german grammar handbook

7/27/2019 German Grammar Handbook

http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/german-grammar-handbook 1/22

A Very Condensed Handbook ———— of ————

GERMAN GRAMMAR

Table of ContentsLesson Page§1. The definite and indefinite articles…………………………………………………………………………………………….1§2. The most common prepositions………………………………………………………………………………………………..1§3. Pronouns………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………...1§4. Regular verbs in the present tense…………………………………………………………………………………………….2§5. haben and sei n………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………...2§6. Three modal verbs: können, müssen, wo # en………………………………………………………………………………2§7. Word order in German sentences…………………………………………………………………………………………..….2§8. Coordinating conjunctions……………………………………………………………………………………………..………..2§9. Dependent infinitives and word order……………………………………………………………………………………....3

§10. Interrogative forms…………………...………………...………………...………………...…………………………………...3§11. Three more modals: dürfen, mögen, so # en………………...………………...………………...………………………...3§12. The passive voice………………...………………...………………...………………...………………...……………………….3§13. Subordinating conjunctions and subordinate clauses…………………………...…………………………….……...4§14. Principal parts and the simple past tense……………………………...………………...………………………….…...4§15. The perfect tense……………………...………………...………………...………………...……………………….…………...5§16. The perfect infinitive……………………...………………...………………...………………...……………………………...5§17. The pluperfect tense……………………………...………………...………………...………………...………………….…...6§18. Inseparable prefixes………………………...………………...………………...………………...…………………..………...6§19. -ieren verbs…………………………...………………...………………...………………...……………………………...……...6§20. Reflexive pronouns………………………...………………...………………...………………...…………………...………...7§21. Separable prefixes……………………...………………...………………...………………...……………………...…………...7

§22. The future tense……………………...………………...………………...………………...………………………..…………...8§23. Relative pronouns……………………...………………...………………...………………...……………………..…………...9§24. Impersonal verb constructions…………………...………………...………………...……………………..……………...9§25. Some common adverbs……………………………...………………...………………...………………...…………………...9§26. Adjectives…………………………...………………...………………...………………...……………………………….……...10§27. The ei n- words: possessive adjectives + kei n………………...………………...……………………..………………...11§28. Comparison……………………………...………………...………………...………………...…………………………….…...11§29. The present participle…………………………...………………...………………...………………...……………………...12§30. Conditional sentences: an introduction……………………...………………...…………………………..…………...13§31. Hypothetical situations, part 1: the main clause and conditional tense…………………………….………...13§32. Hypothetical situations, part 2: the if -clause and past subjunctive……………….…………………………....13

§33. Hypothetical situations, part 3: using the conditional and past subjunctive……………………..………...14§34. Three further uses of the past subjunctive and conditional tenses………………..…………………………...15§35. More on prepositions……………………………...………………...………………...………………………………….…...15§36. The past perfect subjunctive and past conditional…………………………...……………………………...……...16§37. The compound passive voice……………………………...………………...…………….…...……………………….…...17§38. Sample verb chart for tun ( to do )……………………...………………...………………...………………...…………...17§39. True and false passives……………….………………...………………...………………...………………………………....18§40. The verb lassen………………………...………………...………………...………………...……………………….………...18§41. The perfect tense: double infinitive constructions……………………………...……………………………..…...19§42. Extended adjective constructions……………………………...………………...………………...………………..…...19§43. The present and past perfect subjunctive…………………...………………...………………...…………………....20§44. The ist...zu construction……………………………...………………...………………...……………………………..…...20§45. Extended da-compounds……………………...………………...………………...…………………………….…………...21§46. The impersonal es………………………...………………...………………...………………...……………………………...21



§1. The definite and indefinite articles

( def ) masculine feminine neuter plural nominative der die das die genitive des der des der

dative dem der dem den accusative den die das die

( indef ) masculine feminine neuter nominative ein eine ein genitive eines einer eines dative einem einer einem accusative einen eine ein

§2. The most common prepositions

genitive: anstatt ( instead of ); trotz ( in spite of ); während ( during ); wegen ( because of )dative: aus ( out of ); außer ( except ); bei ( near ); mit ( with ); nach ( after ); seit ( since ); von ( from ); zu ( to )accusative: durch ( through ); für ( for ); gegen ( against ); ohne ( without ); um ( around )*dative/accusative: an ( at ); auf ( on ); in ( in ); vor ( in front of ); hinter ( behind ); über ( over ); unter ( under ); neben ( next to ); zwichen ( between )

*With this last group, the rule is dative without motion , accusative with motion .

§3. Pronouns

3.1 Personal pronouns

First person Singular Plural nominative ich ( I ) wir ( we ) genitive meiner ( of me ) unser ( of us ) dative mir ( to/for me ) uns ( to/for us ) accusative mich ( me ) uns ( us )

Third person

Singular Plural Masculine Feminine Neuter nominative er ( he ) sie ( she ) es ( it ) sie ( they ) genitive seiner ( of him ) ihrer ( of her ) seiner ( of it ) ihrer ( of them )

dative ihm ( to/for him ) ihr ( to/for her ) ihm ( to it ) ihren ( to/for them )

accusative ihn ( him ) sie ( her ) es ( it ) sie ( them )

3.2 Indefinite pronouns

The most common indefinite pronouns are: jemand ( someone ); niemand ( no one ); einer ( someone, one

); keiner

( no one, none

); alles

( everything

); nichts

( nothing

); etwas ( something ); viel ( much ); wenig ( little )

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§4. Regular verbs in the present tense

lerne n ( to learn ); stem = lern - ich lerne ( I learn ) wir lernen ( we learn ) du lernst ( you learn ) ihr lernt ( you learn )

er/sie/es lernt ( he/she/it learns ) sie lernen ( they learn )

bete n ( to pray ); stem = bet- ich bete ( I pray ) wir beten ( we pray ) du bete st ( you pray ) ihr bete t ( you pray ) er/sie bete t ( he/she prays ) sie beten ( they pray )

A fairly large group of German verbs can be difficult to look up if you encounter them in thesecond or third person singular of the present tense; this is because they change theirstem vowel in these forms. See the back of the dictionary for a list.

§5. haben and sei n

habe n ( to have ) sei n ( to be ) ich habe ( I have ) wir haben ( we have ) ich bin ( I am ) wir sind ( we are )

du hast ( you have ) ihr habt ( you have ) du bist ( you are ) ihr seid ( you are )er/sie hat ( he/she has ) sie haben ( they have ) er/sie ist ( he/she is ) sie sind ( they are )

§6. Three modal verbs: können, müssen, wo # en

könne n ( can, be able to ) müsse n ( must, need to ) wol e n ( want, intend to )

ich kann ( I can ) ich muß ( I must ) ich will ( I want ) du kannst ( you can ) du mußt ( you must ) du willst ( you want ) er/sie kann ( he/she can ) er/sie muß ( he/she must ) er/sie will ( he/she wants ) wir können ( we can ) wir müssen ( we must ) wir wollen ( we want )

ihr könnt ( you can ) ihr müßt ( you must ) irh wollt ( you want ) sie können ( they can ) sie müssen ( they must ) sie wollen ( they want )

§7. Word order in German sentences

The finite or conjugated verb ( with a personal ending ) must be the second element in a sentence. An “element” may be as short as a personal pronoun ( such as er or si e ), or it may be a

whole prepositional phrase, or a word followed by several modifiers. Short or long, it hangstogether as a single unit. Such a first unit or element must be followed by the finite verb.

§8. Coordinating conjunctions

und ( and ); aber ( but [however]); sondern ( but [instead, rather]); oder ( or ); denn ( for, because[in a causative, not a temporal sense])

Coordinating conjunctions are followed by regular word order – that is to say, the conjunction itself does not count as an “element” before a verb.

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§9. Dependent infinitives and word order

After most types of verbs, dependent infinitives are preceded by a zu ( cognate with the to in English sentences ).

Ex. Er braucht kein Wörterbuch zu kaufe n. He does not need to buy a dictionary.

A dependent infinitive stands at the end of its clause. English keeps a finite verb and itsdependent infinitive together; German requires that the finite verb stand as the second elementin a main clause and that a dependent infinitive, if there is one, stand at the end of the clause.This means that if a clause has many elements, the two parts of the verb may be widely separated.

Also, objects will precede their verb.

Ex. Er braucht kein Wörterbuch zu kaufen. Lit: He needs no dictionary to buy.

§10. Interrogative forms

wann? ( when? ) was für? [+ acc.] ( what kind of? ) wer? ( who? ) woher? ( from where? ) warum? ( why? ) welcher? ( who? which one? ) wie? ( how? ) wohin? ( to where? ) was? ( what? ) weshalb? ( wherefore? why? ) wo? ( where? )

§11. Three more modals: dürfen, mörgen, so # en

dürfen ➝ to be allowed to, have permission to mörgen ➝ to like, like to sollen ➝ to be supposed to, i.e. shall

* so # en and wo # en are not used to form the future tense in German.

Modal verbs can sometimes take direct objects; however, they are more often used in combination with dependent infinitives. Modals are an exception to the general rul e that a dependent infinitive must be preceded by zu ( they are used without zu).

§12. The passive voice

In English, the finite verb consists of only one element in the present tense/active voice, but of two elements in the present tense/passive voice. This is the same in German: the passive voiceis formed by using werde n as an auxiliary verb + the past participle (or thirdprinciple part) of the verb itself. The present tense of a verb in the passive voice uses thepresent tense of the auxiliary verb; the past tense uses the past tense of the auxiliary.

gebäre n ( to bear, give birth ) – passive voice, present tense ich werde geboren ( I am born ) wir werden geboren ( we are born )

du wirst geboren ( you are born

) ihr werdet geboren

( you are born

)

er/sie wird geboren ( he/she is born ) sie werden geboren ( they are born )

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gebäre n – passive voice, simple past tense ich wurde geboren ( I was born ) wir wurden geboren ( we were born ) du wurdest geboren ( you were born ) ihr wurdet geboren ( you were born ) er/sie wurde geboren ( he/she was born ) sie wurden geboren ( they were born )

The passive voice follows the normal rules of German word order: i.e. the second part of the verb – here the past participle – must stand at the end of a main clause.

Ex. David wird zum König gesalbt. ( David is anointed king. )

The agent is expressed by the preposition vo n. The non-living agent or process is usually expressed by durch.

§13. Subordinating conjunctions and subordinate clauses

als ( when [past tense]; as ); ob ( whether ); bis ( until ); obwohl ( although ); da ( since, because;there, then ); weil ( because ); damit ( so that, in order that ); wenn ( if; when, whenever ); dass ordaß ( that )

A subordinate clause is a clause introduced by any of the subordinating conjunctions orinterrogative forms. There are four rules to keep in mind:

1. In a subordinate clause, the finite verb must stand at the end of the clause.2. A subordinate clause is always set of from the main clause by (a )

comma (s).3. If a sentence begins with a subordinate clause, this clause counts as the first

element of the sentence; the finite verb will follow it immediately .4. In subordinate clauses, the finite verb must always stand last ( rule 1 ); therefore, if

there is a dependent infinitive, it will directly precede the finite verb.

Ex. Die Bibel er z ählt, daß Mose das versprochene Land schauen dur fe . The Bible recounts that Moses was permitted to see the Promised Land.

§14. Principal parts and the simple past tense

It is necessary to know the three forms of a German verb in order to be able to use it in alltenses. These forms – infinitive, simple past and past participle – are known as the

principal parts of a verb.

For the simple past in German, weak (or regular) verbs add a set of endings to a stem thatis found by taking away the -en suffi x from the infinitive.

lobe n ( to praise ) – simple past tense ( stem = lob-) ich lobte ( I praised ) wir lobten ( we praised ) du lobtest ( you praised ) ihr lobtet ( you praised ) er/sie lobte ( he/she praised ) sie lobten ( they praised )

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fürchte n ( to fear ) – simple past tense ( stem = fürcht-) ich fürchte te ( I feared ) wir fürchte ten ( we feared ) du fürchte test ( you feared ) ihr fürchte tet ( you feared ) er/sie fürchte te ( he/she feared ) sie fürchte ten ( they feared )

Strong (or irregular) verbs use a new stem plus a di f erent set of endings than those for weak verbs.

singe n ( to sing ) – simple past tense ( past stem = sang -) ich sang ( I sang ) wir sangen ( we sang ) du sangst ( you sang ) ihr sanget ( you sang ) er/sie sang ( he/she sang ) sie sangen ( they sang )

For the past participle, weak verbs add the prefix ge- and the su x -t to the stem;strong verbs add the prefix ge- and the su x -e n to a new ste m.

§15. The perfect tense

For most verbs, habe n ( in the present tense ) is used as an auxiliary verb in combination withthe past participle to form the perfect tense. There are four rules to keep in mind:

1. Like usual, the finite auxiliary form goes in second position in main clauses, andthe past participle stands at the end.

2. For subordinate clauses, the finite verb ( i.e. the auxiliary ) must stand at the end of the clause, and so it is “reunited” with its past participle, which directly precedesit.

3. In German the simple past and the present perfect are almost interchangeable,but the simple past is preferred in writing, the perfect in speaking.

4. For a special class of verbs, mostly intransitive verbs of motion , the auxiliary verb of the perfect tenses is sei n ( intransitive verbs are those that cannot take a direct object ). The verbs gehe n ( to go ), werde n, as well as sei n itself also take

sei n as an auxiliary.

§16. The perfect infinitive

The perfect infinitive is formed by combining the past participle of a verb with thepresent infinitive of the appropriate auxiliary, in the opposite order to English .

Ex. gesagt haben ➝ to have said gegangen sei n ➝ to have gone

The perfect infinitive is frequently used after a modal verb.

Ex. Sie kann das nicht gesagt habe n! She can’t have said that!

When a perfect infinitive occurs as a dependent infinitive with a verb or in some other

context that requires a zu, the zu is placed between the two parts of the infinitive.

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Ex. Für eine Übersetzerin ist es ein großer Vorteil, im Ausland gelebt zu habe n. For a translator it is a great advantage to have lived abroad.

The perfect active infinitive must be distinguished from the present passive infinitive.

§17. The pluperfect tense

The pluperfect is formed by using the simple past of the auxiliary with the pastparticiple of the main verb. It is used almost identically as in English; it indicates that oneaction took place before another action in the past.

§18. Inseparable prefixes

A large number of German verbs contain an element known as an inseparable prefix . Theprefixes in this category are as follows:

be- ➝ can serve to make an intransitive verb transitive emp- ➝ ( ? ) ent- ➝ often has the sense of “away from,” or that some action is reversed er- ➝ sometimes expresses a shift from the physical to the metaphysical plane ge- ➝ ( ? ) miß- ➝ functions the same as in English, e.g. misunderstand, etc. ver- ➝ can express process; can function similarly to miß -, or add a negative sense zer- ➝ usually adds the sense of “apart,” something breaking down or apart

In addition, sometimes über- and unter- can function as inseparable prefixes.

Strong verbs with inseparable prefixes will not have their past tense forms given separately in the dictionary. For example, if you look up gab in the dictionary, it will refer

you to the infinitive gebe n. But there are no such separate listings for begab, ergab and vergab. In order to find the meaning of these verbs, you must recognize that they consist of gab plus an inseparable prefix, i.e. vergebe n, etc. There are two rules to keep in mind:

1. Inseparable prefix verbs form their past participles without adding an extra ge-, no matter whether they are weak or strong. For example:

folgen, folgte, g e folg t ( to follow )

ver folgen, ver folgte, ver folg t ( persecute, persecuted, persecuted )

2. Inseparable prefixes are never stressed in pronunciation.

§19. -ieren verbs

Like the inseparable prefix verbs, this class of verbs, consisting of those ending in -ieren, do notadd the prefix ge- to form their past participle. This is the ending added to borrowedforeign verbs to make them into German infinitives. See the grammar handbook ( p. 140 ) for a list of the most common -ieren verbs.

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§20. Reflexive pronouns

Reflexive pronouns refer back to the subject of the sentence; in modern German they occuronly in the dative and accusative cases.

first person ( myself, ourselves ) third person ( him/herself, themselves ) singular pluraldat. mir uns sichacc. mich uns sich

The reflexive pronoun can also occur as the object of prepositions.

Ex. Er hat einen langen Weg vor sich. ( He has a long road ahead of him [self ]. )

A number of German verbs are used reflexively. Most transitive verbs can take both the non-reflexive and reflexive form. Frequently, the addition of a reflexive pronoun changes the

translation of the simple verb in a way that does not use a reflexive in English. Forexample, the verb unterwerfen means literally “to throw under,” i.e. to subjugate, subdue orconquer. In its reflexive form, however, it means “to throw oneself under,” i.e. to surrender,capitulate, submit or yield.

§21. Separable prefixes

Just as in English we can say of people or things that they “go up,” “come down,” “go forth” andso on, so too in German there are a number of such verbal complements known as separableprefixes. These are extremely common and used in strict accordance with the rules of two-part

verb placement – i.e. as complements to the finite verb, separable prefixes stand at the end of the clause, where a dependent infinitive or past participle would also stand.

English always puts the complement a ) er the verb, no matter what, but in German suchcomplements are treated like prefixes when the verb occurs as an infinitive, and so the order is

reversed . This is clearly seen when such a verb functions as a dependent infinitive.

Ex. Die Studierenden so # en jetzt aus der Vorlesung zurückkomme n. The students are supposed to come back from the lecture now.

There are four rules to keep in mind. They are as follows:

Rule 1.a: In main clauses containing a finite form of a separable prefix verb, the prefix standsat the end of the clause.

Ex. Sie nehmen das Geschen k a n. ( They accept the gift. )

Rule 1.b: If there are two verbs connected by a coordinating conjunction, the prefix appearsat the end of the clause before the conjunction .

Ex. Sie nehmen das Geschen k a n und packen es aus. ( They accept the gift and unpack it. )

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Rule 2.a: If the verb appears as an infinitive, the prefix and its verb are written together asone word, just as in the dictionary entry.

Ex. Sie wo # en das Geschen k a n nehmen. ( They want to accept the gift. )

Rule 2.b: If the dependent infinitive is part of a zu- construction, the zu- is inserted betwee n the prefix and its verb.

Ex. Sie wünschen, das Geschenk an zu nehmen. ( They wish to accept the gift. )

Rule 2.c: If the main clause is followed by a subordinating conjunction/clause or an infinitiveclause with zu, the prefix appears at the end of the clause, before the new clause begins.

Ex. Sie nehmen a n , daß a # es in Ordnung ist. ( They assume that everything is in order. )

Rule 3: In subordinate clauses, prefix and stem are written together, as in the infinitive.

Ex. Wenn sie das annimmt , hat sie sich geirrt. ( If she assumes that, she’s made a mistake. )

Rule 4: The past participle is written with the - ge- inserted between the prefix and thestem, as one word.

Ex. Wir haben das ni e angenomme n. ( We never assumed that. )

Separable prefixes can be adverbs, but there is a shifting boundary for when a sentenceelement is considered an adverb and when a separable prefix.

§22. The future tense

Like the passive voice, the future tense is formed with the auxiliary werde n, except that thefuture consists of werde n + the infinitive.

gehe n ( to go ) – future tense ich werde gehen ( I will go ) wir werden gehen ( we will go ) du wirst gehen ( you will go ) ihr werdet gehen ( you will go ) er/sie wird gehen ( he/she will go ) sie werden gehen ( they will go )

By adding the future tense, two infinitive forms can now occur at the end of a sentence. Inthis case the components of the future tense “enclose” the other parts of the sentence,i.e. the infinitive belonging to the conjugated verb comes last.

Ex. Si e wird jenes Buch lesen wol e n. ( She will want to read that book. )

The future tense of the passive voice uses werde n as a double auxiliary, once for thefuture and once for the passive.

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§23. Relative pronouns

Relative pronouns introduce relative clauses; their forms are largely identical with thedefinite article, except for the genitive singular and plural and the dative plural. An alternate but incomplete relative pronoun is welcher , which can also function as an interrogative

pronoun and adjective ( “which?”; “which one?” ).

masculine feminine neuter pluralnominative der die das die

genitive dessen deren dessen deren dative dem der dem denen accusative den die das die

nominative welcher welche welches welche genitive [dessen] [deren] [dessen] [deren]dative welchem welcher welchem welchenaccusative welchen welche welches welche

A relative pronoun refers back to a previous noun, its antecedent.

Whereas informal English can omit the relative pronoun, German, by contrast, can neveromit a relative pronoun at the start of a relative clause. Like all dependent clauses,relative clauses are set of by commas.

A relative clause agrees in gender and number with its antecedent, but its case dependson its own use in its own clause.

*Special case: In a few fixed expressions, the word w as functions as a relative pronoun:

Ex. alles, was ➝ everything that/which etwas, was ➝ something that/which nichts, was ➝ nothing that/which das, was ➝ that which/what

§24. Impersonal verb constructions

Es gibt ➝ there is, there exists

Es geht um ➝ the issue is, it is about, the point is, etc. Es handelt sich um ➝ it is a matter of, etc. Es gilt ➝ it is important to, the aim is, etc. Es läßt sich ➝ it can, i.e. “can” + the passive voice Es lohnt sich ➝ it is worthwhile, i.e. doing whatever the infinitive indicates Es heißt, daß➝ it is said that, one says that, they say that, etc. Um…zu ➝ in order to

§25. Some common adverbs

1. Of time : dann ( then

); damals

( at that time, then

); immer

( always

); jetzt

( now

); nie

( never

);noch ( still ); oft ( often ); schon ( already ); selten ( seldom )

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2. Of manner : als ( than [in comparisons]); auch ( also ); besonders ( especially ); fast ( almost );gern (e) ( gladly ); kaum ( hardly ); leider ( unfortunately ); sehr ( very ); wieder ( again ); immer

wieder ( again and again, over and over ); doch [expresses surprise or adds emphasis, like a particle in Greek]

3. Of place : da ( there ); dort ( there ); hier ( here ); her ( to here, hither ); hin ( to there, thither ); weg ( away ); oben ( above ); unten ( below ); vor ( forward, ahead ); zurück ( back )

Many adjectives can be used as adverbs. German adds no su x (like the English su x -ly) and uses the basic dictionary form of the adjective. In addition , German can form many adverbs by adding the su x -erweise to both adjectives and nouns.

§26. Adjectives

Predicate adjectives occur only with linking verbs such as “to be” or “to seem,” and standafter the noun they modify and usually after a verb. Predicate adjectives occur in their basicform without any additional endings.

Ex. Der Himmel war grau. ( The sky was grey . )

Attributive adjectives stand in front of the noun they modify ( e.g. ei n grauer Himmel ).There are three di f erent sets of declensions for attributive adjectives in German . Thisis based on the principle of least redundance – i.e. it’s necessary to have only one clear or“strong” ending indicating gender and case in a noun phrase with all its modifiers.

masculine feminine neuter plural

( n ) lieber Vater liebe Mutter liebes Kind liebe Freundestrong ( g ) lieben Vaters lieber Mutter lieben Kindes lieber Freunde ( d ) liebem Vater lieber Mutter liebem Kind lieben Freunden ( a ) lieben Vater liebe Mutter liebes Kind liebe Freunde

( n ) der liebe Vater die liebe Mutter das liebe Kind die lieben Freunde weak ( g ) des lieben Vaters der lieben Mutter des lieben Kindes der lieben Freunde ( d ) dem lieben Vater der lieben Mutter dem lieben Kind den lieben Freunden ( a ) den lieben Vater die liebe Mutter das liebe Kind die lieben Freunde

( n ) mein lieber Vater meine liebe Mutter mein liebes Kind meine lieben Freunde

mixed ( g ) meines lieben Vaters meiner lieben Mutter meines lieben Kindes meiner lieben Freunde ( d ) meinem lieben Vater meiner lieben Mutter meinem lieben Kind meinen lieben Freunden ( a ) meinen lieben Vater meine lieben Mutter mein liebes Kind meine lieben Freunde

There are three rules to keep in mind:

Rule 1: In a noun phrase with no introductory modifier (der or ei nword), attributiveadjectives must take strong endings. The only exceptions are the masculine andneuter genitive singular, where the final - s added to the noun already indicates case.

Rule 2: In a noun phrase introduced by a der -word, attributive adjectives take the weak endings throughout.

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Rule 3: In a noun phrase introduced by an ein-word, attributive adjectives take the weak endings except in cases where the ein-word has no ending (is mixed) – namely,the masculine nominative and the neuter nominative and accusative.

§27. The ein- words: possessive adjectives + kei n

There is a special class of adjectives that are declined like the definite article ei n and thenegative article kei n, and are thus known as ein- words. For the purposes of reading German, by far the most important ein-words are the forms corresponding to the

third-person pronouns, singular and plural .

The adjective for er ( he ) is sei n ( his, or its, referring to an inanimate object ) The adjective for si e ( she ) is ihr ( her, or its ) The adjective for es ( it ) is sei n ( its ) The adjective for si e ( they ) is ihr ( their )

The choice of w hich masculine, feminine or neuter possessive adjective is used depends on the gender of the noun to which the adjective refers back (its antecedent). The choiceof ending , however, depends on the gender of the noun the adjective modifies.

§28. Comparison

The comparative and superlative forms of German adjectives are not difficult to recognize,since the regular comparative is formed by adding the su x -er and the superlative by adding -( e ) st, just as in English . After these suffi xes, German adjectives must add theappropriate ending for case, number and gender when they stand in the attributive position.

One of the few times a difficulty might arise is when a nominative masculine form may appear comparative but in fact is not.

Ex. ein schwieriger Text ein schwierig er er Text a difficult text ( positive degree ) a more di cult text ( comparative degree )

A second potential difficulty can be avoided by noting that many common one-syllableadjectives add an umlaut in the comparative and superlative degrees.

Ex. al t ( old ) ä lter ( older ) ä ltest - ( oldest )

jung ( young ) j ü nger ( younger ) j ü ngst - ( youngest )

The one major diff erence between German and English is that the German superlative has two forms, one for the attributive and one for the predicate position.

Attributive: der leichte Text, der leichter e Text, der leichteste Text the easy text, the easier text, the easiest text

The predicate adjective form is constructed with a m and the superlative stem + -e n.

Predicate:

Der zweite Text ist leicher; der dritte Text ist am leichteste n. The second text is easer; the third text is easiest.

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There are also a number of irregular comparisons ( see the grammar handbook, p. 75 #3 ).

The adverbial form of the superlative is also used when an adverb modifies an adjective; in suchcases an “adverbial” superlative can appear between an article and its noun, since thesuperlative is modifying the adjective, not the noun .

Ex. Häufig geste # te Fragen ( frequently asked questions ) Häufiger geste # te Fragen ( more frequently asked questions ) Di e am häufigste n geste # ten Fragen ( the most frequently asked questions )

Some common expressions used in comparisons ( see also the handbook, p. 77 #5 ):

1. “as…as” is expressed by so…wi e so groß wi e ( as big/tall as )

2. “than” is expressed by als größer als ( bigger/taller than )

3. “the more…the more” is expressed by je…desto or je…um so j e mehr um so lustiger ( the more the merrier ) j e eher desto besser ( the sooner the better )

The German way of expressing “more and more” or “increasingly” in the comparative degree is with the adverb immer + the comparative form of the adjective or adverb.

Ex. Die Schwierigkeiten werden immer größer . ( The difficulties are getting ever larger. )

Ich verstehe jedoch immer mehr . ( But I understand more and more. )

Since most German adverbs are simply adjectives without endings, their comparison is fairly straightforward: they add -er for the comparative and use the same form as predicateadjectives for the superlative, a m + - ste n.

Ex. Hans kann deutsch schnel lesen. ( Hans can read German quickly . ) Ingeborg liest schnel er . ( Ingeborg reads faster. ) Susanne und Fritz lesen am schnel ste n. ( Susanne and Fritz read most quickly . )

Sometimes the comparative degree of an adverb is used in German in the sense of “rather” or

“quite.” Also, basic adverbs of time and place, such as dor t ( there ), jetzt ( now ) and wieder ( again ) cannot be compared; they have only one form .

§29. The present participle

The present participle is formed by adding the su x -d to the infinitive. It corresponds inEnglish to the suffi x -ing . The main use of the present participle is adjectival , butoccasionally it can function as an adverb as well.

When past and present participles are used as predicate adjectives, they take no endings,

like all German adjectives; when used attributively , they require the same endings as otheradjectives.

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§30. Conditional sentences: an introduction

Conditional sentences establish conditions in a subordinate clause beginning with if .The main clause often begins with an adverbial w he n. The German equivalents are so or wenn…dan n.

If the condition is open , i.e. may perfectly well be fulfilled, then the sentence requires only theindicative mood. Also, German uses the future tense far less frequently than does English,and therefore usually both parts of an open condition are in the present tense.

Ex. Wen n das Wetter am Wochende schön ist , dan n gehen wir zum Strand. If the weather is nice on the weekend, then we will go to the beach.

Frequently, however, conditionals are hypothetical or counterfactual ; such sentences requirethe subjunctive mood ( e.g. “ If I wer e you…” ).

Importantly, German can omit the opening wen n and begin the sentence with a verb.This is the only instance , apart from commands, when German can start a sentence

with a verb.

Ex. Ist das Wetter am Wochende schön, dann gehen wir zum Strand. [If ] the weather is nice on the weekend, then we will go to the beach.

§31. Hypothetical situations, part 1: the main clause and conditional tense

Hypotheticals express what we would be doing in the present, or would do in the future, if a

particular condition were met. In the main clause of such sentences, both German andEnglish use the conditional tense. Further, both English and German form theirconditional tenses in the same way . Just as English uses the auxiliary verb would plus theinfinitive of the verb in question, so too German uses the auxiliary verb würd e plus theproper infinitive. One way to think of the conditional tense is that it alters a definitestatement in the future tense to a hypothetical or indefinite statement by shifting

the auxiliary verb from wi l to would , or in the case of German, werd e to würd e .

Ex. ich werde gehen ( I will go ) ➝ ich würd e gehen ( I would go ) du wirst gehen ( you will go ) ➝ du würdest gehen ( you would go ) er/sie wird gehen ( he/she will go ) ➝ er/si e würd e gehen ( he/she would go )

wir werden gehen ( we will go ) ➝ wir würde n gehen ( we would go ) ihr werdet gehen ( you will go ) ➝ ihr würdet gehen ( you would go ) sie werden gehen ( they will go ) ➝ si e würde n gehen ( they would go )

Like all German verbs, the second element stands at the end of the clause.

The conditional tense is used frequently in conditional sentences, and should be consideredas essentially part of the subjunctive mood.

§32. Hypothetical situations, part 2: the if -clause and past subjunctive

In the if -clause of a hypothetical, German and English use a past tense verb, but whereasEnglish uses the past indicative, German uses the past subjunctive.

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The past subjunctive consists of a single form, i.e. has no auxiliary , and in some cases uses a new stem . Whether a verb takes a new stem for the past subjunctive depends on whether it is weak or strong.

Rule 1: Since German, like English, is in the process of eliminating its subjunctive mood, all

weak verbs are indistinguishable in the simple past indicative and past subjunctive .They take the identical form .

Rule 2: Strong verbs form the past subjunctive by adding a particular set of endings, andsometimes a new ste m as well . The rule is: take the past stem, umlaut the stem vowel if possible, and add the appropriate endings.

Ex. fahre n ( to drive ) – past indicative stem = fuhr - past indicative past subjunctive ich fuhr ( I drove ) wenn ich führ |e ( if I drove ) du fuhrst ( you drove ) wenn du führ | est ( if you drove ) er/sie fuhr ( he/she drove ) wenn er/si e führ |e ( if he/she drove ) wir fuhren ( we drove ) wenn wir führ | e n ( if we drove ) ihr fuhr ( e t ( you drove ) wenn ihr führ | et ( if you drove ) sie fuhren ( they drove ) wenn si e führ | e n ( if they drove )

Some verbs are strong but have a stem vowel that cannot take an umlaut ( e.g. bleibe n,blieb, and gehe n, ging ). In this small category, the third person singular is distinctive because it has a final -e ( er/sie ging , past indicative, as opposed to er/sie ging e , pastsubjunctive ), but the third person plural is identical ( sie ginge n, past indicative, and wenn sie ginge n, past subjunctive ).

Modal verbs, though highly irregular in the indicative mood, are mostly regular in theconditional and past subjunctive. The exceptions are sol e n and wol e n; they do not get

umlauts in the past subjunctive, and so resemble weak verbs ( that is, the pastindicative and past subjunctive are identical ).

§33. Hypothetical situations, part 3: using the conditional and past subunctive

We can construct German hypothetical sentences in a manner analogous to English:

Ex. Wenn sie flöge n past subjunctive] , würden si e mehr Zeit am Zielor t habe n [conditional].

If they flew [simple past], they would have [conditional] more time at their destination.

While sentences in this form are possibl e , in fact they are not likely appear in this way. WhereasEnglish must use the past tense in the if -clause and the conditional in the main clause, Germancan use both of its tenses, the past subjunctive and conditional, in both parts of conditional sentences eely.

Ex. Wenn sie fliegen würde n [conditional] , hätten si e [past subjunctive] mehr Zeit am Zielort. If they flew [simple past], they would have [conditional] more time at their destination.

The speaker/writer can mix and match , and the decision of which to use depends on the verb itself . There are three rules to keep in mind:

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Rule 1: For a set of commonly used verbs – including sein, haben, all the modals and themost common strong verbs such as komme n and gehe n – the past subjunctives arepreferred, since they are shorter and simpler.

Rule 2: However, for less common strong verbs, the conditionals are preferred, since

they are regular ( requiring only the very familiar auxiliary würd e and the infinitive ).

Rule 3: Finally, for weak verbs, the conditional is also preferred, because the conditional is distinctive whereas the past subjunctive looks just like the past indicative.

Since for practical purposes the conditional and past subjunctive are interchangeable in German writing, one must always be sure to translate into English in accordance with English rules, andnot simply as the German verbs appear.

§34. Three further uses of the past subjunctive and conditional tenses

1. Constructions stressing unreality or uncertainty , such as “as if ” = als ob or als wen n.

Sie benehmen sich, als wen n sie Kinder w äre n. ( They behave as if they were children. )

2. For wishes, usually the introductory verb is wünsche n or sich wünsche n.

Ich wünsche [ mir ] , sie könnte n auch hier sei n! ( I wish they could be here too! )

3. In reference to unlikely situations, e.g. after expressions like ohne daß.

Wir könnten uns wegschleichen, ohne daß uns jemand sähe . ( We could sneak away without anyone seeing us. )

§35. More on prepositions

A few of the less common prepositions may follow rather than precede their object:

entgege n ( + dative ) = [1] toward; [2] against gegenüber ( + dative ) = across from, opposite vora n ( + dative ) = at the head of, first wege n ( + genitive or dative ) = for the sake of, on account of

zufolg e ( + dative ) = according to zuwider ( + dative ) = contrary to, in violation of

Ex. Das Studentenwohrhei m liegt der Bibliothe k gegenüber . The dormitory is situated opposite the library.

There is sometimes a grey area grammatically, since these prepositions can be considered to befunctioning as separable prefixes.

A similar case exists with what are called “correlative” prepositions, meaning prepositions

with two parts; the second parts are almost always adverbial and show some kind of direction, i.e. motion toward ( her ) or away from ( hi n) the speaker.

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Ex. Der Herr sprach zu Mose: Komm zu mir auf den Berg herauf und blieb hier! The Lord said to Moses, “Come up to me on the mountain and stay here!”

Mose ging mitten in die Wolke hinein und stieg auf den Berg hinauf . Moses entered the cloud and went up on the mountain .

In context these words can be variously considered as adverbs, separable prefixes or aselements of “correlative” prepositions.

§36. The past perfect subjunctive and past conditional

Contrary - to-fact conditional sentences express what did not actually happen in the past.English uses the past perfect ( the past tense of the auxiliary “to have” + the past participle ) and the past conditional ( “would” + the perfect infinitive ) tenses.

German is similar, except that, in addition to the past conditional, it uses the past perfect

subjunctive , which is formed by using the past subjunctive of the auxiliary ( either habe n or sei n ) + the past participle.

the past perfect subjunctive

bleibe n ( to stay ) heirate n ( to marry/get married )

(wenn ich geblieben wär e ( if I had stayed ) (wenn ich geheiratet hätt e ( if I had married )(wenn du geblieben wärest ( if you had stayed ) (wenn du geheiratet hättest ( if you had married )(wenn er/si e geblieben wär e ( if s/he had stayed ) (wenn er/si e geheiratet hätt e ( if s/he had married )(wenn wir geblieben wäre n ( if we had stayed ) (wenn wir geheiratet hätte n ( if we had married )(wenn ihr geblieben wäret ( if you had stayed ) (wenn ihr geheiratet hättet ( if you had married )

(wenn si e geblieben wäre n ( if they had stayed ) (wenn si e geheiratet hätte n ( if they had married )

* Pay attention to the umlauts! They are the only diff erence between the past perfectindicative and the past perfect subjunctive. Compare:

si e w are n geblieben ( they had stayed ) vs. si e w äre n geblieben ([if ] they had stayed ) si e hatte n geheiratet ( they had married ) vs. si e hätte n geheiratet ([if ] they had married )

The past conditional = würd e ( the past subjunctive of the auxiliary ) + the perfectinfinitive.

the past conditional spare n ( to save ) fahre n ( to drive ) ich würde gespart habe n ( I would have saved ) ich würde gefahren sei n ( I would have driven ) du würdest gespart habe n ( you would have saved ) du würdest gefahren sei n ( you would have driven )er/si e würde gespart habe n ( s/he would have saved ) er/si e würde gefahren sei n ( s/he would have driven )wir würden gespart habe n ( we would have saved ) wir würden gefahren sei n ( we would have driven )ihr würdet gespart habe n ( you would have saved ) ihr würdet gefahren sei n ( you would have driven ) si e würden gespart habe n ( they would have saved ) si e würden gefahren sei n ( they would have driven )

Since the conditional and past subjunctive tenses have become interchangeable in German, they can be used equally in the if - and the n- clauses in counterfactuals. In other words,

the same principle of interchangeability also applies to the past conditional and pastperfect subjunctive in contrary - to-fact conditionals. Since the past perfect subjunctive is

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familiar to the German ear and shorter, both parts of a contrary - to-fact conditional arenormally expressed in the past subjunctive. The past conditional tense can be used, butrarely is. More likely , for example, are the following sentences:

Ex. Wenn sie jedoch geflogen wäre n , hätte n sie mehr Zeit am Zielor t gehabt.

However, if they had flown , they would have had more time at their destination.

Und wenn sie zu Hause geblieben wäre n , hätte n sie Geld gespar t. And if they had stayed at home, they would have saved money.

§37. The compound passive voice

In German, as in English, the perfect and past perfect tenses of the passive voices areformed by using the perfect or past perfect tense of the auxiliary ( werde n) + the pastparticiple of the conjugated verb. Importantly, to avoid having two past participlesbeginning with ge- ( geworde n as well as the past participle of the conjugated verb ), werde n

drops its ge- prefix when it is the auxiliary in compound passive constructions, yielding the new form worde n.

sage n ( to say ) – compound passive construction active voice passive voice

present tense sie sagen ( they say ) es wird gesag t ( it is said )simple past tense sie sagten ( they said ) es wurde gesag t ( it was said )perfect tense sie haben gesag t ( they [have] said ) es ist gesagt worde n ( it has been said )pluperfect tense sie hatten gesag t ( they had said ) es w ar gesagt worde n ( it had been said )

§38. Sample verb chart for tu n ( to do ) – principal parts = tu n, tat, ( hat ) geta n indicative moodactive voice

1. present infinitive: tu n ( to do )2. present tense: er tut ( he does ); si e tu n ( they do )3. simple past: er tat ( he did ); si e tate n ( they did )4. perfect infinitive: getan habe n ( to have done )5. perfect tense: er hat geta n ( he has done ); si e haben geta n ( they have done )6. pluperfect: er hatte geta n ( he had done ); si e hatten geta n ( they had done )

passive voice1. present infinitive: getan werde n ( to be done )2. present tense: es wird geta n ( it is [ being] done ); si e werden geta n ( they are [ being] done )

3. simple past: es wurde geta n ( it was done ); si e wurden geta n ( they were done )4. perfect infinitive: getan worden sei n ( to have been done )5. perfect tense: es ist getan worde n ( it has been done ); si e sind getan worde n ( they have been done )

6. pluperfect: es w ar getan worde n ( it had been done ); si e w aren getan worde n ( they had been done ) subjunctive moodactive voice

1. present tense: ( daß er tue ( [ that] he may do ); ( daß si e tu n ( [ that] they may do )2. simple past: ( wen n er tät e ( [if ] he did ); ( wen n si e täte n ( [if ] they did )3. perfect tense: ( wen n er getan hätt e ( [if ] he had done ); ( wen n si e getan hätte n ( [if ] they had done ) 4. conditional: er würde tu n ( he would do ); si e würden tu n ( they would do )

passive voice

1. present tense: ( daß es getan werd e ( [ that] it may be done )

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§39. True and false passives

In German, a process is expressed in the true passive voice, with werden + the pastparticiple of the conjugated verb.

Ex. Nachdem die Seiten gedruckt waren, wurde n die Bücher gebunde n. After the pages were printed, the books were bound.

The state or condition that exists after the process has been completed is expressed by the false passive voice, with sei n + the past participle, which you can think of as being usedlike an adjective.

Ex. Die wertvo # sten Bücher bei der Versteigerung w are n in Leder gebunde n. The most valuable books at the auction were bound in leather.

The false passive is actually just the true passive minus worde n.

Ex. Then: Die Bücher sind in Leder gebunden worde n. The books were bound in leather.

Now: Diese Bücher sind in Leder gebunde n. These books are bound in leather.

Way back: Die zwei Computer w are n durch Kabel n verbunden worde n. These two computers had been connected by cables.

More recently: Die zwei Computer w are n durch Kabel n verbunde n. These two computers were connected by cables.

§40. The verb lassen: lassen, ließ , gelassen

( 1 ) “to let,” “to permit,” “to allow”: When lassen has this meaning, it is usually followed by a dependent infinitive with a di f erent subject: i.e. someone allows someone else to dosomething.

Ex. Die Mutter läßt die Kinder draußen spielen. The mother lets the children play outside.

( 2 ) as a causative verb: As a causative verb, lassen can mean “to cause” some action to beperformed. In causative sentences German uses lasse n + an active infinitive, while Englishuses “to have” + a past participle.

Ex. a ) Si e lasse n ihr Haus neu streiche n. ( They are having their house repainted. ) b ) Pharao ließ Mose und Aaron rufen. ( Pharoah had Moses and Aaron summoned. ) c ) Pharao ließ Kriegswagen rüsten. ( Pharoah had war chariots made ready . )

( 3 ) as a reflexive verb: sich lassen: lassen can be used reflexively in both of the above senses.

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( 3.1 ) Often the best translation of sich lassen, in the sense of “permit oneself ” or“allow oneself/itself,” is the corresponding English form of “can”; here sich lassen isequivalent to the passive voice and is a good way for a German writer to avoid using long passive forms – i.e. it’s shorter and avoids the passive infinitive.

Ex. Die Theori e läßt sich nicht beweisen. The theory cannot be proved.

Pharao ließ sich zuerst nicht umstimmen. At first, Pharoah could not be persuaded.

( 3.2 ) sich lassen can also be used in the sense of “cause oneself to be” or “haveoneself ” + the past participle.

Ex. Viele Menschen ließen sich taufe n. Many people had themselves baptized.

Königin Victoria ließ sich zur Kaiserin von Indien kröne n. Queen Victoria had herself crowned empress of India.

§41. The perfect tense: double infinitive constructions

When the six modal verbs are used with dependent infinitives ( i.e. most of the time ) inall perfect tenses, indicative and subjunctive, the normal past participles are replaced by forms identical to the infinitive, creating a double infinitive construction at the end of a main clause. The same rule applies to lasse n as well as to verbs of sensory perception , i.e.

sehe n, höre n, etc.

Ex. Schleiermacher hat für eine theologische Fakultät an der Universität Berli n kämpfe nmusse n. Schleiermacher had to fight for a theological faculty at the University of Berlin.

Das Ehepaar hat sich nicht scheide n lasse n. The couple did not get a divorce.

Er hatmich davon rede n höre n. He has heard me talk about it.

§42. The extended adjective construction

Unlike English, German can add a number of modifiers betwee n a definite or indefinitearticle and its accompanying noun – i.e. “the on -a -cold- January -evening falling snow,”or “the in -his-own -country celebrated writer,” etc. These are known as extended adjective constructions.

In such constructions, the article and its noun surround al the modifiers. To translate,there are three basic steps:

Step 1: Look for a noun that could go with the article.

Step 2: Try to translate the sentence, omitting everything between the article and thenoun . Does it make sense? Are you then left with a participle plus modifiers?

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Step 3: See if the remaining words can be translated as an extended phrase that can fit after thenoun, and this is how the construction should usually be translated.

Ex. Nach der in der Apostelgeschichte gegebenen Darstel ung ging Paulus in die Synagoge und predigte. Lit: According to the in - the-Acts-given account, Paul went to the synagogue and preached.

Correct: According to the account given in Acts, Paul went to the synagogue and preached.

Hint: If you think you have an extended adjective construction, skip right to the noun and work backwards to its article – this will often be the correct translation.

§43. The present and present perfect subjunctive

Commonly used in academic writing for reported speech . The ending of the third personsingular is -e , as opposed to -t. The third person plural endings are the same for the indicativeand the present subjunctive.

Ex. er geht ➝ ( daß er gehe sie gehen ➝ ( daß sie gehen

The present perfect subjunctive is formed analogously to the indicative; in this case, thepresent subjunctive of the auxiliary ( habe n or sei n) + the past participle.

Ex. er hat gesagt ➝ er habe gesagt : sie haben gesagt ➝ si e habe n gesag t sie ist gegangen ➝ si e sei gegangen : sie sind gegangen ➝ si e seie n gegangen

Since English does not have a parallel use of the subjunctive, the important point is to be able to

recognize it in writing and to understand why it is being used.

Ex. In seinem Buch über Hinduismus schreibt Andreas Becke, daß der Geburtenkreislauf Samsara heiße . In his Hinduism book, Andreas Becke writes that samsara means the cycle of birth-and-death.

§44. The ist...zu construction

Found frequently with es ist followed by zu and an active infinitive. The English equivalentis often “can” or “must” followed by a passive infinitive:

Ex. Es ist nicht zu ändern.

It can’t be changed/helped.

Es ist noch viel zu tun. There is still much to be done.

The construction can also appear with ordinary noun subjects:

Ex. Folgende Probleme sind noch zu besprechen. ( The following problems must still be discussed. )

The active infinitive in German must usually be translated into a passive form in English:

Ex. Dieser Aufsat z ist bis zur nächsten Woche zu lesen. ( This essay is to be read by next week. )

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§45. Extended da-compounds

An extended da-compound is a simple da-compound followed by an infinitive clause orsubordinate clause. It exists because German cannot follow a preposition with a verbphrase or clause containing modifiers. In such cases English uses the gerund.

Ex. Dieses Buch ist dazu geeignet, deutsch schnel zu lerne n. This book is suitable for this [ da + prep], [namely ] to learn German quickly . This book is suitable for learning German quickly .

Die Stoiker legen Wer t darauf , das Göttliche im Menschen selbst zu erkenne n. The Stoics place value on recognizing the divinity in human beings themselves.

Einiges spricht dafür , daß Lao-tse keine historische Figur ist. Lit: Some[thing ] speaks for this, that Lao-tzu is not a historical figure. Idiomatic: There is some evidence that Lao-tzu is not a historical figure.

Es besteht Einigkei t darüber , daß das Tao Te Ching ein wichtiger Text ist. Lit: There is agreement about this, that the Tao Te Ching is an important text. Idiomatic: There is agreement [about the fact] that the Tao Te Ching is an important text.

Paulus schreibt darüber , daß eine Gemeinde wie ein menschlicher Körper ist. Lit: Paul writes about this, that a congregation is like a human body. Idiomatic: Paul writes about the congregation being like a human body.

§46. The use of the impersonal es

The impersonal es is sometimes used as a place holder and extra subject when a sentenceconstruction suggest it:

Ex. Und es waren Hirte n in derselben Gegend auf dem Felde, die in der Nacht ihre Herde hüteten. And there were in the same country shepherds abiding in the field, keeping watch over theirflock by night.

This sentence appears to have two subjects, es and Hirten. You must be able to recognize thates is only a place holder or filler. There are two points to keep in mind:

1. es is often best translated as “there”

2. es is used even if the delayed subject is plural ( as in the above example

)

The impersonal es is also used idiomatically with the passive voice. This is another way of avoiding a personal statement:

Ex. Es wurd e gemäß dem Charakter der Reihe auf Fußnoten verzichtet. Lit: In keeping with the character of the series, it was dispensed with footnotes. Idiomatic: In keeping with the character of the series, footnotes have been dispensed with.

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