for short periods, perpetual lakesthat fluctuate in size over time, andwetlands and marshes that are reason-ably perpetual. Vegetation on thebottomlands varies according to thefrequency, depth, and duration ofinundation.

For example, perpetually dry lakebedsusually are vegetated with drought-tolerant upland species such as bigsagebrushes, rabbitbrushes, needle-grasses, ricegrasses, and squirreltail.Lakebeds that are inundated infre-quently and for short periods vary frombeing essentially barren-playas-tothose that grow such plant species assilver sagebrush, mat muhly, stream-bank wheatgrass, basin wildrye, and avariety of forbs.

Larger perpetual lakes that fluctuate insize over time include Silver, Summer,and Abert in Lake County and Silver,Harney, and Malheur in Harney Coun-ty. They also may vary over time frombeing essentially barren to being per-petually vegetated by such plants assedges, rushes, squirreltail, rabbit-brushes, greasewood, and a wide varietyof forbs, all of which are affected bysoil chemistry.

A good example of how vegetationvaries according to duration of standingwater can be seen on a shallow lakebedin southeastern Hart Mountain Refuge.

On this lakebed were at least fourdistinct bands of vegetation betweenthe deepest area and the shoreline. Thearea of longest inundation was veg-tated primarily by spikesedge. The nextband, where inundation was of shorterduration, was vegetated by wedgeleaf


Table 16. Average Dates Vegetation Growth Begins and Endsin High Desert Ecological Province, Oregon.

Station andlength of record

(years)Elevation

(feet)Average date

growth begins"Average dategrowth ends*

Lake CountyCliff 10 4,300 April 1 June 16Fremont 19 4,300 April 5 June 30Paisley 19 4,300 March 15 June 15Lake 15 4,385 April 1 June 5The Poplars 6 4,316 April 4 June 17Plush 13 4,385 March 19 May 12Silver Lake 26 4,476 April 4 June 22Hart Mountain 13 5,900 April? July 2Valley Falls 20 4,250 April 7 July 7

Harney CountySod House 15 4,103 March 22 June 12Diamond 11 4,130 April 1 July 6Harney Expt. Sta. 22 4,139 March 27 June 19Burns 29 4,140 March 18 June 24Frenchglen 5 4,200 March 11 July 2Blitzen 17 4,300 April 1 June 11Northern Great Basin

Expt. Sta. 19 4,675 April 1 July 10


dock. The next-driest band was vege-tated by mat muhly, and the outside,driest band on the lakebed was stream-bank wheatgrass. The beachridge,formed by soil blowing off the dry lake-bed in summer and which was neverinundated, was vegetated by needle-grass and green rabbitbrush. All thevariations on this single lakebed arerelated to the frequency, depth, andduration of inundation (Fig. 19).

In the Harney County lake basin nearBurns, the 1974 General Soil Map ofHarney County 92 shows several kindsof bottomland associated with the threemain sources of water flowing intoSilver, Harney, and Malheur lakes:Silver Creek, Silvies River, and Donnerand Blitzen River.

In this system of streams and lakebeds,deep well-drained loamy and sandysoils on nearly flat alluvial fans andflood plains were mapped on an esti-mated 29,000 acres. The native vege-tation on the bottomlands probably wasa good stand of basin wildrye and otherspecies.

Deep, poorly drained silty and clayeysoils on flood plains were mapped onan estimated 188,000 acres. The nativevegetation probably consisted of a goodstand of mixed meadow grasses, forbs,and shrubs including such species asbasin wildrye, streambank wheatgrass,Cusick bluegrass, sedges, rushes, bigsagebrush, and green rabbitbrush. Muchof this area is currently being used forhay production and pasture and is moreor less irrigated. Deep, poorly drained,strongly alkaline soils on flood plainswere mapped on an estimated 184,000acres. The native vegetation probablyincluded such species as saltgrass,sedges, rushes, greasewood, andrabbitbrushes.

The three lakebeds-Silver, Harney,and Malheur-occupied about 2,000acres, 27,000 acres, and 28,000 acres,respectively, for a total of about 57,000acres in 1974. These lakes are more orless perpetual but fluctuate in size overtime.

The 1971 General Soil Map of LakeCounty84 shows that Paulina Marsh,

north of Silver Lake community,occupied an estimated 21,000 acres atthat time. Soils of the marsh are poorlydrained and clayey. The native vegeta-tion probably included tufted hairgrass,bluegrasses, sedges, and rushes andwas a natural grassland. The marsh ismore or less irrigated and is used forhay production and pasture.

Silver Lake, about 5 miles east of Sil-ver Lake community, occupied an esti-mated 9,600 acres in 1971. The entirelake was mapped as a playa, indicatingthat at that time the lake must havebeen dry. However, circa 1960s, SilverLake was inundated to the tops offenceposts between the highway andthe north boundary of the lakebed,which illustrates the wide fluctuation inthe degree of inundation over time.When the lakebed is partly inundated, itis vegetated with plant species such assquirreltail in drier areas and sedgesand rushes in moist or wet areas. Thelakebed is used primarily for pasture;however, portions of it have beencultivated and farmed in past years.

Summer Lake in 1971 occupied an esti-mated 19,000 acres, and the contiguousplaya occupied an estimated 22,000acres, none of which even now is vege-tated to any extent. At the north end ofSummer Lake is a marsh that occupiedan estimated 4,500 acres in 1971. Thismarsh is maintained by water from theAna River, which originates at a largespring gushing from the base of WinterRim near Summer Lake community.The marsh is managed as part of theSummer Lake State Wildlife Manage-ment Area. The native vegetation variesfrom bluegrasses, sedges, and rushes ondrier areas to cattails and bulrushesaround the edges of ponds, some ofwhich were built and maintained as partof the wildlife management program.

According to the 1971 General SoilMap of Lake County, the ChewaucanMarsh, which is fed by ChewaucanRiver, occupied an estimated 42,000acres between Paisley and Valley Fallscommunity. The core of the marsh, anestimated 25,000 acres, consists of twoareas of poorly drained silty soils thatin native condition probably produced


meadow plants such as tufted hairgrass,redtop, sedges, and rushes.

The area currently is being managed forhay and pasture under extensive water-control systems. These two core areasare separated at The Narrows andnearly surrounded by a contiguous beltof loamy, poorly drained, stronglyalkaline soils that occupy an estimated17,000 acres. In native condition, thisarea probably produced greasewood,rabbitbrushes, saltgrass, squirreltail,

basin wildrye, and similar alkali-tolerant plants. Some of this sodic areais being farmed under irrigation.

Lake Abert north of Valley Falls com-munity occupied an estimated 34,000acres in 1971. Water is from outlets ofChewaucan Marsh and Crooked Creek.Contiguous to the north end of the lakeis a 12,000-acre playa. The shoreline ofLake Abert is not conducive to wetlandvegetation. North of Lake Abert are anumber of perpetual playas such as

Alkali Lake and North Alkali Lakewhich do not produce wetlands.

The group of lakes collectively knownas Warner Lakes in southeast LakeCounty comprises nine major lakes thatvary in size and duration of inundationover time. The lakebeds and their esti-mated acreages are, from south to north:Crump, 7,400 acres; Hart, 5,400 acres;Anderson, 500 acres; Swamp, 770acres; Flagstaff, 3,200 acres; Lower


Table 17. Major Ecological Sites in High Desert Ecological Province, Oregon.Upland site types Bottomland site types


Natural grassland Well-drained bottom(less than 10% Basin wildrye, streambank wheatgrass,canopy cover saltgrassof shrubs) Poorly drained bottom

Tufted hairgrass, northern mannagrass,sedges

Semimarsh25-75% hydrophytic, 75-25% wetlandspecies

Dry mountain meadowNevada and Leiberg bluegrasses,slender wheatgrass

LakebedSpikesedge/wedgeleaf dock/mat muhly

Wet sodic bottomSaltgrass, 10-25% wetland species

Shrub-grassland Arid rolling hills Droughty bottom(10% or more Bluebunch wheatgrass, Thurber needlegrass/ Needlegrasses, Indian ricegrass,canopy cover big sagebrush basin wildrye/big sagebrushof shrubs) Shrubby rolling hills Drylakebed

Idaho fescue/bitterbrush, big and low sagebrush Idaho fescue, Thurber needlegrass,

High rolling hills Indian ricegrass/big sagebrush

Rough and Idaho fescue/mountain and Intermittent lakelow sagebrush Streambank wheatgrass, mat muhly/

Stony terrace silver sagebrush

Sandberg bluegrass, squirreltail/low sagebrush Moist bottomland fanGravelly ridgetop Cusick bluegrass, basin wildrye,

Idaho fescue, Sandberg bluegrass/low sagebrush streambank wheatgrass/big sagebrush

Mahogany rockland Moist sodic bottom

Western needlegrass, western melic/curlleaf Basin wildrye, streambank wheatgrass/

mountain-mahogany greasewood, green rabbitbrush

Steep south exposure Beachridge

Squirreltail, bluebunch wheatgrass/big sagebrush Western needlegrass, basin wildrye/

South exposure green rabbitbrush, greasewood

Bluebunch wheatgrass, Idaho fescue/big andlow sagebrush

Arid north exposureBluebunch wheatgrass, Idaho fescue/bitterbrush,

(continued) big sagebrush


Table 17 (cont'd). Major Ecological Sites in High Desert Ecological Province, Oregon.


Shrub-grassland North exposure(continued) Idaho fescue, western needlegrass/big and

low sagebrushes

Snowpockets AWestern needlegrass, sedge/chokecherry,big sagebrush

Snowpockets BSlender wheatgrass, Columbia needlegrass/bitterbrush/ aspen

Snowpockets CColumbia needlegrass, western needlegrass/snowbrush

Semidesert sand hillsIndian ricegrass, needlegrasses/big sagebrush,

shadscale

Shallow sand hillsThurber needlegrass, thickspike wheatgrass/green rabbitbrush

Deep sand hillsIdaho fescue, Thurber needlegrass/bitterbrush,big sagebrush

Semidesert terraceBluebunch wheatgrass, Webber ricegrass/hopsage,shadscale

Arid loamy terraceBluebunch wheatgrass, Indian ricegrass,squirreltail/big sagebrush

Claypan terraceBluebunch wheatgrass, Sandberg bluegrass/low sagebrush

Platy terrace

Bluebunch wheatgrass, Thurber needlegrass/big sagebrush, bitterbrush

Mountain swaleBasin wildrye, bluegrasses/big sagebrush,green rabbitbrush

Deciduous tree Aspen grove(5% or more Bluegrasses, bearded wheatgrass/aspencanopy coverof trees)

Coniferous tree Juniper rolling hills(5% or more Bluebunch wheatgrass, Idaho fescue/canopy cover big sagebrush/juniperof trees) Juniper south exposure

Bluebunch wheatgrass, Thurber needlegrass/big sagebrush/juniper

Juniper sand hillsIdaho fescue, Thurber needlegrass/big sagebrush/juniper

Pine-juniper-fescue

Idaho fescue/bitterbrush/ponderosa pine, juniper

(Lost Forest)


Campbell, 830 acres; Campbell, 2,400acres; Stone Corral, 1,300 acres; andBluejoint, 8,300 acres.

Many smaller lakes, ponds, and sloughsare in the Warner Valley wetlands. Thevalley has poorly drained silty soils thatin native condition probably producedmeadow plants such as sedges, rushes,tufted hairgrass, and redtop. The wet-lands occupy an estimated 34,000 acresin the Warner Lakes basin.

Some of the area is managed for hayand pasture under extensive water-control systems. Contiguous to the wet-lands in this huge valley, mainly in thesouthwest and northeast parts, are areasof loamy, poorly drained, strongly alka-line soils on an estimated 90,000 acres.In native condition, these areas prob-ably grew greasewood, rabbitbrushes,saltgrass, basin wildrye, squirreltail,and similar alkali-tolerant plants. Muchof the lake and wetland area is in theBLM Warner Lakes Management Plan.

Probably the most significant and valu-able wetlands in High Desert Province,from a total ecosystem viewpoint, arethose associated with isolated springsand streams scattered over the andlandscape. No matter how small, eachprovides the nucleus habitat for a widevariety of birds, mammals, reptiles, andother life which could not exist exceptfor the water and special plant commu-nities there. The wetlands consist ofgrassland meadows, patches of shrubs,aspen groves, and combinations ofthese. The variety of shrubs, grasses,and forbs present depends on thedegree and duration of wetness andshade at each location.

High Desert Province in Oregon isalmost entirely a natural shrub-grassland on uplands. Sagebrushesstrongly dominate among a widevariety of shrub species commonlygrowing in this province.

Sagebrush species are reasonably site-specific in where they grow. Forexample, Wyoming big sagebrush is themost prominent shrub in the province:it is almost ubiquitous throughout theuplands of the province. Basin bigsagebrush grows mainly on sites having

moderately deep loamy soils such asare on droughty bottomlands and fans.Mountain big sagebrush is dominantabove about 5,500 feet elevation ongravelly or stony upland soils. Lowsagebrush is strongly dominant onshallow to very shallow stony uplandsoils, but also grows mixed amongother sagebrush species on moderatelydeep, very gravelly mountain slopes.Silver sagebrush is on some but not allintermittent lakes. Bud sagebrushgrows only on the most and uplands inthe province, which are very shallow,very stony soils. Other shrubs in HighDesert Province in Oregon includebitterbrush, mountain snowberry, andlanceleaf green rabbitbrush which growon certain mountains on moderatelydeep, gravelly upland soils generallyabove 5,500 feet elevation.

Such shrubs as hopsage, littleleaf andspiny horsebrushes, bud sagebrush,shadscale, threadleaf green rabbitbrushand winterfat typify the most and sitesin the province, which are usuallyshallow and stony. These most andsites are minor in extent in High DesertProvince but are widespread in thecontiguous Humboldt Province.

Chokecherry and bittercherry, snow-brush, Utah serviceberry, green rabbit-brush, and aspen grow on areasimmediately below where snowdriftsnormally form in winter. Curlleafmountain-mahogany grows mainly onrocky ridges and bedrock outcropsabove 6,000 feet on some mountains.It usually is in small groves or inelongated strips interspersed with otherkinds of vegetation.

About 30 shrub species have been re-corded consistently on upland sites and15 shrub species on bottomland sites inHigh Desert Province in Oregon. Thisis obviously an incomplete record.

Predominant grass species in the andshrub-grasslands include bluebunchwheatgrass, Idaho fescue, Thurberneedlegrass, squirreltail, and Sandbergand Canby bluegrasses. The most andsites may include Indian and Webberricegrasses and, on sandy soils, needle-and-thread and thickspike wheatgrass.

Rough fescue grows on Hart and Steensmountains above about 6,000 feet onnorth exposures and above about 7,000feet on the undulating mountain tops.The presence of rough fescue in HighDesert Province in Oregon is an eco-logical oddity. The natural range ofrough fescue is in northeastern Wash-ington, western Montana, southeasternBritish Columbia, and southwesternAlberta. The rough fescue on Hart andSteens mountains (Fig. 20) is likely themost southern occurrence of this speciesin the United States. No other sightingshave been reported in Oregon.'

The most moist uplands in High DesertProvince in Oregon apparently are wheresnowdrifts normally form in winter onnorth-facing slopes. The areas are typi-fied by stands of tall shrubs and aspenand by certain grass species includingbig and Wheeler bluegrasses, mountainbrome, Columbia and western needle-grasses, oniongrass, bearded and slenderwheatgrasses, and basin wildrye. About35 major grass and grasslike specieshave been recorded consistently on up-lands and about 40 species on bottom-lands in High Desert Province in Ore-gon-obviously an incomplete record.

High Desert Province in Oregon is rela-tively rich in perennial forb species be-cause habitats range from marsh to anduplands and climate varies from andcold desert at about 4,000 feet elevationto over 50 inches annual precipitationwith fierce winds and temperatures atnearly 10,000 feet elevation.

Some forb species are widespread inthis province; however, a few arespecifically oriented to local situations.Identification of forb species can betroublesome in this portion of Oregonbecause the most commonly used plantmanuals in the Pacific Northwest donot adequately apply to this area. How-ever, Peck's manual of higher plants ofOregon 23 has been a reliable reference.Peck's descriptions of uncommon localspecies and their habitats are surpris-ingly accurate which indicates that heactually was there and personallyobserved the species. That certainlycannot be said of some authors'manuals, apparently compiled usingwork by other taxonomists. Another


useful plant identification manual forthis portion of Oregon is "A Manual ofthe Flowering Plants of California." 15

Management ImplicationsLivestock ranching is the dominant

economic enterprise in High DesertProvince. Agricultural crop alternativesare severely restricted due to adverseclimate and scarcity or cost of water forfarming. Almost all cropland produc-tion is oriented toward livestock ranch-ing. Tourism and outdoor recreation aregrowing enterprises, but their potentialis somewhat curtailed by immensedistances, topographic features, few all-weather roads, weather restrictions,limited kinds of recreational activities,distance from populated areas, and theseasonal nature of recreational activi-ties such as hunting.

The physical and ecological nature ofHigh Desert Province historically hasled to huge ranches and large herds oflivestock. The ranches are so big andcomplicated as to defy quick acquain-tance with the resources, problems,needs, options, and opportunities. Notjust any rancher or manager can operatethem successfully at first tenure.

Long-time resource management pro-grams in High Desert Province arehindered by the ever-changing fieldpersonnel of public agencies who areroutinely transferred and replaced bynewcomers. Yet, the huge amount ofpublic land in the province essentiallygives government officials and pro-grams a strong impact on managementof all the land, private and public.

Potential production of forage per acreon High Desert rangelands is inherentlylow except on meadows and in higher-precipitation zones. A viable ranchingunit requires many acres. Overall, theserangelands have been improving inecological status, slowly but surely, forseveral decades. Currently, there ismuch evidence that proper applicationof modern rangeland science and tech-nology in High Desert grazing strate-gies will produce an upward trend inecological status while at the same timebenefitting watershed health, wildlifehabitat, aesthetics, and quality and

quantity of forage for herbivores, bothwild and domestic.

An upward trend in ecological status isthe most significant criterion on whichto judge progress. Upward trend inecological and soil status occurs veryslowly, especially in early stages, onand rangelands such as in High DesertProvince. Therefore, to attain a verifiedupward trend is a commendableachievement and should be the goal ofcontemporary resource managementprograms (Fig. 21).


High Desert- KlamathDemarcation

Beginning at the southwest cornerof the High Desert Province in Oregon,which is at the Oregon-California bor-der about 15 air miles southwest of Adelin Lake County, the line of demarcationbetween High Desert and Klamathprovinces lies at about 6,000 feet eleva-tion south of the dry Big Lake.

The line goes north at about that eleva-tion to cross Parsnip Creek west of Adel,up Drake Creek to cross the Plushcutoff road going east of Drake Peakand on north across Twelvemile andMcDowell creeks. At Honey Creek, theline turns west to the south end of AbertRim, then south to Sherman Valley fromwhere it follows north along the westside of Abert Rim escarpment nearly toLake Abert. From there, it veers south-west to the vicinity of Valley Falls,which is in High Desert Province.

From the vicinity of Valley Falls, theline meanders northwest at about 4,500feet elevation along the westernboundary of Chewaucan Valley, aroundTucker Hill, southward up Moss Creekabout 6 miles, then northwest along thevalley at the base of Winter Ridge. Thecommunities of Paisley and SummerLake are in High Desert Province.

About 3 miles north of Summer Lakecommunity, the line between HighDesert and Klamath provinces turnswest along the headwaters of variousdrainages that drain north into SilverLake basin. It continues west about 5miles south of Silver Lake community

into the headwaters of Bridge Creek.Here is the juncture of High Desert,Klamath, and Mazama provinces.

The line between High Desert and Kla-math provinces is based on soil linesbetween Booth-Bluejoint and Wood-cock-Mound soils associations, whichtypify the Klamath Province, and Floke-Olson, Harriman-Hager, Crump-Ozamis, and Hart-Plush soil associa-tions typifying High Desert Province.84

High Desert- MazamaDemarcation

From the juncture of High Desert,Klamath, and Mazama provinces, theline of demarcation between HighDesert and Mazama provinces goesnorth across Buck Creek at about 4,900feet elevation and on to the vicinity ofHalfway Lake. To the north, it almostparallels Highway 31 for about 10miles, about 1 to 2 miles west of thehighway. The line crosses Highway 31northwest of the Horse Ranch about 7miles west of Fort Rock community.Where the line crosses Highway 31below the rimrocks, the highwayroadcut reveals an ancient lakeshoreterrace of stratified lacustrine materials,which signifies the boundary of HighDesert Province in this area.

From the highway crossing near HorseRanch, the belt of demarcation betweenHigh Desert and Mazama provincesmeanders northeast by Hole-in-the-Ground, which is in Mazama Province,on by Cabin Lake Ranger Station,which is very near the line of demarca-tion, and on to the north portion ofDevils Garden, in High Desert Prov-ince. From north of Devils Garden, thebelt of demarcation between HighDesert and Mazama provinces runsnortheast to cross Highway 20 about 8miles northwest of Hampton commu-nity at about 4,500 feet elevation. Itcontinues on to the southwest slopes ofHampton Butte and the juncturebetween High Desert, Mazama, andJohn Day provinces.

The belt of demarcation between HighDesert and Mazama provinces issupported by soils such as Gardone,Floke, and Olson soil series, which


typify High Desert Province in thisarea, and Shanahan and Lapine soilseries which typify Mazama Province.84

High Desert-John DayDemarcation

From the juncture of High Desert,Mazama, and John Day provinces atabout 4,500 feet elevation on the south-west slopes of Hampton Butte ineastern Deschutes County, the line ofdemarcation between High Desert andJohn Day provinces goes southeastalong the base of uplands near Hamp-ton community. Then it meanders northfor about 20 miles along the headwatersof drainages eastward into the SouthFork Crooked River, which is the basinwhere GI Ranch headquarters are.

The line crosses the South Fork easterlyat about 4,500 feet elevation and thensouth along the east side of North Forkbasin to near where Crook, Deschutes,and Harney counties join and on southto near where Deschutes, Lake, andHarney counties join. From this area,the line between High Desert and JohnDay provinces travels east at about4,500 feet elevation to the vicinity ofHines, Burns, and Harney, all in HighDesert Province. This demarcation iswhere ancient lake terraces of HighDesert Province adjoin uplands to thenorth, which are in John Day Province.

From the vicinity of Harney commu-nity, the line of demarcation lies atabout 4,500 feet elevation around theeastern border of Harney Basin to thecommunity of Crane. The juncture ofHigh Desert, John Day, and SnakeRiver provinces is near Crane. Fromnear Hampton east to Harney Basin andCrane, the line between High Desertand John Day provinces is the ancient-lake shoreline at about 4,500 feet eleva-tion, reflected on general soil maps.70° 72

High Desert- Snake RiverDemarcation

Just east of Crane, the line betweenHigh Desert and Snake River provincesbegins at about 4,250 feet elevation inthe gap at Crane. Here, one mightspeculate that the ancient lake in whichterraces of Snake River Province were

formed at one time might have beenconnected to the ancient lake in whichterraces of High Desert Province wereformed. If this were so, the lakes wouldhave had to exist simultaneously. But itis a matter of conjectural paleontologyand has no current significance in differ-entiating between the two provinces.

Obviously, terraces and basins in HighDesert Province suggest quiet-waterabatement, which seems logical forsuch closed basins that would have nostrong currents escaping to the ocean.In contrast, the terraces of Snake RiverProvince are typified by strong geo-logic erosion and sharp dendritic drain-age patterns suggesting that the waterreceded in strong currents, possibly outthrough the Snake River to the ocean.Consequently, the kinds of ecologicalsites, soils, plant communities, and es-pecially the management implicationsare markedly different between SnakeRiver and High Desert provinces.

Demarcation between the provincessouth and east from Crane to the vici-nity of Folly Farm and northeast towardCrowley is likely a belt. There is noreadily apparent line of demarcationanywhere within this belt; therefore, theline becomes a matter of field experi-ence and judgment.42

Based on the fact that ancient terracelines are extensive and consistentlyvisible at about 4,500 feet elevationaround the perimeter of the geologicbasin that forms High Desert Province,and that Snake River Province line westof Warm Springs Reservoir is at about4,500 feet elevation, the belt of demar-cation between High Desert and SnakeRiver provinces has been placed atabout 4,500 feet elevation from thevicinity of Crane southeast to just northof Folly Farm, then northeast to justnorth of Crowley.

From there it runs east around the southside of Cedar Mountains to the rim ofthe Owyhee River canyon, which is at4,000 feet elevation. This demarcationbelt places the dry lakebeds and closedbasins south of Crowley in High DesertProvince, which is typified by similarclosed-basin topography; whereasSnake River Province to the north is

typified by landscape dissected bydendritic drainages into the SnakeRiver system.

High Desert-HumboldtDemarcation

About 20 miles down the OwyheeRiver from Rome on Highway 95, onthe west rim of the canyon is the junc-ture between High Desert, Snake River,and Humboldt provinces. From there,the line between High Desert and Hum-boldt provinces travels southwest to theeastern footslopes of Sheepshead Moun-tains, then south and west aroundSheepshead at about 4,500 feet eleva-tion. The line wanders north of thebasin in which Alvord Desert lies to theeastern footslopes of Steens Mountainand then south along the base of SteensMountain at about 4,500 feet elevation.Sheepshead Mountains and SteensMountain are in High Desert Province.Pueblo Mountains and Trout CreekMountains are in Humboldt Province.Alvord Desert and Alvord Lake are inHumboldt Province.

From the vicinity southwest of AlvordLake, the line between High Desert andHumboldt provinces runs west throughthe gap between Steens Mountain andPueblo Mountains on to the southeastrim of Catlow Valley. Then it goessouth at about 6,000 feet elevationalong the ridge that separates drainagesto the west from drainages eastwardinto Rincon Creek watershed. The linecrosses into Nevada about 15 air mileswest of the community of Denio.

The line is fairly sharp in the northeastcorner of Sheldon National WildlifeRefuge in Nevada. It lies at the summiton Highway 140 which is north ofThousand Creek Ranch. Railroad Pointand Jackass Flats are in HumboldtProvince; Duferrena is in High DesertProvince.


LocationHumboldt Province is in southeast-

ern Oregon. This province and HighDesert Province are the part of Oregonlying within the huge western GreatBasin that extends south into Mexicoand east into west Texas.24 In Oregon,Humboldt Province covers about 1.8million acres in southeastern HarneyCounty and southwestern MalheurCounty. It extends south into HumboldtCounty, Nevada.

DescriptionHumboldt Province is character-

ized by long, generally north-southmountain ranges such as Pueblo andTrout Creek mountains in Oregon andthe Pine Forest range and Bilk CreekMountains in northern Nevada. Long,north-south closed valleys, technicallycalled grabens, lie between these moun-tain ranges; they include Pueblo Valleyin Oregon and Kings Valley and DesertValley in Nevada.

Between the valley floor and the moun-tain range are immense, continuousancient-lake terraces and fans that con-stitute a more or less foothill formationbelow about 4,500 feet elevation. Theupper elevation of the terraces denotesthe extent of inundation by ancientlakes (Fig. 22). Elevations in Oregon'sportion of Humboldt Province range

from 4,025 feet at Alvord Desert to8,545 feet on Pueblo Mountains.(Elevations are from USGS 1:250,000topographic maps, Adel, Oregon.)

Humboldt Province is significantlymore and at lower elevations than isHigh Desert Province. In Oregon's por-tion of the Humboldt, this difference isreflected by the increasing incidencefrom north to south of sites that supportstands of vegetation including budsagebrush, shadscale, winterfat, andsimilar arid-site species (Fig. 23).

Another feature that helps to character-ize Humboldt Province is the common"desert varnish," which is a shiny blackcoating of manganese dioxide on ex-posed surfaces of stones and gravel onvery and sites. The coating occurs onlyunder very and conditions in whichindicator species, such as those previ-ously mentioned, also grow.

SoilsSoils of Humboldt Province in

Oregon are related to basaltic uplandsand ancient lakebeds. Basaltic uplandsoils are generally shallow to veryshallow with loamy surface layers andclayey subsoils. They are very stony orrocky. Very steep slopes are essentiallyrockland. The soils, formed in ancientlakebeds, constitute bottomlands at thelowest elevations, below 4,200 feet,

Humboldt Ecological Province

HumboldtEcological

Province

and as lakeshore terraces and fansbelow about 4,500 feet elevation.

Two major areas of bottomland soilsare in Humboldt Province in Oregon:the Alvord basin, which is about 65miles long north to south; and, about 12miles to the east, the Coyote Lakebasin, which extends about 28 milesnorth to south. Alvord basin containsAlvord Lake, which fluctuates in sizeover the years and receives its waterthrough Wildhorse Creek to the north.Coyote Lake basin drains into the playaCoyote Lake.

Bottomland soils in Alvord basin occu-py about 143,000 acres extending fromthe north boundary of Alvord Desertsouth nearly to the Nevada border, adistance of about 50 miles. This area ofbottomland soils varies in width, east towest, from about 1 mile to 10 miles; thewidest area is just south of AlvordDesert. The long, relatively narrowbottomlands in Alvord basin are typicalof Humboldt Province physiography.

Bottomland soils of Alvord basinoccupy about 4,000 acres in Alvordlakebed, about 29,000 acres in AlvordDesert, and about 8,000 acres in otherplayas within the basin. These lakebedsoils are poorly drained and clayey.About 31,000 acres of bottomlands areloamy, well-drained soils, and about

Table 18. Climatic Data for Humboldt County, Nevada.Precipitation

Elevation Annual Oct.-March April-JuneStation (feet) (inches) (%) (%)

Orovada 4,400 10.1

Paradise Valley 4,600 8.4Quinn RiverRanch 4,100 5.9

County Average 8.1

9,000 acres are silty and very poorlydrained, but these areas are not wet-lands because of insufficient moisture.About 58,000 acres of bottomlands arepoorly drained silty to clayey soils thatare strongly alkaline but are not wet-lands. About 4,000 acres within thebottomlands are shallow silty soilsoverlying lacustrine sediments.92

Bottomland soils in Coyote Lake basinoccupy about 63,000 acres of whichabout 3,000 acres are Coyote Lakeplaya and about 4,500 acres are otherplayas in the basin. The soils are poorlydrained and clayey. About 12,000 acresof the bottomlands are loamy well-drained soils, and about 1,500 acres areclayey poorly drained soils.

About 26,000 acres of bottomlands arestrongly alkaline soils, and about16,000 acres are shallow silty soils overlacustrine sediments. None of thesebottomlands are wetlands .92,91

ClimateThere are no official weather

stations in Oregon's portion ofHumboldt Province. l', 28 However, the1941 Yearbook of Agriculture providesclimatic data for three stations less than30 miles south of the Oregon borderwhich are very likely in HumboldtProvince in Nevada.28 All three stationsare near major highways in huge north-south valleys.

A precipitation map 53 shows that asizable portion of Humboldt Provincein Oregon, such as around Alvord Lake,receives less than 10 inches annualprecipitation. This map also showsabout 15 inches annual precipitation onPueblo Mountains and about 25 inchesannual precipitation on Trout Creek

Average temperatures(°F)

Jan. July Max.

56 35 27.1 71.2 108

65 26 n/a n/a n/a

Killing frostsGrowingseason

Min. Last First (days)

-35 June 3 Sept 16 105

n/a n/a n/a n/a

65 23 25.6 69.7 105 -34 June 20 Sept 5

62 28 26.4 70.4 107 -35 June 12 Sept 11

Mountains, both in Humboldt Provincein Oregon.

These data substantiate that, based onplant communities and soils, HumboldtProvince in Oregon is significantlymore and than High Desert Province inOregon, although both are componentsof the western Great Basin.

VegetationIn Oregon, vegetation on uplands

in the Humboldt Province is typified byboth desert shrub and shrub-grasslandclimax types according to unpublishedfield studies.4", 49

A natural grassland climax type alsooccurs but only on bottomland sites thatreceive run-on water; however, someshrubs naturally grow in the plant com-munities of these bottomland sites. Adeciduous tree climax type, whichconsists of aspen groves, occurs inscattered areas at higher elevations onsome mountains.

Prominent shrubs that grow on sites inthe desert shrub climax type includeblack greasewood, spiny hopsage,shadscale, bud and Wyoming sage-brushes, winterfat, and spiny horse-brush. Prominent grasses on sites in thedesert shrub climax type include Indianricegrass, squirreltail, basin wildrye,inland saltgrass, sand dropseed, anddesert needlegrass.

Prominent shrubs that grow on sites inthe shrub-grassland climax typeinclude Wyoming, mountain, threetip,and low sagebrushes; green rabbit-brush; spiny hopsage; shrubby buck-wheat; and mountain snowberry.Prominent grasses that grow on sites inthe shrub-grassland climax type, which

77

91

includes the mountainous uplands,include bluebunch wheatgrass, Sand-berg and Cusick bluegrasses, Idahofescue, squirreltail, Thurber and west-ern needlegrasses, basin wildrye, andIndian ricegrass.

Prominent shrubs that grow on lowerbottomland sites, which are alkaline,include black greasewood, basin bigsagebrush, gray and green rabbit-brushes, golden currant, silver buffalo-berry, and willow. Prominent grassesthat grow on lower bottomland sitesinclude basin wildrye, inland saltgrass,Lemmon alkaligrass, alkali bluegrass,and alkali sacaton.

Dry meadows and wet mountainmeadows are in Humboldt Province inOregon but have not been sampledsufficiently to characterize them. Theyprobably resemble equivalent sites inHigh Desert Province because of thecold, wet nature of these sites.

Plant species recorded in HumboldtProvince, Oregon but not in HighDesert Province in Oregon includealkali sacaton, desert needlegrass, sanddropseed, silver buffaloberry, greenephedra, and pickleweed (iodine bush).

Management ImplicationsLivestock ranching is the dominant

economic enterprise in Humboldt Prov-ince in Oregon. The physical andecological nature of Humboldt Prov-ince historically has been a basis forhuge ranches and large herds oflivestock. The ranches are so compli-cated and extensive as to defy quickacquaintance with their resources,problems, needs, options, and opportu-nities. Not just any rancher or manager


48 Humboldt Ecological Province

Table 19. Major Ecological Sites in Humboldt Ecological Province, Oregon.Upland site types Bottomland site types


Natural grassland Saline meadow(less than 10% Saltgrass, Lemmon alkaligrass, alkalicanopy cover sacaton

of shrubs) Moist sodic bottomAlkali sacaton, basin wildrye/currant

Well-drained bottomBasin wildrye (undescribed)

Dry mountain meadowBluegrass, sedge (undescribed)

Wet mountain meadowWetland species (undescribed)

Desert shrub Mixed desert shrub Dry sodic bottom(10% or more Wyoming sagebrush, greasewood/Indian ricegrass, Greasewood/basin wildrye, saltgrasscanopy cover squirreltail Desert beachridgeof shrubs) Semidesert shrub Budsage, horsebrush, wnterfat/

Wyoming sagebrush, hopsage/Indian ricegrass, needle-and-thread

squirreltail Saline beachridgeDesert terrace Greasewood/saltgrass, basin wildrye

Shadscale, budsage, winterfat/sand dropseed Dry floodplainDesert south Basin big sagebrush, gray rabbitbrush/

Green ephedra, bitterbrush, hopsage/desert basin wildryeneedlegrass Silty plain

Desert steep south Winterfat, Nuttall saltbush/IndianPurple sage, littleleaf horsebrush, Nevada ephedra/ ricegrassdesert needlegrass Moist sodic terrace

Blacksage hills Greasewood, saltbush/saltgrass, alkaliBlacksage, budsage, shadscale/Sandberg bluegrass, sacaton

squirreltail Desert sodic terraceGreasewood, hopsage, budsage,shadscale/basin wildrye

Desert playaShadscale, budsage, hopsage/squirreltail, basin wildrye


(continued)

Arid sand hillsIndian ricegrass, needle-and-thread/Wyomingbig sagebrush

Arid northBluebunch wheatgrass, Indian ricegrass/Wyomingbig sagebrush, ephedra

South exposureBluebunch wheatgrass, Sandberg bluegrass/Wyoming big sagebrush

Droughty rolling hillsBluebunch wheatgrass, Thurber needlegrass/Wyoming sagebrush

Shrubby southBluebunch wheatgrass, Idaho fescue/bitterbrush,big sagebrush

Steep northIdaho fescue, bluebunch wheatgrass/mountainbig sagebrush

Humboldt Ecological Province 49

Table 19 (cont'd). Major Ecological Sites in Humboldt Ecological Province, Oregon.

Climax type

Shrub-grassland(continued)

Deciduous tree(5% or morecanopy coverof trees)

Upland site types Bottomland site types& characteristic vegetation & characteristic vegetation

can operate these ranches successfullyat first tenure.

Potential production of forage per acreon Humboldt rangelands is inherentlylow except on meadows and in thehigher-precipitation zones. A viableranching unit requires many acres.

Overall, these rangelands have beenimproving in ecological status, slowlybut surely, for several decades. Cur-rently there is much evidence thatproper application of modern scienceand technology in Humboldt grazingstrategies will produce an upward trendin ecological status while at the sametime benefitting watershed health,wildlife habitat, aesthetics, and qualityand quantity of forage for herbivores,both wild and domestic. An upward

High rolling hillsIdaho fescue, western needlegrass/mountain big sagebrush

Shrubby mountain northIdaho fescue, Canby and Cusickbluegrasses/mountain big sagebrush,mountain snowberry

Shrubby mountain southBasin wildrye/mountain big sage-brush, mountain snowberry

Shallow southBluebunch wheatgrass/low sagebrush

Clayey uplandIdaho fescue, bluebunch wheatgrass,Sandberg bluegrass/low sagebrush

Shallow northIdaho fescue, bluebunch wheatgrass/low sagebrush, buckwheats

Gravelly ridgetopIdaho fescue, Sandberg bluegrass/low sagebrush

Moist northIdaho fescue, bluebunch wheatgrass,Sandberg and Cusick bluegrasses/threetip sagebrush

Mahogany rocklandCurlleaf mahogany (undescribed)

Aspen groveQuaking aspen (undescribed)

trend in ecological status is the mostsignificant criterion on which to judgeprogress.

Upward trend in ecological and soilstatus occurs very slowly, especially inearly stages, on and rangelands such asin Humboldt Province. Therefore, toattain a verified upward trend is, byitself, a commendable achievement andshould be the goal of contemporaryresource management programs.


Humboldt- High DesertDemarcation

Beginning at the southwest cornerof Humboldt Province in Oregon,which is at the Oregon-Nevada border

about 15 air miles west of Deniocommunity, the line of demarcationbetween Humboldt and High Desertprovinces heads northwest and north-erly along the west side of RinconCreek watershed to the southeast end ofCatlow Valley and then north along therimrocks east of the valley.

The line veers east through the passbetween Pueblo Mountains, in Hum-boldt Province, and Steens Mountain inHigh Desert Province. The line goesnorth along the footslopes of SteensMountain at about 4,500 feet elevation,passing west of Alvord Lake, AlvordDesert, Mann Lake, and Tudor Lake,all in Humboldt Province (Fig. 24).

From the vicinity of Tudor Lake, theline goes south, east, and north at about

50 Humboldt Ecological Province

4,500 feet elevation around the foot-slopes of Sheepshead Mountains,which are in High Desert Province.

From this location, the line veers east tocross Highway 78 about 7 milessoutheast of Folly Farm. It continuesnortheast along the northern border ofextensive lava fields west of OwyheeRiver in this vicinity.39, 42, 52 Here, about

20 miles down the Owyhee River fromRome on Highway 95 and on thecanyon's west rim, is the juncture ofHumboldt, High Desert, and SnakeRiver provinces.

Humboldt-Snake RiverDemarcation

From that juncture, the linebetween Humboldt and Snake Riverprovinces travels southerly along thewest rim of Owyhee River canyon andthe breaks of drainages into the river. Itcrosses Highway 95 about 3 miles eastof Burns Junction, where highways 78and 95 merge. From there the line runseast along the south breaks of OwyheeRiver canyon to about 7 miles north ofJackie's Butte and the juncture ofHumboldt, Snake River, and Owyheeprovinces at about 4,000 feet elevation.

Humboldt-Owyhee DemarcationFrom the juncture of Humboldt,

Snake River, and Owyhee provinces,the line of demarcation between Hum-boldt and Owyhee provinces wandersaround the western slopes of Jackie'sButte, which is in Owyhee Province, atabout 4,000 feet elevation and thensouth along the west edge of theplateau where it butts into hilly uplandssuch as Battle Mountain. The linecontinues south to the Nevada borderalong the western boundary of thesloping basaltic plateau where it buttsup against the hilly uplands.

Humboldt Ecological Province 51

John DayEcological

Province

LocationJohn Day Province encompasses

the rugged north-central segment ofOregon. It covers about 7 million acresmainly in Grant, Wheeler, Jefferson,Wasco, Crook, and Harney counties.Small segments are in Umatilla, Mor-row, and Deschutes counties. MuttonMountains in the northeast corner ofWarm Springs Indian Reservation andWillowdale are in the northwest part ofthe province.

Madras, Culver, and Prineville are inthe western part, and Austin and PrairieCity are in the eastern extent of theprovince. Antelope, Fossil, Spray, andMonument are in the northern extent.John Day Province adjoins High DesertProvince to the south in the vicinity ofBurns and Hines. The entire John DayProvince is in Oregon.

DescriptionJohn Day Province includes virtu-

ally the entire watersheds of CrookedRiver and of the mainstem and southand middle forks of John Day River.Upper North Fork John Day River is inBlue Mountain Province. The middlereach of Deschutes River from aboveBilly Chinook Lake north to about therailroad siding at Nena, which is 6 to 7miles upriver from Maupin, is in JohnDay Province. The upper watersheds of

Silver Creek, Silvies River, and Mal-heur River are in John Day Province.

Physiographically, John Day Provinceconsists of extensive areas of steeplyand intricately dissected hills inter-spersed with buttes and plateaus. Thehills are mainly geologically erodedancient lacustrine materials; plateausand buttes are capped with igneous ortuffaceous rock (Fig. 25).

The Ochoco Mountains are the higherelevation areas within John Day Prov-ince. Although they are contiguous tothe Blue Mountains and similar invegetation, they are significantlydifferent from an ecological standpoint,including soil-plant relationships andmanagement implications.

John Day Province is rugged topogra-phy. Elevations range from about 1,000feet near the railroad siding of Nena onDeschutes River to about 7,360 feet atFields Peak in the Ochoco Mountainssouthwest of Mt. Vernon in GrantCounty. (The Strawberry Mountaingroup above about 5,000 feet elevationis in Blue Mountain Province.) TheMiddle Fork and mainstem John DayRiver thread through long, deep valleysand canyons surrounded by mountains,buttes, and plateaus. The spectaculartopography of John Day Province

presumably resulted from terrificfolding, faulting, and volcanic action,plus geologic erosion of thick sedimen-tary deposits and tuffaceous materialsrelated to geologic formations-such asJohn Day, Clarno, Mascall, and Rattle-snake-some of which are noted forcontaining plant and animal fossils.'Multiple basalt flows are exposed insome canyons, such as near PictureRock Gorge near Dayville, and rhyolitebuttes and hills are in various loca-tions, such as south of Ashwood inJefferson County.

John Day Province is typified byextensively exposed ancient sedimentsand tuffaceous materials representingvarious geologic formations. A cursoryobservation of the sideslopes of buttes,hills, and mountains reveals the surfaceis covered by basalt stones and rocks.This has been construed to mean thatthe soil mantle overlies basalt bedrock.Sometimes this is true. However, amore thorough investigation by digginga soil pit almost always reveals that theunderlying material consists of ancient,nonstony sedimentary materials. Manyroadcuts substantiate this fact. On topof buttes and some plateaus, theunderlying material is basalt bedrock.

The widespread feature of a very stonysoil mantle overlying thick beds of

52 John Day Ecological Province

nonstony fine-texture sedimentary ortuffaceous materials supports the viewthat, originally, much of John DayProvince was capped by a continuousflow of basalt overlying thick beds ofsedimentary materials. Subsequently,geologic folding, faulting, and volcanicaction fragmented the basalt cap, thusexposing the underlying sedimentarymaterials to geologic erosion. As fine-texture underlying materials eroded, thebasalt cap was undercut and fracturedinto stones and rocks which formed thesurface colluvium now lying on side-slopes. Some basalt caps remain, someare gone, but the surface layers of hillysideslopes are usually very stony.

Some horizontally layered rock forma-tions in John Day Province look likebasalt escarpments from a distance butare actually flows of tuffaceousmaterials that resemble basalt only intheir outward physical features.

Basalt escarpments, being hard rock,show angular protruding edges; tuffa-ceous escarpments, being relatively softmaterials, appear smooth and haverounded edges due to weathering. Agood example is just north of Bumswhere Highway 395 traverses DevineCanyon. The canyon escarpmentnearest Burns is tuffaceous material;farther north, at a higher elevation, theescarpment is basalt.

Hills formed through geologic erosionof ancient sedimentary or tuffaceousmaterials in John Day Province can beidentified by their rounded tops. In con-trast, hills on which part of the originalbasalt cap still exists are flat-toppedbuttes or plateaus. Round-top hills are adistinguishing feature of John DayProvince (Fig. 26).

SoilsPhysiographically, John Day Prov-

ince consists of extensive areas of steep-ly and intricately dissected hills inter-spersed with isolated buttes, extensiveplateaus, and large and small valleys.

The hills, which usually are round-topped because of geologic erosion,generally are at lower elevations thansurrounding butte tops and plateaus.These hills consist mainly of ancient

sedimentary and tuffaceous materials.Buttes and plateaus normally arecapped by remnants of the igneous ortuffaceous materials that probablycapped much of the thick underlyingsediments in this province. Soils in theprovince are directly related to thesedifferent geologic formations; they arethe parent materials in which the soilshave formed.

For example, gray-brown Simas soilsare representative of south-facingslopes, and black Tub soils are repre-sentative of north-facing slopes in hillyareas where clayey ancient materialsconstitute the landscape. Some areas ofTub soils have been dryfarmed. TheDay soils represent areas of red claythat have been exposed sporadicallywithin the ancient materials.

According to Baldwin,9 these red claysediments are the base component ofthe John Day geological formation. Theformation's other components are amiddle greenish layer and a top layerthat is buff or white (Fig. 25). Soils onsteep north-facing slopes in the hillyarea, such as the Curant series, appearto be primarily aeolian materials whichprobably accumulated in this topo-graphic position as prevailing windsredistributed volcanic ash and othergeologically recent silty materials,forming deposits like snowdrifts on leeslopes. Basaltic and tuffaceous forma-tions are widespread throughout theprovince. Soils related to these areasare generally very stony and shallow tomoderately deep over basalt bedrock ortuffaceous hardpans.

Anatone, Madras, Lamonta, Era, andAgency soil series represent this group.The soil Rockly, which represents thescabland ecological site in John DayProvince, has a clayey, very shallow,very stony profile. Its counterpart inColumbia Basin Province, Bakeoven,has a loamy, very shallow, very stonyprofile. In areas where soils formed inshaley parent materials, Venator andUtley soils are representative.61

From the mainstem John Day Riversoutheast of Prairie City, the slopingterrace that extends from the river southto the footslopes of Strawberry Moun-

tain group and west to John Day andCanyon City is the Oxbow soil, namedafter Oxbow Ranch. It is a black clayeysoil derived from ancient sedimentsthat overlie a cemented hardpan.

This area is a good example of a rem-nant of an ancient lakeshore terrace. Itis probably the only area of Oxbow soilin Oregon. Native vegetation was anIdaho fescue/low sagebrush plantcommunity which, coupled with itsblackish soil that often connotes strongorganic content, suggests that this areahas a moist, cool environment due to itsbeing close to and north from theStrawberry Mountain group.

In higher-elevation Ochoco Mountains,soils in natural shrub-grassland open-ings are related to ancient sediments.However, some surface soils in theseopenings contain aeolian silty materialswhich overlie the clayey subsoilsderived from sedimentary materials.The Marsden soil in Bear Valleyrepresents this situation. Pine- and fir-forested soils geomorphically related toancient sediments are represented bythe Hankins soil series. Other pine- andfir-forested soils that show evidence ofaeolian materials in surface layers over-lying clay sediments include Kahlerand Boardtree. Pine- and fir-forestedsoils lying above basalt bedrock arerepresented by the Yawkey soil, andthose lying over shale bedrock arerepresented by Laycock soil.

Soils of the pine- and fir-forested areaof John Day Province differ from thosein Blue Mountain Province. John Daypine- and fir-forested soils containmore clay, especially in subsoils, andnormally are underlaid by fine-texturesediments or tuffaceous materials. Incontrast, Blue Mountain pine- and fir-forested soils are silt loam in textureand normally lie over buried aeoliansoils or basalt bedrock.

Casual observation commonly equatesthese two forested areas because theyproduce the same tree species. How-ever, from an ecological and totalecosystem management standpoint,they are significantly dissimilar in waysdescribed later, in the section onvegetation.

John Day Ecological Province 53

Early soil surveys recorded areas ofHall Ranch, Klicker, and Tolo soils inthe pine- or fir-forested areas in JohnDay Province.' 1, 82 The type locations ofthese soils is in Blue Mountain Prov-ince, and areas mapped at that time asthese soils in John Day Province werethought to resemble the Blue Mountainsoils. However, it should be noted that,in the era of general soil surveys, thesoil scientists of Soil ConservationService were not authorized to mapsoils in national forests; areas wereexamined incidental to cross-countrytravel. Consequently, soil mapping inpine- or fir-forested areas was based onsketchy data. Furthermore, in lateryears, formal soil correlation studiesrevealed significant differencesbetween the pine- or fir-forested soilsof John Day Province and those in BlueMountain Province. For example, theTolo soil, which typifies Blue MountainProvince, is typically about 30 inchesof silt loam volcanic ash over a buriednonashy aeolian silt loam soil that alsois about 30 inches or more thick. Tolosoils lie primarily on high-elevationplateaus and north-facing slopes inBlue Mountain Province.

A former soil scientist at Oregon StateUniversity, Ellis Knox, was a keyobserver of differences between JohnDay Tolo soils and Blue Mountain Tolosoils. He once suggested that the nameof the John Day Tolo be changed toTolocho, i.e., Tolo in the Ochocos(personal communication to author).Unfortunately, the soil correlation teamdid not adopt this excellent suggestion.

However, to correct the situation, twosoil series representing ashy soils in thepine- or fir-forested area of John DayProvince were established subse-quently. Boardtree soils consist ofabout 30 inches of ashy gravelly loamover buried clay that is related toancient sediments; Yawkey soils consistof ashy gravelly loam and clay loamlayers over very gravelly clay underlaidby basalt bedrock at 40 to 60 inches.

In view of the source of aeolian ash inwhich Tolo soils were formed, i.e., theMazama eruption, and the very wide-spread geographic distribution of thisdeposit, it is reasonable to expect to

find some genuine Tolo soils on higher-elevation forested areas, especially onnorth exposures, in John Day Province.For example, north-facing slopes onRudio Mountain west of Fox Valleyclosely resemble similar sites in BlueMountain Province in terms of soil andvegetation. However, no test was maderegarding the clay content of subsoils,which is a differentiating characteristicof John Day Province.

The fine-texture upland soils of JohnDay Province are highly susceptible towater erosion. Consequently, colluvialand alluvial soils are along drainages asbottomlands and as upland fans andterraces. Kimberly, Courtrock, andDayville are loamy soils underlaid bysand and gravel; they are along streamssuch as John Day River. Loamy soils,such as Hack series, are on alluvial fansand terraces. Damon is a black clayeysoil typical of meadows in cold valleyssuch as Bear Valley and Silvies Valleysouth of Canyon City.

ClimateBased on 15 official weather sta-

tions, which represent a cross-sectionof John Day Province, the averageannual precipitation for the province isabout 13.3 inches. Of that, about 28%falls during the herbaceous native-plantgrowing season, April through June.November through March precipitationis about 53% of the annual total. Aver-age January maximum and minimumtemperatures are 38.9 and 18.4°F,respectively. Average April throughJune maximum and minimum tempera-tures are 68.1 and 36.2°F, respectively.

A precipitation map53 shows 25 to 30inches annual precipitation in theOchoco Mountains south of Mitchelland about the same in the mountainseast of Seneca and around the foot-slopes below about 5,000 feet elevationon the Strawberry range. The areaabove 5,000 feet elevation in Straw-berry range, which receives over 35inches annual precipitation, is in BlueMountain Province. Other mountainousareas in John Day Province averageabout 15 to 20 inches; lower elevationareas average between 10 and 15 inchesannual precipitation.


Oregon Forest Type Map54 which pre-dates extensive logging, nearly half theentire John Day Province was coveredby pine, fir, and mixed pine-fir forests.About 40% was nonforested with pri-marily sagebrush-grassland in lowerelevations. A surprisingly small part ofthe province, probably less than 10%,was occupied by stands of westernjuniper during that era. The lack ofwestern juniper is particularly notice-able in the John Day River drainagewhere only scattered stands existed inthe late 1930s. The upper CrookedRiver drainage east of Paulina also hadonly scattered stands of juniper.

In the southwest part of John DayProvince in the vicinity of Prineville,juniper stands occupied a high propor-tion of the landscape. They extendedeast up the Crooked River to aboutPaulina. Preponderance of juniperaround Prineville and lower CrookedRiver in John Day Province likely isdue to the huge seed source providedby junipers that blanketed the nearbypumice-soil area (Mazama Province)from Redmond to Bend and east toabout Hampton.

Unpublished field studies of juniperstand structure and age classes on thesepumice soils helped form the belief thatwestern juniper is a climax species onpumice soils in this particular area.Growth-ring counts of huge junipers,some about 3 feet in diameter and mostof which were hollow, indicated suchtrees were hundreds of years old. Allage classes were represented in thestand, which indicates the likelihood ofstand perpetuation over time, i.e.,climax species.40

In the 1960s, Larry Haverfield, an SCSrange conservationist, and Bill Ander-son observed that the stand of junipernorth of the mainstem John Day Riverwas increasing rapidly over the land-scape at that time. Likely it had origi-nated from the stand of old junipergrowing on rocky ridges several milesto the north. In this study, growth ringson all trees along a transect from theriver north to the forest boundary,


Table 20. Climatic Data for John Day Ecological Province, Oregon."

Station and Precipitation Average maximum and minimumlength of record Elevation Annual Nov.-March April-June temperatures (°F)

(years) (feet) (inches) (%) (%) January April-June

Crook CountyOchoco Ranger Sta. 15 3,979 19.3 56 25 33.4-13.5 64.1-32.6

Prineville 22 2,868 9.4 47 .32 40.9-18.3 68.4-34.8

Grant CountyAustin 18 4,200 18.6 62 22 33.8-7.3 65.9-30.2

Beach Creek 8 4,710 18.7 50 :31 36.6-18.4 61.3-35.1

Canyon City 13 3,194 15.3 52 :31 39.5-21.8 69.2-40.7

Dayville 117 2,400 11.4 .46 :34 43.0-22.8 71.9-40.2

Prairie City 10 3,425 14.1 51 29 40.2-21.6 71.7-39.8

Seneca 13 4,666 11.2 60 23 34.9-4.9 63.6-30.7

Jefferson CountyGrizzly 7 3,672 13.8 50 29 36.1-17.2 65.2-35.1

Hay Creek 13 2,938 10.1 48 32 41.3-22.7 68.9-36.9

Madras 21 2,265 9.1 53 27 40.0-19.3 70.5-34.7

Warm SpringsAgency 25 1,500 10.0 61 19 42.7-24.2 71.9-39.5

Wasco CountyAntelope 20 2,690 12.5 54 26 39.7-19.6 69.2-37.2

Wheeler CountyFossil 6 2,660 14.4 55 28 38.4-18.4 67.7-35.7

Mitchell 16 2,766 11.2 42 40 42.9-24.3 69.9-40.1


No weather stations in John Day Province in Deschutes, Harney, Morrow, or Urnatilla counties

which was essentially the top of themain ridge, showed increasing ageclasses from the river to the ridgetop.The study also showed that the expan-sion of junipers had begun about theearly 1900s. The very old juniper, theseedstock, grew on rocky ridgetopswhere they likely were protected some-what from wildfire because of lack ofsurface fuel.

The spread of juniper in the mainstemJohn Day River valley near Dayvillealso was documented by a sequence ofphotos spanning several decades.

This set of photos has been used toillustrate the juniper problem in JohnDay Province. Bill Farrell, then GrantCounty Extension agent, obtained thefirst old photo, taken in 1920, from alocal person (Fig. 27-a). He and E. W.Anderson, then range conservationistfor Soil Conservation Service, locatedthe approximate point from which theoriginal photo was taken, and they tookphotos in 1945, 1956, and 1965 (Figs.27-b through 27-d).

The major increase of western juniperin John Day Province has been onlower-elevation soils, such as Tub andSimas, that are geomorphically relatedto the clayey ancient sediments of theClarno Formation.

One explanation for this phenomenonis that western juniper has an affinityfor calcium; the clayey ancient sedi-ments usually are calcareous. The affi-nity of western juniper for calcium canbe demonstrated by measuring the pHof litter and surface soils under thecanopy of a large juniper and then com-paring it with the pH of surface soilmaterial away from the juniper canopy.The pH is higher under the canopy,apparently because juniper roots extractcalcium from the soil in a very wideradius from each tree and subsequentleaf-fall deposits calcium on the surfaceunder the tree.

The calcareousness of soils formed inancient sediments of John Day Prov-ince can be demonstrated by droppingsome diluted hydrochloric acid on a

bare, dry surface of Tub or Simas soilin summer after surface soil moisturehas evaporated. The soil surface willeffervesce.

These are basic ecological relationshipsthat augment the more common, butonly partial, explanation for the spreadof juniper, which is that too much firecontrol has been practiced over theyears. Prolonged grazing whichseverely uses herbaceous ground cover,reducing wildfire's ability to travel,likely is a significant factor in thiscomplex biological equation. Asjuniper increase in density, therebytotally dominating the biologicalsituation, solving these problemsbecomes more difficult and expensive.

Both basaltic and rhyolitic igneousformations are in John Day Province;basalt is by far the more prominent.Rhyolite is light in color, even pinkish;basalt is dark in color. Chemically,rhyolite is acidic; basalt is basic. It isnot known whether the chemistry ofsoils formed in each of these materials


is ecologically significant. However,casual observation not supported bydata indicates there might be an eco-logical significance.

For example, observations of soilsformed in rhyolite are that they tend tobe more clayey than soils formed inbasaltic materials. Also, Idaho fescueseems to be better adapted to clayeyrhyolitic soils than is bluebunchwheatgrass, provided of course that theeffective environment of the site issuitable for growth of Idaho fescue.

In northeastern Jefferson County southof Ashwood is a large area of rhyoliticparent material known as BlizzardRidge. The Prag soil series formed inthese rhyolitic parent materials .61 InJuly 1959 the extensive rhyolitic areaon Blizzard Ridge contained no

juniper; however, on the adjacent hillyancient sediments-calcareous Tub andSimas soils juniper were profuse. Prag,Tub, and Simas series all are clayeysoils.

Since the affinity of western juniper forcalcium in the soil has been verified,the question now is whether theabsence of western juniper on soilsderived from rhyolitic parent materialsis due to the acidic nature of rhyolite.

Another example of how different plantcommunities might be related to rhyo-litic and basalt parent materials is nearMitchell in Wheeler County. WhiteButte, likely a rhyolitic volcanic cone,and Black Butte, likely a basaltic vol-canic cone, produce different plant com-munities. Western juniper is prominenton Black Butte but not on White Butte.

Table 21. Average Dates Vegetation Growth Begins and Endsin John Day Ecological Province, Oregon.



Crook CountyPrineville 15 2,868 March 15 June 2Ochoco

Ranger Sta. 22 3,979 April 5 July 30

Grant CountyDayville 17 2,400 February 24 June 2Canyon City 13 3,194 March 7 July 13Prairie City 10 3,425 March 7 July 5Austin 18 4,200 April 9 September 5Seneca 13 4,666 March 11 July 13Beach Creek 8 4,710 April 1 August 7

Jefferson CountyWarm Springs

Agency 25 1,500 February 25 June 5Madras 21 2,265 March 15 June 3Hay Creek 13 2,938 March 5 June 4Grizzly 7 3,672 March 27 July 12

Wasco CountyAntelope 20 2,690 March 15 July 1

Wheeler CountyFossil 6 2,660 March 17 July 16

Mitchell 16 2,766 March 5 June 7

No official weather stations in John Day Province in Deschutes, Harney, Morrow, orUmatilla counties.


Soil-plant relationship studies ofecological sites in John Day Provinceindicate that nearly all nonforested siteswere natural shrub-grasslands origi-nally, i.e., having 10% or more canopycover of shrubs.

However, steep north-facing slopes inJohn Day Province nonforested areaslikely are natural grasslands on whichIdaho fescue very strongly dominatedthe plant community. A variety of shrubspecies grow sparsely (less than 10%canopy cover collectively) on thesesteep north-facing sites in spite of thestrong competition from dense Idahofescue. These shrubs include bitter-brush, wax currant, rose, low Oregon-grape, buckwheats, green rabbitbrush,and common snowberry.

On lower-elevation, more and naturalshrub-grassland sites in John DayProvince, the canopy cover of shrubsincludes big sagebrush, bitterbrush,gray horsebrush, gray and greenrabbitbrushes, buckwheats, waxcurrant, low sagebrush, and broomsnakeweed. On more moist naturalshrub-grassland sites at higher eleva-tions, the shrub component alsoincludes such species as low Oregon-grape, common snowberry, service-berry, rose, and green rabbitbrush.

The natural shrub-grassland site locallycalled scabland, which is mainly onvery shallow, very stony ridgetops, isfound in John Day Province as well asin Columbia Basin and Blue Mountainprovinces.

The major shrub on scabland in JohnDay Province is low sagebrush but isrigid sagebrush on scabland in Colum-bia Basin and Blue Mountain prov-inces. On some plateaus and ridges inJohn Day Province is a unique landpattern called biscuit scabland. For anexplanation of the origin of this landpattern, see the section on ColumbiaBasin Province; there, biscuit scablandis prominent and widespread.

The widespread presence of basinwildrye on small colluvial fans,terraces, and pockets of colluvial soilscattered over the landscape in hillyancient sediments is typical for John


Day Province. Erosion and localdeposition of fine materials createsthese pockets or stringers of deepercolluvial soils where basin wildryebecomes established (Fig. 28). Basinwildrye also dominates on floodplainsand fans along intermittent and smallperennial streams.

Prominent perennial streams, such asBear Creek near Seneca, typically pro-duce wet-meadow vegetation, some-times interspersed with patches of dry-meadow vegetation on high spots, andusually with a dry-meadow fringe onthe perimeter where meadow adjoinsuplands.

Natural stands of coniferous trees occu-pied about half the area in John DayProvince in 1936. The stands comprisedfive generalized plant communitieswhich have management implications.

1. Western juniper with an understoryof bunchgrasses such as bluebunchwheatgrass, Idaho fescue, Sandbergbluegrass, Thurber needlegrass, basinwildrye; a wide variety of perennialforbs; shrubs such as bitterbrush, bigsagebrush, gray horsebrush, and greenrabbitbrush; and juniper reproduction.

2. Ponderosa pine with an understoryof bunchgrasses such as Idaho fescue,bluebunch wheatgrass, Wheeler blue-grass, Thurber needlegrass, prairiejunegrass, and sedge; many perennialforbs; a wide variety of shrubs such asbitterbrush, mountain and commonsnowberry, wax currant, low Oregon-grape, curlleaf mountain-mahogany,and wax currant; an occasional westernjuniper; and pine reproduction.

3. Ponderosa pine with an understorydominated by sedge and a wide varietyof grasses such as big, Kentucky,Wheeler, and Sandberg bluegrasses,Idaho fescue, mountain brome, prairiejunegrass, and pinegrass; manyperennial forbs; shrubs such as bitter-brush, mountain and common snow-berry, snowbrush, willow, and waxcurrant; and pine reproduction.

4. Ponderosa pine/Douglas-fir/grandfir with a midstory of saplings andpole-size trees; a dense cover of sedgewith some big, Kentucky, Sandberg,

and Wheeler bluegrasses, pinegrass,prairie junegrass, and other bunch-grasses; shade-tolerant forbs such asarnica, woollyweed, green lupine, pearlyeverlasting, strawberry; shrubs such asbitterbrush, common snowberry, spirea,willow, and low Oregon-grape; andreproduction of all tree species.

5. Douglas-fir/grand fir/ponderosapine, usually on north-facing slopesabove 3,500 feet elevation, with abun-dant saplings and pole-size trees; asparse understory of shade-tolerantgrasses, forbs, and shrubs; and repro-duction of all tree species althoughponderosa pine is sparse.

The kinds of soil that help differentiateJohn Day Province forested areas fromBlue Mountain Province forested areasare reflected in significant differencesin site-specific plant communities.

For example, John Day Province hasnatural juniper stands but Blue Moun-tain Province does not. Ponderosa pine/bunchgrass ecological sites are in bothprovinces, and based on superficialobservation they resemble each other-pine trees, grasses, forbs, and shrubs.

However, field studies of this ecologi-cal site in both provinces reveal signi-ficant differences in the species thatconstitute the plant community of thesite. In John Day Province, the follow-ing species regularly grow on the pine-bunchgrass site but are rarely, if ever,found on this site in Blue MountainProvince: Wheeler bluegrass, Thurberneedlegrass, mountain snowberry,curlleaf mahogany, green rabbitbrush,big sagebrush, and western juniper. Onthe other hand, the following speciesregularly grow on the pine-bunchgrasssite in Blue Mountain Province but arerarely, if ever, found on this site in JohnDay Province: onespike oatgrass,threadleaf sedge, huckleberry, mock-orange, and herbaceous sage.

Even greater differences exist on theponderosa pine-sedge ecological site ineach of these provinces. For example,the following species regularly grow onthis site in John Day Province butrarely, if ever, on this site in BlueMountain Province: basin wildrye,

Wheeler bluegrass, mountain snow-berry, curlleaf mahogany, green rabbit-brush, big sagebrush, and westernjuniper.

The following species regularly growin Blue Mountain Province on this sitebut rarely, if ever, on this site in JohnDay Province: slender wheatgrass,timber oatgrass, western fescue, Co-lumbia needlegrass, threadleaf sedge,blue wildrye, slender hairgrass, deer-brush, elderberry, spirea, huckleberry,ninebark, serviceberry, dogbane, syringa,chokecherry, bittercherry, oceanspray,bearberry, and herbaceous sage.

Generally, John Day Province pine/firplant communities consist of fewerspecies than those in Blue MountainProvince. This might be related to thesoils and climate of the two provinces.Average precipitation for John DayProvince is significantly lower than forBlue Mountain Province, and thepercentage of annual precipitation thatfalls during the growing season ofperennial herbaceous species also islower (see the section on climate ineach province description).

It also should be noted that the herba-ceous understory of pine/sedge andpine/Douglas-fir/sedge ecological sitesin John Day Province is strongly domi-nated by sedge, whereas the herbaceousunderstory of equivalent ecologicalsites in Blue Mountain Province isstrongly dominated by pinegrass. Thissituation also might be related to soilsand climates of the two provinces.

Management ImplicationsThe geomorphology of many soils

in John Day Province is related toancient sedimentary and tuffaceousformations. These soils are finelytextured (clayey), very sticky whenwet, and highly susceptible to erosionby precipitation. They frost heave inwinter and spring and crack open insummer when denuded of vegetation,which presents serious problems ofresource stability and potential fornatural rehabilitation.

Except for the irrigated areas, such asaround Prineville and Madras, cropland


Table 22. Major Ecological Sites in John Day Ecological Province, Oregon.

Climax type

Natural grassland(less than 10%canopy coverof shrubs)


Mixed coniferous-deciduous tree(5% or morecanopy cover of trees)

(continued)


Steep northIdaho fescue, bluebunch wheatgrass,Sandberg bluegrass

Deep scablandSandberg bluegrass, bluebunch wheatgrass,Idaho fescue

Bottomland fanBasin wildrye, Idaho fescue, Sandbergbluegrass

Moist bottomBasin wildrye, big bluegrass, Idaho fescue,Kentucky bluegrass

Dry mountain meadowIdaho fescue, Nevada bluegrass, variousgrasses and forbs

Wet mountain meadowTufted hairgrass, Nevada bluegrass, redtop,sedges

Alkaline bottomBasin wildrye, quackgrass, Idaho fescue

Arid rolling hillsBluebunch wheatgrass, Sandberg bluegrass,Thurber needlegrass/big sagebrush

Rolling hillsBluebunch wheatgrass, Idaho fescue,Sandberg bluegrass/big sagebrush

Moist rolling hillsIdaho fescue, bluebunch wheatgrass,Sandberg bluegrass/mixed shrubs

ScablandSandberg bluegrass/low sagebrush

Droughty south exposureBluebunch wheatgrass, Sandberg bluegrass,Thurber needlegrass/sagebrush

South exposureBluebunch wheatgrass, Sandberg bluegrass,Idaho fescue/sagebrush

Droughty north exposureBluebunch wheatgrass, Idaho fescue,Sandberg bluegrass/sagebrush

Mahogany rocklandIdaho fescue, bluebunch wheatgrass/curlleafmountain-mahogany

Sand hillsBluebunch wheatgrass, Indian ricegrass/mixed shrubs

Sandy north exposureIdaho fescue, needlegrass/mixed shrubs

Clayey terraceIdaho fescue, bluebunch wheatgrass/low sagebrush

Sodic bottomBasin wildrye, saltgrass/greasewood

Semiwet bottomRedtop, Idaho fescue, Kentucky bluegrass/cottonwood, ponderosa pine


Table 22 (cont'd). Major Ecological Sites in John Day Ecological Province, Oregon.


Coniferous tree Juniper rolling hills(5% or more Bluebunch wheatgrass, Idaho fescue,canopy cover of Sandberg bluegrass/bitterbrush/junipermature trees) Juniper south exposure

Bluebunch wheatgrass/bitterbrush/juniperPine-bunchgrass

Idaho fescue, bluebunch wheatgrass/bitterbrush/ponderosa pine

Pine-sedge

Sedge, Idaho fescue/bitterbrush/

ponderosa pine

Pine-mixed fir-sedgeSedge, pinegrass/bitterbrush/ponderosa pine,firs

Mixed fir-pine forestShade-tolerant understory/firs, ponderosa pine

Mixed fir forestSparse understory/Douglas-fir, true firs

agriculture is limited to narrow irri-gated valleys, most of which aredevoted to producing livestock forages.The general lack of local winter feedrestricts management options of lower-elevation rangelands that have beenused historically for spring turnout and/or winter grazing.

Based on a few near-relict areas locatedduring soil and site studies, the clayeysoils of John Day Province generallyare quite productive when a good standof healthy perennial grasses is present.The wide variety of perennial grasses,forbs, and shrubs documented as grow-ing on these calcareous fine-texturesoils in John Day Province suggeststhat the original shrub-grasslands ofthis province probably were some ofthe best, if not the best, rangelands inOregon for species diversity.

The original potential of these sitescertainly has been lost or seriouslydiminished by irremediable changes insoil and/or site. However, potential forrecovering some vegetation coverexists and is worth considering if prac-tical ways can be devised to control soilerosion and noxious plants, especiallyjuniper.

Expansion of western juniper, whichnow encompasses virtually all calcare-

ous landscapes in John Day Province,is a major problem of resource manage-ment. Once established, juniperbecomes a vigorous competitor formoisture and nutrients. That the veryextensive root system of westernjuniper is a strong deterrent to range-land recovery on clayey calcareoussoils under known management optionshas been a central point of concernsince the mid-1950s.

During early years of concern overjuniper proliferation, it was obviousthat juniper had to be eradicated beforeherbaceous growth could increase.

Various eradication methods weretested. Some areas were chained, bull-dozed, chainsawed, burned, and treatedwith chemicals. The main lessonlearned: eradicating juniper isn't easy.Neither is it always cost-effective.

The history of many of these trials wasthat any increases in herbaceous growthfollowing juniper eradication seemedmerely to attract more domestic andwild herbivores to graze which, in turn,aggravated juniper reproduction.Initiating and perpetuating a completemanagement program was so difficultand expensive that it was accomplishedrarely, and then only by certain ranchoperators.

Reseeding suitable areas of soilsformed in ancient sediments andtuffaceous materials also has beentested with varying degrees of successin John Day Province.

The abandoned croplands of CentralOregon Land Utilization Project nearMadras, now the Crooked RiverNational Grasslands, are soils havingloamy surface layers over clay ortuffaceous hardpans. Soil ConservationService successfully seeded these,primarily to crested wheatgrass, prior tothe early 1950s.

Productivity has been more or lessmaintained over the years by grazingmanagement strategies. The extensiveseedings are on plateaus and slopesthought to be arable before the bigdrought of 1930s. In other locations,Conservation Reserve Program seed-ings are on soils recently farmed, whichcontributes to the belief that John DayProvince clayey soils can be reseededon slopes where equipment can operate.However, special attention to grazingmanagement is required to maintainproduction.

The most extensive need for revegeta-tion in the province is in the huge areaof hilly clayey soils, yet the terrain isunsuitable for seeding equipment.


However, one project did achieve somesuccess in that kind of terrain. The1956 Northside Game Range planningproject extended from Prairie City westto Picture Rock Gorge below Dayvilleon the north side of mainstem John DayRiver. The project demonstrated thefeasibility and effectiveness of seedingall or the most suitable small areas in agrazing unit and then managing the uniton the basis of those seedings. Collec-tively, a number of small seedings onflatter land enhanced early forage on anumber of ranches in the project. Obvi-ously, perpetuating the effectiveness ofthis investment requires very specificmanagement of the small seedings.

Historically, John Day Province hasbeen highly touted for its deer and elkantler trophies and superb hunting. It isvery likely that there is a relationshipbetween this longstanding reputationand the wide variety of plant species,especially shrubs, which provide high-quality big game habitat, and the cal-careous soils as a source of calcium forexcellent bone growth.

In recent years, research by Lee Eddle-man and Rick Miller of Oregon StateUniversity has revealed the meteoro-logical, physiological, and ecologicalimplications of the dominance of west-ern juniper and big sagebrush on andnative rangelands, such as in John Day

Province.11' 12, z1 The seriousness of thissituation has been well publicized. Thisis an invaluable contribution to the pro-cess of determining managementoptions and forming plans for resourcerehabilitation in John Day Province.


John Day-Columbia BasinDemarcation

Starting in northwest John DayProvince near the railroad siding ofNena in the Deschutes River canyon,about 7 miles upriver from Maupin, theline of demarcation between John Dayand Columbia Basin provinces runssoutheast and south along the east rimof the Deschutes canyon in WascoCounty and south into Jefferson Countyto encompass the small plateau about 2miles west of Willowdale.83, 86

From this plateau, it meanders north-east to cross Highway 97 in Cow Can-yon about 1 mile north of the conflu-ence of Antelope and Trout creeks andthen follows the north-side breaks ofAntelope Creek to its headwaters.About 2 miles north of Antelope, theabrupt demarcation is exposed in aroadcut on Highway 218. The roadcutdisplays Columbia Basin Province'sbasalt cap and silty aeolian soil, whichextends to the north, overlying thelight-color sedimentary materials thattypify John Day Province, which is tothe south of this point. The line runsnortheast along west-side breaks ofJohn Day River canyon to the pointwhere the northeast corner of WascoCounty and the southeast corner ofSherman County join on the John DayRiver. The John Day River canyon northof this point is in Columbia Basin Prov-ince; south, it is in John Day Province.

From where the line crosses John DayRiver, it travels south, east, and northalong the breaks of a large rockyplateau that juts south into WheelerCounty. The plateau is in ColumbiaBasin Province; the area west, south,and east of the plateau is in John DayProvince. The plateau's southwestcorner, overlooking the area aroundClarno, is a good example of an abruptprovince boundary. It can be viewedfrom below, near Clarno.

The line between John Day and Colum-bia Basin provinces goes east about 3miles north of Fossil at about 4,000 feetelevation in the vicinity of CummingsPass. About 3 miles east of the pass, theline between John Day and ColumbiaBasin provinces becomes the demarca-tion between John Day and BlueMountain provinces.

The demarcation line between JohnDay and Columbia Basin provinces isthe general line between soil seriessuch as Simas and Tub, which are veryclayey (John Day), and the Condonseries, which is an aeolian silt loam(Columbia Basin).

John Day- Blue MountainDemarcation

From about 3 miles northwest ofKinzua, the line of demarcation

between John Day and Blue Mountainprovinces continues southeast at about4,000 feet elevation. In this vicinity is amixture of those forested soils thattypify Blue Mountain Province andthose that typify John Day Province.The soil pattern creates a belt of demar-cation 2 to 3 miles wide in this particu-lar area.9o

Farther east, however, the belt narrowsconsiderably at about 4,000 feet eleva-tion as the line of demarcation followseast along the north breaks of John DayRiver drainages. Grassy Butte, PotatoHill, Thompson Flat, Buckaroo Flat,and other plateau points above about4,000 feet elevation that jut out into theJohn Day River drainage are in BlueMountain Province; slopes into riverdrainage to the south are in John DayProvince.

The adjoinment of the two provincesalong this segment of the line is illus-trated by an area of biscuit scabland(patterned ground) at Thompson Flat atthe south end of Potamus Ridge. Here,the soil profile of a biscuit was 0 to 6inches silt loam; 6 to 10 inches siltyclay loam (these are typical upper-profile textures in Blue MountainProvince); 10 to 20 inches silty clay;and 20 to 30 or more inches clay (theseare typical subsoil characteristics ofJohn Day Province). In this biscuitscabland site, the interspersed scablandsoil is very shallow and very stony withabundant surface basaltic stones, whichis typical for scablands in both BlueMountain and John Day provinces.

Geologists have reported that the BlueMountains of Oregon were, at one time,the north shore of an ancient lake.These thick clay deposits, such as theone at Thompson Flat at about 4,000feet elevation along the line of demar-cation, are likely associated withremnants of ancient lake terraces.

It is interesting to note that, as support-ing evidence, the ancient lakeshoreterraces that signify where Snake RiverProvince adjoins Blue MountainProvince in Baker County are veryvisible at about 4,000 feet elevationnear Keating and Richland. Thecontinuity of elevation at the 4,000-foot


level, coupled with evidence of ancientlakebed terraces, obviously has greatsignificance from an ecologicalprovince perspective.

An excellent illustration of the demar-cation between John Day and BlueMountain provinces is on Highway 207between Hardman in Morrow Countyand Spray on the John Day River inWheeler County. About 15 miles northof the river and east of MahoganyButte, the highway ascends the hairpinturns on the face of the escarpment thatis the upper reaches of geologicallyeroded ancient sediments and tuffa-ceous materials that typify John DayProvince. North of the escarpment, theplateau is Blue Mountain Province.Below the escarpment are many goodopportunities to view scenic land-scapes of John Day Province.

The line between John Day and BlueMountain provinces heads east alongthe north breaks of John Day Riverdrainage until it reaches the ridge westof Deerhorn Creek.

There, it veers south to the North ForkJohn Day River about one-half milewest of the confluence of DeerhornCreek and the river. Then it continueswest downstream to the first oxbowthat changes the direction of river flowfrom west to south. At this oxbow, theline turns southeast up the ridgetop andcontinues at about 4,000 feet elevationto cross Highway 395 near MeadowBrook summit south of Dale.

The line continues east to just west ofPutney Mountain at about 4,000 feetelevation where it travels southeast atabout 4,500 feet elevation in the upperslopes of the Middle Fork John DayRiver. That is approximately the levelat which truncated or exposed tuffa-ceous deposits and underlying clayeymaterials typify the John Day Province.The old mining town of Susanville is inJohn Day Province.

From about 1 mile north of Susanville,the line continues southeast to cross theMiddle Fork John Day River about 6miles upstream from Bates at about4,500 feet elevation. Bates is in JohnDay Province.

From that point, the line heads west andaround the north side of Dixie Butte atabout 5,600 feet elevation. Dixie Butteand the area above about 5,600 feetelevation that surrounds it are in BlueMountain Province. Where the linecrosses Highway 28 southwest of DixieSummit, spectacular roadcuts displaybeds of tuffaceous sediments, whichtypify the upper-elevation boundary ofJohn Day Province, overlaid by amedium-texture, aeolian soil mantlethat typifies Blue Mountain Province.

From the vicinity of Dixie Summit, theline of demarcation meanders south atabout 4,500 feet elevation to cross theupper John Day River near Blue Moun-tain Hot Springs. It continues westalong the north-facing slopes of Straw-berry Mountain, Baldy Mountain, andCanyon Mountain at about 4,500 feetelevation or possibly lower, dependingon the elevation at which volcanic ashis prominent in soils on these north-facing slopes. Volcanic ash soils typifyBlue Mountain Province. The line runsaround the west slopes of CanyonMountain and then southeast at about5,500 feet to 6,000 feet elevation alongthe rims southwest of High Lake andbetween Summit Prairie, which is inBlue Mountain Province, and LoganValley, which is in John Day Province.It continues around the south of CranePrairie, in Blue Mountain Province.

The line goes through pine- and fir-forested areas from near Kinzua innortheastern Wheeler County to thevicinity of Crane Prairie in southeasternGrant County. Major pine- and fir-forested soils that typify John DayProvince are Hankins, Koehler, andBoardtree, all of which have clayeysubstrata. Hall Ranch and Tolo soilstypify Blue Mountain Province; sub-strata of these soils are loamy andunderlaid by basalt bedrock.

John Day-Snake RiverDemarcation

John Day, Blue Mountain, andSnake River provinces adjoin near theconfluence of Crane Creek, whichflows east out of Crane Prairie, and theNorth Fork Malheur River in southeast-ern Grant County.

From this point, the line between JohnDay and Snake River provinces mean-ders south at about 4,000 feet elevationalong the east side of Stinking WaterMountain, then between Warm SpringsReservoir, which is in Snake RiverProvince, and Coleman Mountain inJohn Day Province. The line is at about4,000 feet elevation along the westbreaks of the South Fork Malheur Riverand westward along the north breaks ofCrane Creek, which flows east innortheastern Harney County.

It is near Crane that the John Day,Snake River, and High Desert prov-inces adjoin. Stinking Water Mountainsand Stinking Water Pass on Highway20 between Burns and Juntura are inJohn Day Province.

John Day-High DesertDemarcation

From the gap at Crane, in HighDesert Province, the line of demarca-tion between John Day and High Desertprovinces runs north and west at about4,500 feet elevation along the edge ofMalheur Lake basin. Harney, Burns,and Hines are just inside High DesertProvince. This portion of the line ofdemarcation is obvious where ancientlake terraces of High Desert Provinceadjoin the uplands to the north, whichare in John Day Province. From Hines,the line goes west at about 4,500 feetelevation to near where Harney,Deschutes, and Crook counties adjoin.From there the line veers north andfollows around the basin in which GIRanch is headquartered. The line runssouthwest to the base of uplands justnorth of Hampton. Southwest ofHampton Butte, the John Day, HighDesert, and Mazama provinces adjoin.

John Day-Mazama DemarcationWest of Hampton Butte, the line of

demarcation between John Day andMazama provinces more or less followsthe boundary between the basin and theuplands to the north and then west andnorth of Grassy Butte at about 5,000feet elevation.

However, elevation is not as much acriterion in demarcation between John


Day and Mazama provinces as it isbetween John Day and High Desert andother provinces. This is becauseMazama Province is the area coveredby an aeolian pumice mantle and lavaflows reportedly associated with theeruption of Mt. Mazama (Crater Lake),and the deposit of aeolian material wasnot necessarily affected by elevation.

It should be noted, however, that thepumice deposit at the perimeter of theMazama pumice mantle was and isthinner than toward the interior of thefallout area. Unpublished field studiesindicate that where about 8 to 10 inchesor more of pumice lies over buriedsoils, herbaceous vegetation resemblesthe and nonforested portion of MazamaProvince, i.e., bluebunch wheatgrass/Idaho fescue. Less than 8 to 10 inchesof pumice mantle over buried soilsapparently produces High-Desert-typeherbaceous vegetation, i.e., bluebunchwheatgrass/Thurber needlegrass.32

It also should be noted that Mazamaaeolian pumice falling on hilly uplandsin a relatively thin mantle along theperimeter of the fallout pattern likelywas washed into adjacent valleys anddrainages by subsequent precipitation.Therefore, hilly uplands in the vicinityof the line of demarcation betweenJohn Day and Mazama provinces likelycontribute to the location of this line;generally, the flatter land is in Mazama,and the hilly uplands are in John DayProvince.

About 5 miles north of Brothers, thedemarcation line veers northwest andnorth to the vicinity of the confluenceof Bear Creek with Crooked River.From there it essentially follows thewest canyon rim of Crooked River. Atthe mouth of Crooked River canyonabout 6 miles south of Prineville, theline turns northwest to cross Highway126 on the plateau about 4 miles east ofPowell Butte and continues northwestto Crooked River east of Smith Rock.

Powell Butte, Redmond, and Terre-bonne are in Mazama Province; Prine-ville, Smith Rock, Gray Butte, andnearly all the Crooked River NationalGrasslands are in John Day Province.From Smith Rock, the line follows the

west canyon wall of Crooked River tothe confluence of Squaw Creek withDeschutes River, which places thePeninsula and the Island Natural Areain John Day Province.70

In this vicinity, soils typifying JohnDay Province include the Madras,Ochoco, and Agency series which over-lie tuffaceous or sedimentary hardpans.Soils typifying Mazama Province havea pumice-dominated layer over buriedsoils or basalt bedrock and include suchseries as Deschutes and Shanahan.

John Day-The Dalles DemarcationJohn Day, Mazama, and The Dalles

provinces adjoin about 3 to 4 mileswest of the confluence of Squaw Creekwith Deschutes River at about 2,500feet elevation on the west side of whathas been called the Lower Desert.

From this point, the line of demarcationbetween John Day and The Dallesprovinces wanders north at about 2,500feet elevation where rocky tablelandsof John Day Province join the foot-slopes of the Cascade Mountains, whichare in The Dalles Province. MetoliusBench, Sawmill Butte, and Hehe Butteon the Warm Springs Indian Reserva-tion are in The Dalles Province.

In the northeast portion of WarmSprings Indian Reservation, which iswest of the Deschutes River, there is areal mishmash of vegetation-soilrelationship patterns.70 Small to largeislands of vegetation and soils that aremore or less typical of John Day or TheDalles or Columbia Basin provinces areinterspersed over the landscape fromthe vicinity of Warm Springs north toPine Grove and Wapinitia.

This is probably the clearest example inOregon of why the line of demarcationbetween provinces must sometimes bea matter of judgment. It also is an ex-cellent example of how a highly com-plex pattern of very different ecologicalunits over a huge area can present abewildering basis for site-specificresource management decisions. Basedon field observations, it was decidedthat ecological features typifying JohnDay Province dominate the mishmash

area. Therefore, the area north fromWarm Springs and east of The DallesProvince is placed in John Day Prov-ince. From the vicinity of Hehe Butte,the demarcation line turns east, thennorth and west to encompass the areaaround Simnasho, which is in TheDalles Province. About 1 mile north ofSimnasho, the line goes north at about3,000 feet elevation to where theprevious northern boundary of WarmSprings Indian Reservation, which is ona ridge, intersects the road betweenWapinitia and Simnasho.

John Day- Columbia BasinDemarcation

It is near this ridgetop pass on theroad between Wapinitia and Simnashothat John Day, The Dalles, and Colum-bia Basin provinces adjoin. From thispoint, the line of demarcation betweenJohn Day and Columbia Basin prov-inces was placed east along the ridgethat marks the previous northernboundary of the reservation and thennorth around the east side of NenaCreek basin to cross Deschutes Rivernear the railroad siding of Nena, whichis 7 to 8 miles upstream from Maupin.Mutton Mountains are in John DayProvince; most of Nena Creek water-shed and Juniper Flat are in ColumbiaBasin Province.

Tygh Valley, about 15 miles north ofthis line, is a small island of John DayProvince that is typified by exposedClarno geologic formation in whichTub and Simas soils have been formed.A similar island of John Day Provincelies around Lonerock in southeasternGilliam County within Columbia BasinProvince. Other instances exist whereoutcrops of Clarno formation, rated asone of the oldest geologic formations inOregon, are exposed under more recentformations, such as along the upperNorth Fork John Day River and northof Kinzua.


_

KlamathEcological

Province

LocationKlamath Ecological Province in

south-central Oregon lies mostly inwestern Lake County and southernKlamath County with a very small partin southeastern Jackson County. InOregon, the province covers about 2.7million acres. It extends south intoSiskiyou and Modoc counties inCalifornia.

DescriptionPhysiographically, Klamath Prov-

ince in Oregon is typified by largebasins consisting of lakebeds sur-rounded by extensive ancient laketerraces interspersed with basalticmountainous terrain. Existing lakes inOregon include Upper Klamath Lake,Agency Lake, and the northern third ofGoose Lake, plus two large reservoirs,Drews and Gerber. In California, theprovince includes Lower KlamathLake, Tulelake, Clear Lake, and thesouthern two-thirds of Goose Lake.Upper Klamath Lake drains to thesouth through Klamath River. GooseLake seldom overflows, but when itdoes it drains south into Pit River.

The highest elevations in KlamathProvince in Oregon are in the north-south chain of basaltic mountains,Warner Mountains, east of Lakeview inLake County. These include Drake

Peak, 8,405 feet; Light Peak, 8,220feet; Twelvemile Peak, 8,080 feet; andCrane Mountain, 8,446 feet. In thewestern portion of Lake County, highelevations in the province include DeadIndian Mountain, 7,060 feet; WinterRim, 7,280 feet; Slide Mountain, 7,840feet; Coleman Rim, 7,470 feet; CougarPeak, 7,925 feet; and Grizzly Peak,7,775 feet. None of these peaks reachtimberline.

The portion of Klamath Province inKlamath County is less mountainousthan in Lake County. High elevationsinclude Fishhole Mountain, 7,020 feet;Horsefly Mountain, 6,480 feet; YainaxButte, 7,240 feet; Saddle Mountain,6,835 feet; Swan Lake Point, 7,320feet; Haymaker Mountain, 6,585 feet;and Stukel Mountain, 6,525 feet.

Lowest elevations in the province inOregon are in Klamath County-Malin,4,050 feet; Merrill, 4,070 feet; KlamathFalls, 4,100 feet; and Klamath Lake,4,136 feet. In Lake County, the lowestelevation in the province is along theline of demarcation between Klamathand High Desert provinces from thevicinity of Valley Falls to near Paisley.This line lies at about 4,500 feetelevation. Goose Lake is 4,680 feet andLakeview is 4,746 feet elevation.(Elevations are from USGS 1:250,000topographic maps.)

Lake basins and terraces occupy about50% of the land area of the provincethat lies in Klamath County and about20% of the province that is in LakeCounty. Lake basins and terraces inboth Lake and Klamath counties areused primarily for irrigated agriculture.The rest of the province in Oregon israngeland and forest.

SoilsNoncultivated upland soils typi-

fying the Lake County part of KlamathProvince are derived primarily fromtuffaceous and basaltic materials.Sagebrush-bunchgrass rangeland soilsare primarily the Booth-Bluejoint soilassociation, which are clayey soils, andthe Hapgood-Hartig soil association,which are loamy soils. Pine- and fir-forested soils are primarily the Wood-cock-Mound soil association, whichare well-drained loamy soils.

Soils being cultivated, mainly underirrigation, on terraces and fans in theLakeview vicinity are typically theDrews soil series. Soils on well-drainedbottomlands are in the Lakeview soilseries. Poorly drained flood plainsinclude the Goose Lake, Scherrard, andSteams soil series, the latter two beingalkaline.'

In the Klamath County part of KlamathProvince, the major rangeland soil is

Klamath Ecological Province

Lorella series, which is formed in tuffa-ceous and basaltic materials and growsjuniper, sagebrush, and bunchgrasses.The Merlin soil series represents themajor low sagebrush scabland site.Forested areas are associated primarilywith Woodcock, Pokegema, and Turn-quist soil series, which are formed inandesitic parent materials.

Various soil series are associated withthe extensive valleys and low terracesthat are cultivated, mainly under irriga-tion, in the Klamath County part of theprovince.

The soils are formed in lacustrine sedi-ments consisting of tuffaceous andbasaltic materials and are representedby such soil series as Malin, Scherrard,Bedner, Calder, and Laki. Fordneyseries is in sandy basins and fans. Soilsthat are poorly drained include Ontko,Klamath, Pit, and Henley; some arealkaline. Marsh soils are represented byTulano, Algoma, Yamsay, and Moyinaseries, which are formed primarily inlacustrine diatomaceous materials. TheTulano series, where drained, probablyis the most extensive cultivated soil inKlamath Province.79

ClimateBased on eight official weather

stations representing Klamath Ecologi-cal Province in Oregon, average annualprecipitation for the Lake Countyportion of the province is 14.2 inches,of which 35% falls during the herba-

ceous native-plant growing season,April through July. The average annualprecipitation for the Klamath Countypart of the province is 14 inches, ofwhich 27% falls during the growingseason. October through March (win-ter) precipitation for the province isabout 61% of total precipitation in LakeCounty and 66% in Klamath County.

Average temperatures do not vary sig-nificantly between Lake and Klamathcounty weather stations. Average Janu-ary maximum and minimum tempera-tures for the province are 37.8 and16.4°F, respectively. Average Aprilthrough July maximum and minimumtemperatures for the province are 70.9and 38.9°F, respectively.

A precipitation map53 shows a high forthe province of about 65 inches annu-ally in the Crane Mountain area south-east of Lakeview, which is also thehighest elevation in the province. A fewmountainous areas scattered throughoutthe province show average annualprecipitation above 25 inches; the southportion of Winter Rim shows about 35inches. The most and part of the prov-ince is near the California state line atMalin and Merrill, southeast of Kla-math Falls, where annual precipitationis about 10 to 12 inches.

VegetationAccording to the 1936 State of Ore-

gon Forest Type Map,54 which predatesextensive logging activities, about 70%

Table 23. Climatic Data for Klamath Ecological Province, Oregon.17

of the Lake County portion of KlamathProvince was covered by trees, prima-rily ponderosa pine. A small area aboveabout 7,000 feet elevation southeast ofLakeview was forested with such spe-cies as true fir. About 30% of this partof the province was unforested. Of that,about 5% was cultivated, 5% was lake-bed in the vicinity of Lakeview, and theother 20% was likely shrub-grassland.

Only about 1% of the Lake County partof the province was covered in juniperstands. The stands were mainly in twolocations, about 12 miles west of Lake-view and south of Highway 66, and onthe rocky plateaus sloping east betweenWarner Mountains and Warner Valley.

In the part of Klamath Province in Kla-math and Jackson counties, about 50%was covered by trees consisting pri-marily of ponderosa pine. In addition,about 10% of the area was covered bystands of juniper distributed throughoutthe area. Unforested areas, which wereprobably cropland and shrub-grassrangelands, covered about 40% of thearea; lakes, marshes, and wet meadowsoccupied about 10% of the area.

Radical changes since 1936 in KlamathProvince of Oregon include expandedjuniper coverage and increased crop-land acreage resulting from sprinklerirrigation and the drainage of marshesand shallow lakes.

Natural grasslands in Klamath Provinceof Oregon grow only on bottomlands,

Station and Precipitation Average maximum and minimumlength of record Elevation Annual Oct.-March April-July temperatures (°F)


Klamath CountyDairy 17 4,150 14.2 70 26 37.9-15.9 71.7-35.8Gerber Dam 7 4,850 18.6 69 26 37.2-11.1 71.6-37.5Klamath Falls 22 4,100 13.9 64 23 37.1-20.8 71.7-43.7Malin 15 4,050 12.1 67 36 38.6-18.9 72.3-38.8Merrill 16 4,070 10.6 68 25 37.4-16.8 72.4-37.0Round Grove 19 4,888 16.1 63 30 37.8-15.2 68.2-34.1Yonna 22 4,147 12.7 61 24 38.0-15.7 71.2-35.6

Klamath County Average 14.0 66 27 38.7-16.3 71.3-37.5

Lake CountyLakeview 21 4,746 14.2 61 35 36.9-16.4 70.5-40.3


64 Klamath Ecological Province

Table 24. Average Dates Vegetation Growth Begins and Endsin Klamath Ecological Province, Oregon.



Klamath CountyDairy 17 4,150 March 22 July 25Gerber Dam 7 4,850 April 1 August 24Klamath Falls 22 4,100 March 15 July 26Malin 15 4,050 March 15 July 6Merrill 16 4,070 April 1 June 27Round Grove 19 4,888 April 7 August 13Yonna 22 4,147 March 24 July 15

Lake CountyLakeview 21 4,746 March 27 July 24

not grow in other eastern Oregonprovinces: woolly wyethia, Klamathplum, and birchleaf mountain-mahogany. In its wide variety of shrub,grass, and forb species, Klamath Prov-ince represents a transition betweenother eastern Oregon provinces andSiskiyou Province in southwest Ore-gon, which also is typified by a widevariety of native species many of whichapparently do not grow in easternOregon.

Natural juniper sites are considered tobe sites on which mature juniper treesconstitute 5% or more of canopy cover

No official weather stations in Klamath Province in Jackson County. and in which all age classes of juniper* The average date vegetation growth begins on native perennial bunchgrasses is live, indicating the stand's perpetuation.approximately the date average daily temperatures reach 39 to 40°F. Average dategrowth ends is considered to be when available soil moisture is depleted. Interpreta-tions are based on data in Johnsgard.'7

and the vegetation varies according todegree and duration of wetness. Thedriest natural grasslands in KlamathProvince are well-drained bottoms onwhich basin wildrye dominates a widevariety of grass species.

Associated soils include the Modocseries. The wettest natural grasslands inthe province are wet mountain mead-ows on which tufted hairgrass domi-nates in a wide variety of grasses,sedges, and rushes. Associated soilsinclude Gooselake, Klamath, and Lake-view series. Meadows of intermediatewetness are dominated by a variety ofbluegrasses, including Leiberg, Nevada,Kentucky, Canby, and Sandberg, and awide variety of other grasses, sedges,and rushes. Associated soils includeWhitworth and Yocum series.

Marshlands, the transitions from lake tomeadow, are typified by bullrushes andcattails. Associated soils include Tulano,Algoma, Yamsay, and Moyina series.

Natural shrub-grasslands grow withinthe lake basins of Klamath Province inOregon mainly on lakebed terraces andstony sloping tuffaceous plateaus andon some south-facing slopes at lowerelevations in mountainous areas (Fig.29). Shrub-grasslands on very shallowor claypan soils are strongly dominatedby low sagebrush with minor amountsof shrubby buckwheat and bitterbrush.

Associated soils include Lorella andBooth series.

Klamath Province shrub-grasslands onmoderately deep soils are notable fortheir wide array of shrub species. Bigsagebrush and bitterbrush are widelyprominent. Other shrubs include Kla-math plum, serviceberry, desert goose-berry, shrubby buckwheat, gray horse-brush, gray and green rabbitbrushes,curlleaf mountain-mahogany, choke-cherry, wax currant, granitegilia, rose,mountain snowberry, blue elderberry,oceanspray, and, on steep north expo-sures, birchleaf mountain-mahogany.

Klamath Province shrub-grasslandsalso are notable for the wide variety ofperennial grass and forb species inplant communities. It is not uncommonfor a sizable plant community in rela-tively good ecological status to containabout 10 perennial grass species andabout 20 perennial forb species.

Soils associated with shrub-grasslandsin the province in Oregon include Cali-mus, Bluejoint, Drews, Hartig, Lorella,Crume, Modoc, and Nuss series.

Most shrub, grass, and forb species inthis province in Oregon are the samespecies found to the east and north inother Oregon ecological provinces.However, at least three species com-mon in Klamath Province in Oregon do

East of Warner Mountains in LakeCounty, natural juniper stands grow onextensive areas of basalt rubbleland-land where rock outcrops and stone-size rubble cover about 90% of the landsurface. Plant growth is confined toareas between the rubble; low sage-brush is the dominant shrub (Fig. 30).These are likely the same areas thatwere mapped as juniper trees in 1936.

Similar examples of natural juniperstands also are to the west in theprovince. Associated soils include theHart-Rockland and the Lorella-Booth-Rockland complexes.

Other natural juniper stands are onundulating south-facing slopes havingshallow, stony soils. Bitterbrush, bigsagebrush, and a variety of bunch-grasses grow in the understory. Associ-ated soils include Lorella and Fuegoseries.

In addition to juniper, stands of otherconiferous trees in 1936 covered about70% of Klamath Province. In this area,ponderosa pine is the most widespreadtree species and grows in a variety ofenvironments because of its wideecological amplitude. In KlamathProvince, it appears that ponderosa pinecan encroach into disturbed forests,including into stands of white fir.39

White fir is the next most widespreadtree species in the province. (Bothwhite fir and grand fir are collectivelycalled white fir in this instance.)Commonly, a single tree will have

Klamath Ecological Province 65

needle characteristics of both species,indicating that cross-breeding hasproduced a hybrid. This also occurs inBlue Mountain Province of Oregonwhere the two species intermingle.

Fred Hall, an ecologist in Region 6 ofthe U.S. Forest Service (Portland), onceaptly suggested the hybrid should beclassified as Abies grandcolor todispense with debate (personal commu-

nication to author). The ecological am-plitude of white fir in Klamath Prov-ince in Oregon extends from the dryponderosa pine zone, where it is nor-mally on north exposures, to high coldridges of about 6,700 feet elevation.

Douglas-fir is common only in thewestern portion of Klamath Province.Sugar pine extends throughout theprovince but is not dominant in any

stand. It usually is on north-facingslopes in the province east of KlamathFalls and on south-facing slopes westof Klamath Falls. It appears to besomewhat tolerant of shade and alwaysgrows in mixed stands. Incense cedargenerally is associated with sugar pinein Klamath Province in Oregon.

Lodgepole pine is uncommon inKlamath Province but grows in cold

Table 25. Major Ecological Sites in Klamath Ecological Province, Oregon.

Climax type



Shrub-grassland Droughty rolling hills(10% or more Bluebunch wheatgrass, Sandberg bluegrass,canopy cover Idaho fescue/mixed shrubsof shrubs) Rolling hills

(continued)

Idaho fescue, bluebunch wheatgrass,Sandberg bluegrass/ mixed shrubs

ScablandSandberg bluegrass/low sagebrush

Very cobbly landIdaho fescue, Sandberg bluegrass/low sagebrush

South exposureBluebunch wheatgrass, Sandberg bluegrass/mixed shrubs

North exposureIdaho fescue, bluebunch wheatgrass, bigbluegrass/mixed shrubs

Steep northIdaho fescue, blue wildrye/mixed shrubs,birchleaf mountain-mahogany

Deep sand hillsNeedlegrasses, ricegrass/bitterbrush

Mahogany rocklandIdaho fescue, bluebunch wheatgrass/mixedshrubs, curlleaf mountain-mahogany

Clayey terraceIdaho fescue, Sandberg bluegrass/low sagebrush

Loamy terraceBluebunch wheatgrass, Idaho fescue,needlegrass/bitterbrush

Well-drained bottomBasin wildrye, Kentucky bluegrass, Canbybluegrass, beardless wildrye

Dry meadowLeiberg bluegrass, Nevada bluegrass, Ken-tucky bluegrass, slender wheatgrass

Wet meadowTufted hairgrass, redtop, Nebraska sedge,rushes

Claypan bottomIdaho fescue, Nevada bluegrass/low sagebrush


Table 25 (cont'd). Major Ecological Sites in Klamath Ecological Province, Oregon.


Coniferous tree Juniper rolling hills(5% or more Bluebunch wheatgrass, Idaho fescue,canopy cover Sandberg bluegrass/mixed shrubs/juniperof mature trees) Juniper rubbleland

Bluebunch wheatgrass, Idaho fescue,Sandberg bluegrass/low sagebrush/juniper

Juniper-pine-bunchgrass

Bluebunch wheatgrass, Idaho fescue, Thurberneedlegrass/mixed shrubs/pine, juniper

Pine-bunchgrass

Idaho fescue, bluebunch wheatgrass/mixed shrubs/ponderosa pine

Pine-sedge

Sedge, Idaho fescue/mixed shrubs/ponderosapine

Mixed pine-fir-sedgeSedge/mixed shrubs/mixed pine, fir

Fir-pine forestShade-tolerant grasses/shrubs/mixed fir,mixed pine

Fir forestShade-tolerant understory/true firs

Lodgepole forestShade tolerant understory/lodgepole pine

Deciduous tree Aspen grove(5% or more Mixed grasses/mixed forbs/mixed shrubs/canopy cover aspenof trees)

areas above about 6,700 feet elevation,such as on Swan Lake Point and YainaxButte. It also occurs in concave coldand wet locations.

Soils associated with pine, fir, andmixed pine-fir forests include Mound,Woodcock, Tournquist, Lobert, and Blyseries. Aspen is the most abundant andwidespread native deciduous tree in theprovince and is restricted to cold, wetareas. Soils associated with aspenstands include Mitten Springs series.The greatest abundance of tree species,and for that matter of all plant species,is in the far west, most moist part ofKlamath Province in Oregon. This areais near Siskiyou and Cascade provinces.

Management ImplicationsThe geomorphology of many soils

in Klamath Province in Oregon isrelated to ancient sedimentary and tuf-

Aspen meadowWet meadow grasses/forbs/aspen, willow

faceous lakeshore terraces and basins.These soils generally have loamy sur-face layers and loamy to clayey sub-soils. The surface is often stony orgravelly, and hardpans may be present.These features are important to irrigatedcropland agriculture on sloping lands.

Much of Klamath Province rangelandsin Oregon are typified by basalt stonesand outcrops on the surface, especiallyon upland slopes and plateaus. Associ-ated soils commonly are shallow overclayey subsoils. These soils readilyerode if herbaceous cover is depleted.

Stones, exposed by erosion, can form astone pavement that seriously impedesreestablishment of forage plants.Resource-management plans toimprove range ecological status andforage production must fully recognizethat stone pavement on an area essen-tially determines how much the vegeta-

tion can be improved. Costs to imple-ment management plans should beweighed realistically against benefitsthat might be achieved.

Successful livestock ranching inKlamath Province in Oregon dependslargely on irrigated pasture during partor all of the summer grazing periodbecause of the lack of native summerrange in the area. A few ranches havesummer and early fall grazing in theforested area west of Klamath Falls andon several mountains.

This general lack of native summerrange at least partly explains whyrangeland ecological status generally isquite low in the province. Historicpressure to turn out on the range assoon as possible in spring and to stayoff irrigated fields until crops areharvested in autumn likely contributedto current ecological status.


Expansion of western juniper, whichnow covers virtually all noncultivatedand nonforested areas in the province,is a major problem. Various methods oferadication have been tested; the mainlesson learned is that eradicating juni-per is not easy nor always cost-effective. However, some junipercontrol projects, coupled with grazingmanagement systems, have improvedecological status and produced moreand better livestock and wildlife forage,and better soil protection by theimproved vegetation.

One of the most important aspects ofKlamath Province in Oregon is itsexcellent wildlife habitat. The widevariety of herbaceous and shrub speciesforms ideal habitat, especially for deer.Nearly all sites except in forested areasproduce significant amounts of bitter-brush, a prime winter-range browse fordeer. Normal use for big game shouldbe considered when managing livestockand other uses of the area.


Klamath-High Desert DemarcationThe line of demarcation between

Klamath and High Desert provincesbegins at the Oregon-California borderat about 6,000 feet elevation south ofthe dry Big Lake, which is southwest ofAdel in Lake County. The line mean-ders north at about that elevation tocross Parsnip Creek west of Adel, upDrake Creek to cross the Plush cutoffroad east of Drake Peak, and onnorthward across Twelvemile andMcDowell creeks.

At Honey Creek, the line veers west, tothe south end of Abert Rim, then southto Sherman Valley. From there it fol-lows north along the west side of AbertRim escarpment nearly to Lake Abert.Then it turns southwest to the vicinityof Valley Falls, in High Desert Province.

From the vicinity of Valley Falls, theline travels northwesterly at about4,500 feet elevation along the westernboundary of Chewaucan Valley, aroundTucker Hill, south up Moss Creekabout 6 miles, then northwest along thevalley at the base of Winter Ridge. The

communities of Paisley and SummerLake are in High Desert Province.

About 3 miles north of the communityof Summer Lake, the line goes westalong the headwaters of variousdrainages that drain north into SilverLake basin. It continues west about 5miles south of Silver Lake communityinto the headwaters of Bridge Creek. Atthis location, Klamath, High Desert,and Mazama provinces join.

The line between Klamath and HighDesert provinces is based on soil linesbetween Booth-Bluejoint and Wood-cock-Mound soil associations, whichtypify Klamath Province, and theFloke-Olson, Harriman-Hager,Crump-Ozamis, and Hart-Plush soilassociations which typify High DesertProvince .14

Klamath- Mazama DemarcationThe line of demarcation between

Klamath and Mazama provinces runssouth to the west of Thompson Reser-voir, which is in Klamath Province,then around Sycan Butte, which is inMazama Province, and along the eastside of Sycan Marsh, also in MazamaProvince.76

From about 5 miles southwest of SycanMarsh on the Sycan River, the lineheads east and runs northeast across theheadwaters of Sycan River and thensoutheast in the vicinity of Winter Rim.From the south portion of Winter Rim,the line travels south across upper ElderCreek to west of Campbell Lake andsouth of Deadhorse Rim where it veerswest along the south-facing slopes ofGearhart Mountain, which is inMazama Province.84

From the area south of Gearhart Moun-tain, the line goes west to North ForkSprague River. Then it snakes its waywest more or less near the north boun-dary of Sprague River valley. FergusonMountain is in Mazama Province.

From the vicinity of Knott Tableland,which is in Klamath Province, the linemeanders northwest, passing about 5miles north of Sprague River commu-nity which is in Klamath Province.

From there, it runs south and west tothe vicinity of Chiloquin and south toLobert Junction.

From the vicinity of Lobert Junction onHighway 97, the line winds north alongthe east side of Agency Lake to thevicinity of Klamath Agency, which is inMazama Province, then northwesterlyto about 4 miles west of Fort Klamathalong the east side of Klamath Point.Klamath, Mazama, and Cascade prov-inces join in the vicinity of KlamathPoint.

The demarcation between Klamath andMazama provinces is based on soillines between Woodcock-Mound, Hart,and Lorella soil series, which typifyKlamath Province, and Lapine,Shanahan, and Kirk-Chock soil series,which typify Mazama Province .14

Klamath -Cascade DemarcationFrom the vicinity of Klamath

Point, in Cascade Province, the line ofdemarcation between Klamath andCascade provinces heads south at about5,500 feet elevation along the east sideof Klamath Point, Lather Mountain,Pelican Butte, Mt. Harriman, BuckPeak, and Buck Mountain.

From Buck Mountain the line turnsnorthwest at about 5,500 feet elevationaround the headwaters of Jenny Creekto the area southwest of Brush Moun-tain, which is in Cascade Province. It isin this vicinity that Klamath, Cascade,and Siskiyou provinces join.

The line of demarcation betweenKlamath and Cascade provinces is notbased on soil maps. Rather, the linerepresents the approximate boundarybetween the mixed-pine-mixed-firforests of Klamath Province and thecolder, more moist mixed-fir-hemlockforest, which typifies Cascade Prov-ince.50 However, in this area, theDumont-Coyata and Donegan-Killetsoil associations are associated withmixed fir-hemlock forest of CascadeProvince; Pokegema-Woodcock soilassociation is associated with themixed-pine-mixed-fir forests ofKlamath Province.61



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The Ecological Provincesof Oregon

Some representative views

Figure 1.Lookingnortheast at anexample of anabrupt line ofdemarcationbetweenecologicalprovinces:Columbia BasinProvince on thebasaltic plateau(background),and thegeologicallyeroded ancientsediments ofJohn DayProvince(foreground)near Clarno,Oregon.

Figure 2.Looking north at

an example ofan abrupt line of

demarcationbetween

ecologicalprovinces: HighDesert Province

(foreground),and John Day

Province(background),

north ofHampton,

Oregon.

Ecological Provinces of Oregon: Some Representative Views

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Figure 3 Rugged basaltic foothills ofBlue Mountain Province, Oregon

Figure 4 Typical view of BlueMountain Province, showing

interspersed natural grasslands andforested areas

Figure 5 Managed natural grasslandsin Blue Mountain Province, Oregon

70 Ecological Provinces of Oregon Some Representative Views

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Figure 6. Typical pine-fir-pinegrassforest in Blue Mountain Province,

Oregon.

Figure 7. Looking south from HawkinsPass, which is the source of SouthFork Imnaha River in Blue MountainProvince, Oregon.

Figure 8. Douglas-fir, noble fir,and hemlock forest at about

4,000 feet elevation alongthe highway near Marion Forks in

Cascade Province, Oregon


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Figure 9 Olallie Butte, elevation7,210 feet, on the crest of theCascade Range as seen fromOlallie Lake in Cascade Province,Oregon

Figure 10 Sandy beaches andcoastal headlands south of CapeLookout in the northern portion of

Coast Province, Oregon

Figure 11 Looking southwest fromMarys Peak into Coast Province,Oregon Fog in valleys that extend tothe ocean is typical for this province

Ecological Provinces of Oregon Some Representative Views

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Figure 12. Douglas-fir-westernhemlock forest in upper Siletz River

drainage of Coast Province, Oregon,showing abundance of deciduous

trees that commonly proliferate afterlogging or burning.

Figure 13. Overview of extensivedryland farming area within ColumbiaBasin Province, Oregon. Washingtonstate, north of the Columbia River, isin the background.

Figure 14. Biscuit scabland isextensive in Columbia Basin

Province, Oregon.


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Figure 15. A cross-section of a typicalbiscuit scabland in Columbia BasinProvince, Oregon. It shows themassive basalt underlying both thebiscuits of soil and the adjacentscablands

Figure 16 Managed natural uplandgrasslands in Columbia Basin

Province, Oregon.

Figure 17. Overview of extensiveclosed basins typifying High DesertProvince, Oregon. Wagontire Mountainis on the horizon at right


Figure 18. Ancient shorelineof Warner Valley along the west side

of Poker Jim Ridge on Hart MountainNational Antelope Refuge in High

Desert Province, Oregon.

Figure 19. Concentric bands ofvegetation on a shallow lakebed inHart Mountain National AntelopeRefuge, in High Desert Province,Oregon. The vegetation bands arerelated to the frequency, depth, andduration of inundation.

Figure 20. Stand of rough fescuein a managed natural shrub

grassland at about 7,000 feetelevation on Hart Mountain in High

Desert Province, Oregon.


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Figure 21. Managed natural shrub-grassland dominated by bluebunchwheatgrass and Thurber needlegrassin the vicinity of Glass Buttes, HighDesert Province, Oregon.

Figure 22. Immense sodicbottomlands and mountain ranges in

Humboldt Province near the Oregon-Nevada border. Continuous ancient-lake terraces and fans appear as alighter-color formation between the

bottomlands and the mountains.

Figure 23. Managed natural desertshrub range on very stony ancientlakeshore terraces and fans that typifyHumboldt Province, Oregon.


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Figure 24. Ancient-lake terracesalong the eastern footslopes

of Steens Mountain, in High DesertProvince, and Alvord Lake basin, which

is in Humboldt Province, Oregon.

Figure 25. Geologically erodedancient lacustrine materials cappedwith basaltic or tuffaceous rock typifyJohn Day Province, Oregon.

Figure 26. General view of John DayProvince showing round-top hills,

remnants of basalt flows, and exposedancient sediments.


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Figure 27-a. This photo and the threefollowing, taken over a 45-year period,document the spread of westernjuniper in the mainstem John Day Rivervalley near Dayville. This photo wastaken in 1920 by a local person.

Figure 27-b. Taken in 1945 byE. W. Anderson and W. Farrell; thelatter was Grant County Extension

agent at that time.

Figure 27-c. Taken in 1956 by E. W.Anderson and W. Farrell.


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Figure 27-d. Taken in 1965by E. W. Anderson and W. Farrell.

Figure 28. A managed natural shrub-grassland on which basin wildrye (thelight-color vegetation) is growing incolluvial soils on uplands nearWaterman Flat, Wheeler County, inJohn Day Province, Oregon.

Figure 29. Rangeland on ancient-laketerraces in the eastern portion of

Klamath Province, Oregon.


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Figure 30. Managed natural shrub-grassland on very stony landproducing Idaho fescue, lowsagebrush, and scattered westernjuniper in the eastern portion ofKlamath Province, Oregon.

Figure 31. View of Mt. Thielson oversnow-covered pumice desert as seen

from Crater Lake.

Figure 32. Mt. Thielsen as viewedfrom Diamond Lake, one of the manynatural lakes that receive heavyrecreational use in Mazama Province,Oregon.


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Figure 33. A mantle of aeolianpumice overlying ancient landforms

and buried soils typifies MazamaProvince in Oregon.

Figure 34. The ponderosa pine-mixed shrub-bunchgrass zone onpumice-loam soils in MazamaProvince, Oregon.

Figure 35. A dense, vigorousstand of basin wildrye and Nevada

bluegrass on a bottomland in thevicinity of Jordan Valley in Owyhee

Province, Oregon. The manstanding in the grass is Bud Town,

SCS Range Conservationist.


Figure 36. Groves of curileafmountain-mahogany onMahogany Mountains in thenorthern portion of OwyheeProvince, Oregon.

Figure 37. A mosaic of wedgeleafceanothus, Oregon white oak,

and grassy openings typifies thenonforested portions of Siskiyou

Province, Oregon.

Figure 38. Overview of the steeptopography, interspersed valleys,contrasting vegetation cover, and thewide variety of elevations that,together, typify much of SiskiyouProvince, Oregon.


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Figure 39. Dissected ancient-laketerraces, hills and interspersed

valleys characterize Snake RiverProvince, Oregon.

Figure 40. A managed shrub-grassland range in Snake RiverProvince, Oregon.

Figure 41. Prominent ancient-lakedissected terraces north of the Powder

River in eastern Baker Countyrepresent the northern boundary of

Snake River Province in Oregonwhere it butts into the mountainous

Blue Mountain Province (background)at about 4,000 feet elevation.


84

Figure 42. A mosaic of naturalgrasslands and stands of deciduousand coniferous trees typifies TheDalles Province, Oregon.

Figure 43. A relict stand of oakforest on the Finley Wildlife

Refuge near Corvallis, inWillamette Province, Oregon.

Figure 44. Agriculture in closeproximity to woodland is common inWillamette Province, Oregon.



(continued from page 68)It is possible that more intensive soilinvestigations might reveal distinguish-able differences at the soil series levelbetween the mixed-fir-hemlock forestof Cascade Province and the mixed-pine-mixed-fir forest of Klamath Prov-ince in the vicinity of this portion of thedemarcation line.

Klamath-Siskiyou DemarcationFrom the juncture of Klamath,

Cascade, and Siskiyou provincessouthwest of Brush Mountain in easternJackson County, the line of demarca-

tion between Klamath and Siskiyouprovinces follows southward nearGrizzly Creek and then down JennyCreek to cross Highway 66 nearPinehurst. From the vicinity ofPinehurst, the line runs east to south ofParker Mountain and to the KlamathRiver where the line veers south to theCalifornia state line.

The line is not based on soil maps.Rather, it is the approximate boundarybetween the area vegetated withjuniper, oak, and wedgeleaf ceanothusplant communities, which typify

Siskiyou Province in this area, and themixed-pine-mixed-fir plant communi-ties, which typify Klamath Province."However, the Pokegema-Woodcocksoil association is associated with themixed-pine-mixed-fir forests ofKlamath Province in this area and theSkookum-McMullin and McNull-McMullin soil associations are associ-ated with plant communities includingjuniper, oak, pine, and wedgeleafceanothus in this area, which typifySiskiyou Province. Wedgeleaf ceano-thus is a key ecological indicator specieson and sites in Siskiyou Province.

The province covers about 5.1 millionacres mainly in Deschutes, Klamath,and Lake counties east of the crest ofthe Cascade Range. Minor portions ofthe province are near the Cascade crestin northeast Jackson County, easternDouglas and Lane counties, andsoutheast Linn County and in thesouthwest corner of Jefferson County.

Communities in the province includeSisters, Redmond, Powell Butte,Brothers, and Bend in the northern part;Lapine, Gilchrist, Crescent, and Che-mult along Highway 97 in the centralpart; and Chiloquin and Fort Klamathin the south.

DescriptionMazama Province is characterized

by sloping and undulating plateaus inthe northern and northeastern portionsand by hilly to mountainous topogra-phy interspersed with basins throughoutmost of its interior and western portion.Innumerable large and small buttes,cones, ridges, and mountains formed byvolcanism are interspersed across thelandscape. Fields of raw lava and pum-ice are common.

The lowest elevation in the province isabout 2,700 feet which is near thenorthern province border, south of ThePeninsula where the Deschutes and

MazamaEcological

Province

LocationMazama Ecological Province, in

central Oregon, is entirely within thestate. It is the area covered by anaeolian deposit of pumice and othervolcanic materials spewed over thecountryside when Mt. Mazama eruptedexplosively about 6,500 years ago.

Due to prevailing southwesterly winds,the pumice mantle lies primarily northand east of Crater Lake, which is in thecaldera of Mt. Mazama. The mantle ex-tends about 120 miles north from CraterLake to the area north of Sisters andRedmond in northern DeschutesCounty, about 110 miles northeast tothe vicinity of Brothers in northeastDeschutes County, and about 60 milessoutheast to Gearhart Mountain inwestern Lake County. The pumicemantle extends only about 6 milessouthwest of Crater Lake. Also, thewestern edge of the mantle is about 10miles west of Crater, Diamond, Cres-cent, and Odell lakes and continuesnortherly about 5 miles west of theCascade crest.

Other volcanic activities and eruptions,such as those related to NewberryCrater, as well as glacial actions havecreated areas within this province con-sisting of basaltic, andesitic, rhyolitic,and tuffaceous deposits, cinders, andglacial till.

Crooked rivers join. Most of theprovince lies between 4,000 and 5,000feet elevation. South Paulina Peak inthe northeast part of the province is8,010 feet elevation; Gearhart Moun-tain in the southeast part is 8,390 feetelevation. Yamsey Butte east ofKlamath Marsh in the south of theprovince is 8,085 feet elevation.

Many peaks in the western part of theprovince, which includes the CascadeRange, exceed 8,000 feet elevation.(Elevations are from USGS 1:250,000topographic maps.) They include Mt.Scott just east of Crater lake, 8,339feet; Mt. Bailey just west of DiamondLake, 8,363 feet; Bachelor Buttesouthwest of Bend, 9,040 feet; andBroken Top west of Bend, 9,165 feet.

The crest of the Cascade Range withinMazama Province has spectacularpeaks including Mt. Thielsen, 9,182feet; Diamond Peak, 8,744 feet; SouthSister, 10,430 feet; Middle Sister,10,053 feet; and North Sister, 10,009feet (Fig. 31).

The western part of the province isnoted for its numerous mountain lakesand recreation areas (Fig. 32). Dia-mond, Lemolo, and Waldo lakes liewest of the Cascade crest; Crescent,Summit, Odell, Wickiup, Davis, CranePrairie, Cultus, Sparks, and others lie

86 Mazama Ecological Province

east of the crest. All are in MazamaProvince.

Klamath Marsh and Sycan Marsh aretwo significant wetlands in the prov-ince. The major drainage from theprovince is via the Deschutes Riverwhich flows north to exit the provincenear The Peninsula northwest ofRedmond (Fig. 31).

SoilsThe primary upland soils typifying

Mazama Province have been developedin various combinations of aeolianpumice and volcanic ash overlyingbasaltic bedrock or ancient soils atvarying depths from about 8 to 10inches up to about 15 feet.

Major soil series typifying uplandsinclude Deschutes and Steiger, whichgenerally are relatively thick depositsof aeolian pumice. Lapine and Shana-han soil series generally are aeolianpumice overlying buried loamy soil atvarying depths to about 40 inches.

Certain major soil series typify bottom-land or topographic basins. Wickiupseries is a deep, imperfectly drained,

very gravelly, coarse pumicy soil thatoccurs in basins and draws in foresteduplands. Skellock series is a deep,gravelly, sandy loam that lies on thefringe of marshy areas.

Lodgepole pine is very likely theclimax tree species on Wickiup andSkellock soils because of its tolerancefor imperfectly drained, cold sites. TheDilman series is a black, clayey, imper-fectly drained soil typically associatedwith flood plains, such as along theDeschutes River, and with mountainmeadows such as Long Prairie southfrom Lapine. Pumicey soils on marshes,such as Sycan and Klamath marshes,include soil series such as Chinchallo,Yamsay, and Moyina, which are black,poorly drained soils that may havelayers of organic matter in the profile.

A very small part of Mazama Provinceis used for irrigated pasture and crop-land; such agricultural use is restrictedprimarily to the area bounded by thecommunities of Sisters, Redmond, andPilot Butte on the north and by Alfalfaand Bend on the south. Irrigated fieldswithin this area are somewhat scattered,isolated by low ridges and mounds of

Table 26. Climatic Data for Mazama Ecological Province, Oregon."

basalt bedrock and rubble. The primarysoil series being irrigated is Deschutessandy loam.

ClimateTwelve official weather stations

represent a cross-section of MazamaProvince. Average elevation of the fivestations in Deschutes County, whichconstitute the northern part of theprovince, is about 3,900 feet; averageelevation of seven stations in KlamathCounty to the south is about 4,200 feet.

In contrast to this relatively insignifi-cant difference in elevation from northto south within the province, the aver-age annual precipitation in DeschutesCounty is 14.7 inches but 38.6 inchesin Klamath County. Sixty-seven percentof annual precipitation in the northportion falls during winter (Novemberthrough March), 26% during the grow-ing season (April through July). In thesouth, 77% of annual precipitation is inwinter and 19% in the growing season.The north part of the province appar-ently is slightly warmer than the south.

Maximum and minimum temperaturesin January are 39.2 and 15.4°F, respec-

Station and Precipitation Average maximum and minimumlength of record Elevation Annual Nov.-March April-July temperatures (°F)

(years) (feet) (inches) (%) (&) January April-July

Deschutes CountyBend 22 3,599 12.0 64 24 39.9-20.3 65.4-38.6Fall River

Hatchery a 9 4,250 19.1 71 23 38.9-15.4 70.2-31.4Lapine 10 4,382 14.2 65 29 39.6-12.5 71.6-29.2Redmond 21 2,982 8.6 58 33 42.1-20.9 73.3-39.5Wickiup Dam 11 4,330 19.8 76 19 35.6-7.9 66.7-32.9

Klamath CountyCascade Summit 15 4,841 49.4 80 17 33.8-20.0 61.4-35.2Chemult 14 4,750 26.7 78 18 38.6-9.6 69.0-30.1Chiloquin 17 4,200 17.5 72 23 38.6-14.8 71.1-34.5Crater Lake 18 6,475 68.4 80 17 33.3-17.0 57.2-33.1Crescent 8 4,452 19.1 66 23 41.0-11.8 67.9-28.3Odell Lake 6 4,788 60.4 80 15 30.9-15.5 61.0-34.4Sand Creek Station 16 4,682 28.4 80 19 36.4-12.6 67.9-31.9

County AveragesDeschutes County 14.7 67 26 39.2-15.4 69.4-34.3Klamath County 38.6 77 19 36.1-14.5 65.1-32.5


a On Fall Creek, along Century Drive, about 25 miles southwest of Bend.

Mazama Ecological Province 87

tively, in the north compared to 36.1and 14.5°F, respectively, in the south.Growing season maximum and mini-mum temperatures follow this pattern:69.4 and 34.3°F in the north comparedwith 65.1 and 32.5°F in the south.

A precipitation map 53 clearly shows thebroad precipitation patterns in most ofMazama Province and the CascadeRange's contribution to overall precipi-tation. The map shows 145 inchesannual precipitation in the Three Sistersarea west of Bend, which is the highestprecipitation in the province. The mapalso shows about 10 inches annualprecipitation at Brothers in the north-east part of the province. Johnsgard'sdata show 8.6 inches annual precipita-tion for Redmond weather station,which likely is the lowest annualprecipitation in the province."


Oregon Forest Type Map54 which pre-dates extensive logging activity, about1% of Mazama Province was then natu-ral grassland, mainly in Klamath andSycan marshes. About 4% was openand unforested, likely covered bysagebrush and bunchgrasses. About10% was in stands of western juniper.About 20% was in stands of lodgepolepine, some of which likely representedfire scars.

However, some lodgepole standsundoubtedly represented the currentecological stage of succession in forestdevelopment. These included stands onimperfectly drained depressions andswales where lodgepole pine is prob-ably the climax tree species because ofits tolerance of imperfectly drainedsituations and cold temperatures.

Most of the province, about 55% of it,was covered by stands of ponderosapine with some small areas includingDouglas-fir and other minor species.About 10% of the province was coveredby stands of true fir and hemlock orsubalpine vegetation; this was mainlyalong the top of the Cascade Range.Three isolated areas of a true fir-hemlock forest type were mapped onPaulina Peak, Yamsay Mountain, and

Table 27. Average Dates Vegetation Growth Begins and Endsin Mazama Ecological Province, Oregon.



Deschutes CountyBend 22 3,599 March 20 June 30Fall River

Hatchery 9 4,250 April 1 September 23Lapine 10 4,382 April l l August 3Redmond 21 2,982 March 7 May 20Wickiup Dam 11 4,330 March 27 September 30

Klamath CountyCascade Summit 15 4,841 April 19 Does not occurChemult 14 4,750 April 15 Does not occurChiloquin 17 4,200 April 1 August 9Crater Lake 18 6,475 May 7 Does not occurCrescent 8 4,452 April 3 Does not occurOdell Lake 6 4,788 April 26 Does not occurSand Creek Station 16 4,682 April 15 Does not occur


Gearhart Mountain, each of which isabout 8,000 feet or more in elevation.

It is interesting to note pollen analysesthat show vegetation on the soils nowburied in pumice included many of thetree species still common in theregion. 14

Mazama Province has the widest rangein upland vegetation zones of any ofOregon's ecological provinces. Thesezones range from the most and (10inches or less precipitation) sagebrush/bunchgrass zone in the northeast of theprovince to the true fir/hemlock andsubalpine zones along the top of theCascade Range where over 75 inches ofprecipitation falls annually.

Vegetation zones in Mazama Provinceare not as closely related to specific soilseries or to groups of series as in mostother ecological provinces in Oregon.This is largely because soil series inMazama Province are based primarilyon relatively uniform physical charac-teristics of the overall aeolian pumicemantle. The primary parent material ofthese soil series is unusually uniformover large areas because of its origin asan aeolian deposit. The result is fewersoil series per given area than when the

geomorphology of residual soils isclosely related to various landformsand topographic features.

Consequently, a single upland soilseries in Mazama Province usually liesin more than one vegetation zone.Conversely, a single vegetation zonemay be on more than one soil series. Inthis situation, the vegetation is muchless responsive to the relatively uni-form edaphic factors than it is to theprevailing climatic factors or effectiveenvironment.

Management ImplicationsMuch of Mazama Province is char-

acterized by a pumice mantle overlyingburied landforms, including ancientsoils, at depths varying from about 8 to10 inches up to 40 inches or more.These buried soils, which are usuallyreddish brown stony to nonstony loams,are important for ecological and man-agement reasons because they lie in thevegetation rooting zone and therebyinfluence overall soil moisture, nutrientrelationships, native species composi-tion, and tree growth rates (Fig. 33).

The overlying pumice mantle also isimportant for ecological and manage-


ment reasons. Individual particles ofpumice soil consist of volcanic glassshards which are porous. Consequently,there are more interstices and anglesthat carry water films- capillary water-than are normal in mineral soils ofthe same texture in which soil particlesare solid and rounded. Essentially,porous particles of pumice soil storewater within as well as on the surfaceof each soil particle; solid soil particlesin mineral soils store water primarilyon the surface of each particle. Thisbeneficially influences the water-holding capacity and cation exchangecapacity of the pumice-soil profile.

Furthermore, the mantle of pumiceoverlying a buried soil apparently actsas a mulch which produces an effectiveenvironment more beneficial to vege-tation. In the most arid, eastern, portionof Mazama Province this is evidencedby the widespread dominance of Idahofescue, for example, on pumice-mantlesoils. On nearby areas of loamy soilswithout a pumice mantle, in HighDesert Province, Thurber needlegrassand bluebunch wheatgrass are domi-nant under equivalent climatic condi-tions. In this particular area, a pumicemantle about 8 to 10 inches thick overburied loamy soil was needed to benefitplants' effective environment, accord-ing to an unpublished field study.3z

Another unpublished field study 39made on a tract of Brooks-Scanlontimber land near Bend showed naturalregeneration of ponderosa pine on deeppumice sands was very unsatisfactoryfrom a forester's viewpoint, andjunipers encroached following logging.

In contrast, at nearby locations wherethe pumice mantle was about 20 to 30inches thick over a buried loamy soil,ponderosa pine regeneration was excel-lent. Furthermore, maturing ponderosapine trees growing on pumice-loamsoils showed a significantly better rateof wood production than those growingon nearby deep pumice sands.

Obviously, two different ecologicalsituations were involved in this case.The less desirable, from a forestrystandpoint, was the ponderosa pine-juniper-bunchgrass vegetation zone,

and the more desirable was the ponde-rosa pine-mixed shrub-bunchgrasszone (Fig. 34). The Brooks-Scanlonforester was much impressed with thesesoil-plant relationships and with thefact that they could be predicted reliablymerely by interpreting the ecologicalindicator species growing on the site.

At one time, Weyerhaeuser Company atKlamath Falls was having problemswith survival of planted ponderosa pinenursery stock on pumice soils. Appar-ently, this was caused primarily bydesiccation due to porous surfacelayers. Later, an employee solved theproblem to a degree by planting nurserystock with 18-inch roots instead of thestandard 12 inches.

Examples such as these strongly indi-cate that the porous nature of pumiceparticles and, in general, the Mazamapumice mantle, makes it impossible tosuccessfully employ practices and con-cepts used to manage land and vegeta-tion on conventional mineral soils.

Pumice soils require special knowledgeand attention. An unpublished report3°pointed out that Mazama pumice soilswere laid down quite recently, geologi-cally speaking. Weathering and soilformation have not progressed very far.So, now most areas have a surface layerabout 12 inches thick, which has under-gone weathering and contains incorpo-rated organic matter, underlaid byrelatively unweathered pumice.

Although the weathered surface layers'fertility is usually quite satisfactory, thefresh pumice below is markedly defi-cient in several nutrient elements,including nitrogen and phosphorus andthe minor element boron. The unfavor-able nutrient balance may help explainthe scarcity of roots in the unweatheredpumice.

Pumice soils have unusual moisturerelations. Due to its porous nature,pumice soils can retain unusually largequantities of water. However, upwardcapillary movement of water is slow inthese zones. Plant roots must growdown into the moisture.

In some areas, on sites that are appar-ently quite dry, it appears that not all

moisture that should be available toplants is utilized. Most of this "surplus"water is contained in the unweatheredpumice layers, and it goes unused prob-ably because roots are almost nonexist-ent in these zones.

Pumice soils are quite easily modified.The changes are noted in characteristicssuch as bulk density, moisture-holdingcapacity, capillary movement of soilwater, and soil fertility. Compactionresulting from equipment or concentra-tions of grazing animals considerablymodifies pumice soil. This is evidencedby the extremely fine dust common onroads during dry seasons in MazamaProvince. Fresh pumice fragmentsbrought to the surface will weatherrapidly, much more readily than anyother type of volcanic rock.

Dyrness30 emphasized the need to iden-tify and delineate understory plantcommunities when mapping pumicesoils because the presence of a specificgroup of plants sometimes is indicativeof soil characteristics that cannot beeasily discerned simply by looking atthe soil profile.

For example, pumice soil in MazamaProvince that is growing snowbrushcontains appreciably more nitrogen andcalcium than does the soil in bitterbrushareas. Also, grass and forb species in anarea may indicate imperfect soil drain-age even though soil-profile character-istics may be completely devoid ofevidence of a seasonally high watertable. This is common on depressionsand basins where lodgepole is likely theclimax tree species.

Soil survey information alone in areasof immature pumice soils gives aninadequate basis for stratifying land fortimber management. This is becauseyoung soils tend to exhibit little changein morphological characteristics overlarge areas even though there may bemarked differences in temperature,precipitation, and other importantenvironmental factors. For this reason,surveys in Mazama Province shouldmap both soils and vegetation.



Table 28. Major Ecological Sites and Vegetation Zones in Mazama Ecological Province, Oregon."Upland site types Bottomland site types



Shrub-grassland Deep pumice(10% or more Idaho fescue, Thurber needlegrass/canopy cover bitterbrush, mountain sagebrushof shrubs) Pumice-loam hills

Idaho fescue, bluebunch wheatgrass,needlegrass/bitterbrush, mountain sagebrush

Pumice-loam flatWestern needlegrass, Ross sedge/mountain sagebrush

Shallow pumice-loamIdaho fescue, needlegrasses/low sagebrush

Gravelly terraceNeedlegrasses, Idaho fescue/Wyoming sagebrush

North exposureIdaho fescue, bluebunch wheatgrass,needlegrass/bitterbrush, Wyoming sagebrush

Juniper Juniper pumice hills(5% or more Idaho fescue, needlegrasses/bitterbrush/canopy cover juniperof mature juniper) Juniper pumice-loam hills

(continued)

Bluebunch wheatgrass, Idaho fescue/bitterbrush, juniper

Juniper pumice terraceIdaho fescue, needlegrasses/bitterbrush/juniper

Juniper shallow pumice terraceBluebunch wheatgrass, needlegrasses/bitterbrush/juniper

Juniper south exposureBluebunch wheatgrass, Thurber needlegrass/Wyoming sagebrush/juniper

Juniper lavalandBluebunch wheatgrass, Sandberg bluegrass/big sagebrush/juniper

Juniper cinder hillsBluebunch wheatgrass/Wyoming sagebrush/juniper

Pumice meadowNevada, Kentucky, and Cusick bluegrasses,threadleaf sedge

Mountain meadowTufted hairgrass, bluegrasses, sedges

Wet meadowSedges, rushes, tufted hairgrass

Meadow swaleRushes, sedges

MarshBullrush, cattail, aquatic plants


Table 28 (cont'd). Major Ecological Sites and Vegetation Zones in Mazama Ecological Province, Oregon.

Climax type

Lodgepole pine(5% or morecanopy coverof maturelodgepole pine)


Lodgepole low gravellySquirreltail, western needlegrass/big sagebrush, bitterbrush/lodgepole

Lodgepole and pumice-loamIdaho fescue/big sagebrush, bitterbrush/

lodgepoleLodgepole high gravelly

Western needlegrass, Ross sedge/lodgepole

Coniferous tree Ponderosa pine juniper-bunchgrassvegetation zones Ponderosa pine-bitterbrush-bunchgrass

Ponderosa pine-mixed shrubs-bunchgrass

Ponderosa pine-mixed fir-mixed shrub

Mixed pine-mixed firTrue fir-hemlock


Mazama-John Day DemarcationThe first point is at the north

boundary near where Deschutes Riverexits Mazama Province at what islocally known as Lower Desert, whichis where The Dalles, John Day, andMazama provinces join.

From there, the line of demarcationbetween the Mazama and John Dayprovinces goes southeast along theCrooked River past Smith Rock andcontinues across the plateau crossingHighway 126 about 4 miles east of thecommunity of Powell Butte. PowellButte, Redmond, and Terrebonne are inMazama Province; Smith Rock, GrayButte, Prineville, and nearly all of theNational Grasslands are in John DayProvince.

At the mouth of Crooked River canyonabout 6 miles south of Prineville, theline between Mazama and John Dayprovinces essentially follows the westcanyon rim of Crooked River to thevicinity of its confluence with BearCreek. From there it continues southalong the east side of Bear Creek andthen southeast along the breaks of BearCreek. About 5 miles north of Brothersthe line turns east at about 5,000 feet

Lodgepole wetlandNebraska sedge, meadow barley/lodgepole

Lodgepole moist bottomCalifornia oatgrass, blue wildrye/mixed shrubs/aspen, lodgepole

Lodgepole dry bottomOnespike oatgrass, bentgrass/bearberry/lodgepole

Lodgepole basinWestern needlegrass, Ross sedge/bitterbrush/lodgepole

elevation to the area north of GrassyButte.

Elevation is not as significant in de-marcation between Mazama and JohnDay provinces as it is between someother provinces. This is because Maza-ma Province is an ancient landscapecovered by an aeolian pumice mantlethat is not necessarily affected byelevation or landform. It should benoted, however, that the pumice depositat the perimeter of the pumice mantlelikely was thinner than toward theinterior of the fallout area.

Unpublished field studies indicate thatwhere about 8 to 10 inches or more ofpumice lies over buried soils, herba-ceous vegetation resembles that of theand nonforested portion of MazamaProvince, i.e., bluebunch wheatgrass/Idaho fescue. Less than 8 to 10 inchespumice mantle over buried soils pro-duces herbaceous vegetation typical ofHigh Desert Province, i.e., bluebunchwheatgrass/Thurber needlegrass. Obvi-ously, these are not clear-cut differ-ences out on the land because theyoccur within a belt of demarcation.3z

It also should be noted that Mazamaaeolian pumice falling on existing hillyuplands in a relatively thin mantlealong the perimeter of the fallout

pattern likely was washed into adjacentvalleys and drainages by subsequentprecipitation. Therefore, hilly uplandsin the vicinity of the line of demarca-tion between Mazama and John Dayprovinces help establish the location ofthis line; generally, the flatter land is inMazama and hilly uplands are in JohnDay Province.

North of Hampton Butte the line turnssouth more or less along the boundarybetween the basin and uplands. South-west of Hampton Butte, Mazama, JohnDay, and High Desert provinces joinabout 5 miles northwest of Hampton.

The line between the provinces is basedon soil lines between Deschutes,Shanahan, and Lapine soil series,which typify Mazama Province, andAgency, Madras, and Simas soil serieswhich typify John Day Province.70

Mazama-High DesertDemarcation

The line between Mazama andHigh Desert provinces crosses High-way 20 about 8 miles northwest ofHampton. From there it wanderssouthwest along the north portion ofDevils Garden and continues southwestby Cabin Lake Ranger Station, which is


very near the line, and on to Hole-in-the-Ground, which is in MazamaProvince. This section of the line ismore a belt in which the pumice mantleto the west is generally 8 to 10 inchesor more thick over buried soil andrepresents Mazama Province. The areato the east of this belt generally has lessthan 8 to 10 inches of pumice mantle, ifany, and is in High Desert Province.

From Hole-in-the-Ground, the lineheads south at about 4,500 feet eleva-tion. Where it crosses Highway 31below the rimrocks northwest fromHorse Ranch, the highway roadcutreveals an ancient lakeshore terrace oflayered lacustrine materials, whichsignifies the boundary of High DesertProvince.

After the line crosses Highway 31northwest of Horse Ranch, it runs southalmost parallel and about 1 to 2 mileswest of the highway for about 10 milesuntil it veers south to the vicinity ofHalfway Lake and the eastern portionof Antelope Flat. From this point, theline goes east across Buck Creek andBridge Creek; at this point, at about4,900 feet elevation, Mazama, HighDesert, and Klamath provinces join.

The line between Mazama and HighDesert provinces is based on soil linesbetween Shanahan and Lapine soilseries, which typify Mazama Province,and Gardone, Floke, and Olson soilseries which typify High DesertProvince. 84

Mazama - Klamath DemarcationThe line of demarcation between

Mazama and Klamath provinces runssouth to the area west of ThompsonReservoir, which is in Klamath Prov-ince, then around Sycan Butte, which isin Mazama Province, and along the eastside of Sycan Marsh, also in MazamaProvince.84

From about 5 miles southwest of SycanMarsh on the Sycan River, the lineturns east and travels northeast acrossthe headwaters of Sycan River and thensoutheast in the vicinity of WinterRidge. From the south portion of Win-ter Ridge, the line goes south across

upper Elder Creek to west of CampbellLake and south of Deadhorse Rimwhere it turns west along the south-facing slopes of Gearhart Mountain, inMazama Province.84

From the area south of Gearhart Moun-tain, the line runs west to North ForkSprague River. From there it snakes itsway west more or less near the northboundary of Sprague River valley. Fer-guson Mountain is in Mazama Prov-ince. From the vicinity of Knott Table-land, which is in Klamath Province, theline heads northwest, passing about 5miles north of Sprague River commu-nity, which is in Klamath Province.From there, it goes south and west tothe vicinity of Chiloquin and south toLobert Junction.

From the vicinity of Lobert Junction onHighway 97, the line runs north alongthe east side of Agency Lake to thevicinity of Klamath Agency, which is inMazama Province, then northwesterlyto about 4 miles west of Fort Klamathalong the east side of Klamath Point. Itis in this vicinity that the juncture be-tween Mazama, Klamath, and Cascadeprovinces lies.

The line of demarcation between Maza-ma and Klamath provinces is based onsoil lines between Lapine, Shanahan,and Kirk-Chock soil series, whichtypify Mazama Province, and Wood-cock, Hart, and Lorella soil series,which typify Klamath Province."

Mazama - Cascade DemarcationFrom the junction of Mazama,

Klamath and Cascade provinces north-west of Fort Klamath, the line of demar-cation between Mazama and Cascadeprovinces goes northwest, then about 1to 3 miles south and somewhat parallel-ing Highway 62 to the vicinity ofUnion Creek community. From thispoint, the Mazama Province extendssoutherly in a valley 2 to 3 miles widelying on each side of Highway 62 fromUnion Creek south to Prospect. Thisnarrow extension of Mazama Provinceappears to be a large ash flow along theupper Rogue River extending south-west from the main pumice mantle nearCrater Lake.

The soil series typifying this ash flowextension of Mazama is Alcot. Soils inthe adjacent Cascade Province areFreeznor and Geppert.68

From the vicinity of Union Creek com-munity, the line goes north, crossing thedivide between Rogue River and theNorth Umpqua River watersheds justeast of Buckneck Mountain. Fromthere, it follows northerly down ClearCreek, across the plateau at Toketeeairstrip, and across North UmpquaRiver below Toketee Reservoir. It thentravels northeasterly to cross the dividebetween North Umpqua River and theheadwaters of Middle Fork WillametteRiver about 5 miles west of the Cas-cade Range crest.91

From the headwaters of Middle ForkWillamette River, the line goes northaround the west side of Bear Mountainand to the Salt Creek canyon where theSouthern Pacific Railroad makes aswitchback out of Salt Creek to passover the summit of the Cascade Moun-tains just west of Odell Lake, which isin Mazama Province. The line wandersnorthward west of Waldo Lake and theneast of Moolack Mountain and aroundthe headwaters of the South ForkMcKenzie River.93

The Linn County soil map 8° does notprovide soil information in the moun-tainous east portion of the county.Therefore, the line of demarcationbetween Mazama and Cascade prov-inces in that area is drawn on the basisof topographic features apparent onmaps showing the line of demarcationto the south of this area.

In Lane and Douglas counties, themapped pumice-soil boundary isprimarily along a major topographicfeature: a relatively undulating orsloping area to the east, which typifiesthe pumice-soil (Mazama) area, andrelatively steep mountainous terrain tothe west (Cascade) which representsthe sharp dendritic drainage pattern oftributaries into the Willamette River.

It seems reasonable to assume thatsome pumice from the eruption of Mt.Mazama fell in the Cascade Mountainsto the west of the current pumice


mantle. However, because of the steepdendritic drainage pattern of head-waters of numerous drainages into theWillamette River, these pumicedeposits probably have been washeddownstream or may still lie in isolateddeposits mainly on steep north-facingexposures within Cascade Province.

Using the previously described topo-graphic feature as a guide, the demarca-tion line is predicted to run north fromthe headwaters of the South ForkMcKenzie River on around the head-waters of McKenzie and South Santiamrivers, near Fish and Lava lakes aboutwhere Highway 20 crosses the pass.

From there, the predicted line veersnortheast to cross Highway 22 about4 to 5 miles northwest of Santiam

Junction. The line probably continuesnortheast into Jefferson County north ofThree Fingered Jack peak and on toabout where Jefferson Creek joinsMetolius River. At that point, Mazama,Cascade, and The Dalles provincesjoin.

The line between Mazama and Cascadeprovinces in Douglas, Lane, and, likely,Linn counties is based on soil linesbetween Winopee and Shukash soilseries, which typify Mazama Province,and Holderman and Keel series, whichtypify Cascade Province.9', 93

At the northern boundary of MazamaProvince, the soil series in MazamaProvince may be much like Lapine,Deschutes, Shanahan, and Steigerpumicey soils."Z Soil series in Cascade

Province in this area may be Howashand Mackatie, which typify CascadeProvince on the Warm Springs IndianReservation. 96

Mazama -The Dalles DemarcationWhere Jefferson Creek joins the

Metolius River in southwesternJefferson County, Mazama, Cascade,and The Dalles provinces join. Fromthat point, the line of demarcationbetween Mazama and The Dallesprovinces follows south along GreenRidge to the east side of Black Butte,which is in Mazama Province. Fromthere it meanders east and northeast toLower Desert, which is the junction ofMazama, The Dalles, and John Dayprovinces.70


OwhyeeEcological

Province

LocationOwyhee Province in the southeast-

em corner of Oregon comprises thewestern foothills and associated plainsof the Owyhee Mountains, which are insouthwestern Idaho. In Oregon, thisprovince covers about 1.4 millionacres, all in Malheur County. OwyheeProvince extends south into HumboldtCounty, Nevada and east into OwyheeCounty, Idaho.

DescriptionThe southern portion of Owyhee

Province in Oregon is characterized byvery extensive, very rocky uplandsgenerally sloping down to the westfrom the Oregon-Idaho border. Thispart of the province, which lies south ofHighway 95 going west from JordanValley community, encompasses theentire upper watershed of OwyheeRiver that lies in Oregon from about 6miles upriver from the community ofRome.

This portion of the Owyhee Riverwatershed is a continuous dendriticpattern of basalt-cliff canyons thatdissect the huge basaltic plain. Thenorth portion of the province in Oregonconsists of lava fields, a few lakebasins, and some mountainous areaslying south and east of the majorOwyhee River canyon breaks.

Elevations in Owyhee Province in Ore-gon generally are between 4,000 and5,500 feet. Highest elevations includeMahogany Mountains at 6,168 feet ele-vation, which is in the northern part ofthe province, and Oregon Hill at 6,445feet elevation, which is near the Nevadaborder. (Elevations are from USGS1:250,000 topographic quads, 1958.)

Some valleys and areas with suitablesoil are farmed and irrigated, primarilyfor livestock feed. Rangeland stronglydominates the province in Oregon,which also has small, isolated dry lakebasins.

SoilsSoils of Owyhee Province are re-

lated to very extensive basaltic uplandsassociated with the Owyhee Mountainsin southwestern Idaho that typify theprovince in Oregon. Soils on plains aremoderately sloping, clayey, very stonyor rocky, and shallow to very shallowover basalt bedrock or hardpans. Onbuttes and mountain slopes, soils arerelatively steep, loamy, stony, andmoderately deep. North of Highway 95and west from Jordan Valley commu-nity, basalt flows cover most of thesurface on about 107,000 acres. Someflows are relatively small, but there arefour sizable ones of about 10,000,16,000, 23,000, and 53,000 acres.

Two major bottomlands are in Oregon'sportion of the province. These are inthe Cow Creek basin and the JordanCreek basin. The Cow Creek basincontains about 6,000 acres of very deepsilty to clayey soils that are moderatelywell drained. The Jordan Creek basincontains about 12,000 acres of verydeep silty to clayey soils that are mod-erately well drained and about 1,300acres of very deep clayey soils that arepoorly drained.9a

ClimateThe 1941 Yearbook of Agriculture

showed no official weather stations inOwyhee Province in Oregon.28 Johns-gard" shows one: at Danner, about 15miles west of Jordan Valley communityand north of Highway 95. The station isnow abandoned. The 22-year record atDanner shows an average annual preci-pitation of 10.6 inches of which 53%falls in winter (November throughMarch) and 31% in the herbaceousnative-plant growing season (Aprilthrough June).

A precipitation map53 shows much ofthis province in Oregon receivesbetween 10 and 15 inches annual preci-pitation. Areas in the western part ofthe province, contiguous to HumboldtProvince, receive about 10 inchesprecipitation; areas on the east side,

94 Owyhee Ecological Province

where the effects of Idaho's OwyheeMountains are apparent, receive about15 inches annual precipitation.

Average January maximum and mini-mum temperatures at Danner stationare 37.1 and 12.3°F, respectively, andthe maximum and minimum tempera-tures for April through June are 70.8and 35.8°F, respectively.

VegetationIn Oregon, vegetation associated

with the extensive basaltic uplands ofOwyhee Province is a shrub-grasslandclimax type, i.e., with 10% or morenatural canopy cover of shrubs. On theextensive sloping stony plains wheresoils are very shallow, low sagebrush isthe dominant shrub. On buttes andmountain slopes where soils are shal-low to moderately deep, Wyoming bigsagebrush is the dominant shrub. Blue-bunch wheatgrass, Sandberg bluegrass,and squirreltail are prominent grasses.

Native vegetation associated with thewell-drained bottoms in Cow and Jor-dan creek basins is a natural grasslandclimax type, i.e., with less than 10%canopy cover of shrubs.

Originally, these bottomlands likelyproduced a dense, vigorous stand ofbasin wildrye (Fig. 35).43 Poorlydrained bottomlands likely producedbasin wildrye, sedges, rushes, sodbluegrasses, and other such species thattolerate alternating wet and dry periods,which would occur in this and climate.

Riparian areas in Owyhee Province inOregon are primarily along the peren-nial streams in the upper Owyhee Riversystem. These streams run in veryextensive basalt-walled canyons andare relatively inaccessible from con-tiguous uplands. Based on the USGS1:250,000 topographic quad map, thesecanyon-walled perennial streamsextend about 120 miles collectively inOregon's portion of Owyhee Province.

The significance of these riparian areasto wildlife is obvious even though thereis a myriad of manmade water holesthroughout Owyhee Province inOregon. Vegetation in these perennial-

stream riparian areas includes a varietyof species which signify differentdegrees of wetness.

Scattered, small, clayey semiwetmeadows in areas such as MahoganyMountains are typified by species suchas Nevada and Kentucky bluegrasses,meadow sedges, timothy, redtop,meadow barley, iris, cinquefoil, andyampa. These are natural grasslands.

The 1936 Forest Type Map of Oregon s4shows no stands of western juniper orother trees in Owyhee Province in Ore-gon. This indicates that, if juniperswere on mountain slopes or buttes inthe province at that time, they likelywere scattered. However, a map thatcovers the north portion of OwyheeProvince in Oregon shows about 2,500acres of shrubs and trees on MahoganyMountains southeast of MalheurReservoir."

The shrubs and trees indicated on thismap represent groves of curlleafmountain-mahogany growing at about5,700 feet elevation (Fig. 36). This isan interesting ecological phenomenon.Plant species growing here and thedeep, black silty soils on north expo-sures in this isolated mountainousterrain are comparable to other isolatedhigh-elevation mountains such as Hartand Steens mountains in High DesertProvince of Oregon.

In Mahogany Mountains, some of theoldest mahogany plants are huge. Theygrow in crevices of basalt bedrock out-crops on ridgetops. One mahogany treemeasured 18 inches in diameter at 10inches above ground level and was 20feet high with a crown 25 feet indiameter. One old stump, probably cutfor firewood by old-time sheepherders,was about 22 inches in diameter at thetop of the stump, 18 inches aboveground level. Most of the mahoganytrees were cut a long time ago, and theremaining stumps show that theoriginal stand of mature trees, 12 to 24inches in diameter, were spaced about10 feet apart.32 No western junipertrees were recorded in these studies.

By 1962, it was apparent that this high-elevation, well-watered area had been

severely grazed by sheep and cattleover many years.41 It is an idealsummer range in an otherwise and areaand likely attracted the greatestconcentration of grazing animals,including deer.

The dense stands of younger mahoganyand reproduction on north-facing slopesin the area suggested that continuedclose use over the years resulted in themahogany's encroaching, or increasing,on these shrub-covered north expo-sures, which are snowdrift locationsthat typically have deep, black siltysoils.

In 1962, the snowdrift areas hadproduced an overstory of mahoganyand an interesting array of plant speciesin the understory.41 These includedshrubs such as bitter cherry and choke-cherry, mountain snowberry, snow-brush, mountain spirea, low Oregon-grape, big sagebrush (the variety wasnot noted at that early date but likelywas mountain big sagebrush), andmahogany reproduction.

Distinctive grass species on thesesheltered sites included pinegrass; blueand basin wildrye; big, Canby, andWheeler bluegrasses; a dryland sedge;Columbia needlegrass; and Idahofescue. This is an interesting shrub-grassland climax type in an isolatedhigh-altitude location. It also proved tobe a haven for rattlesnakes.

The 1962 studies of Mahogany Moun-tains area41 indicated that the uplandslopes are a shrub-grassland climaxtype with big sagebrush and green andgray rabbitbrushes as the major shrubs.Predominant grasses include bluebunchand beardless wheatgrasses, Idahofescue, Columbia and Thurber needle-grasses, Sandberg and Canby blue-grasses, oniongrass, and squirreltail.Arrowleaf balsamroot was the mostprominent forb.

Management ImplicationsThe southern portion of Owyhee

Province in Oregon has natural restric-tions on management options: exten-sive, very stony, shallow-soil series andthe many continuous basalt-cliff

Owyhee Ecological Province 95

Table 29. Ecological Sites and Natural Landforms in Owyhee Ecological Province, Oregon.Upland site types Bottomland site types


Natural grassland Moist bottom(less than 10% Basin wildrye, Nevada bluegrasscanopy cover Wet meadowof shrubs) Nevada bluegrass, redtop, sedges, rushes

Shrub-grassland Scabland(10% or more Sandberg bluegrass, squirreltail, bluebunchcanopy cover wheatgrass/low sagebrushof shrubs) Arid rolling hills

Bluebunch wheatgrass, Thurber needlegrass,Sandberg bluegrass/big sagebrush

Moist rolling hills

Idaho fescue, bluebunch wheatgrass/big sagebrush

South exposureBluebunch wheatgrass, Sandberg bluegrass,Thurber needlegrass/big sagebrush

North exposureIdaho fescue, bluebunch wheatgrass, westernneedlegrass/big sagebrush

Steep northIdaho fescue, bluebunch wheatgrass/mountainsnowberry, cherry, big sagebrush

Shrubby northPinegrass, basin and blue wildrye, big andWheeler bluegrasses, Columbia needlegrass/

mixed shrubs

Mahogany rockland

Bluebunch wheatgrass, Columbianeedlegrass, Idaho fescue, Canby bluegrass/mixed shrubs, curlleaf mountain-mahogany

Natural landforms: Lavaland, basalt flows, rockland, and canyon escarpments and outcrops

canyons along major drainages andtributaries of Owyhee River.

Large grazing units are essentially man-dated here, as in High Desert and Hum-boldt provinces in Oregon, but withoutthe flexibility of vehicular traffic onroads crisscrossing the country.Recreational activities are similarlyrestricted.

The BLM Vale Project covered much,if not all, of Oregon's portion ofOwyhee Province. Consequently, manyrangeland manipulations and improve-ments were made. This benefitted manyresource values such as wildlife,watershed, recreation, water quality,and range condition while at the sametime providing great benefits tolivestock ranching. As a result, resource

management problems in this portionof Oregon's Owyhee Province appearto be minimized compared with someother provinces.

The ranching element around JordanValley seems to be effectively sponsor-ing perpetually beneficial programs onboth private and public lands.


Owyhee-Humboldt DemarcationBeginning at the southwest corner

of Owyhee Province in Oregon, whichis at the Oregon-Nevada border about13 miles east of where Highway 95crosses the border and about 4 milessouthwest of Oregon Hill, the line of

demarcation between Owyhee andHumboldt provinces lies at about 5,000feet elevation along the westernboundary of the sloping basalticplateau, which is in Owyhee Province,and the hilly uplands to the west, whichare in Humboldt Province. The linecontinues north along the western edgeof the plateau to the vicinity of BattleCreek Ranch and on north at about4,000 feet elevation to about 4 mileswest of Jackie's Butte, in OwyheeProvince. From northwest of Jackie'sButte the line of demaracation betweenOwyhee and Humboldt Provinces veerseast and north at about 4,000 feetelevation to about 7 miles north ofJackie's Butte where Owyhee,Humboldt, and Snake River provincesadjoin at about 4,000 feet elevation.

96 Owyhee Ecological Province

Owyhee-Snake RiverDemarcation

From the juncture of Owyhee,Humboldt, and Snake River provinces,the line of demarcation betweenOwyhee and Snake River provincesmeanders north at about 4,000 feetelevation to cross Owyhee River about6 miles upriver from Rome community,which is in Snake River Province.From this point, the line runs north at4,000 feet elevation to the vicinity of

Arock community, which is in SnakeRiver Province. From the vicinity ofArock, the line follows north andnortheasterly along the rim of OwyheeRiver canyon at about 4,000 feetelevation. It follows along this eleva-tion, which is the approximate breakbetween the vast basalt plateau andscattered hills of Owyhee Province andthe exposed sedimentary and tuffaceousmaterials lying below the rimrocks tothe north, which typify Snake River

Province. The line of demarcationcontinues northeast along the rimrocksto the north of Mahogany Mountainsand east to the vicinity of the aban-doned community of Rockville, inSnake River Province. The linecontinues around the Sucker Creekwatershed at 4,000 feet elevation northand then east to cross the Oregon-Idaho border about 15 air miles southof the Snake River.

Owyhee Ecological Province 97

PalouseEcological

Province

LocationIn Oregon, the Palouse Province

includes the gently sloping to rollingcultivated area northeast of Pendletonthat surrounds the Pendleton BranchAgricultural Experiment Station andthe towns of Adams and Athena. Theprovince extends northeast to just northof Weston and just east of Milton-Freewater. It also extends into the stateof Washington. In Oregon, it coversabout 112,000 acres, all in UmatillaCounty.

DescriptionPractically all of this province in

Oregon is farmed. It is the only sizablearea in eastern Oregon in which annualcropping under dryland conditions issuccessful, due to the favorable climateand good soils. Wheat and green peasfor canning, grown in alternate years, isthe common crop rotation. However,the climate is suitable for growing othercrops that require 15 inches or moreannual precipitation. Some areas areirrigated by sprinkler.

Elevations in the Oregon portion ofPalouse Province are mainly betweenabout 1,350 and 2,000 feet, and thetopography is sloping to rolling orslightly hilly. Oregon's portion of theprovince contrasts topographically withthe area known as the "Palouse" which

is farther north, in Washington andnorthern Idaho. The Palouse is steeplyrolling and hilly. Annual cropping ispracticed in both locations.

SoilsMajor soils of the Palouse Prov-

ince in Oregon are Walla Walla siltloam, high-precipitation phase, andAthena silt loam. These soils wereformed in aeolian deposits that report-edly were blown south during the era ofreceding glaciers farther north, inWashington.

Surface layers of Walla Walla high-precipitation phase are dark grayishbrown silt loam about 12 inches thick.Subsoil is dark brown silt loam about48 inches thick. Depth to basaltbedrock or laminated sediments is from40 inches to more than 5 feet. Surfacelayers of Athena series are very darkbrown silt loam about 26 inches thick.Subsoil is dark brown silt loam about20 inches thick. The substratum is darkyellowish brown silt loam to more than5 feet in depth and is commonlycalcareous.

These dark-color soils reflect thefavorable climate in which they wereformed in thick aeolian deposits. Theyare very productive under drylandfarming. It is very likely that, before

cultivation, these soils produced aPalouse Prairie natural grasslanddominated by Idaho fescue andresembling the existing natural grass-lands near Findley Buttes in WallowaCounty.

ClimateBased on data from two official

weather stations in the Oregon segmentof Palouse Province, the average annualprecipitation for the area is 18.2 inchesof which about 54% falls during winterand 40% during the growing season ofadapted farm crops, March throughJuly. Average January maximum andminimum temperatures are 38.3 and24.1°F, respectively. Average Marchthrough July maximum and minimumtemperatures are 71 and 43.5°F,respectively.

Comparing precipitation and tempera-tures for the two Palouse Provincestations in Oregon and two officialweather stations in adjacent ColumbiaBasin Province, very near the line ofdemarcation, substantiates significantreasons why darker soils have evolvedunder Palouse Province climate thanunder the Columbia Basin Provinceclimate (Table 30). The comparisonalso helps explain why annual drylandfarming is possible in Palouse Provincebut the climate of Columbia Basin

98 Palouse Ecological Province

Table 30. Climatic Data for Palouse Ecological Province, Oregon.17

Station and Precipitation Average maximum and minimumlength of record Elevation Annual Oct.-Feb. March-July temperatures (°F)

(years) (feet) (inches) (%) (%) January March-July

Umatilla CountyMilton Power House 7 1,350 21.8 53 41 36.1-23.0 70.3-43.8Weston 21 1,800 19.0 55 40 38.2-24.0 70.0-45.1Pendleton Expt. Sta. 7 1,440 15.9 54 40 40.6-25.2 72.5-41.5

County Average 18.2 54 40 38.3-24.1 71.0-43.5

Stations nearby, in Columbia Basin ProvinceMilton-Freewater 20 1,056 13.8 54 41 39.8-25.3 73.9-47.8Pendleton 40 1,070 14.2 54 36 40.5-24.9 73.7-43.2

Nearby Stations' Average 14.0 54 39 40.2-25.1 73.8-45.5

Province requires summer-fallowdryland farming. Furthermore, suchcrops as green peas can be grown inrotation with small grains in PalouseProvince, whereas only small grains,mainly wheat and barley, are producedunder wheat/summer-fallow farming inColumbia Basin Province.

Palouse Province normally produce anagricultural crop every year.


Palouse -Blue MountainDemarcation

The line of demarcation betweenPalouse and Blue Mountain provincesin Oregon is on the line separating theAthena soil series in Palouse Provincefrom the Waha and Couse soil series inBlue Mountain Province.75 This line isat about 2,000 feet elevation about 4miles east of Milton-Freewater. Theline continues southwest to just north ofWeston and then south and west to justnorth of Cayuse on the Umatilla River.It is in this vicinity that the Palouse,Blue Mountain, and Columbia Basinprovinces join.

Palouse -Columbia BasinDemarcation

From Cayuse, the line betweenPalouse and Columbia Basin provincesruns west on the bench north of Uma-tilla River for about 3 miles and thenveers north across Wildhorse Creek tothe vicinity of Helix. Here, the line ofdemarcation is on the line separatingthe Walla Walla silt loam high-precipi-tation phase, which typifies PalouseProvince, from Walla Walla silt loamassociation, which typifies ColumbiaBasin Province.75 About 3 miles northof Helix, the line of demarcation headseast at about 2,000 feet elevation to apoint about 2 miles south of Milton-Freewater. From there it turns to thenortheast, passing just east of Milton-Freewater, to enter the state of Wash-ington. Milton-Freewater is in Colum-bia Basin Province.

Under the relatively mild wintertemperatures of these two provinces,the key climatic factor is 15 inches ormore of precipitation annually with asignificant portion of that during thefarm crop growing season, i.e., apattern typical of Palouse Province.

Management ImplicationsEssentially, all land in Palouse

Province in Oregon is privately owned;some is owned by Native Americanfamilies and leased out to establishedfarming operations.

Soil erosion in winter, when some landsare essentially bare and surface layersoften are frozen, is a concern becausethis area lies within a storm pattern thatsometimes produces sudden precipita-tion. Sloping lands along the easternportion of the province near the BlueMountains are especially susceptible toerosion and sometimes to hail damageduring thunderstorms about harvesttime in late summer.

Annual wheat yields in Palouse Prov-ince in Oregon are significantly greaterthan in Columbia Basin Province. Inaddition, lands in Columbia BasinProvince normally produce an agricul-tural crop every other year, but lands in

Table 31. Average Dates Vegetation Growth Begins and Endsin Palouse Ecological Province, Oregon.



Umatilla CountyMilton Power House 7 1,350 February 22 August 14Pendleton Expt. Sta. 7 1,440 March 1 July 15Weston 21 1,800 March 1 August 1


Palouse Ecological Province 99

Province

SiskiyouEcological

Province

LocationThe Siskiyou Ecological Province

in Oregon encompasses a very smallarea in the southwest corner of KlamathCounty, most of Jackson County, thesouthern portion of Douglas County, allof Josephine County, and the mountain-:)us eastern portion of Curry County. Itextends about 100 air miles east to westand about 75 air miles north to south inOregon. Siskiyou Province coversabout 3.7 million acres in Oregon andextends into California.

DescriptionSiskiyou Province in Oregon is

influenced by the mild climate ofnorthern California. Physiographically,the portion of the province in Oregonencompasses nearly the entire RogueRiver drainage system, including itstributaries, the Illinois and Applegaterivers.

The lower Rogue River-about 15riverbank miles upriver from GoldBeach-is in the normal coastal fogzone and, therefore, in Coast Province.Headwaters of the Rogue River aboveabout 4,000 feet elevation in northeast-ern Jackson County are in Cascade andMazama provinces. However, tributar-ies to the Rogue below about 4,000 feet

elevation in eastern Jackson County arein Siskiyou Province.

The South Umpqua River drainage insouthern Douglas County is in SiskiyouProvince upriver from the Highway I-5bridge over the river, which is about 4miles northwest of Myrtle Creekcommunity.

A small portion of Siskiyou Province insouthwestern Klamath and southeasternJackson counties is drained south byKlamath River which flows intoCalifornia. A small area of SiskiyouProvince in southeastern Curry Countyis drained to the south by Smith River.

Siskiyou Province in Oregon includesextensive mountainous areas of the Kla-math and Siskiyou mountains and thewestern slopes of the Cascade Moun-tains in which dendritic drainage pat-terns are seen in steep terrain (Fig. 37).

Geomorphic features include granitic,serpentine, schist, volcanic, sedimen-tary, and intrusive igneous rocks.

Valleys of the Rogue, Illinois, andApplegate rivers and their majortributaries consist of flood plains,terraces, alluvial fans, and low hillswhich formed through geologic erosionand extensive deposition of alluvial

outwash and colluvium from surround-ing mountains .59.61 Rocks of KlamathMountains are considered to be mucholder than those in any other part ofwestern Oregon, and the area probablycontains the oldest geologic formationsin the state.'

The highest elevation in SiskiyouProvince in Oregon is Mt. Ashland at7,533 feet, which is about 7 air milessouth of the city of Ashland in JacksonCounty. Other high promontories in theprovince in Oregon include WhiskeyPeak, 6,497 feet, in the headwaters ofApplegate River, and ChinquapinMountain, 6,155 feet, Soda Mountain,6,135 feet, and Table Mountain, 6,125feet, all east of Ashland.

Most of the mountain promontories inthe province in Oregon are about 5,000feet elevation or less.

The lowest elevation in Siskiyou Prov-ince in Oregon is on the Rogue Riverabout 15 riverbank miles upriver fromGold Beach. In this vicinity there is aseries of sharp bends in the river andupland topography that, based onhillside vegetation, apparently diminishthe effects of the normal coast fog zonepenetration farther upstream. Thiselevation is less than 100 feet.

100 Siskiyou Ecological Province


typifying Siskiyou Province in Oregoninvolves a wide variety of parentmaterials ranging from geologicallyrecent alluviums in valleys to what isthought to be the oldest geologic for-mations in the state. This is furthercomplicated by the presence within theprovince of the lower western slopes ofCascade Mountains in southeasternDouglas and eastern Jackson counties,of the Siskiyou Mountains in southernJosephine County, and of the Klamath

Mountains in Josephine and Currycounties, each of which is significantlydifferent from the others.

Soil parent materials in Siskiyou Prov-ince can be grouped into six generalcategories: soils formed in materialsweathered from igneous rocks; sedi-mentary, sandstone, and siltstone rocks;altered sedimentary and igneous rocks;granitic rocks; serpentine rocks; andschist rocks .11,61,91,95

Each of these six categories includes adistinct group of soil series which may

vary according to location within theprovince (Table 32).

The data in Table 32 reflect the fact thatsoils derived from igneous materials inSiskiyou Province in Oregon have beenmapped only in Jackson County.

Based on field studies, the soils weremapped primarily in eastern JacksonCounty where the line of demarcationlies between Siskiyou and Cascade andKlamath provinces, both with extensiveigneous formations. Soils derived fromsedimentary, sandstone, and siltstone

Table 32. Parent Materials and Distribution of Some Representative Soil Seriesin Siskiyou Ecological Province, Oregon.56, 59, 61, 95

Oregon counties Oregon counties

arent material

C

c°n

m

arent material0C:

0

a)C0

0 Cl) 0 Uand soil series U o cz n and soil series 0 0 5

Igneous Altered sedimentary and igneous (continued)BybeeCarney

xx

RileaSkymore

xx

FarvaMedco

x

x

SpeakerStackyards x

x x

McMullin x Vannoy x x

McNull x Vermise x xPinehurst x Vourhies x

Rustlerpeak x Yorel xSkookumTatouche

xx

Granite

Sedimentary, sandstone, and siltstoneCrannierGoodwin

xx

Atring x Rogue x

Brader x Shefflein xDebinger x Siskiyou x xKanid x Tallowbox xLangellain x Tethrick x x

Wolfpeak xAltered sedimentary and igneous

AckerAlthouse x

xx

SerpentineCedarcamp x

Beal x Cornutt xBeekman x x x Dubakella xBravo x Eightlar xCaris x Gravecreek xCassidy x Greggo xColestine x Mislatnah xFrisland x Perdin xJayar x xJosephine x

Lettie xx x Schist

Barkshanty x

Manita x Deadline x

Norling x Nailkeg x

Offenbacher x Saddlepeak x

Pollard x(continued)

x ScalerockThreetrees

x

x

Siskiyou Ecological Province 101

rocks have been mapped in Jackson andCurry counties. Soils derived fromaltered sedimentary and igneousmaterials have been mapped in Dou-glas, Jackson, Josephine, and Currycounties; these parent materials existover a major portion of SiskiyouProvince in Oregon. Soils derived fromgranitic rock have been mapped inJackson and Josephine counties.Granitic parent materials appear as lowas about 800 feet (Siskiyou soil series)to about 7,000 feet elevation (Cranniersoil series), both in Josephine County.Soils derived from serpentine materialshave been mapped in Josephine andCurry counties. These soils are veryhigh in magnesium and very low incalcium, which limits plant growth andresults in the growth of specific plantspecies that apparently can tolerate thisradical imbalance of soil nutrients.

In general, the soils of Siskiyou Prov-ince in Oregon are clayey, especially in

the subsoils. Soil formed in materialsweathered from granitic rock, however,are loamy and sandy. These factorshave significant impact on erodibility,potential natural vegetation cover, andresponses to management strategies.

ClimateThe climate of Siskiyou Province

in Oregon is the most diverse of all theecological provinces in Oregon.Dramatic climatic gradients arecommon. One such gradient extendsfrom the normal coastal fog zone,where average minimum Januarytemperatures are about 40°F andaverage annual precipitation is about 80inches, eastward over the crest ofKlamath Mountains where precipitationexceeds 125 inches annually, to interiorvalleys such as at Medford whereaverage minimum January temperaturesare about 27°F and average annualprecipitation is about 20 inches. A less

Table 33. Climatic Data for Siskiyou Ecological Province, Oregon."

dramatic gradient occurs north to south,from the mild, moist southern Willam-ette Valley to the warm dry climate ofnorthern California.

Such regional climatic gradients arefurther complicated by mountainoustopography of the Cascade, Siskiyou,and Klamath mountains within theprovince which produce a wide varietyof local climatic gradients such asbetween Ashland at 1,750 feet elevationand Mt. Ashland at 7,503 feet elevationjust 7 air miles south of Ashland.

A precipitation map53 shows the highestaverage annual precipitation in Siski-you Province in Oregon is about 160inches. This is on the crest of KlamathMountains about 10 air miles west ofCave Junction and about 30 air milesinland from the Pacific Ocean. Thishigh country, about 4,000 to 4,500 feetelevation, is a portion of a precipitationzone receiving over 125 inches annu-

Station and Precipitation Average maximum and minimumlength of record Elevation Annual Oct.-Jan. Feb.-June temperatures (°F)

(years) (feet) (inches) (%) (%) January Feb.-June

Curry CountyIllahe 13 176 85.8 60 37 45.8-34.6 64.4-41.8

Douglas CountyGlendale 13 1,441 37.7 57 40 47.1-31.8 65.1-38.2Riddle 17 700 30.5 58 38 48.3-38.2 66.3-40.0

Jackson County

Ashland 22 1,750 20.1 53 41 45.3-29.3 64.1-39.2Hillcrest orchard 17 1,595 17.4 53 39 45.4-29.7 66.2-38.6Jacksonville 17 1,640 24.1 54 41 42.8-30.7 63.8-40.2

Lake Creek 16 2,000 29.6 49 46 46.1-28.4 64.8-36.7Medford 15 1,457 20.6 56 38 44.7-27.1 65.3-34.4

Modoc orchard 22 1,270 22.6 59 37 45.9-28.1 67.8-37.8

Siskiyou 6 4,125 34.0 53 40 37.0-26.3 55.5-35.5Talent 22 1,550 19.1 53 40 44.9-29.2 65.5-39.1

Josephine County

Grants Pass 21 925 30.1 60 36 45.7-31.3 68.5-39.3Sexton Summit 29 3,836 30.9 55 39 41.6-30.0 54.7-35.8

Waldo 15 1,650 52.1 53 42 44.1-28.3 62.9-36.1

Williams 34 1,368 31.7 58 38 50.3-29.7 65.4-36.0Wolf Creek 8 1,274 40.9 58 40 45.8-31.4 65.9-37.8

County AveragesCurry County 85.8 60 37 45.8-34.6 64.4-41.8

Douglas County 34.1 58 39 47.7-32.5 65.7-39.1

Jackson County 23.4 54 40 44.0-28.6 64.1-37.7

Josephine County 37.1 57 39 45.5-30.1 63.4-37.0



ally. The zone extends about 45 airmiles, from near the California bordernorth to about 10 miles east of Illahe,which is on Rogue River.

According to this precipitation map,Mt. Ashland, the highest promontory inSiskiyou Province in Oregon, receivesabout 65 inches average annual precipi-tation. The major portion of SiskiyouProvince in Oregon receives between20 and 50 inches average annualprecipitation.

VegetationThe Siskiyou Province in Oregon

is defined in terms of vegetation asgenerally that area in southwesternOregon that is affected by the warmclimate of northern California to theextent that certain plant species com-mon in California grow there but onlyrarely, if at all, in other Oregon ecologi-cal provinces. These species includewedgeleaf ceanothus, whiteleaf andhoary manzanita, boxleaf silktassel,California buckthorn, California-laurel,California black oak, Sadler oak, can-yon live oak, huckleberry oak, tanoak,Jeffrey and knobcone pine, Port-Orford-cedar, and Brewer spruce.

Pacific madrone, which also occurs to aminor degree in Willamette Province tothe north, is abundant and ubiquitous,except in high-elevation, cold-climateconditions, in conifer forest plant com-munities throughout most of SiskiyouProvince in Oregon. Madrone is espe-cially abundant as a shrub on disturbedforested areas.

Golden chinkapin, Pacific madrone,tanoak, California-laurel, and canyonlive oak are species that are shrubs inand effective environments or in snowzones but are trees in warm, moisteffective environments such as north-facing exposures.

Madrone, tanoak, and canyon live oakare examples of Siskiyou shrubs thatreadily sprout after being injured bycutting or burning, thereby becomingsignificantly competitive with otherplant species and causing severerestrictions in resource managementstrategies. In lower elevations of central

Table 34. Average Dates Vegetation Growth Begins and Endsin Siskiyou Ecological Province, Oregon.


(years)Elevation

(feet)Average date

growth begins*Average dategrowth ends*

Curry CountyIllahe 13 176 winter growing Does not occur

Douglas County 1

Glendale 13 1,441 winter growing Does not occurRiddle 17 700 winter growing Does not occur

Jackson County

Ashland 22 1,750 February 1 August 2Hillcrest orchard 17 1,595 February 1 July 14Jacksonville 17 1,640 February 7 August 25Lake Creek 16 2,000 February 1 Does not occurMedford 15 1,457 February 7 August 8Modoc orchard 22 1,270 February 1 August 5Siskiyou 6 4,125 March 5 Does not occurTalent 22 1,550 February 1 July 24

Josephine County

Grants Pass 21 925 January 19 Does not occurSexton Summit 29 3,836 March 15 Does not occurWaldo 15 1,650 February 7 Does not occurWilliams 34 1,368 January 23 Does not occurWolf Creek 8 1,274 January 22 Does not occur

1 The Douglas County stations represent the transition zone between Willamette andSiskiyou provinces.* The average date vegetation growth begins on native perennial bunchgrasses isapproximately the date average daily temperatures reach 39 to 40°F. Average dategrowth ends is considered to be when available soil moisture is depleted. Interpreta-tions are based on data in Johnsgard.'7

and eastern portions of Siskiyou Prov-ince in Oregon, poison-oak, wedgeleafceanothus, whiteleaf manzanita, and awide variety of other shrub speciesdominate disturbed plant communities.There is a very wide variety of shrubspecies within Siskiyou Province,especially on forested sites.

tree in both Siskiyou and Coast prov-inces in Oregon, indicate a subtle butvisible difference in the species accord-ing to which province it is in. In themore moist Coast Province, Douglas-firusually have moss growing on them; inthe drier Siskiyou Province, moss isscarce or absent.

Changes in vegetation that are relatedto higher elevations begin at about3,000 feet; the snow zone begins atabout 4,000 feet. Plant species gener-ally associated with snow zones includeDouglas-fir, white fir, sugar pine, andBrewer spruce, with understory speciessuch as prince's-pine, Sadler oak, com-mon snowberry, and Cascade Oregon-grape. Above about 5,000 feet elevationthe colder climate is signalled by adominance of white fir, Shasta red fir,and mountain hemlock.

Observations of Douglas-fir, the mostdominant and widespread coniferous

Plant communities in southeast Siski-you Province in Oregon include somespecies that typify the adjoining Kla-math Province and much of easternOregon in general. This can be attrib-uted to the southern termination ofCascade Province in this area about 10air miles north of the California borderat about 5,500 feet elevation. Thisleaves a lower-elevation gap throughwhich plant species such as bitterbrush,birchleaf mountain-mahogany, andwestern juniper apparently haveextended their range from east to west.There is only a mild climatic barrierbetween Siskiyou and Klamath prov-


inces in the topography traversed byHighway 66 from Klamath Falls toAshland. Consequently, the transitionfrom one province to the other is a belt:the line of demarcation is a judgmentcall based primarily on the presence ofsuch Siskiyou Province species as Ore-gon white oak and wedgeleaf ceano-thus. Vegetation characteristics of Sis-kiyou Province cited here are based onunpublished field studies .16, 37, 39, 51

Temperature and the amount and timingof precipitation are primary factors invariability of local effective environ-ments. Undoubtedly they also are majorinfluences in the geographical distribu-tion and abundance of certain plantspecies within Siskiyou Province inOregon. However, geographic distribu-tion of certain plant species also is

somewhat related to the nature of soilsformed in materials weathered fromvarious kinds of geological formations.

Table 35 shows the distribution ofprominent woody-plant species by geo-graphic areas-counties-and varioussoil parent materials.

Only woody species are cited becauseshrubs and trees are reliable indicatorsof average climatic conditions that haveprevailed over long climatic cycles.Obviously, species listed grow on soilparent materials other than as noted inTable 35. However, the species listedwere selected by members of the soilsurvey party as being prominent com-ponents of plant communities growingon soil series formed in the variousparent material s.56, 59, 61

Management ImplicationsSiskiyou Province is the most

complex ecological province in Ore-gon, especially from a resource manage-ment standpoint.

Diverse geological formations result inan unusually wide variety of soil parentmaterials, each having inherent featuresthat affect local resource managementstrategies. The variable climate of theprovince, which ranges from near-coastal to and interior valleys to near-alpine, also has great influence onresource management strategies.

The situation is further complicated bythe diverse assemblage of plants whichincludes species that are representativeof contiguous provinces including theKlamath area of eastern Oregon, the

Table 35. Distribution of Prominent Woody-plant Species by County and Soil Parent Materialsin Siskiyou Ecological Province, Oregon.7, 51, 54, 56

Upland soil parent materials and the counties in which they are found*

Sedimentary, Alteredsandstone, sedimentary

igneous sutstone & igneous uranite Serpentine Schist

Prominent plant species -, -' 0 CZ U CZ -, - 0 0Alder, red x xAzalea, western x

Bitterbrush, antelope xBlackberry, trailing x

California-laurel x x

Ceanothus, deerbrush x x x x x

Ceanothus, snowbrush x xCeanothus, squawcarpet x

Ceanothus, wedgeleaf x x xCedar, western red x x

Chinkapin x x x x

Dogwood, Pacific flowering x x x x x

Douglas-fir x x x x x x x x x x xFir, grand x x

Fir, Shasta red x x xFir, white x x x x x

Hazel, western x x x xHemlock, western x x

Huckleberry, evergreen x xHuckleberry, red x

Incense-cedar x x

Juniper, western x

Madrone, Pacific x x x x x x x xManzanita, greenleaf x x

Manzanita, pinemat x xManzanita, whiteleaf x x x x

(continued)


lower western slopes of the CascadeMountains, the southern portion of theWillamette Valley, the lower southeastslopes of the Coast Range, the coastalfog zone, and, most significant, thewarm climate of northern California.

Resource management strategies arealso complicated by the topographicpattern of interspersed valleys, lowhills, dendritic drainage patterns withsteep slopes and very contrasting northand south exposures, and a wide rangeof elevation patterns (Fig. 38).

A preponderance of shrubby species innearly all natural plant communities,typical of Siskiyou Province in Oregon,

has strong influence on resource man-agement strategies. Some of the species,such as tanoak and Pacific madrone,are trees under certain, favorable condi-tions but are aggressive shrubs underother conditions. Furthermore, someSiskiyou shrub species are stronglyprolific when damaged by burning,logging, overgrazing, or other activitythat damages the shrubs or the site.This results in areas of dense shrubsthat hinder most remedial resourcemanagement activities designed toobtain natural rehabilitation and growthof desirable plant species.

Not all shrubs in Siskiyou Provincehave undesirable characteristics. Many

forested plant communities include awide variety of nonaggressive shrubsthat help provide the necessary layeringin the canopy cover, benefitting water-shed quality and tree regeneration.These shrubs also provide nutritiousforage important for food and cover forwildlife and domestic livestock. It isnoteworthy that cattle accustomed tograzing Siskiyou-type plant communi-ties use an unusual amount of browsein their diets by choice, even whenadequate herbaceous forage is readilyavailable.

The extent and pattern of public andprivate land ownership is anotherimportant feature of Siskiyou Province

Table 35 (cont'd). Distribution of Prominent Woody-plant Species by County and Soil Parent Materialsin Siskiyou Ecological Province, Oregon.

Upland soil parent materials and the counties in which they are found*

Sedimentary, Alteredsandstone, sedimentary

Igneous & siltstone & igneous Granite Serpentine Schist

Prominent plant species co Ca U `-° - U - - - U U

Maple, Rocky Mountain xMountain-mahogany, birchleaf x

Oak, California black x x x x x x xOak, canyon live x x x x x x

Oak, huckleberry x x xOak, Oregon white x x x x

Oak, Sadler x xOceanspray x x x x x x x x x

Oregon-grape, Cascade x x x x x x x x xOregon-grape, tall x x x x

Pine, Jeffrey x xPine, knobcone x

Pine, lodgepole xPine, ponderosa x x x x x x

Pine, sugar x x x x x xPine, western white x

Poison-oak, Pacific x x x x x x x xPort-Orford-cedar x x x

Prince's-pine, western x x xRhododendron, Pacific x x x x

Rose, baldhip x x x x xSalal x x x x

Serviceberry, Pacific x x x xSilktassel, boxleaf x

Snowberry, common x x x x x x xTanoak x x x x x x

Whipplevine x x xYew, Pacific x

* Jac. = Jackson Jos. = Josephine Cur. = Curry


Table 36. Some Major Ecological Sites in Siskiyou Ecological Province, Oregon.Upland site types Bottomland site types


Natural grassland Foothill south exposure Dry meadow(less than 10% Bluebunch wheatgrass, Lemmon needlegrass California oatgrass, pine bluegrass, yampacanopy cover Mountain south exposure Semiwet meadowof shrubs) Idaho fescue, bluebunch wheatgrass, California oatgrass, sedge, buttercup

pine bluegrass Wet meadowHigh mountain grassland zone Tufted hairgrass, sedges, false-hellebore

Several sites not yet described

Shrub-grassland Shrubby scabland(10% or more Bluebunch wheatgrass, Lemmon needlegrass/canopy cover wedgeleaf ceanothusof shrubs) High mountain shrub zone

Several sites not yet described are typified bysagebrushes, curlleaf mountain-mahogany,greenleaf manzanita

Deciduous tree Oak-mahogany-fescue(5% or more Idaho fescue/birchleaf mountain-mahogany/canopy cover white oakof trees) Oak-fescue

Idaho fescue, bluebunch wheatgrass,pine bluegrass/white oak

Mixed deciduous-coniferous tree

(5% or morecanopy coverof trees)

(continued)

Oak-pine-oatgrassCalifornia oatgrass/minor shrubs/white andblack oaks, ponderosa pine

Pine-oak-fescueIdaho fescue/mixed shrubs/ponderosa pine,white and black oaks

in Oregon that has major implicationson resource management strategies.

About 75% of Siskiyou Province inOregon is publicly owned and is ad-ministered by the U.S. Forest Serviceand the Bureau of Land Management.Also, except for the major valley areaaround Ashland and Medford, nearly allprivate lands are in an alternate-sectioncheckerboard pattern with BLM lands.That land pattern further complicatesrelationships and interdependencies thatare basic considerations in resourcemanagement strategies.

Broad vegetation characteristics differ-entiate between Willamette and Siski-you provinces. For example, uplandsbelow about 1,300 feet in southern Wil-lamette Province are typified by bigleafmaple, Oregon white oak, scotchbroom,and some Pacific madrone. Equivalentuplands in Siskiyou Province are typi-fied by California black oak, wedgeleaf

Hardwood bottomlandBlue wildrye, Kentucky bluegrass/manyshrubs/cottonwood, Oregon ash, black andwhite oaks

Pine-oak bottomlandIdaho fescue/mixed shrubs/ponderosa pine/black and white oaks

ceanothus, and abundant madrone,which strongly dominates logged orotherwise disturbed forested areas.


Siskiyou - Klamath DemarcationThe line of demarcation between

Siskiyou and Klamath provinces beginsat the Oregon-California border insouthwestern Klamath County on theeast side of Klamath River. At thispoint, the line coincides reasonably wellwith the soils line between Pinehurst,Greystoke, and Bly soil mapping units,which represent Klamath Province, andSkookum-McMullin soil map unit,which represents Siskiyou Province."The line travels up Klamath Riverabout 5 miles and then meanders westto the Jackson-Klamath county line atabout 4,000 feet elevation where it goesnorthwest to pass close by Pinehurst onHighway 66.

From the vicinity of Pinehurst, the lineruns north up Jenny Creek and inter-sects the juncture of Siskiyou, Klamath,and Cascade provinces at about 5,000feet elevation west of Brush Mountain,which is in Cascade Province.

The demarcation line between Siskiyouand Klamath provinces in this area isnot based on soil maps. Rather, the lineis the approximate boundary betweenthe area vegetated with plant communi-ties that include oak and wedgeleafceanothus, which typify Siskiyou Prov-ince in this area, and the mixed-pine-mixed-fir plant communities whichtypify Klamath Province."

However, the Skookum-McMullin andMcNull-McMullin soil map units aregenerally associated with plant commu-nities that include white oak, ponderosapine, and wedgeleaf ceanothus, whichtypify Siskiyou Province in this area,and the Pokegma-Woodcock soil map


Table 36 (cont'd). Some Major Ecological Sites in Siskiyou Ecological Province, Oregon.Upland site types Bottomland site types


Coniferous tree Open stands(5% or more Pine-Douglas-fir-fescuecanopy cover California and Idaho fescue/many shrubs,of mature trees) ponderosa pine, Douglas-fir, madrone

Mixed pine-Douglas-fir-fescueIdaho fescue/mixed shrubs/ponderosa andsugar pines, Douglas-fir, madrone

Douglas-fir-mixed pine-fescueCalifornia and western fescue/many shrubs/Douglas-fir, ponderosa and sugar pines,madrone

Mixed fir-mixed pine-sedgeRoss sedge/many shrubs/Douglas-fir, whitefir, ponderosa and sugar pines, madrone

Dense standsDouglas-fir forest

Many shade forbs/many shrubs/Douglas-fir,madrone, black oak

Douglas-fir-madrone forestMany shade forbs/many shrubs/Douglas-fir,madrone, white fir

Mixed fir forestMany shade forbs/many shrubs/Douglas-fir,white fir, black oak, ponderosa and sugarpines

Mixed fir-dogwood forestMany shade forbs/dense shrubs/white fir,Douglas-fir, Pacific dogwood

High white fir forestMany shade forbs/mixed shrubs/white fir

High mixed fir-hemlock forestWhite fir, Shasta red fir, mountain hemlock

units which are associated with themixed-pine and mixed-fir forest of Kla-math Province in this area.61 Wedgeleafceanothus is a key indicator species ofSiskiyou Province and sites.

Siskiyou - Cascade DemarcationThe line of demarcation between

Siskiyou and Cascade provinces wan-ders north from the vicinity of BrushMountain at about 5,500 feet elevationto Fish Lake and along the westernslopes of Mt. McLoughlin, which is inCascade Province. The line continuesnorth in the headwaters of Big ButteCreek and its tributaries, on to RustlerPeak, and then northwest to cross RogueRiver and Highway 62 about 6 milesbelow the community of Prospect. Theline in this area is based on forested

plant communities dominated byDouglas-fir, grand fir, sugar pine, andponderosa pine, which representSiskiyou Province, and forested plantcommunities dominated by mountainhemlock and true firs, which representCascade Province.50

From where the line crosses Highway62 near Prospect, it runs northwardaround the headwaters of Elk Creekand South Umpqua River at about4,000 feet elevation.

The line turns west around headwatersof tributaries of South Umpqua River,which are in Siskiyou Province, atabout 3,500 feet elevation. Conse-quently, the south- and west-facingslopes along South Umpqua River arein Siskiyou Province. In the vicinity of

Tater Hill, the line veers northwest toWhite Rock at about 3,000 feetelevation and on to Lane Mountainwhere Siskiyou, Cascade, andWillamette provinces join.

The line between Siskiyou and Cascadeprovinces in the vicinity of South Ump-qua River is based on the presence ofwestern hemlock in Cascade Provinceforested plant communities and on alack of western hemlock in the moreand forested plant communities ofSiskiyou Province.

The line is supported in this area bysuch soil series as Holderman and Keel,which represent Cascade Province,91and Lettia, Beal, Acker, Kanid, andAtring series, which represent SiskiyouProvince.95


Siskiyou-Willamette DemarcationFrom the junction of Siskiyou, Cas-

cade, and Willamette provinces on LaneMountain about 10 air miles east ofRoseburg in Douglas County, the linebetween Siskiyou and Willamette prov-inces goes southwest down the ridge toBrushy Butte and Dodson Mountain tocross South Umpqua River at the Inter-state 1-5 bridge over the river about 4air miles northwest of Myrtle Creekcommunity. 36,16,91

From the 1-5 bridge, the line followsthe southern border of bottomlandsalong South Fork Umpqua River andOlalla Creek at about 600 feet eleva-tion. From there it veers south up theridge separating drainages flowing westinto lower Olalla Creek, in WillametteProvince, from drainages flowing north,which are in Siskiyou Province, to BigBaldy Mountain about 4 air milesnorthwest of Riddle community.

From Big Baldy Mountain the line goessouthwest along the ridgetop at about2,500 feet elevation past Buck Moun-tain to Table Mountain where it curvesnorth to circle the headwaters of OlallaCreek, in Siskiyou Province. The linefollows the ridge from Live Oak Moun-tain southwest to Chipmunk Ridge,where the junction of Siskiyou,Willamette, and Coast provinces lies.

The line between Siskiyou and Willam-ette provinces, which is about 70 mileslong, is not always clear-cut in terms ofsoil or vegetational differences. Bothprovinces have arid, warm climaticconditions though Siskiyou is relativelymore and and warm than WillametteProvince.

The line was selected by using datashown on the 1993 Preliminary GeneralSoil Map, Douglas County, Oregon95which covers the area where these twoprovinces join. The line was drawnbetween upland soils that have beenmapped definitely within WillametteProvince to the north and upland soilsthat have been mapped in other areasdefinitely within Siskiyou Province.Upland soils definitely associated withWillamette Province include Oakland,Sutherlin, Nonpariel, Philomath, andDixonville series. Upland soils defi-

nitely associated with Siskiyou Prov-ince include Speaker, Josephine, Lettia,and Beal series.

Broad vegetation characteristics differ-entiate between Willamette and Siski-you provinces. For example, uplandsbelow about 1,300 feet elevation insouthern Willamette Province are typi-fied by the common presence of bigleafmaple, Oregon white oak, scotchbroom,and some Pacific madrone. Equivalentuplands in Siskiyou Province are typi-fied by California black oak, wedgeleafceanothus, and abundant madrone,which strongly dominates logged orotherwise disturbed forested areas.

Siskiyou -Coast DemarcationFrom the junction of Willamette,

Siskiyou, and Coast provinces in thevicinity of Chipmunk Ridge in south-west Douglas County, the line betweenSiskiyou and Coast provinces goessouth at about 3,000 feet elevation toDutchman Butte. It follows HayesRidge southwesterly and south to Nine-mile Mountain and continues south-westerly at about 3,000 feet elevationto north of Kelsey Peak in northeasternCurry County. From there, the linewanders west to Big Meadows vicinityand then north, west, and southwest atabout 3,000 feet elevation around theupper Mule Creek watershed. It followsPanther Ridge southwesterly at about2,000 feet elevation close to the Coos-Curry county line.

From this point, the line extends southalong the east slopes of Ophir Moun-tain and Brushy Mountain at about2,000 feet elevation. Near Lake of theWoods Mountain the line goes south-west to Soldier Camp Mountain, Sec-ond Prairie Mountain, and First PrairieMountain while decreasing in elevationfrom about 2,000 feet at Soldier CampMountain to about 1,200 feet near Lob-ster Hill just north of Rogue Rivers'

The line in northeastern and north-central Curry County is based primarilyon the elevation at which westernhemlock is a common component offorested uplands in Coast Province,compared to the common appearance oftanoak, madrone, and other plant

species that signify warmer and drierconditions typifying the western part ofSiskiyou Province. The line also isindicated by the general presence ofsuch forested soils as Preacher, Bohan-non, Digger, and Umpcoos, whichtypify Coast Province,60 and the soilseries Atring, Kanid, Acker, Beekman,Pollard, and Vermisa, which typifySiskiyou Province in this vicinity.56

Around Lobster Hill, the line intersectsthe upper boundary of the normal coas-tal fog zone at about 1,200 feet. Thisboundary coincides with the line be-tween provinces from this area south tothe California border. Several sharpbends in Rogue River near Lobster Hillapparently hinder the normal fog zoneboundary from extending fartherupriver. The line of demarcation,therefore, crosses Rogue River betweenLobster Hill and Skookumhouse Butte.

The line-the upper boundary of thecoastal fog zone-continues at about1,200 feet around the headwaters ofQuosatana Creek and west aroundKimball Hill. It goes southwest, some-what parallel to Rogue River, and thensouth at about 1,200 feet. It winds upand around the headwaters of HunterCreek, west of Sundown Mountain, upand around headwaters of Pistol Riverand its tributaries, of Chetco River andits tributaries, and of Winchuck Riverand its tributaries at about 1,200 feet."It crosses from Oregon into Californiaabout 8 air miles east of the ocean.

From the area east of Lobster Creek,which is a tributary of Rogue River,and south to the California border, theline is based on the presence of Sitkaspruce, red alder, Douglas-fir, westernhemlock, and other species that typifythe cool, moist fog zone coastal climatecompared to the common tanoak,Pacific madrone, and related speciesthat signify the warmer, drier condi-tions of Siskiyou Province. The line alsois indicated by the general presence ofsuch soils as Bosland, Floras, Milli-coma, and Reedsport, which typifyCoast Province in this area, and Frits-land, Bravo, Mislatnah, and Pollard soilseries which typify Siskiyou Provincein this area.56


North Powder Valley, Burnt RiverValley, and the extensive valley aroundVale, Ontario, and Nyssa. Some low-lying terraces are irrigated in the Vale-Ontario vicinity, near North Powder,around the north and west perimeter ofBaker Valley, and in Eagle Valley.

Elevations within Snake River Provinceare mostly between 3,000 and 5,000feet. The lowest point, about 1,800 feet,is at Copperfield on the Oxbow ofSnake River where it exits this provinceand enters Blue Mountain Province tothe north in upper Hells Canyon. Highpromontories within Snake RiverProvince include Mahogany Mountainat 6,524 feet, about 14 miles northeastof Sheaville in Malheur County; BaldMountain at 6,683 feet, about 15 milessouth of Baker City in Baker County;Castle Rock at 6,847 feet, about 8 milesnorth of Beulah in Malheur County;Lookout Mountain at 7,127 feet, about12 miles south of Richland in BakerCounty and only about 35 air milesfrom the lowest point on Oxbow; andIronside Mountain at 7,815 feet, about12 miles southwest from Ironside inMalheur County.

SoilsThe soils formed on ancient

terraces in Snake River Province varyconsiderably by location according to

SnakeRiver

EcologicalProvince

LocationThis province in Oregon includes

the western portion of the huge SnakeRiver basin that extends east acrosssouthern Idaho. In Oregon, the prov-ince covers about 4.9 million acres,mainly in Malheur and Baker countiesbut with small segments in Harvey,Grant, and Union counties. It extendseastward into Idaho.

DescriptionSnake River Province of Oregon is

typified by extensive dissected terracesformed in ancient lakes. These terracesare geologically eroded to the point thatthey appear as plateaus, basins, lowrolling hills, and prominent hills sepa-rated by sharp dendritic drainagepatterns. Mountainous terrain is inter-spersed throughout most of the prov-ince (Fig. 39). For example, LookoutMountain is basaltic/granitic; themountains south of Burnt River arelargely limestone from which cement isground from open-pit mines at Lime;and other mountains, such as IronsideMountain, Cedar Mountains, and Owy-hee Ridge just east of Owyhee Reser-voir, are rugged basaltic formations.

Alluvial valleys, which are used forirrigated agriculture, run along majorwatercourses. These include EagleValley, Keating Valley, Baker Valley,

the terrace materials in which they wereformed. Some are very gravelly, someare stony, some are nonstony. Most ofthese terrace soils have medium- tofine-texture surface layers and clayeysubsoils. Depths vary from shallow todeep, and soils may be underlaid byhardpans.

A good example of ancient-terrace soilsunderlaid by hardpans can be studiedon Highway 86 roadcuts in the vicinityof Virtue Flat about 12 miles east ofBaker City.

Soils formed on mountain slopes maybe shallow to deep, nonstony to verystony. They usually have medium-texture surface layers and clayeysubsoils.

Soils in valleys are usually deep, ofmedium texture, moderately welldrained, and fertile. Some bottomlands,however, are imperfectly to poorlydrained, usually moderately deep overhardpans, and are alkaline or sodic.

ClimateFor nine of the 14 official weather

stations, which represent a cross-section of the province, the averageannual precipitation is about 9.9 inches,of which only 28% occurs during thenative-plant growing season, April

Snake River Ecological Province 109

through June. November throughMarch precipitation is about 55% of theannual total. Average January maxi-mum and minimum temperatures are35.5 and 16°F, respectively. AverageApril through June maximum and mini-mum temperatures are 71.3 and 39.6°F,respectively. Precipitation and tempera-tures vary by locality, as shown inTable 37."

Field observations in Snake RiverProvince are that storm patterns appearto be related to the mountainous topo-graphic features that help typify thisprovince. Consequently, the pathsthese storms follow receive consider-ably more precipitation than other areasjust a short distance away, but this isnot documented by existing officialweather stations.

However, both soils and plant commu-nities reflect these favorable moistureconditions which are highly significantfrom a resource management aspect,especially when they occur during thenative-plant growing season.

A precipitation map53 shows greaterthan 15 inches precipitation for moun-tainous areas in the province and about30 inches precipitation for the LookoutMountain-Sheep Mountain-LittleLookout Mountain group southeast ofBaker City, which is the highestprecipitation shown for the province.

VegetationAccording to the 1936 State of Ore-

gon Forest Type Map,54 which predatesextensive logging, only about 0.4% ofSnake River Province was covered byconiferous trees at that time.

About 0.1%, or 66,000 acres, wascovered by stands of western juniperwhich grew primarily in five generallocations. About 23,000 acres were inthe extreme southwest part of the prov-ince on mountainous terrain. About thesame acreage was in the area betweenJuntura and north to the vicinity ofBeulah Reservoir.

North of the Burnt River in the vicinityof Hereford about 7,000 acres ofjuniper grew on upper portions ofsouth-facing slopes. Also along BurntRiver about halfway between Bridge-port and Durkee, about 6,000 acreswere near ridgetops on south-facingslopes. On the south-facing slopes ofLookout Mountain were stands ofjuniper totalling about 7,000 acres.

Ponderosa pine, primarily stands oflarge old-growth, was on about 134,000acres or 0.3% of the province. Some ofthese stands were along the line ofdemarcation between Snake River andBlue Mountain provinces; the largestarea, of about 46,000 acres, was fromWhitney southward. Other stands ofponderosa pine grew in the interior of

the province. The east-west ridgebetween Burnt River and Powder Riverhad about 80,000 acres of pine. Thisstand included the Dooley Mountainarea. In the high country southwest ofBridgeport between Burnt River andthe headwaters of Willow Creek werestands covering about 6,000 acres. InTimber Canyon on the north-facingportion of Little Sheep Mountain wereabout 1,000 acres of pine and Douglas-fir. And, a small stand of pine andDouglas-fir appeared on the north-facing slopes of Lookout Mountain.

In terms of acreage, the vegetation ofSnake River Province is primarily ashrub-grassland climax type. Sage-brushes dominate; however, the prov-ince is characterized by a variety ofshrub species that flourish on the hillsand terraces above the most and low-lying portions of the province (Fig. 40).

Wyoming and basin big sagebrushesare the most prominent shrubs onuplands. Basin big sagebrush alsogrows on well-drained bottomlands.Greasewood and green rabbitbrush aretypical of sodic bottomland sites.Mountain big sagebrush appears inhigher elevations where precipitation isabout 12 inches or more. Rigid andthreetip sagebrushes grow mainly onshallow clayey scabland sites. Louisi-ana wormwood grows on some moist

Table 37. Climatic Data for Snake River Ecological Province, Oregon."

Station and Precipitation

length of record Elevation Annual Nov.-March April-JuneAverage maximum and minimum

temperatures (°F)(years) (feet) (inches) (%) (%) January April-June

Baker CountyBaker City 40 3,471 11.8 48 31 32.5-17.4 63.4-39.4Huntington 20 2,150 10.9 65 21 37.4-19.7 75.8-47.2Richland 26 1,900 9.7 55 27 37.6-18.3 72.5-39.5Unity 12 4,031 10.8 49 29 31.6-9.8 65.4-33.1

Malheur CountyAdrian 20 2,240 8.8 57 27 37.0-19.6 75.3-43.9Beulah 8 3,269 11.0 61 25 35.2-11.4 70.5-34.3Harper 12 2,156 8.2 54 26 35.6-15.3 73.5-40.8Riverside 10 3,000 9.2 50 29 36.7-16.4 73.9-37.7Warm Springs Res. 21 3,332 7.9 51 32 35.8-15.3 72.6-39.8

County AveragesBaker County 10.8 54 27 34.8-16.3 69.3-39.8Malheur County 9.0 55 28 36.1-15.6 73.2-39.3


110 Snake River Ecological Province

Table 38. Average Dates Vegetation Growth Begins and Endsin Snake River Ecological Province, Oregon.



Baker CountyBaker City 40 3,471 March 27 July 4

Huntington 20 2,150 March 4 June 17Richland 26 1,900 March 7 June 6Unity 12 4,031 April 4 July 1

Malheur CountyAdrian 20 2,240 March 4 June 2Beulah 8 3,269 March 27 July 4

Harper 12 2,156 March 9 May 20Riverside 10 3,000 March 15 June 7Warm Springs Res. 21 3,332 March 13 May 21

* The average date vegetation growth begins on native perennial bunchgrasses isapproximately the date average daily temperatures reach 39 to 40°F. Average dategrowth ends is considered to be when available soil moisture is depleted. Interpre-tations are based on data in Johnsgard.17

bottomland sites. Bitterbrush, squaw-apple, currants, chokecherry, buck-wheats, gray and green rabbitbrushes,gray horsebrush, and spiny hopsage areon various rangeland sites. Curlleafmountain-mahogany grows on rockyoutcrops and ridges.

The basic perennial grasses on range-land sites in the province are bluebunchwheatgrass, Idaho fescue, Sandbergbluegrass and squirreltail. Indian rice-grass, Thurber needlegrass, and needle-and-thread also grow on the more andsites. Onespike oatgrass, Kentuckybluegrass, Columbia and westernneedlegrasses, and oniongrass alsogrow in more moist upland sites.

Basin wildrye is common throughoutthe province on concave areas or thosewith deeper soil in the uplands as wellas on nearly all bottomland sites andriparian areas that have not beenfarmed. Cheatgrass is very prolificthroughout the province. Medusaheadwildrye signifies clay spots. Beardlessbluebunch wheatgrass grows in theBaker County portion of the province.

More than 100 species of perennialforbs are recorded as regularly growingon upland sites in this province. Thisobviously is an incomplete record.Even the most and sites in this prov-ince are characterized by a good varietyof 25 or more perennial forb species.

Forested areas in the province are onhigher elevations and north-facingslopes in mountainous areas. Theyconsist mainly of combinations ofponderosa pine, Douglas-fir, and grandfir with some western juniper onshallow rocky areas and in the fringebetween timbered and sagebrush areas.

Shrubs commonly associated withforested areas include wax currant, lowOregon-grape, rose, serviceberry, andspirea. Grasses include Idaho fescue,bluebunch wheatgrass, elk andthreadleaf sedges, Kentucky, Canby,and Sandberg bluegrasses, prairiejunegrass, Columbia needlegrass,pinegrass, and basin wildrye. A widevariety of shade-tolerant forbs grow inthis coniferous tree climax type.

Originally, basin wildrye probablydominated most, if not all, bottomlandsand riparian areas in the province,whether moist, semimoist, alkaline, orotherwise. Associated grass, forb, andshrub species varied according todegree of wetness and alkalinity.

Management ImplicationsThe province includes irrigated

intensive agriculture in the Vale-Ontario-Nyssa area which is devotedprimarily to growing food for humanuse. All other valleys in the province

are essentially fully used for irrigatedagriculture with emphasis on produc-tion of livestock forage and feeds.

A large part of the province is publicland, especially in Malheur Countywhich is about 80% public land. TheBaker County part of the province hasa much lower proportion: about 40%publicly owned lands. Management ofthe public lands indirectly exerts asignificant influence on the use andmanagement of private lands in theprovince. Resource issues, problems,opportunities, and options nearlyalways involve both kinds of owner-ships in the province, especially in thenorthern portion. This makes thecoordinated resource managementplanning (CRMP) process a veryappropriate way to resolve issues andimprove overall resource management.

Some rangelands in low-precipitationareas near Snake River have beenirretrievably damaged by nearly acentury of excessive livestock grazing,wildfires, soil erosion, and possiblydryland farming. The result has beensignificant changes in soils and theircapability to recover naturally.

Seeding to selected forage species,together with prescribed grazingsystems, have proved successful inreturning these lands to forage produc-tion as well as in much improvingwatershed quality and wildlife habitat.

In areas of about 12 inches precipita-tion or more, the soils inherently aremore able to recover from past uses.This has been demonstrated on manyranches in the province where modernrange management technology hasinstalled practical grazing programswith good success. Although the natureof the terrace soils is such that erosionand compaction are serious consider-ations, these soils also respond well toseeding for rehabilitation.

The BLM Vale Project covered a largeportion of the province in MalheurCounty, and other programs promotedby the Vale BLM District treated muchBLM land in Baker County. Conse-quently, many effective rangelandmanipulations and improvements have

Snake River Ecological Province 1 1 1

been made. This benefitted manyresource values including wildlifehabitat, recreation, watershed quality,and range condition in addition toproviding great benefits to livestockranching. There are many examples oftreatments that are effective, and somethat are not, for the soil, topographic,and climatic conditions on both publicand private lands in the province.

From the viewpoint of watershedquality and soil erosion, which are mostimportant considerations, it is highlydesirable to culturally revegetate allsuitable soil areas in the province thatare seriously depleted and not likely torecover naturally because of permanentchanges in the original soil situationand plant cover.

Delays in revegetation run the risk ofsoil erosion, leading to a new, lowerpotential state. In the long run, for thehealth and stability of the basic resource-soil-it is far more judicious torevegetate these areas by seeding assoon as possible.


Snake River-Blue MountainDemarcation

The line of demarcation betweenSnake River and Blue Mountain prov-inces in the northeast begins in theSnake River canyon at Copperfield onthe Oxbow where the river exits SnakeRiver Province and enters Blue Moun-tain Province in upper Hells Canyon.From that point, the line runs southwestup the ridge between Pine Creek andSnake River.

All drainage into Pine Valley and PineCreek is considered to be in BlueMountain Province, although the deepSnake River canyon makes this line amatter of judgment based mainly onnative plant communities and soils. Allof Eagle Valley is in Snake RiverProvince. From the divide on Highway86 between Eagle Valley and PineValley, the line runs westerly at about4,000 feet elevation along the upperedge of the ancient terraces south ofSparta. In this area between EagleValley and Keating Valley and north of

Powder River, there are excellentexamples of dissected ancient terraceswhich typify Snake River Province(Fig. 41).

The line of demaracation crosses intoUnion County east of Pondosa at about4,000 feet elevation and continuesnorthwesterly through Telocaset andaround the north and west edges ofNorth Powder Valley, then south atabout 4,000 feet elevation to just westof Baker City. There, an apparent geo-logical uplift has abruptly placed theupper line of the terrace at about 4,500feet elevation. The line continues southat about 4,500 feet elevation until justwest of Unity where another apparentuplift places the upper terrace level atabout 5,000 feet elevation.

The demarcation line ends southwest ofIronside Mountain where Blue Moun-tain Province reaches its most southernpoint and joins John Day Province tothe south. Ironside Mountain is inSnake River; Strawberry Mountain andPrairie Hill are in Blue Mountain; Ante-lope Mountain east of Seneca is in JohnDay Province.

Snake River-John DayDemarcation

The line of demarcation betweenSnake River Province and John DayProvince to the west, which is about5,000 feet elevation on the uplifted areaeast and south of Antelope Mountain,drops down to about 4,500 feet west ofDrewsey and Warm Springs Reservoirand proceeds south along the eastslopes of Stinking Water Mountains.

Snake River-High DesertDemarcation

Just east of Crane, the line of de-marcation between Snake River andHigh Desert provinces begins at about4,250 feet elevation. It is at this point,the gap at Crane, that one might specu-late about how the ancient lake, inwhich the terraces of Snake River Prov-ince were formed, at one time mighthave been connected to the ancient lakein which the terraces of the High DesertProvince were formed. For this to havehappened, the lakes would have had to

exist simultaneously. But this is amatter of conjectural paleontology andhas no current significance in differen-tiating between the two provinces.

Obviously, the terraces and basins inHigh Desert Province suggest quiet-water abatement which seems logicalfor such interior basins that had nostrong currents escaping to the ocean.In contrast, the terraces of Snake RiverProvince are typified by strong geo-logic erosion and sharp dendritic drain-age patterns that suggest water recededin strong currents out through SnakeRiver to the ocean. Consequently, thekinds of ecological sites (soils, plantcommunities, topography) and espe-cially the management implications aremarkedly different between SnakeRiver and High Desert provinces.

Demarcation between the provinces islikely a belt south and east of Crane tothe vicinity of Folly Farm and northeasttoward Crowley. There is no readilyapparent line of demarcation anywherewithin this belt; therefore, the linebecomes a matter of field experienceand judgment.

Based on the fact that ancient-terracelines are extensive and consistentlyvisible at about 4,500 feet elevationaround the perimeter of the geologicbasin that forms High Desert Province,and that the Snake River Province linewest of Warm Springs Reservoir is atabout 4,500 feet elevation, the line ofdemarcation between Snake River andHigh Desert provinces has been placedat about 4,500 feet elevation from thevicinity of Crane southeast to just northof Folly Farm, then northeast to justnorth of Crowley.

From there it runs east around the southside of Cedar Mountains to the rim ofthe Owyhee River canyon, which is at4,000 feet elevation. This line placesthe dry lakebeds and closed basinssouth of Crowley in High DesertProvince, which is typified by similarclosed-basin topography, whereasSnake River Province to the north istypified by landscape dissected bydendritic drainages into the SnakeRiver system.



Table 39. Major Ecological Sites in Snake River Ecological Province, Oregon.

Climax type



Coniferous tree(5% or morecanopy coverof mature trees)


Rolling hillsIdaho fescue, bluebunch wheatgrass, big bluegrass,sedge/big sagebrush

High clayey terraceIdaho fescue, bluebunch wheatgrass, bluegrass,sedge/rigid sagebrush

Semimoist bottomBasin wildrye, bluebunch wheatgrass,big bluegrass/basin big sagebrush

Moist bottomBasin wildrye, Kentucky bluegrass,sedge, quackgrass/golden currant,Louisiana wormwood

Droughty rolling hillsBluebunch wheatgrass, Idaho fescue, Sandbergbluegrass/big sagebrush, bitterbrush

Droughty south exposureBluebunch wheatgrass, Thurber needlegrass,

Sandberg bluegrass/big sagebrush, bitterbrushSouth exposure

Bluebunch wheatgrass, Idaho fescue/big sagebrush,bitterbrush, squawapple

Droughty north exposureBluebunch wheatgrass, Idaho fescue, Sandbergbluegrass/big sagebrush, bitterbrush, squawapple

North exposureIdaho fescue, big bluegrass, sedge/mixed shrubs

Droughty terraceBluebunch wheatgrass, Idaho fescue, Thurberneedlegrass/squawapple, big sagebrush, rabbitbrush

Clayey terraceIdaho fescue, bluebunch wheatgrass, bluegrasses,sedge/rigid sagebrush

Mahogany rocklandIdaho fescue, bluebunch wheatgrass, bluegrasses,Thurber needlegrass/curlleaf mountain-mahogany,big sagebrush, wax currant

Moist scablandIdaho fescue, Sandberg bluegrass, bluebunchwheatgrass, onespike oatgrass/low sagebrush,bitterbrush, squawapple

ScablandSandberg bluegrass, Idaho fescue, bluebunchwheatgrass/low sagebrush, buckwheat, bitterbrush

Junip er-pine-bunchgras sBluebunch wheatgrass, Idaho fescue, Sandbergbluegrass/mixed shrubs/juniper, ponderosa pine

Pine-bunchgrassIdaho fescue, bluebunch wheatgrass, mixed grasses/mixed shrubs/ponderosa pine

Pine-Douglas-fir-fescueIdaho fescue, elk sedge, needlegrass, pinegrass/mixed shrubs/ponderosa pine, Douglas-fir

Pine-sedgeElk sedge, Idaho fescue, Columbia needlegrass/arnica,strawberry, lupine/mixed shrubs/ponderosa pine

Pine-Douglas-fir-sedgeElk sedge, Idaho fescue, pinegrass/mixed shrubs/ponderosa pine, Douglas-fir

Fir-pine forestShade-tolerant grasses/forbs/mixed shrubs/Douglas-fir, grand fir, larch, ponderosa pine, lodgepole pine

Sodic bottomBasin wildrye, saltgrass, foxtail barley/greasewood, green rabbitbrush

Snake River Ecological Province 113

Snake River- Humboldt-OwyheeDemarcation

Snake River Province includes theOwyhee River canyon up to about 6miles upstream from Rome. In thiscanyon are exposed thick layers ofsedimentary or tuffaceous materialsthat typify Snake River Province. Thebasalt plateau and terraces to the westof the canyon are in Humboldt Prov-

ince; those to the east of the canyon arein Owyhee Province.

From the vicinity of Rome and Arock,the line between Snake River and Owy-hee provinces goes north along the rimof Owyhee River canyon at about 4,000feet elevation. It follows this elevation,which is the approximate breakbetween the higher basalt plateaus and

hills of Owyhee Province and theexposed sedimentary materials lying tothe north at lower elevations, whichtypify Snake River Province. The lineof demarcation follows along the northside of Mahogany Mountains east toRockville and then north and east intoIdaho at about the 4,000 foot elevation.


115

M-

E-

The DallesEcological

Province

LocationThe Dalles Ecological Province in

north-central Oregon lies along thelower eastern slopes of the CascadeMountains generally between about2,000 and 4,000 feet elevation in thenorthern part and between about 2,500and 4,500 feet elevation farther south,on the Warm Springs Indian Reserva-tion. The province is relatively narrow,varying from about 6 to 15 miles wideeast to west, and extends about 100miles north to south.

This strip of country lying parallel tothe Cascade Mountains is an area inwhich the hot, dry eastern Oregonsummer climate significantly affectsthe ecology along the east slopes of theCascades. It constitutes the transitionbetween normal grasslands of Colum-bia Basin Province and Douglas-fir-hemlock forests of Cascade Province(Fig. 42).

In Oregon, the province covers about530,000 acres mainly in Wasco andJefferson counties with a small propor-tion in Hood River County and a verysmall proportion in Deschutes Countynear Black Butte. The province extendsnorth across the Columbia River intoWashington.

In Oregon, The Dalles city is in theextreme northeast corner of the prov-

ince. Mosier is in the northwest corner.Friend, Wamic, Pine Grove, and Sim-nasho are just inside the eastern boun-dary; there are no towns in the southernpart of the province.

DescriptionPhysiographically, The Dalles

Province in Oregon consists mainly ofeast-sloping foothills and mountainslopes bisected west to east by numer-ous drainages, many having abruptbasalt cliff canyons originating in theCascades and draining into Deschutesand Columbia rivers. Elevations rangefrom about 100 feet along the Colum-bia River between Mosier and TheDalles to 5,110 feet on the north end ofGreen Ridge near Metolius River in thesouthern part of the province.

SoilsSoils typifying The Dalles Prov-

ince in Oregon have developed in avariety of parent materials related to thegeology of the eastern slopes of Mt.Hood and the Cascade Mountains.Included are aeolian silts and volcanicash, andesitic, basaltic, and sedimen-tary colluviums, and glacial outwash.Some small areas of alluvial soils liealong stream channels.

The major cultivated area in the prov-ince in Oregon lies south and west of

The Dalles city. The soils are Cheno-weth and Cherryhill loams and siltloams formed in old alluvium andconsolidated colluvium on undulating1 to 50% slopes. At one time much ofthis area was in orchards.

From The Dalles city south to aboutWamic along the eastern part of theprovince is a sloping plateau dissectedfrom west to east by numerous drain-ages, many basalt rimmed. Some smallareas in the plateau have been dry-farmed for cereal grains. Soil seriestypifying this plateau are Ortley andWamic which are formed in aeoliansilts and volcanic ash overlying basaltbedrock.

Noncultivated soils can be grouped bythe natural vegetation produced: uplandnatural grasslands; bottomland naturalgrasslands; Oregon white oak; mixedponderosa pine/oak; pine/bunchgrass;mixed ponderosa pine/Douglas-fir; andDouglas-fir/grand fir forest.

Soils associated with upland naturalgrasslands are on steep south-facingslopes along major drainages in thelow-elevation northeastern part of theprovince. These soils are shallowcobbly loam with 45 to 75% slopes. Amajor soil series is Bodell, which isformed in basaltic colluvium overbasalt bedrock.

The Dalles Ecological Province

Soils associated with bottomland natu-ral grasslands are limited to certainreaches in major drainages. These allu-vial soils are nearly level, deep sandyloamy derived from an aggregation ofupstream parent materials. A majorbottomland soil series is Tygh.

Soils associated with nearly pure standsof white oak are mainly in the northernpart of the province on steep south-facing slopes in higher, more moistelevations than where upland naturalgrasslands are on similar topography.These soils are shallow to moderatelydeep cobbly loam with 35 to 65%slopes. Soil series include steep phasesof Wamic, Skyline, and Hesslan, whichare formed in a mix of aeolian and col-luvium materials over basalt or sedi-mentary bedrock.

Soils associated with stands of mixedoak and ponderosa pine are mainly inthe northern and eastern parts of theprovince at mid-elevations on plateausand steep south-facing slopes.

On some plateaus, the soils are in acomplex soil pattern of nonstonymounds interspersed with very shallowstony soils, a pattern called biscuitscabland. Oak and pine grow on thebiscuits which are typified by Ortley,Wamic, and Skyline soil series; they arederived from aeolian materials overly-ing basalt or sedimentary bedrock.

The interspersed scabland is Bakeovenseries which, in this province in Ore-gon, atypically does not produce a low-growing species of sagebrush. For oneexplanation of the origin of thispatterned land, see the earlier sectionon Columbia Basin Ecological Prov-ince in which biscuit scabland is aprominent, widespread phenomenon.

On other plateaus, mixed oak and pinegrow on relatively level soils havingdeep, medium-texture surface layersand loamy subsoils. A representativesoil series is Wamic, which is formed inaeolian materials over basalt bedrock.

In more moist, higher elevations, mixedoak and pine are on steep (45 to 75%)south-facing slopes of soils that aremoderately deep cobbly or stony loamy.

A representative series is Bald, whichis formed in aeolian materials and basaltcolluvium overlying basalt bedrock.

Soils associated with ponderosa pineand bunchgrass plant communities liemainly in the south half of the prov-ince, on the Warm Springs IndianReservation. The soils include Bootenand Shiva, which are sandy loamyformed in basalt colluvium; Tenwater,Milldam, and Tolius, which are verycobbly silt loams formed in glacialoutwash; and Hehe and Teewee, whichare very stony loamy formed in basaltcolluvium.

Soils associated with ponderosa pineand Douglas-fir forests are in higherfootslopes throughout the length of theprovince in Oregon. In the north, thesesoils include Bald, Wamic, Ketchly, andFrailey, which are formed in aeolianmaterials and colluviums over bedrock.Farther south on the reservation, thesesoils include series such as Smiling,Simnasho, and Pipp, which are strongsandy loamy formed in colluvium ofigneous rock and ash.

Soils associated with Douglas-fir andgrand fir forests, which are mainly onnorth exposures at higher elevations inthe northern part of the province inOregon, are typified by such soilsseries as Bins and Fouts. These soilsare formed in aeolian materials andbasaltic and andesitic colluviums overbedrock.

ClimateBased on six official weather sta-

tions in the eastern low-elevation partof The Dalles Province in Oregon,average annual precipitation in this areais about 14.5 inches of which about25% is during the herbaceous native-plant growing season, March throughJune. October through February(winter) precipitation is about 66% oftotal annual precipitation.

Average January maximum and mini-mum temperatures for this portion ofthe province are 38.7 and 22.6°F,respectively. Average March throughJune maximum and minimum tempera-tures are 65.5 and 36.5°F, respectively.

A precipitation map" shows about 50inches or more annual precipitationalong the western boundary of TheDalles Province in Oregon. Tempera-tures at about 4,000 feet elevation,which is the western boundary of theprovince in Oregon, are not representedin data from official weather stations.

Along the province's eastern boundaryin Oregon, precipitation increases fromeast to west as elevation increases. Thesouthernmost weather station, Mont-gomery Ranch south of Metolius Riverin Jefferson County, is both drier andwarmer than stations farther north. Thiscorrelates with the previously describedphenomenon of the advent of westernhemlock at increasing elevations fromnorth to south along the CascadeMountains in Oregon.


Oregon Forest Type Map54 which pre-dates extensive logging, about 85% ofThe Dalles Province in Oregon wascovered by coniferous and mixed coni-ferous and oak forest at that time.About 5% was covered by Oregonwhite oak savannah, and about 10%was nonforested and conceivably innatural grasslands (less than 10%canopy cover of shrubs).

According to this map, ponderosa pinewas by far the dominant tree species inthe province. Based on field ecologicalstudies, other coniferous tree speciesinclude Douglas-fir, grand fir, westernwhite pine, lodgepole pine, westernlarch, and western red cedar, dependingon the effective environment of theparticular site.

Natural grasslands in The Dalles Prov-ince in Oregon are primarily on andsouth-facing slopes in lower elevationsalong the northeastern portion of theprovince. Dominant species includebluebunch wheatgrass, Sandberg blue-grass, Idaho fescue, prairie junegrass,Lemmon needlegrass, and a wide vari-ety of perennial forbs such as arrowleafbalsamroot, barestem and heartleafbuckwheats, barestem lomatium,yarrow, and lupine. Sagebrush is not acomponent of upland plant communi-

116 The Dalles Ecological Province

Table 40. Climatic Data for The Dalles Ecological Province, Oregon."

Station and Precipitation Average maximum and minimumlength of record Elevation Annual Oct.-Feb. March-June temperatures (°F)

(years) (feet) (inches) (%) (%) January March-June

Jefferson CountyMontgomery Rancha 17 1,900 14.2 67 26 40.9-22.5 66.8-33.1

Wasco CountyOrtley Stationb 12 1,600 21.9 74 18 35.5-23.7 60.2-37.3The Dalles 21 96 13.8 72 22 39.6-27.3 69.5-45.4Dufurc 20 1,250 12.0 65 28 37.9-22.3 66.8-36.0Ramsey Station d 16 1,350 15.3 52 25 not available not availableFriend 9 2,500 16.8 68 26 34.6-17.2 60.2-32.7Wamic 15 1,800 15.0 69 22 40.3-23.9 64.4-35.2

Average along eastern(low-elevation) province border 14.5 66 25 38.7-22.6 65.5-36.5

No official weather stations in The Dalles Province in Deschutes or Hood River counties.

a South of Metolius River in Jefferson County.

c Within Columbia Basin Province but very close to The Dalles Province line.

ties in The Dalles Province even underdeteriorated conditions. This includesvery shallow, very stony scablandswhich normally grow low or rigidsagebrush in other provinces. However,sagebrush has encroached on somedeteriorated bottomland sites. Grayrabbitbrush, gray horsebrush, andpoison-oak grow in minor amounts onupland grassland sites.

Oak savannahs are primarily on south-facing slopes ranging from about 1,200to 3,500 feet elevation and on steepnorth-facing slopes from about 1,000 to3,000 feet elevation in the northeasternpart of the province in Oregon. Onsouth-facing slopes, the stand of oak issparse; however, it dominates theaspect of the site.

The understory is strongly dominatedby bluebunch wheatgrass, Sandbergbluegrass, and Idaho fescue. A varietyof perennial forbs and a few shrubs andoak reproduction are common. Onsteep north-facing slopes, oak growswith good stand density. Occasionallythere are ponderosa pine and Douglas-fir. Idaho fescue, bluebunch wheatgrass,Sandberg bluegrass, and big andKentucky bluegrasses are prominent. Awide variety of perennial forbs and suchshrubs as bitterbrush, deerbrush ceano-thus, serviceberry, snowberry, rose,gray rabbitbrush, and both oak andsparse pine reproduction are common.

The most and portion of coniferousforest in The Dalles Province in Oregonis in stands of mixed ponderosa pineand Oregon white oak which are onridgetops and sloping areas rangingfrom about 1,000 to 2,500 feet eleva-tion. The overstory consists of ponde-rosa pine and oak; all age classes ofboth species are represented. A widevariety of perennial bunchgrasses andforbs constitute the understory alongwith abundant bitterbrush, deerbrushceanothus, rose, serviceberry, snow-berry, poison-oak, greenleaf manzanita,and both oak and pine reproduction.

As the effective environment improvesdue to increased elevation and/orincreased moisture, conifer forest areasof The Dalles Province in Oregon arecharacterized by different plantcommunities; for example, ponderosapine/bitterbrush/bunchgrass sites;ponderosa pine/Douglas-fir/mixedshrubs/elk sedge sites; mixed fir/ponderosa pine forest sites; and mixedfir forest sites.

Ponderosa pine/bitterbrush/bunchgrasssites occur from about 1,700 to 2,700feet elevation. The shrub understory isdominated by bitterbrush. Dominantgrasses include Idaho fescue andbluebunch wheatgrass.

Pine/Douglas-fir/mixed shrubs/elksedge sites lie from about 1,200 to

b About 2 miles southwest of Rowena.

d About 5 miles southwest of Dufur.

3,000 feet elevation. The herbaceousunderstory typically consists of a widevariety of perennial species such as elksedge, Idaho and western fescues, spiketrisetum, Alaska oniongrass, Kentuckyand pine bluegrasses, blue wildrye,pinegrass, and mountain brome.

The forb component consists of suchspecies as peavine, American vetch,woollyweed, cinquefoil, shining frasera,Douglas deervetch, white hawkweed,licoriceroot, lupine, penstemon, straw-berry, yarrow, big deervetch, mountainsweetroot, and arrowleaf balsamroot.

The shrub component is also typifiedby numerous species in abundance. Itcommonly includes species such asbitterbrush; redstem, deerbrush andsquawcarpet ceanothus; mockorange;blue elderberry; serviceberry; pipsis-sewa; oceanspray; greenleaf and pine-mat manzanita; shinyleaf spirea; lowOregon-grape; rose; snowberry; andhazel. Ponderosa pine, Douglas-fir,incense-cedar, and white oak of all ageclasses may be in the stand.

The mixed fir-pine forest grows fromabout 2,500 to about 2,800 feetelevation on north-facing slopes andsloping areas. It has a relatively densetree canopy cover which may includeminor amounts of grand fir. Themidstory consists of about 25% canopycover of tall shrubs such as willow,

The Dalles Ecological Province 117

thimbleberry, rose, blue elderberry,serviceberry, redstem and deerbrushceanothus, mockorange, CascadeOregon-grape, hazel, ninebark, trailingblackberry, oceanspray, snowberry,pinemat manzanita, pipsissewa, andbirchleaf spirea. Both grasses and forbsconstitute a sparse stand of shade-tolerant species such as pinegrass, elksedge, blue wildrye, Kentucky blue-grass, false solomonseal, woollyweed,and strawberry.

The mixed-fir forest is on mountainslopes ranging from about 2,500 to4,000 feet elevation. It is primarily aDouglas-fir-grand fir forest which mayhave an occasional ponderosa pine,western larch, or western white pine inthe stand. The understory is very sparseand consists of shade-tolerant species.

The herbaceous understory is typifiedby Alaska oniongrass, elk sedge, bluewildrye, western fescue, mountainbrome, tall trisetum, white hawkweed,peavine, strawberry, sword fern, arnica,mountain sweetroot, trillium, bunch-berry dogwood, meadowrue, solomon-plume, phantom-orchid, cleavers bed-straw, sandwort, pathfinder, andstarflower.

The shrub understory is typified bywillow, vine maple, serviceberry,redstem ceanothus, snowberry, rose,hazel, honeysuckle, oceanspray,thimbleberry, bittercherry, trailingblackberry, golden (bush form)chinkapin, pipsissewa, greenleafmanzanita, Cascade Oregon-grape,twinflower, and reproduction of bothDouglas-fir and grand fir.

The Dalles Province in Oregon isnoteworthy for its wide variety ofshrub, grass, and forb species and theirabundance under tree canopies.

Management ImplicationsA very large portion of The Dalles

Province in Oregon is forest and range-land. An area of Chenoweth and Cherry-hill soils south and west of The Dallescity was at one time used for orchards.Some areas of Wamic and Ortley soilsare used primarily for dryland farmingfor cereal grain. All these soils are

Table 41. Average Dates Vegetation Growth Begins and Endsin The Dalles Ecological Province, Oregon.


(years)Elevation

(feet)Average date


Jefferson CountyMontgomery Ranch 17 1,900 March 1 June 5

Wasco CountyDufur 20 1,250 March 1 June 21Friend 9 2,500 March 27 August 12Ortley Station 12 1,600 March 11 September 3Ramsey Station 16 1,350 March 11 July 20The Dalles 21 96 February 18 June 25Wamic 15 1,800 March 14 July 17

No official weather stations in The Dalles Province in Deschutes or Hood Rivercounties.

*The average date vegetation growth begins on native perennial bunchgrasses isapproximately the date average daily temperatures reach 39 to 40°F. Average dategrowth ends is considered to be when available soil moisture is depleted. Interpreta-tions are based on data in Johnsgard.'7

subject to soil erosion during stormseasons and spring runoff.

The southern half of the province inOregon lies in the Warm Springs IndianReservation and in Deschutes NationalForest. Much of the north half inOregon lies in Mt. Hood NationalForest. Only about 25% of the provincein Oregon is privately owned.


The Dalles-Columbia BasinDemarcation

The line of demarcation betweenThe Dalles Province and ColumbiaBasin Province in Oregon starts in thenortheast corner of The Dalles Provinceon the Columbia River east of TheDalles city near the mouth of Fifteen-mile Creek and The Dalles dam. Fromthere, the line goes south about 2 mileseast of The Dalles city and continuessouth to west of Dufur, which is inColumbia Basin Province. The linecontinues south to a point just east ofFriend, which is in The Dalles Prov-ince, and to a point east of Wamicwhich also is, barely, in The DallesProvince. From Wamic, the linewanders southwest to near SmockPrairie and then south to Pine Grove onHighway 216. From Pine Grove theline goes southeast to the pass on the

ridge where the Wapinitia-WarmSprings road crosses the major ridgegoing south, the top of the MuttonMountains. At this ridgetop crossing,Columbia Basin, The Dalles, and JohnDay provinces join.

The demarcation line between TheDalles and Columbia Basin provincesin Oregon is based on soil linesbetween Frailey, Wamic, and Skylinesoils, which typify the eastern foot-slopes of the Cascade Mountains-TheDalles Province-and the Condon,Walla Walla, Wapinitia, and Maupinsoil series, which typify ColumbiaBasin Province .16

The Dalles-John Day DemarcationAt the ridgetop where the

Wapinitia-Warm Springs road crossesthe major ridge going south, the line ofdemarcation between The Dalles andJohn Day provinces winds south to thevicinity of Simnasho, which is in TheDalles Province. The line circlesaround Simnasho to the east and southand then heads west toward Hehe Butte,also in The Dalles Province. FromHehe Butte the line travels south atabout 2,500 feet elevation passing nearSawmill Butte, across the headwatersof Tenino Creek, and then southwest toMetolius River. The line followsMetolius River downstream to Fly


Table 42. Major Ecological Sites in The Dalles Ecological Province, Oregon.

Climax type


Deciduous tree(5% or morecanopy coverof trees)

Mixed coniferous-deciduous tree

(5% or morecanopy coverof trees

Coniferous tree(5% or morecanopy coverof mature trees)

Upland site types& characteristic vegetation

Arid south exposureBluebunch wheatgrass, Sandberg bluegrass,Idaho fescue, Lemmon needlegrass/bitterbrush

Oak south exposureBluebunch wheatgrass, Idaho fescue,Sandberg bluegrass/bitterbrush/oak

Oak north exposureIdaho fescue, bluebunch wheatgrass,Kentucky bluegrass/shrubs/oak

Ponderosa pine-oak-fescue

Idaho fescue, elk sedge/shrubs/pine, oak

Pine-bunchgrassIdaho fescue, bluebunch wheatgrass/bitterbrush/ponderosa pine

Pine-Douglas-fir-sedgeElk sedge, western fescue, blue wildrye/oak,incense-cedar, ponderosa pine, Douglas-fir

Mixed fir-pine forestShade plants/many shrubs/Douglas-fir,grand fir, ponderosa pine

Mixed fir forestShade plants/many shrubs/Douglas-fir,grand fir

Creek and then up Fly Creek andaround the east side of Squaw BackRidge at about 2,500 feet elevation towhat is locally called Lower Desert. Itis at this location that The Dalles, JohnDay, and Mazama provinces join.

The line of demarcation between TheDalles and John Day Provinces is basedon soil lines between soil series such asSmiling, Hehe, Simnasho, and Pipp,which typify The Dalles Province, andsoil series such as Simas, Watama,Prill, Mutton, and Madras, which typifyJohn Day Province on the WarmSprings Indian Reservation.96

The Dalles - Mazama DemarcationFrom the location near Lower

Desert, the line of demarcation betweenThe Dalles and Mazama provinces goessouth and west to encompass a small

Bottomland site types& characteristic vegetation

Moist bottomBasin wildrye, bluebunch wheatgrass.

area in Deschutes County that issoutheast of Black Butte, which is inMazama Province.

From the east side of Black Butte, theline goes northerly along Green Ridgeat about 4,500 feet elevation to aboutwhere Abbot Creek joins MetoliusRiver. There, The Dalles, Mazama, andCascade provinces join.

The line of demarcation between TheDalles and Mazama provinces is arelatively short distance of about 35miles. The line is based on soil linesbetween soil series such as Hehe,Teewee, Smiling, and Pipp, whichtypify The Dalles Province on theWarm Springs Indian Reservation, andsoil series such as Deschutes andShanahan, which represent the pumicemantle that typifies Mazama Provincelying to the south of the reservation.", 96

The Dalles-Cascade DemarcationFrom the point that The Dalles,

Mazama, and Cascade provinces join,the line of demarcation between TheDalles and Cascade provinces inOregon meanders northward along themountains at about 4,500 feet eleva-tion. This line is the approximateelevation at which western hemlockbecomes a component of forested plantcommunities in this area.

The advent of western hemlock signi-fies the location on the upper Cascadefootslopes and mountain sides wherethe hot, dry summer climate of easternOregon is no longer an ecologicalfactor influencing forest composition.Below this line, the forest is typified byponderosa pine, Douglas-fir, andOregon oak; above the line, the forest istypified by Douglas-fir, true firs, andhemlocks.

The Dalles Ecological Province 119

Numerous field observations overseveral decades are that the advent ofwestern hemlock in the forest composi-tion is a reliable widespread ecologicalindicator of the location on the land-scape at which a very significant eco-logical change occurs when transectingfrom and and warm forest to moist andcold forest.

Other species-trees, shrubs, andherbaceous-also change from zone tozone in transecting dry-warm to moist-cold conditions. However, westernhemlock was chosen as the key indi-cator species to differentiate betweensome ecological provinces in westernOregon because, first, it is widespreadat higher elevations on both east andwest slopes of the Cascades and fromthe Coast Range west to the PacificOcean; and, second, a tree reliablyindicates average climatic conditionsthat have prevailed over long cycles.

Elevations cited as western hemlock'sentry level in the forested plant com-munity are based on observations ofsites representing the climatic climax,i.e., on relatively level topography notsignificantly influenced by topographicexposure and where the plant commu-nity and soils likely are in equilibriumwith long-term climatic conditions.

Obviously, western hemlock cited asoccurring at about 4,000 feet elevationin a climatic climax location will be at

somewhat higher elevations on moreand south-facing slopes and at some-what lower elevations on more moistnorth-facing slopes because of theinfluence of topographic exposure.

In the southern part of Wasco County,the line of demarcation between TheDalles and Cascade provinces, -which isbased on the appearance of westernhemlock, drops to about 4,000 feet as itgoes north. Western hemlock's growthat lower elevations in northern parts ofOregon than in southern parts is truefor both eastern and western slopes ofthe Cascade Mountains as well as alongthe eastern slopes of the Coast Range.Apparently, this is due to the overallwarmer climatic conditions to thesouth, which causes western hemlockto first appear at a higher elevation onmountain ranges.

The line of demarcation between TheDalles and Cascade provinces runsnorth to a point near the southeastcorner of the upper Hood River Valley.At this point, The Dalles, Cascade, andWillamette provinces join.

Although the line between The Dallesand Cascade provinces is based on theelevation at which western hemlockappears, the line also is indicated by thegeneral presence of such forested soilsas Smiling, Simnasho, and Pipp, whichtypify The Dalles Province, andHowash and Mackatie forested soils,

which typify Cascade Province on theWarm Springs Indian Reservation.96Farther north, the line of demarcation isindicated by the general presence ofsuch forested soils as Bald, Ketchly,and Frailey, which typify The DallesProvince in Oregon, and Divers, Hut-son, and Thader forested soils, whichtypify Cascade Province in Oregon.89

The Dalles-WillametteDemarcation

The line of demarcation betweenThe Dalles and Willamette provinces inOregon goes north from near thesoutheast part of upper Hood RiverValley at about 4,000 feet elevation. Itruns along the ridge east of the valleyand winds around the head of NealCreek and north down the ridge nearlyto Highway 1-84 along the ColumbiaRiver.

Here it veers sharply upriver nearly toMosier, which is in The Dalles Prov-ince. The town of Hood River and theentire Hood River Valley are inWillamette Province.

The line of demarcation between TheDalles and Willamette provinces inOregon is based on soil lines betweenBald, Bodell, Frailey, and Ketchly soilseries which typify The Dalles Provincein Oregon, and Hood, Van Horn, OakGrove, and Bins soil series, whichtypify Willamette Province in Oregon.89


LocationWillamette Ecological Province in

Oregon lies between the Cascade andCoast mountain ranges in westernOregon. It extends west to east alongthe south side of the Columbia Riverfrom about Rainier in Columbia Coun-ty upriver to about Mosier in northwestWasco County, a distance of roughly100 riverbank miles.

From north to south, it extends from theColumbia River near Rainier to about25 miles southwest of Roseburg inDouglas County. It is about 50 mileswide, east to west, at Corvallis; thenarrowest area, about 15 miles wide, isnear Cottage Grove. The province isabout 220 air miles long from north tosouth.

Willamette Province in Oregon coversabout 6.2 million acres in Clatsop,Columbia, Tillamook, Washington,Multnomah, Hood River, Yamhill,Clackamas, Polk, Marion, Lincoln,Benton, Linn, Lane, Coos, and Douglascounties. It extends north across theColumbia River into Washington.

DescriptionPhysiographically, Willamette

Province in Oregon includes nearly theentire drainage system of the Willam-ette River, which flows into the Colum-

Willamette Ecological Province

WillametteEcological

Province

bia River at Portland. It also includesmajor portions of the Hood Riversystem, which flows into the ColumbiaRiver at Hood River, and the UmpquaRiver system, which flows into thePacific Ocean at Winchester Bay. To alesser extent, upper reaches of Neha-lem, Siuslaw, and Coquille rivers,which flow into the Pacific Ocean, arewithin Willamette Province.

Willamette Province has three generalgeomorphic features:

Geologically recent alluvial lowterraces and floodplains-the valleyfloor;

Old valley fill and ancient highterraces; and

Relatively low-elevation residualhill lands, mainly less than 1,700feet elevation, which include thefoothills of both the Cascade andCoast mountain ranges.

The lowest elevation in the province isabout 50 feet at Rainier on the Colum-bia River. A number of isolated buttesand mountains 2,000 feet or more inelevation are throughout the province.Most of the province is below about1,700 feet elevation, which is theapproximate elevation in the foothills atwhich western hemlock begins to growalong the Cascade and Coast mountainranges.

Numerous field observations are thatthe advent of western hemlock in theforest composition is a reliable, wide-spread ecological indicator of the loca-tion on the landscape at which a verysignificant ecological change occurs insoils, vegetation, and managementimplications when transecting fromarid, warm forest to moist, cold forest.Other species-woody and herba-ceous-also change concurrently withthe advent of western hemlock.

In Oregon, western hemlock in a forestapparently indicates an effectiveenvironment equivalent to 60 or moreinches annual precipitation andsignificantly cooler local climatic

conditions.34, 35,36,37,44,45,46

Western hemlock, being a tree, reliablyindicates average conditions that haveprevailed over long climatic cycles.Consequently, western hemlock waschosen as the key indicator species todifferentiate Willamette Province, inwhich western hemlock is not generallycommon in forested uplands, from thecontiguous Cascade and Coast prov-inces in which western hemlock gener-ally is common in forested uplands.


typifying Willamette Province in

121

Oregon involves a variety of parentmaterials including geologically recentalluvial low terraces and floodplains inthe Willamette Valley, old valley fill,ancient high terraces, and low residualfoothills of both the Cascade and Coastmountain ranges. Further complicationresults from the geographic extent ofWillamette Province. The provinceincludes all or part of 16 counties aswell as nearly the entire WillametteRiver drainage system and parts ofHood, Umpqua, Nehalem, Siuslaw, andCoquille rivers' drainage systems.

Consequently, soil series of WillametteProvince are too numerous to catego-rize. However, a geographic listing ofprominent soil series illustrates howsome series are widespread in theprovince whereas others are more orless localized (Table 43).

ClimateBased on 36 official weather

stations representing WillametteProvince in Oregon, average annualprecipitation is about 50.4 inches, ofwhich about 38% falls during the her-baceous-plant growing season, Febru-ary through June. October throughJanuary (winter) precipitation is about56% of the total. Average Januarymaximum and minimum temperaturesare 43.9 and 30.3°F, respectively. Aver-age February through June growingseason maximum and minimum tem-peratures are about 61.4 and 40.2°F,respectively.

The lowest average annual precipitationis recorded at Hood River ExperimentStation at 29.5 inches. However, 35%of this falls during the herbaceous-plantgrowing season, which is typical of theprecipitation pattern throughout theprovince. The highest recorded averageannual precipitation is 74.7 inches atthe Portland Water Bureau Station onBull Run River in eastern ClackamasCounty. Of this, 40% falls during theherbaceous-plant growing season.

Douglas County weather stations arethe warmest in the province, undoubt-edly because they are near SiskiyouProvince to the south, which overallhas a warmer, California-type climate.

A precipitation map53 reflects therelatively uniform precipitation patternthroughout Willamette Province inOregon. Precipitation and temperaturedata vary by location, as shown inTable 44 (page 108).

VegetationIn terms of vegetation, Willamette

Province in Oregon is that area belowthe elevation at which western hemlockgrows, starting from the vicinity ofHood River Valley downriver to aboutBridal Veil and then south along thefoothills of the Cascade Range at about1,400 to 1,800 feet elevation. The westboundary of Willamette Province is thatarea below the elevation at whichwestern hemlock grows, from thevicinity of Rainier on the ColumbiaRiver south along the foothills and crestof the Coast mountain range generallyat or below about 1,750 feet elevation.Along both these demarcation lines,Willamette Province is typified byDouglas-fir, white fir, bigleaf maple,and Oregon white oak. By contrast, theCascade and Coast provinces aretypified by the advent of westernhemlock in forested plant communities.

Refer to Table 7 (pages 18-19) in thesection on Cascade Ecological Provincefor a comparison of the more abundantand characteristic grass, shrub, and treespecies in the Cascade, Coast, andWillamette provinces in Oregon.

The southern boundary of WillametteProvince is contiguous with SiskiyouProvince. Several key indicator vegeta-tion species typify each province. Forexample, uplands below about 1,300feet elevation in southern WillametteProvince are characterized by the com-mon presence of bigleaf maple, Oregonwhite oak, scotchbroom, and smallamounts of Pacific madrone. Equiva-lent uplands in Siskiyou Province aretypified by California black oak,wedgeleaf ceanothus, and abundantmadrone, which strongly dominateslogged and otherwise disturbed forestedareas.

Towle 31 summed up a number ofdocumented observations made in mid-1840s by saying, "The Willamette

Valley presented to the first settlers aremarkably open landscape set betweenthe dense forest of the Cascades and theCoast Range. Perhaps Wilke's [anexpedition in 1841] observation that theprairie occupied one-third more of thevalley than did woodland is a fairgeneral estimate of its extent."

Habek13 studied land survey recordsmade when Willamette Valley wasbeing subdivided during the 1850s.From survey notes, he constructed avegetation map that includes seventownships transecting east and west inMarion and Polk counties, a total of252 square miles. He believed thistransect to be representative of a largeportion of Willamette Valley at thattime. He showed five major vegeta-tional types on the map: oak opening,oak forest, Douglas-fir forest, bottom-land forest, and prairie.

Oak openings had trees 50 feet or moreapart; if less than 50 feet, they werereported as oak forest. Average distancebetween trees in oak openings was143.6 feet compared with 36.5 feet inoak forest. Oak openings were widelydistributed in the transect; one town-ship had about 90% oak openings.

Only a small portion of the area in-cluded in the transect was covered byoak forest. After valley fires werecontrolled and oak reproduction wassuccessful in oak openings, the totalamount of oak forest gradually in-creased. Habek13 states that in 1961 oakforests were not uncommon in much ofWillamette Valley (Fig. 43).

Isolated groves surrounded by prairiewere limited in species composition towhite oak and Douglas-fir with theexception of scattered concentrations ofponderosa pine on more droughty sites,especially in southern parts of thevalley.

Habek's map13 shows that Douglas-firforest dominated both the west and eastsides of the valley transect. He notedthat this forest type is located atdistinctly higher elevations and shouldperhaps be more properly considered asa part of the mountain ranges on either


122 Willamette Ecological Province

Table 43. Distribution of Some Representative Soil Series in Willamette Ecological Province, Oregon.Oregon counties

(ncri a`) m

Co

o ECa E C

EU) -0

O(D C:

O C LU)

LE

Representative soil seriesN

co UO0 O0 2

C c6 Oa.

c0

>

Aloha x x xAmity x xAwbrey xBashaw x xBellpine x x xBins x

Camas xCascade x x x xCazadero xChehalis x x xCloquata x x x xCoburg x

Concord xConser xCulberson xDayton x x x xDixonville x xEvans x

Goble x xHembre x xHillsboro xHoneygrove x x x x

Hood xJory x x x x x x

Klickitat x x x x xLatourell xLaurelwood xMelby x

Multnomah xNehalem x

Nekia x x x xNewberg x x x x xOak Grove xOakland x

Olyic x xParkdale x

Peavine x x x x x xPhilomath x x xPowell xPrice x

Ritner xSauvie x x

Steiwer xSutherlin x

Waldo xWapato x

Willakenzie x xWillamette x x x xWoodburn x x x x x x xWyeast xYamhill x

Willamette Ecological Province 123

Table 44. Climatic Data for Willamette Ecological Province, Oregon."

Station and Precipitation Average maximum and minimumlength of record Elevation Annual Oct.-Jan. Feb.-June temperatures (°F)

(years) (feet) (inches) (%) (%) January Feb.-June

Benton CountyAlpine 16 400 49.2 58 36 46.1-33.5 60.6-38.3

Corvallis 21 205 37.2 59 36 46.2-33.5 63.1-42.1

Clackamas CountyEstacada 21 414 57.4 52 41 45.5-31.7 62.0-45.7

Miramonte 31 162 43.5 53 39 44.4-32.8 60.6-40.8

PortlandWater Bureau Sta. 22 747 86.2 53 40 42.2-30.9 60.1-39.6

Stafford 22 413 49.4 54 38 44.8-33.3 60.0-40.8

Columbia CountyBirkensfield 8 540 70.7 55 40 44.8-28.1 60.1-36.1

Clatskanie 17 50 55.6 55 40 41.9-31.3 58.9-40.5

Doraville 29 600 47.9 54 38 41.1-30.8 57.6-38.5

Vernonia 14 628 45.3 55 39 43.7-27.3 59.9-36.3

Douglas CountyDrain 15 302 47.4 59 36 47.3-33.9 64.7-41.2

Elkton 15 125 50.2 57 39 46.9-33.4 64.4-40.6

Roseburg 57 464 32.5 55 39 47.2-34.9 63.1-41.9

Hood River CountyCascade Locks 21 100 76.6 57 37 40.6-30.7 61.4-42.3

Hood River Exp. Sta. 22 500 29.5 61 35 38.4-26.8 61.0-39.2

Parkdale 22 1,740 46.0 61 35 37.3-22.3 59.1-34.3

Lane CountyCottage Grove 22 650 46.3 56 39 46.1-32.1 62.1-39.7

Eugene 57 361 40.6 59 36 44.5-31.4 61.2-40.2

Fern Ridge Dam 9 380 37.9 58 37 43.3-29.9 60.4-44.9

Leaburg 19 675 59.7 53 41 45.6-32.8 63.1-41.3

McKenzie Bridge 18 1,200 69.0 55 40 41.6-27.3 62.9-37.0

Oakridge 17 1,275 43.7 54 40 46.2-30.0 65.1-39.0

Linn CountyAlbany 22 212 40.7 57 37 45.4-32.5 63.3-41.8

Cascadia 19 796 60.2 51 43 44.4-29.7 62.4-38.8

Marion CountyMount Angel 37 485 47.2 53 37 45.4-34.2 60.8-43.0

Salem 52 182 41.3 56 38 45.0-31.8 62.1-40.5

Silver Creek Falls 12 1,340 74.2 51 42 44.3-28.2 59.1-35.7

Multnomah CountyBonneville Dam 15 55 72.5 55 38 40.0-30.3 60.0-42.8

Portland 52 33 42.1 55 38 44.3-34.4 60.8-44.4

Polk CountyDallas 16 325 48.8 57 39 43.9-29.4 62.2-38.1

Falls City 20 355 72.7 60 36 44.7-30.4 61.1-41.2

Wallace orchard 21 173 38.4 55 38 44.6-31.4 61.1-40.2

Washington CountyForest Grove 22 180 46.2 59 35 43.2-30.7 62.8-40.2

Hillsboro 22 203 38.3 58 35 44.0-30.7 63.0-39.8

Yamhill CountyCherry Grove 15 900 52.5 57 38 42.2-29.4 58.0-39.3

McMinnville 17 145 42.6 58 37 43.7-30.9 62.8-40.3

Newberg 11 400 48.7 55 38 45.4-33.8 60.3-40.6



side of the valley, which is what theconcept of Willamette Province does.The high density of trees in the firforest was one feature particularlynoted by early surveyors. Douglas-firalso was locally abundant in ravinesand on floodplains.

Bottomland forests occupied the flood-plains along creeks and rivers. Fourtree species were about equally com-mon: Oregon ash, black cottonwood,Douglas-fir, and bigleaf maple. Otherspecies included white oak, laurel,alder, cherry, and willow. The under-story included a large number of shrubspecies. Towle 31 calls these bottomlandforests "gallery forests."

Prairie type was grassland vegetationwhich occupied a rather large portionof mid-Willamette Valley according toHabek's map.13 A small portion waslow, wet prairie, and the remainder wasupland prairie. Unfortunately, very littleinformation is provided about the kindsof plants that composed the grasslandssince surveyors' references to herba-ceous plants were to "grasses," "ferns,"and "weeds."

The study made in the Salem area byNelson22 provides a list of native andintroduced grass species. Of the 106species listed, 55 were introducedspecies and 51 were thought to benative. That was in 1919. It is interest-ing that the grasses on well-drainedsites include six species of fescue:sixweeks, California, red, western,bearded, and Idaho.

Accurate information about forbsassociated with native prairie grasseshas not been found. According toHabek, a search for prairie relicts inWillamette Valley was unsuccessful.

According to the 1936 State of OregonForest Type map54 representing the partof Willamette Province north ofEugene, about 45% of the province wasclassified as agricultural land. About35% was classified as forest, includinghuge areas of heavily cut-over andsecond-growth trees in ColumbiaCounty. About 20% was classified asnonforest. The map, because of scale,does not show the bottomland forests

along streams and drainages which,collectively, must have been a signifi-cant feature of areas classified asagricultural and nonforest.

In the part of the province south ofEugene, the vegetation pattern was verydifferent due, at least partially, to thenarrowing of the valley floor. In thispart of the province, about 45% wasclassified as forest with recent cut-overland around Cottage Grove. About 25%was classified as nonforest, and about20% was covered by oak.

Authors who have written aboutWillamette Valley vegetation expresslittle doubt that the potential naturalvegetation of the valley and adjacentuplands was a forest system of sometype. They also point out that annualfires set by the Calapooya people, andto a lesser extent by early settlers, wereprobably the single most importantbarrier to forest expansion.

The scale and frequency of fires de-clined abruptly with agricultural settle-ment; this must have allowed woodlandto transgress on uncultivated prairie inearly days. Areas not cleared forfarming likely were transformed intooak forests.

As of 1964, an estimated 400,000 hec-tares (1 million acres) of oak woodlandwere in the Willamette Valley.29 Openwoodland, an extensive type in 1854,had virtually disappeared by 1970.31Level and gently sloping lands, former-ly woodlands, were changed to agricul-ture. On steeper slopes, open woodlandchanged to forests. The result: a con-siderable drop in number of trees in thevalley floor and a considerable increasein the number of trees in the hills.

Several other authors have publishedassessments of Willamette Provincevegetation from a historical view-

point.10, 16, 25, 27

The data for Lane County represent areasonable cross-section of WillametteProvince climatic conditions. Thecounty lies in the center of the prov-ince, and data include three stations onthe main valley floor and three stationsin extensions of the valley eastward upmajor drainages.

It should be noted that the threeweather stations in Douglas County,which reflect average January tempera-tures that permit growth of herbaceousplants all winter, are in the UmpquaValley. This is at the south end ofWillamette Province, contiguous toSiskiyou Province, where a California-type climate prevails.

Management ImplicationsIn managing Willamette Province's

natural resources, it is essential torecognize that the basic ecology has notchanged over time. Unless humansintervene, the trend still is and willcontinue to be some sort of plantsuccession toward a forest climax typebecause of climatic factors in Willam-ette Province that favor tree growth.

Calapooya people managed theresources for their use with annualfires. Early settlers also used fire but toa lesser extent. As human activitiesincreased and expanded in the prov-ince, more and more restrictions onusing fire have been enforced. Conse-quently, prescribed fire is virtuallyalways against some law, except forlimited and specifically approved fieldand slash burning. Essentially, thismeans that the natural ecologicalsuccession in Willamette Province islargely unimpeded except where farm-ing practices and approved chemicals,or housing developments, are appli-cable (Fig. 44).

In the absence of fire, weeds and brushare early successional stages in a forestclimax type. On permanent pasture,grazing alone is not likely to controlbrush encroachment permanently.Severe utilization of the pasture mayactually accelerate brush encroachmentand, eventually, tree encroachment.However, using selected classes ofanimals, such as sheep and goats, andbeneficial grazing management may bereasonably successful in postponingnatural ecological succession toward aforest climax type.

Encroachment and increased density ofwoody species in Willamette Province,which naturally occurs in successionalstages toward forest climax, should be


expected unless deliberately controlled.Increasing forested areas, coupled withgrowing demand for housing sites in aperceived rural lifestyle, increases therisk of wildfire damage; increasespublic costs for transportation, sewage,domestic potable water, pollution con-trol, household services, roads, andpolice protection; and sets up conflictsbetween residents and those who workin agriculture and forestry, even whenthese enterprises are in equilibriumwith sustainable uses of a healthy forestclimax.

As population increases in WillametteProvince, social aspects of managingnatural renewable resources in theprovince certainly are going to increasein prominence.


Willamette -Coast DemarcationStarting just west of Rainier on the

bank of the Columbia River in Colum-bia County, the line of demarcationbetween Willamette and Coast prov-inces in Oregon goes west atop steepslopes overlooking Columbia River atabout 500 feet elevation. About 6 mileseast of Clatskanie, the line cuts sharplyto the south on topography about 750to 1,000 feet elevation that is west ofClatskanie River.

At the ridge that separates the Clat-skanie and Nehalem river drainages,the line turns northwest along the northside of Nehalem River drainage atabout 1,000 feet elevation. In the upperreaches of Fishhawk Creek, the linetravels south to cross Nehalem valleyless than a mile west of Nehalemcommunity at about 600 feet elevation.From there, it ascends the ridge leadingsouth to Green Mountain where, at anelevation of about 1,750 feet, it circleseast and south of the mountain andcrosses Sunset Highway (U.S. 26) inthe headwaters of Rock Creek at about1,600 feet elevation.

From the summit pass on Highway 26,the line winds southeast at about 1,750feet elevation to the Tillamook-Washington county line. It turns southat that elevation around the east and

Table 45. Average Dates Vegetation Growth Begins and Endsin Willamette Ecological Province, Oregon.


(years)Elevation

(feet)Average date


Benton CountyAlpine 16 400 January 15 Does not occurCorvallis 21 205 January 25 Does not occur

Clackamas CountyEstacada 21 414 January 22 Does not occurMiramonte Station 31 162 February 1 Does not occurPortland

Water Bureau Sta. 22 747 February 15 Does not occurStafford 22 413 January 22 Does not occur

Columbia CountyBirkensfield 8 540 February 7 Does not occurClatskanie 17 50 February 7 Does not occurDoraville 29 600 February 15 Does not occurVernonia 14 628 February 15 Does not occur

Douglas CountyDrain 15 302 Winter growing Does not occurElkton 15 125 Winter growing Does not occurRoseburg 57 464 Winter growing Does not occur

Hood River CountyCascade Locks 21 100 February 15 Does not occurHood River Expt. Sta. 22 500 February 25 Does not occurParkdale 22 1,740 March 11 Does not occur

Lane CountyCottage Grove 22 650 January 15 Does not occurEugene 57 361 January 22 Does not occurFern Ridge Dam 9 380 February 4 Does not occurLeaburg 19 675 January 15 Does not occurMcKenzie Bridge 18 1,200 February 22 Does not occurOakridge 17 1,275 February 1 Does not occur

Linn CountyAlbany 22 212 January 15 Does not occurCascadia 19 796 February 7 Does not occur

Marion CountyMount Angel 37 485 January 15 Does not occurSalem 52 182 January 24 Does not occurSilver Creek Falls 12 1,340 February 15 Does not occur

Multnomah CountyBonneville Dam 15 55 February 11 Does not occurPortland 52 33 January 15 Does not occur

Polk CountyDallas 16 325 February 4 Does not occurFalls City 20 355 February 1 Does not occurWallace orchard 21 173 February 1 Does not occur

Washington CountyForest Grove 22 180 February 1 Does not occurHillsboro 22 203 February 1 Does not occur

Yamhill CountyCherry Grove 15 900 February 11 Does not occurMcMinnville 17 145 February 1 Does not occurNewberg 11 400 January 15 Does not occur

* The average date vegetation growth begins on native perennial bunchgrasses is approxi-mately the date average daily temperatures reach 39 to 40°F. Average date growth ends isconsidered to be when available soil moisture is depleted. Interpretations are based on datain Johnsgard.p


south sides of Round Top and the head-waters of Gales Creek. It crosses thepass between Gales Creek and WilsonRiver at about 1,600 feet elevation andreturns to 1,750 feet elevation to runsouth around the headwaters of drain-ages flowing eastward into Tualatin andNorth Yamhill rivers.

Northwest of McMinnville, the linemakes a huge swing westward at about1,750 feet elevation around the head-waters of drainages flowing south intoSouth Yamhill River. The line crossesHighway 22 northwest of GrandeRonde at about 670 feet elevation andcrosses Highway 18 in Van Duzer StatePark at about 770 feet elevation. This isthe pass between the Yamhill and Sal-mon river drainages.

From Van Duzer State Park, the lineascends the ridge to the south. Withinabout 3 miles it is again at about 1,750feet elevation on Saddleback Mountain.From there, it goes east and south atabout 1,750 feet elevation aroundheadwaters of drainages flowing intoYamhill and Little Luckiamute rivers.

From the south side of Monmouth Peakin southwest Polk County, the linedescends the ridge southeasterly tocross Luckiamute River at about 650feet elevation. It climbs Cougar Ridgeand then winds south along the crest ofthe Coast Range. The Coast Rangedrops in elevation on the narrow dividebetween Marys River and YaquinaRiver to about 730 feet elevation at thecommunity of Summit, about 5 milesnorthwest of Blodgett on Highway 20.

From the community of Summit, theline continues west and south along thecrest of the Coast Range to cross theCorvallis-Newport Highway (U.S. 20)at about 800 feet elevation about 2miles northwest of Burnt Woods com-munity. This is the pass between Turn-turn River flowing east and Little ElkCreek flowing west. From there, theline goes south along the crest of theCoast Range to Marys Peak, windingnorth and east around Marys Peak atabout 1,700 feet elevation. The linecrosses the pass on Alsea Highway(Oregon 34) at about 1,125 feet eleva-tion, runs southeast up the ridge and

around the east slopes of Flat Mountainat about 1,750 feet elevation, and con-tinues south at about that elevation.This is the crest of the Coast Rangebetween drainages flowing into AlseaRiver to the west and Long Tom Riverto the east.

The line of demarcation between Wil-lamette and Coast provinces continuessouth along the crest of the CoastRange to the pass between WildcatCreek to the west and Noti Creek to theeast, which is about 6 miles southwestof Fern Ridge Reservoir. The linecontinues to wind southeasterly alongthe crest of the Coast Range, thendescends into the Siuslaw River drain-age to cross the river about 12 milesdownriver from Lorane community,which is northwest of Cottage Grove.

From the river crossing, the line fol-lows up the northside bottomlandsalong the river to about 2 miles east ofKing Ranch. The bottomlands alongSiuslaw River below 600 feet elevationare in the fog-belt zone of Coast Prov-ince, which is typified by the occa-sional Sitka spruce tree. From thevicinity of King Ranch on the Siuslaw,the line travels southerly along thedivide between Siuslaw and Smithrivers and then westerly around theheadwaters of Smith River.93

From the headwaters of South ForkSmith River about 5 miles northwest ofDrain community, the line veers westalong the divide between Smith Riverto the north and drainages flowing intoUmpqua River to the south. Thisportion of the Umpqua system is inWillamette Province.

About 4 miles north of Scottsburg, theline turns south to cross Umpqua Riverat Scottsburg community.36.9' It ascends

the ridge across the river from Scotts-burg and goes southeast along theridgetops to the big bends in UmpquaRiver west of Kellogg community.From there, it goes south along theridgetop that divides drainages flowingto the east into Umpqua River fromdrainages flowing to the west into Coosand Coquille rivers. The demarcationline crosses the Coos Bay Wagon Roadwest of Reston community, which is in

Willamette Province, at 1,850 feetelevation and continues southwest atabout 2,000 feet elevation.36 91

About 7 miles southwest of CamasValley community, in Willamette Prov-ince, the line of demarcation crossesHighway 42 along Middle ForkCoquille River at about 800 feetelevation. From there, the line ascendsthe ridge southeasterly to ChipmunkRidges' It is near the southeast end ofChipmunk Ridge that Willamette,Coast, and Siskiyou provinces join.

The line of demarcation betweenWillamette and Coast provinces isbased primarily on the elevation atwhich western hemlock grows. How-ever, the line also is indicated by thegeneral presence of such forested soilsas Bellpine, Jory, Retner, and Batemanseries, which typify WillametteProvince, and Bohannon, Blachly,Preacher, and Digger series, whichtypify Coast Province.

Although the line of demarcation isbased on the elevation at which westernhemlock generally is common in for-ested uplands, it is interesting to notethat at locations along the Coast Rangecrest where elevation is significantlybelow 1,700 feet, the hemlock line is atthe pass on the summit.

For example, where Sunset Highway(U.S. 26) crosses the summit intoNehalem River drainage, the provinceline is about 1,600 feet elevation. TheGales Creek Highway (Oregon 6)summit into Wilson River drainage alsois about 1,600 feet elevation. At thecommunity of Summit on the passbetween Marys River and YaquinaRiver, the summit is about 730 feetelevation. On Highway 20 betweenCorvallis and Newport, the summit isabout 800 feet elevation. On the AlseaHighway (Oregon 34), the summit isabout 1,125 feet elevation. Farthersouth, the Willamette-Coast line ofdemarcation, based on the advent ofwestern hemlock in forested uplands, isabout 600 feet elevation where itcrosses Siuslaw River, about 470 feetwhere it crosses Umpqua River, andabout 800 feet where it crosses MiddleFork Coquille River. These rivers have


major headwaters in Willamette Prov-ince. Furthermore, Umpqua Riverdrains sizable watersheds in bothCascade and Siskiyou provinces.

Each of these river crossings and passesin the crest of the Coast Range, wherethe advent of western hemlock signifiesthe line of demarcation between Wil-lamette and Coast provinces, appar-ently represents the points at which theeffects of the warmer, drier WillametteValley climate are overcome by themore moist, cool coastal climate.

Willamette - Siskiyou DemarcationFrom the junction of Willamette,

Coast, and Siskiyou provinces nearChipmunk Ridge in southwest DouglasCounty, the line between Willametteand Siskiyou provinces goes along theridgetop north to the vicinity of LiveOak Mountain and continues northerlyto circle the headwaters of OlallaCreek, which are in Siskiyou Province,and then south to Table Mountain.

From there, the line meanders north-easterly along the ridgetop past BuckMountain at about 2,500 feet elevation.About 4 miles northwest of Riddle, inSiskiyou Province, the line veers northand northwest by Big Baldy Mountainalong the ridge separating drainagesflowing west into lower Olalla Creek,in Willamette Province, from drainagesin Siskiyou Province that flow north.

The line descends northwesterly to theedge of bottomlands along Olalla Creekat about 600 feet elevation and followsthe southern border of these bottom-lands north and east and along SouthUmpqua River, which is in WillametteProvince at this location, to the bridgewhere Highway I-5 crosses SouthUmpqua River. 36,16,91

From the 1-5 bridge across SouthUmpqua River, the line climbs theridge northeast to Dodson Butte,Brushy Butte, and Lane Mountain. It isnear Lane Mountain that theWillamette, Siskiyou, and Cascadeprovinces join.36,5,

The line of demarcation between Wil-lamette and Siskiyou provinces, which

is about 70 miles long, is not clear-cutin terms of soil or vegetation differ-ences throughout its extent. Both prov-inces have arid, warm climates withSiskiyou being relatively more and andwarm than Willamette Province.

The line was judged using data in the1993 Preliminary General Soil Map,Douglas County, Oregon,95 whichcovers the area where the two prov-inces join. The line was drawn betweenupland soils that have been mappeddefinitely within Willamette Provinceto the north and upland soils that havebeen mapped in other areas definitelywithin Siskiyou Province. Upland soilsdefinitely associated with WillametteProvince include Oakland, Sutherlin,Nonpariel, Philomath, and Dixonvilleseries. Upland soils definitely associ-ated with Siskiyou Province includeSpeaker, Josephine, Lettia, and Bealseries.

Broad vegetation characteristics differ-entiate between Willamette and Siski-you provinces. For example, uplandsbelow about 1,300 feet elevation insouthern Willamette Province are typi-fied by the common presence of bigleafmaple, Oregon white oak, scotchbroom,and some Pacific madrone.

Equivalent uplands in SiskiyouProvince are typified by Californiablack oak, wedgeleaf ceanothus, andabundant madrone, which stronglydominates logged or otherwise dis-turbed forested areas. Certain segmentsof the demarcation line between Wil-lamette and Siskiyou provinces demon-strate these vegetation comparisons.

Willamette -CascadeDemarcation

From the junction of Willamette,Siskiyou, and Cascade provinces nearLane Mountain about 10 miles east ofRoseburg, the line of demarcationbetween Willamette and Cascadeprovinces goes north at about 1,500feet elevation on north-facing slopesand at about 2,800 feet elevation onwest- and south-facing slopes. The lineis based on the advent of westernhemlock in the forest which signifiesthe colder, more moist effective

environment of Cascade Province ascompared with Willamette Province.

The line travels east around the upperreaches of drainages into Little Riverand then northwest at about 2,000 feetelevation in the vicinity of ShivignyMountain, which is in Cascade Prov-ince. It continues on northwesterly tocross North Umpqua River about 5miles northeast of Glide, which is inWillamette Province, near Idleyld Parkin the topographic gap where RockCreek Fish Hatchery is.

From this gap, the line heads north atabout 2,000 feet elevation around thewest slopes of Scott Mountain, BrownMountain, and across CalapooyaDivide. From near Calapooya Divide,the line goes north at about 1,800 feetelevation to the vicinity of CottageGrove, extending up each major drain-age that flows into Coast Fork Willam-ette River.

Northeast of Cottage Grove, which is inWillamette Province, the line goes gen-erally north at about 1,800 feet eleva-tion but extending up each major drain-age that flows into Willamette Riverfrom the east. The line extends upMiddle Fork Willamette River to about17 miles south of Oakridge, which is inWillamette Province.

The line stretches up McKenzie Rivernearly to Belknap Springs; up Cala-pooia River to about King Camp; upSouth Umpqua River to about HouseRock Forest Camp; up Middle SantiamRiver to just below Green Peter Dam;up North Santiam River to about 6 mileseast of Mill City; up Little North San-tiam River to about Elkhorn; up Clacka-mas River to about Fish Creek; and upSandy River to about Brightwood.

The pattern of western hemlockgrowth, extending east up each majordrainage that heads in the CascadeMountains, signifies the effects of thewarmer, drier Willamette climateextending up these valleys.

The line between Willamette andCascade provinces near Firwood onHighway 26 in Clackamas County is atabout 1,600 feet elevation. Farther


north along Sandy River southeast ofPortland, western hemlock grows atabout 1,400 feet elevation, includingnear Bridal Veil on the Columbia River.

From the vicinity of Bridal Veil, theline of demarcation winds easterlyalong steep breaks of Columbia Gorgeto pass west and south of Hood RiverValley, which is in Willamette Prov-ince, at about 3,000 feet elevation. Itcontinues to a point about 6 miles southof Parkdale in upper Hood RiverValley. Near here, Willamette, Cascade,and The Dalles provinces join.

Although the line of demarcationbetween Willamette and Cascadeprovinces in Oregon is based primarilyon the elevation at which western hem-lock grows, the line also is indicated by

the general presence of such forestedsoils as Honeygrove, Peavine, Bellpine,Philomath, Jory, Cazadero, Parkdale,Hoodview, and Bins, which typifyWillamette Province, and by Klickitat,Kinney, Bohannon, Holderman, Hen-line, Aschoff, Bull Run, Divers, andThader, which typify Cascade Province.

Willamette -The DallesDemarcation

From the junction of Willamette,Cascade, and The Dalles provinces inOregon, the line of demaracationbetween Willamette and The Dallesprovinces runs along the ridge east ofHood River Valley and northeast downthe ridge nearly to Highway 1-84 alongthe Columbia River. Here it veers

sharply upriver nearly to Mosier, whichis in The Dalles Province.

The towns of Hood River and Parkdaleand the entire Hood River Valley are inWillamette Province; this is substanti-ated by the common presence of bigleafmaple, which does not grow in TheDalles Province.

The line between The Dalles andWillamette provinces in Oregon, whichis about 30 miles long, is based on soillines between Hood, Van Horn, OakGrove, and Bins series, which typifyWillamette Province in the vicinity ofHood River Valley, and Bald, Bodell,Frailey, and Ketchly series, whichtypify The Dalles Province in Oregon.89


References1 Anderson, E. W. 1956. Some soil-plant relationships in eastern Oregon.Journal of Range Management 9:171-175.

2 . 1959. Know your range:Soil-plant relationship studies provideinformation important to ranching. In:Stockmen's Handbook. WashingtonState University, Pullman: Institute ofAgricultural Sciences.

3 . 1962. Behavior of forageyields on some range sites in Oregon.Journal of Range Management 13:245-252.

4 . 1983. Ecological site/rangesite/habitat type-A viewpoint.Rangelands 5:187.

5 . 1986. Plant indicators ofeffective environment. Rangelands8:70-73.

6 Anderson, E. W. and D. L. Franzen.1983. Rough fescue in Oregon.Rangelands 5:118.

7 Anderson, E. W. and T. E. Bedell.1987. Northwest common-name checklist of plants. Agricultural ExperimentStation Special Report 786. Corvallis:Oregon State University.

8 Austin, M. E. 1965. Land resourceregions and major land resource areasof the United States. Agricultural Hand-book 296. USDA Soil ConservationService.

9 Baldwin, E. M. 1959. Geology ofOregon. Eugene: University of OregonBookstore.

10 Cole, D. 1977. Ecosystem dynamicsin the coniferous forest of the Willam-ette Valley, Oregon, USA. Journal ofBiogeography 4:181-192.

11 Eddleman, L. E. 1987. Ecology ofwestern juniper. In: Research in RangeManagement. Agricultural ExperimentStation Special Report 803. Corvallis:Oregon State University and USDA-Agricultural Research Station.

12 Eddleman, L. E. and J. A. Rose.1987. Western juniper, ponderosa pine,

and grass. In: Research in Range Man-agement. Agricultural ExperimentStation Special Report 803. Corvallis:Oregon State University and USDAAgricultural Research Station.

13 Habek, J. R. 1961. The originalvegetation of the mid-WillametteValley, Oregon. Northwest Science35(2):65-77.

14 Hanson, H. P. 1942. The influence ofvolcanic eruptions on post-Pleistoceneforest succession in central Oregon.American Journal of Botany 29:214-219.

15 Jepson, W. L. 1925. A manual offlowering plants of California. Berke-ley, CA: Sather Gate Bookshop.

16 Johannessen, C. L., W. A. Daven-port, A. Millet, and S. McWilliams.1971. The vegetation of the WillametteValley. Annals of the Association ofAmerican Geographers 61:286-302.

17 Johnsgard, G. A. 1963. Temperatureand the water balance for Oregonweather stations. Agricultural Experi-ment Station Special Report 150.Corvallis: Oregon State University.

18 Kaatz, M. R. 1959. Patterned groundin central Washington: A preliminaryreport. Northwest Science 33:145-156.

19 Lyon, T. L. and H. O. Buckman.1934. Rev. ed. The nature and propertiesof soils. New York: The MacMillan Co.

20. 1943. 4th ed. The nature

and properties of soils. New York: TheMacMillan Co.

21 Miller, R. F. and R. F. Angell. 1987.Competition for soil moisture bywoody species in the juniper zone. In:Research in Range Management. Agri-cultural Experiment Station SpecialReport 803. Corvallis: Oregon StateUniversity and USDA AgriculturalResearch Station.

22 Nelson, J. C. 1919. The grasses ofSalem, Oregon and vicinity. Torreya19(11):216-227.

23 Peck, M. E. 1961. A manual ofhigher plants of Oregon: Plant areas of

Oregon. Portland, OR: Binfords andMort.

24 Peterson, F. F. 1981. Landforms ofthe basin and range province definedfor soil survey. Agricultural ExperimentStation Technical Bulletin 28. Reno:University of Nevada.

25 Smith, J. E. 1949. Natural vegetationin the Willamette Valley, Oregon.Science 109:41-42.

26 Thileius, J. F. 1968. The Quercusgarryana forests of the WillametteValley, Oregon. Ecology 49(6):1124-1133.

27 Towle, J. C. 1982. Changing geo-graphy of Willamette Valley wood-lands. Oregon Historical Quarterly83(l):67-87.

28 USDA. 1941 Yearbook of Agricul-ture: Climate and Man. Washington,DC: U.S. Government Printing Office.

29 USDA Soil Conservation Service.1981. Rev. ed. Land resource regionsand major land resource areas of theUnited States. Agricultural Handbook296.

Unpublished30 Dyrness, C. T. Notes for discussionof pumice soils with the DeschutesResearch Center Advisory Committee,Jan. 20, 1959. Bend, OR.

31 Towle, J. C. Woodland in the Wil-lamette Valley: An historical geography.Ph.D. thesis, 1974, Univ. of Oregon,Eugene.

Field Studies32 Anderson, E. W. Field studies, 1955.SCS State Range Conservationist,Portland, OR.

33 . Field studies, 1973. SCSState Range Conservationist, Portland,OR.


130 References


36 Field studies, 1982. SCSState Range Conservationist, Portland,OR.

37. Field studies, 1983. SCS

State Range Conservationist, Portland,OR.

38 Anderson, E. W and E. Hill. Fieldstudies, circa 1950s and 1960s. SCSRange Conservationist/Soil Scientist,Portland, OR.

39 Anderson, E. W. and F. Greenfield.Field studies, 1958. SCS Range Con-servationists, Portland, OR.

40 Anderson, E. W. and W. Currier.Field studies, circa 1960s. SCS RangeConservationists, Portland, OR.

41 Anderson, E. W., D. Town, and B.Lovell. Field studies, 1962. SCS RangeConservationist/Soil Scientists, Port-land, OR.

42 Anderson, E. W. and B. Lovell.Field studies, circa 1970. SCS RangeConservationist/Soil Scientist, Portland,OR.

43 Anderson, E. W. and D. Town. Fieldstudies, 1970. SCS Range Conserva-tionists, Portland, OR.

44 Anderson, E. W. and G. Green. Fieldstudies, 1974. SCS Range Conserva-tionist/Soil Scientist, Portland, OR.

45 . Field studies, 1975. SCSRange Conservationist/Soil Scientist,Portland, OR.

46 . Field studies, 1976. SCSRange Conservationist/Soil Scientist,Portland, OR.

47 Greenfield, F. Field studies, 1980.BLM consultant.

48 Hickman, E. Field studies, 1975.SCS Range Conservationist, Bend, OR.

49 Field studies, 1981. SCSRange Conservationist, Bend, OR.

50 Field studies, 1984. SCSRange Conservationist, Bend, OR.

51 . Field studies, 1994. SCSRange Conservationist, Bend, OR.

52 Hickman, E and F. Greenfield. Fieldstudies, circa 1980. SCS Range Conser-vationist/BLM consultant, Bend, OR.

Published Maps53 Taylor, G. H. 1993. Normal annualprecipitation, State of Oregon, Period1961-1990. Corvallis: Oregon ClimateService, Oregon State University.

54 USDA Forest Service. 1936. Foresttype map, State of Oregon. PacificNorthwest Experiment Station, Port-land, OR.

55 U.S. Geological Survey. 1958.1:250,000 topograhpic quad map,Boise, Idaho; Oregon. NK#11-2.

General soil mapsin soil survey reports

56 USDA Natural Resources Conserva-tion Service. 1997 (in press). Soilsurvey of Curry County, Oregon.

57 . 1997 (in press). Soil sur-vey of Warm Springs Indian Reserva-tion, Oregon.

58 USDA Soil Conservation Service.1957. Soil survey of Tillamook County,Oregon.

59 . 1983. Soil survey ofJosephine County, Oregon.

60 . 1989. Soil survey of CoosCounty, Oregon.

61 . 1993. Soil survey ofJackson County, Oregon.

62 USDA Soil Conservation Serviceand USDA Forest Service. 1970. Soilsurvey of Trout Creek-Shaniko Area,Oregon.

Soil maps with soil interpretationsfor land-use planning63 USDA Soil Conservation Serviceand Oregon State University Agricul-tural Experiment Station. 1970. Generalsoil map of Washington County, Oregon.

64 . 1970. General soil map ofYamhill County, Oregon.

65 . 1972. General soil map ofColumbia County, Oregon.

66 . 1972. General soil map ofMorrow County, Oregon.

67 . 1973. General soil map ofClatsop County, Oregon.

68 . 1974. General soil map ofJackson County, Oregon.

69 . 1974. General soil map ofMultnomah County, Oregon.

General soil mapswith irrigable areas70 Oregon State University AgriculturalExperiment Station, USDA Soil Con-servation Service, and Oregon WaterResources Board. 1969. Oregon's long-range requirements for water: Des-chutes Drainage Basin.

71 . 1969. Oregon's long-rangerequirements for water: John DayDrainage Basin.

72 . 1969. Oregon's long-rangerequirements for water: Malheur LakeDrainage Basin.

73 . 1969. Oregon's long-rangerequirements for water: Malheur RiverDrainage Basin.

74 . 1969. Oregon's long-rangerequirements for water: OwyheeDrainage Basin.

Unpublished Maps75 USDA Soil Conservation Service.General soil map, Umatilla County,Oregon, 1969.

76 . General soil map, BentonCounty, Oregon, 1970.

77 General soil map, Clack-amas County, Oregon, 1970.

78 . General soil map, GilliamCounty, Oregon, 1970.

79 . General soil map, KlamathCounty, Oregon, 1970.

80 . General soil map, LinnCounty, Oregon, 1970.

81 . General soil map, PolkCounty, Oregon, 1970.

82 General soil map, GrantCounty, Oregon, 1971.

83 General soil map, JeffersonCounty, Oregon, 1971.

References 131

84 . General soil map, LakeCounty, Oregon, 1971.

85 . General soil map,Morrow County, Oregon, 1971.

86 . General soil map, WascoCounty, Oregon, 1971.

87 . General soil map, CoosCounty, Oregon, 1972.

88 . General soil map, LincolnCounty, Oregon, 1972.

89 . General soil map, HoodRiver County, Oregon, 1973.

90 General soil map,Wheeler County, Oregon, 1973.

91 . General soil map,Douglas County, Oregon, 1974.

92 . General soil map, HarneyCounty, Oregon, 1974.

93 General soil map, LaneCounty, Oregon, 1974.

94 . General soil map,Malheur County, Oregon, 1974.

95 . Preliminary general soilmap, Douglas County, Oregon, 1993.

96 General soil map, WarmSprings Indian Reservation, 1994.

132 References

Common-name Checklist of Plants'

Grasses*Common name

Alkaligrass, Lemmon

Barley, meadow

Bentgrass, thin

BluegrassbigalkaliCanbyCusickhotspringsKentuckyLeibergNevadapineSandbergWheeler

BromeCaliforniaColumbiamountainsoft

Cheatgrass

Cordgrass

Danthonia (see Oatgrass)

Dropseed, sand

FescuebeardedCaliforniafoxtailgreenIdahoredroughsixweekswestern

Hairgrassdiffusesilver

Hairgrassslendertufted

Junegrass, prairie

Mannagrass, northern

Medusahead

Melic, western

Muhly, matNeedle-and-thread

Scientific name

Puccinella lemmoni

Horde um brachyantherum(Criteseon brachyantherum)

Agrostis diegoensis

Poaamplajuncifoliacanbyicusickiilaxiflorapratensisleibergiinevadensisscabrellasandbergiinervosa

Bromuscarinatusvulgarismarginatusmollis

Bromus tectorum

Spartina gracilis

Sporobolus cryptandrus

Festucasubulatacalifornicamegaluraviridulaidahoensisrubrascabrellaoctofloraoccidentalis

Airaeleganscaryophyllea

Deschampsiaelongatacaespitosa

Koeleria cristata

Glyceria borealis

Taeniatherum caput-medusae

Melica

Muhlenbergia richardsonis

Stipa comata

Common name

NeedlegrassColumbiadesertLemmonThurberwestern

Oatgrass (Danthonia)Californiaonespiketimber

Oatgrass, tall

OniongrassAlaska

Orchardgrass

Pinegrass

Quackgrass

Reedgrass, bluejoint

Redtop

RicegrassIndianWebber

RyegrassItalianperennial

Sacaton, alkali

Saltgrassalkaliinland (see Saltgrass, alkali)

Squirreltail, bottlebrush Sitanion hystrix (Elymus

Sweetgrass, California

Threeawn, Fendler

Timothyalpinecommon

Trisetumspiketall

Velvetgrass, common

(continued)

elymoides)

Hierochloa occidentalis

Aristida fendleriana

Phleumalpinumpratense

Trisetumspicatumcanescens

Holcus lanatus

* Barkworth, M. E. and D. R. Dewey. 1985. Genomicallybased genera in the perennial Tritieae of North America:Identification and membership. American Journal ofBotany 72(5):767-776. Barkworth and Dewey's proposedrevisions noted in parentheses.

Scientific name

Stipaoccidentalis nelsonispeciosalemmonithurberianaoccidentalis

Danthoniacalifornicaunispicataintermedia

Arrhenatherum elatius

Melica bulbosasubulata

Dactylis glomerata

Calamagrostis rubescens

Agropyron repens (Elytrigiarepens)

Calamagrostis canadensis

Agrostis alba

Oryzopsishymenoideswebberi

Loliummultiflorum

perenne

Sporobolus airoides

Distichlisstricta

Common-name Checklist of Plants 133

Grasses (continued)

Common name Scientific name Common name Scientific name

Wheatgrass Agropyron Wildrye Elymusbearded caninum basin cinereus (Leymus cinereus)beardless bluebunch inerme (Pseudoroegneria blue glaucus

spicata subsp. inermis) medusahead (see Medusahead)

bluebunch spicatum (Pseudoroegneria yellow flavescens (Leymusspicata subsp. spicata) flavescens)

slender trachycaulum (Elymus Woodreed, drooping Cinna latifoliatrachycaulus)

standard crested desertorumstreambank riparium (Elymus

lanceolatus subsp.

lanceolotus)thickspike dasystachyum (Elymus

lanceolatus subsp.lanceolotus)

GrasslikeCommon name Scientific name Common name Scientific name

Bulrush

RushbalticDrummond

orbs

Scirpus spp.

Juncusbalticusdrummondii

Sedge Carexblack alpine nigricansCrater Lake scopulorumelk geyeriHood hoodiiNebraska nebraskensisRoss rossiithreadleaf filifolia

Spikesedge (Spikerush) Eleocharis spp.

Spikerush (Spikesedge) Eleocharis spp.


ArnicaAster, alpineBalsamroot

arrowleafCareyHooker

Arnica spp.

Aster alpigenus

Balsamorhizasagittatacareyanahookeri

Dock Rumexveiny venosus

wedgeleaf cuneifoliusDogbane Apocynum spp.

Dogwood, bunchberry Cornus canadensis

False-hellebore Veratrum spp.

Beargrass Xerophyllum tenax False Solomon's seal (see Solomon's seal, false)Bedstraw, cleavers Galium aparine Fern, western bracken Pteridium aquilinumBiscuitroot Lomatium spp. Fern, western sword Polystichum munitum

Bitterroot Lewisia rediviva Fleeceflower Polygonum spp.

Buttercup Ranunculus spp. Frasera Frasera (Swertia)Cattail, broadleaf Typha latifolia shining finitida

Cinquefoil Potentilla spp. Gumweed, curlycup Grindellia squarrosa

Clover, big-headed Trifolium macrocephalum Hawkweed, white Hieracium albiflorum

Deervetch Lotus Iodine bush (see Pickleweed)big crassifolius Iris Iris spp.Douglas douglasii Lewisia, bitterroot Lewisia rediviva

Desert-parsley Lomatium spp. (continued)

134 Common-name Checklist of Plants

Forbs (continued)


Licoriceroot

Loco, woollypodLomatium

barestemGorman

LupineMeadowrue

Milkvetch, Columbia

OnionParsley, desert (see

Desert-parsley)

PathfinderPearly everlastingPeavine

Penstemon

Phantom-orchid

Phlox, spreadingPickleweed (Iodine bush)Pricklypear, plains

Pteryxia, wormwood

Sandwort

Shrubs and Trees

Ligusticum spp.

Astragalus purshii

LomatiumnudicauleGormanii

Lupinus spp.

Thalictrum spp.

Astragalus succumbens

Allium spp.

denocaulon bicolor

Anaphalis margaritacea

Lathyrus spp.

Penstemon spp.

Eburophyton austinae

Phlox diffusa

Allenrolfea occidentalis

Opuntia polycantha

Peteryxia terebinthina

Arenaria spp.

ScurfpeaSolomon's seal, falseSpiderflower, yellow

Starflower

Strawberry

Sweetroot, mountainTarragon

Trillium

Twinflower

Vetch, American

Woollyweed

WormwoodDouglaslobedLouisiana

Wormwood pterixia (seePteryxia, wormwood)

Wyethia, woolly

Yampa

Yarrow

Psoralea spp.

Smilacina racemosa

Cleome lutea

Trientalis spp.

Fragaria spp.

Osmorhiza chilensis

Artemisia dracunculus

Trillium spp.

Linnaea borealis

Vicia americana

Hieracium scouleri

Artemisiadouglasianavulgarisludoviciana

Wyethia mollis

Perideridia gairdneriAchillea millefolium


AldermountainredSitka

Ash, OregonAspen, quaking

AzaleaCascadewestern

Alnustenuifoliarubrasinuata

Fraxinus latifoliaPopulus tremuloides

Rhododendronalbiflorumoccidentale

Ceanothusdeerbrushredstemsnowbrushsquawcarpetwedgeleaf

Cherrybitterchoke

Ceanothusintegerrimussanguineusvelutinusprostratuscuneatus

Prunusemarginatavirginiana

Bearberry (see Manzanita, bearberry) Chinkapinh

Castanopsisi

Birch

bog

Bitterbrush, antelopeBlackberry

dwarfevergreenstrawberryleaftrailing

Buckthorn, CaliforniaBuckwheat

barestemheartleafsnow

Buffaloberry, silverCalifornia-laurel

Betula

pumila

Purshia tridentata

Rubuslasiococcuslaciniatuspedatusnivalis

Rhamnus californica

Eriogonumnudumcompositumniveum

Shepherdia argentea

Umbellularia californica

busgolden

CinquefoilCottonwood, blackCurrant

black trailingCrater Lakegoldenmapleleafredflowerstickywax

Deerbrush

(continued)

semperv rens

chrysophylla

Potentilla spp.

Populus trichocarpa

Ribeslaxiflorumerythrocarpumaureumacerifoliumsanguineumviscosissimumcereum

Ceanothus integerrimus


Shrubs and Trees (continued)


Dewberry Rubus Madrone, Pacific Arbutus menziesiisnow nivalis Manzanita Arctostaphyloswestern vitifolius bearberry uva-ursi

Dogwood Corpus common manzanitaflowering (see Dogwood, gray cinereaPacific flowering) greenleaf patula

Pacific flowering nuttalli hoary canescenswestern red californica pinemat nevadensis

Douglas-fir Pseudotsuga whiteleaf viscidacoastal menziesii menziesii Maple Acerinterior menziesii glauca bigleaf macrophyllum

Elderberry Sambucus Rocky Mountain glabrumblue cerulea vine circinatumred racemosa arborescens Menziesia, rustyleaf Menziesia ferruginea

Ephedra Ephedra Mockorange (Syringa) Philadelphus lewisiigreen viridis Mountain-ash SorbusNevada nevadensis dwarf occidentalis

Fir Abies Pacific sitchensisgrand grandis Mountain-mahogany Cercocarpusnoble procera birchleaf montanusPacific silver amabilis curlleaf ledifoliusShasta red magnifica shastensis Ninebark, common Physocarpus opulifoliussubalpine lasiocarpa

Oak Quercuswhite concolor

California black kelloggiiGooseberry Ribes canyon live chrysolepis

desert velutinum huckleberry vaccinifoliaWatson watsonianum Oregon white garryana

Granitegilia Leptodactylon pungens Sadler sadlerianaGreasewood, black Sarcobatus vermiculatus Oceanspray Holodiscus discolorHawthorn, black Crataegus douglasii Oregon-grape BerberisHazel, western Corylus cornuta Cascade nervosa

Hemlock Tsuga low repens

mountain mertensiana tall aquifoliumwestern heterophylla Pachystima Pachystima myrsinites

Hopsage, spiny Grayia spinosa Pine Pinus

Honeysuckle Lonicera spp. Jeffrey jeffreyi

Horsebrush Tetradymia knobcone attenuata

gray canescens lodgepole contorta latifolia

littleleaf glabrata ponderosa ponderosa

spiny spinosa shore contorta contortasugar lambertiana

Huckleberry Vacciniumwestern white monticola

blue globularewhitebark albicaulis

evergreen ovatumgrouse scoparium Pipsissewa

ovalleaf ovalfolium (Prince's-pine, common) Chimaphila umbellata

red parvifolium Plum, Klamath Prunus subcordata

thinleaf membranaceum Port-Orford-cedar Chamaecyparis lawsoniana

Incense-cedar Libocedrus decurrens Poison-oak, Pacific Rhus diversiloba

Juniper, western Juniperus occidentalis Prince's-pine, commonKalmia, bog Kalmia microphylla (Pipsissewa) Chimaphila umbellata

Larch, western Larix occidentalis (continued)

136 Common-name Checklist of Plants

Shrubs and Trees (continued)


Purple sage (see Sage, desert) Shadscale Atriplex confertifolia

Rabbitbrush Chrysothamnus Silktassel, boxleaf Garrya buxifoliagray (rubber) nauseosus nauseosus Snakeweed, broom Gutierrezia sarothraelanceleaf green viscidifloruslanceolatus Snowberry Symphoricarposrubber (gray) nauseosus nauseosus common albusthreadleaf green viscidiflorus stenophyllus mountain oreophilusgreen viscidiflorus viscidiflorus

Snowbrush Ceanothus velutinusRedcedar western Thuja plicata,

Spirea SpiraeaRedwood Sequoia sempervirens birchleaf betulifoliaRhododendron, Pacific Rhododendron macrophyllum Douglas douglasiiRockspirea, bush Holodiscus dumosus mountain (subalpine) densiflora

Rose Rosa shinyleaf betulifolia lucida

baldhip gymnocarpa subalpine (mountain) densiflora

Nootka nutkana Spruce Piceapearfruit pisocarpa Brewer brewerianasweetbrier eglanteria Engelmann engelmannii

Sage, desert (Purple sage) Salvia dorrii Sitka sitchensis

Sagebrush Artemisia Squawapple Peraphyllum ramosissimum

basin big tridentata tridentata Syringa (see Mockorange)black arbuscula nova Tanoak Lithocarpus densiflorabud spinescens Thimbleberry Rubus parvifloruslow arbuscula arbuscula

Whipplevine Whipplea modestamountain big tridentata vaseyanasilver cana cana Willow Salix

stiff (rigid) rigida feathervein pennata

threetip tripartita Pacific lasiandra

Wyoming big tridentata wyomingensis Piper piperiScouler acouleriana

Salal Gaultheria shallonSierra orestera

Saltbush Nuttall Atriplex nuttallii,Winterfat Eurotia lanata

Scotchbroom Cytisus scopariusWintergreen, Oregon Gaultheria ovatifolia

Serviceberry AmelanchierPacific Taxus brevifoliaYew

Utah utahensis,

western florida


Index of Tables

Table 1. Climatic Data for Blue Mountain Ecological Province ............................................................................................... 7

Table 2. Average Dates Vegetation Growth Begins and Ends in Blue Mountain Ecological Province ................................... 9

Table 3. Major Ecological Sites in Blue Mountain Ecological Province ................................................................................ 11

Table 4. Distribution of Prominent Soil Series in Cascade Ecological Province ................................................................... 15

Table 5. Climatic Data for Cascade Ecological Province........................................................................................................ 16

Table 6. Average Dates Vegetation Growth Begins and Ends in Cascade Ecological Province ............................................ 17

Table 7. Comparison of the More Abundant and Characteristic Grass, Shrub, and Tree Speciesin Cascade,Coast, and Willamette Ecological Provinces ....................................................................................18-19

Table 8. Distribution of Prominent Soil Series in Coast Ecological Province ........................................................................ 22

Table 9. Climatic Data for Coast Ecological Province ............................................................................................................ 23

Table 10. Average Dates Vegetation Growth Begins and Ends in Coast Ecological Province ................................................. 24

Table 11. Climatic Data for Columbia Basin Ecological Province ........................................................................................... 31

Table 12. Generalized Moisture Equivalents (Field Capacity) of Various Soil Textures ......................................................... 32Table 13. Average Dates Vegetation Growth Begins and Ends in Columbia Basin Ecological Province ................................ 33Table 14. Major Ecological Sites in Columbia Basin Ecological Province .............................................................................. 35

Table 15. Climatic Data for High Desert Ecological Province ................................................................................................. 39

Table 16. Average Dates Vegetation Growth Begins and Ends in High Desert Ecological Province ...................................... 41

Table 17. Major Ecological Sites in High Desert Ecological Province ...............................................................................42-43Table 18. Climatic Data for Humboldt County,Nevada ........................................................................................................... 48Table 19. Major Ecological Sites in Humboldt Ecological Province ................................................................................... 49-50

Table 20. Climatic Data for John Day Ecological Province...................................................................................................... 55

Table 21. Average Dates Vegetation Growth Begins and Ends in John Day Ecological Province .......................................... 56

Table 22. Major Ecological Sites in John Day Ecological Province .................................................................................... 58-59Table 23. Climatic Data for Klamath Ecological Province ....................................................................................................... 64

Table 24. Average Dates Vegetation Growth Begins and Ends in Klamath Ecological Province ............................................ 65

Table 25. Major Ecological Sites in Klamath Ecological Province ..................................................................................... 66-67

Table 26. Climatic Data for Mazama Ecological Province ....................................................................................................... 87

Table 27. Average Dates Vegetation Growth Begins and Ends in Mazama Ecological Province ............................................ 88

Table 28. Major Ecological Sites and Vegetation Zones in Mazama Ecological Province ................................................. 90-91

Table 29. Major Ecological Sites and Natural Landforms in Owyhee Ecological Province .................................................... 96

Table 30. Climatic Data for Palouse Ecological Province ........................................................................................................ 99

Table 31. Average Dates Vegetation Growth Begins and Ends in Palouse Ecological Province ............................................. 99

Table 32. Parent Materials and Distribution of Some Representative Soil Series in Siskiyou Ecological Province ............. 101

Table 33. Climatic Data for Siskiyou Ecological Province ..................................................................................................... 102

Table 34. Average Dates Vegetation Growth Begins and Ends in Siskiyou Ecological Province .......................................... 103

Table 35. Distribution of Prominent Woody-plant Species by County and Soil Parent Materialsin Siskiyou Ecological Province .......................................................................................................................104-105

Table 36. Some Major Ecological Sites in Siskiyou Ecological Province .......................................................................106-107Table 37. Climatic Data for Snake River Ecological Province ............................................................................................... 110

Table 38. Average Dates Vegetation Growth Begins and Ends in Snake River Ecological Province .................................... 111

Table 39. Major Ecological Sites in Snake River Ecological Province .................................................................................. 113

Table 40. Climatic Data for The Dalles Ecological Province ................................................................................................. 117

Table 41. Average Dates Vegetation Growth Begins and Ends in The Dalles Ecological Province ...................................... 118

Table 42. Major Ecological Sites in The Dalles Ecological Province ..................................................................................... 119

Table 43. Distribution of Some Representative Soil Series in Willamette Ecological Province ............................................ 123

Table 44. Climatic Data for Willamette Ecological Province ................................................................................................. 124

Table 45. Average Dates Vegetation Growth Begins and Ends in Willamette Ecological Province ...................................... 126

138 Index of Tables

)gical provinces

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